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Article history: Although the diffusion of solar electricity has been swift worldwide, there is little certainty regarding the
Received 22 January 2016 adoption of this technology on rooftops, in locations where there is no specic policy on renewables in
Received in revised form place. In such cases, there is much uncertainty regarding the effect of solar penetration on electricity
1 June 2016
prices to consumers and on the reduction of electricity demand from the grid. The penetration of solar in
Accepted 8 June 2016
the residential sector e which in some cases accounts for about 40% of the country's total electricity
demand e may have a tremendous impact on incumbent utilities and the industry as a whole. Much
research has been devoted to assessing the effect of policy on the diffusion of renewables but not much
Keywords:
Photovoltaics
work about the developing world is known, particularly in those nations where institutional arrange-
Renewables ments do not favour these technologies. Using system dynamics, this paper examines these issues,
Technology diffusion considering the diffusion of rooftop solar both with a battery support system, and also without any type
System dynamics of storage system. An important conclusion is that policy is essential for system sustainability when PV
diffusion is taking place.
2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2016.06.051
0360-5442/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Jimenez et al. / Energy 111 (2016) 818e829 819
and undesirable consequences by means of simulation experi- out because of their current installations and expected progress
ments. To examine the issue, this paper develops a simulation [28,29].
model built to assess, under two scenarios, the effects of the An important reason for the low PV deployment in the Latin
diffusion of PV in the residential sector of an electricity market, American and Caribbean countries is, according to Jacobs et al. [29],
considering: rst, the standard diffusion of PV systems that main- bad policy design that is not appropriate for the specic country
tain some support from the electricity grid and, second, PV systems conditions or are non-attractive to investors. In this sense, Shirley
with storage support but no grid support, which provides the and Kammen [30] explain the importance of favourable policy,
householder with grid independence. designed according to the particulars of the countries concerned.
Colombia has been selected as the application case, given that Some of the regulatory framework for renewables in Latin Amer-
this is a country with favourable conditions for PV generation e PV ican countries includes Renewable Portfolio Standard or RPS (for
is cost competitive with the grid tariff [15] e and also that despite example, Peru), targets (such as in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia,
the recently promulgated Law 1715 [16], which favours renewables, Nicaragua and Uruguay) and a combination of RPS, targets and a
there is much uncertainty concerning its implementation and renewable energy law (as in Chile and Mexico) [2]. In particular,
particularly regarding its effect on the rate of adoption, on prices though Colombia promulgated law 1715 in May 2014 [16], it has not
and on security of supply issues in the Colombian energy market. been yet fully implemented.
The focus is on the residential rooftop solar generation sector in This paper identies some of the effects of the penetration of
Colombia as: a) the residential sector contributes about 40% of the PVs on electricity markets, where there are favourable conditions
total electricity demand [17], b) 70% of all dwellings are houses [18], but no clear incentives. The focus here is on the number of
and c) a large percentage of dwellings can easily install micro- households that may adopt PV systems and on the load duration
generation PV systems. Some of the lessons from the Colombian curves as well as on the electricity tariff from the grid. These effects
case might also be applicable in other situations and countries. are assessed under two scenarios: PV system with batteries as a
To reach the proposed objective, this paper is organized as fol- storage mechanism, and PV systems without storage but with the
lows: Section 2 provides a review of the international experience support of electricity from the grid, aiming in both scenarios to
on renewables' diffusion, Section 3 describes the Colombian energy identifying changes in electricity demand patterns.
market and Section 4 describes the implemented system dynamics To analyse diffusion problems, there are two main alternative
(SD)-based model. Section 5 presents the main simulation results, levels of analysis reported in the literature: the micro and the
Section 6 reports validation and conducts a sensitivity analysis, and macro level [31]. At the micro level of analysis, the different authors
nally Section 7 presents the conclusions of this work. consider agent based, cellular automata and percolation modelling,
where the unit of analysis is a single individual considering his/her
2. International experiences of the diffusion of renewables perception of relative advantages and disadvantages of technology
adoption, and the inuence exerted by neighbours [31].
A number of papers examine the impact of the diffusion of re- At the macro level, the unit of analysis is the aggregated social
newables on electricity markets, from aspects such as: consump- system or community, and the focus is on market size and the
tion habits, supply intermittency and transmission system balance. adoption time [31]. This perspective includes methodologies such
In this direction, Balcombe, Rigby & Azapagic [19] indicate that the as system dynamics, which consider the combined complex
high diffusion of renewables in the United Kingdom has caused behaviour of a set of individuals characterized by their collective
problems regarding grid intermittency and market balance; simi- behaviour, and represented by accumulated variables [32].
larly, der Veen & De Vries [20] illustrate market efciency and This paper uses the macro-level perspective, with the support of
reliability problems in the Dutch case. In the Spanish context, while a system dynamics model of several well-known system charac-
utilities experience reductions in revenues and prots, households teristics, including a) system complexity, b) variable accumulation,
experience increases in electricity tariffs [21]. Wide n [22] and c) feedbacks, and d) delays [33e35]. Furthermore, SD has been
Keirstead [23] show that while in Sweden users change their con- largely used in policy assessment in related energy applications
sumption habits by increasing electricity consumption when using [11,36e41], including photovoltaics policy analysis [42].
renewables, conversely, United Kingdom (UK) households using
renewables reduce their electricity demand. 3. The Colombian electricity market
Many countries use different policies to promote renewables
[2,24]. Feed-in Tariffs (FITs) have been used with good results in The Colombian power market is highly liberalized (open to
Japan, Germany, the United Kingdom and Spain, among many competition) through the electricity supply chain, except for the
others [3,7,9,10,25,26]. Other incentives, elsewhere, have focused household sector, which is regulated via a tariff mechanism and
on nancial incentives such as Green Certicates [7,10] or Net supplied by the local utility [43]. As previously noted, the resi-
Metering [21]. dential sector in Colombia consumes about 40% of the total elec-
Nevertheless, there are still countries, especially in emerging tricity generated, and about 70% of residences are houses, rather
economies, which do not actively promote the diffusion of re- than ats in apartment blocks. Further, in Colombia, about 96% of
newables and, further, which maintain market barriers to their the population has regular access to electricity [44,45].
dissemination, despite their countries' potential for use of renew- Average electricity consumption of households in Colombia
ables. In Latin American countries for example, the potential of reaches 153.96 kWh/month (calculation with data from
renewables including PV has been recognized at both utility and Refs. [46,47]). Fig. 1 shows the average hourly load curve prole for
residential scale, highlighting their benecial irradiance availability an average day in the Colombian Electricity Market, and Fig. 2
and nancial competitiveness as compared with other technologies shows the specic hourly load curve prole for the residential
[2,27,28]. Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Peru, Colombia, sector in Colombia.
Guatemala, Ecuador and Venezuela were included in the European The electricity tariff in the household sector for the main cities
Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA) PV opportunity mapping was between USD 0.124 and USD 0.139 in 2014 (using data from
of the Sunbelt, according to their solar resource and investment Ref. [17] and an exchange rate of 3000 COP/USD). This tariff is
attractiveness [28]. However PV installations remain low in most of calculated as the sum of: the generation price and the costs of
these countries, even though Mexico, Peru, Brazil and Chile stand trading, losses, restrictions, and distribution and transmission
820 M. Jimenez et al. / Energy 111 (2016) 818e829
+
Incentive to invest
Price in Installed
Capacity
Cost of Trading -
Cost of Losses + + B1
+ Tariff Margin
+ B2
+ - + +
Cost of Restrictions + Installed
Demand on - Capacity
- the System
R3
Cost of B3
Distribution
-
-
R4 Cost of
+
Transmission
Perceived +
- Benefit
Cost R1
Households with PV
Fig. 1. Daily load curve for the colombian electricity market. - Microgeneration System
+
Source: Authors, with data from Ref. [48]. R2 +
Population
Experience in PV
+ B4
Panel Installation
+ -
Installation of PV
Panels Potential Households+of PV
Microgeneration System
relationship between the cost of the PV system and the grid tariff. It
also explains that the number of households with PV systems af-
fects system demand and consequently the grid tariff.
Loops B1 and B2 explain the price formation in electricity
markets as given by Dyner [51]; Price is affected negatively by the
system margin (Margin is the difference between Installed Capacity
and the Demand on the System); it means that when Margin in-
creases Price decreases because low demand can be supplied using
Fig. 2. Daily load curve for the residential sector.
cheaper technologies. System demand is negatively affected by
Source: Authors, with data from Refs. [48,49].
households that acquire microgeneration (as part of their demand
is generated by their own PV systems) and by electricity tariff.
costs, where the distribution and transmission costs depend on the Finally, Installed Capacity increases when there are incentives to
total demand [50]. invest in installed capacity; and these incentives are directly linked
As solar PV diffuses, particularly into the household sector, this to Price: when the price is higher, there is more incentive to invest.
load curve will be transformed, with unknown consequences for Loop R1 explains the feedback between households with a PV
the generation, transmission and distribution industries. Although system and the perceived benet, showing the positive causal ef-
this has been assessed elsewhere, the likely prole of demand fect between them. Also, loop B4 explains that Potential House-
needs to be better understood in order to assess the particular holds increases households that adopt PV systems, but these in turn
consequences that this may entail for the value chain of the elec- cause decreases in the variable Potential Households.
tricity industry in the case where there is no policy in place. This Households with a PV Microgeneration System affect positively
paper makes progress investigating the potential benets of policy Installation of PV Panels which, in turn, increase the Experience in
provision. A model was constructed to provide initial insights into PV Panel Installation (because of the learning curves); this experi-
the possible effects of PV penetration in the electricity industry. The ence will decrease the cost of microgeneration as we explain in
model is discussed in some detail in the following section. Loop R2. An increase in the cost of microgeneration causes a
decrease in the Perceived Benet of microgeneration acquisition,
which again affects Households with PV Microgeneration System.
4. Model description
Loops B3, R3 and R4 show how distribution and transmission
costs depend on the system's demand, where price, trading costs,
This section discusses the model that was developed to support
losses and restrictions costs all affect the grid tariff. As Tariff in-
the analysis, the main relationships and equations involved, and
creases there is a perception of the benet of microgeneration,
justications for the assumptions as well as for the scenarios that
which increases the number of households that micro-generate
have been considered.
and decreases the system demand, which has an effect on system
margin; Tariff is affected by transmission and distribution costs, on
4.1. Dynamic hypothesis top of other related costs, as indicated in Fig. 3.
hypothesis, as discussed in Section 4.1. As an aid to better under- Consumption habits of households remain constant during the
standing, this section describes the main model components using simulation time.
stock and ow diagrams, and displays the main mathematical The PV system efciency is the average of the PV system ef-
equations. ciency during its lifetime.
Fig. 4 shows the population dynamics and explains that the Finally, the paper assumes that the national PV learning-curves
household stock in the system depends on the population growth have the same behaviour as the international ones.
dynamics and the number of persons per household. The Popula-
tion stock increases according to the Population Growth Rate, and This paper analyses two scenarios: Storage Scenario and No-
the Total Households stock increases with New Households, which Storage Scenario. The rst one considers households that adopt a
depends on the population growth and average Persons per PV system that includes batteries for electricity storage, for
Household. whenever there is no sunshine. The second one considers a
Fig. 5 describes the stocks and ows related to the demand standalone PV system (with no storage backup), but with grid
dynamics, which, as in the explanation of the dynamic hypothesis, support, which means that households with microgeneration can
depends on the total microgeneration in the system and the always get their energy shortfall from the grid. The simulation
average electricity requirements of households. Residential De- timeframe is 14 years, from 2014 to 2028.
mand on the System is the difference between the total households'
electricity requirement and the total microgeneration produced by 5. Results
the adopter households.
Fig. 6 shows the diffusion process using the Bass model. It in- Figs. 8e13 show output from simulation runs. Figs. 8 and 9 show
dicates that households that have access to information become the diffusion process of PV systems with battery backup. Figs. 10
potential adopters of PV systems, and that the decision to adopt the and 11 show how potential households become photovoltaic
technology depends on the relationship between the grid tariff and adopters without storage capacity. Figs. 12 and 13 show the rela-
the PV system cost, as explained in the dynamic hypothesis e the tionship between adopter households and total households in the
adoption is modelled according to a logit model. system, for both scenarios.
Finally, Fig. 7 indicates how tariff is determined by generation The potential household level is higher when storage is
price and the costs of restrictions, losses, trading, and transmission considered than when no storage capacity is in place (Figs. 8 and
and distribution costs. Transmission costs depend on the total 10). Although PV with storage capacity is more expensive than
market demand, and distribution costs to households depend on electricity tariff during part of the period, the higher cost with
residential demand. storage becomes relatively minor as learning curves reduce tech-
nology costs over time.
Results show the typical s-shaped diffusion behaviour (Figs. 9
4.3. Model equations and assumptions and 11), peaking at about 2027, and reaching approximately six
million household adopters in both scenarios. These results show
Table 1 presents the main model equations, their units and a that there is no signicant difference between the numbers of
brief description of the equations. adopters in the two scenarios (around one thousand households),
The model boundary, considerations and assumptions, include: despite the initial differences in system prices. This opens the door
to other kinds of analysis concerning the importance of prices in the
Adoption of PV systems by the residential sector only. adoption decision for this type of technology.
All other electricity demand sectors, different from households, Finally, results in Figs. 12 and 13 show that at the end of the
increase according to estimates from Ref. [44]. simulation time the rate of adopter households compared to total
Installed capacity (of PV systems) meets the average electricity households in the system is similar in both scenarios, according to
requirements of households (using systems of 1.5 kW). This results shown in Figs. 9 and 11.
assumption implies that there could be times when electricity System effects of the microgeneration diffusion process are
generated by the PV system exceeds or falls short of household explained next, for each scenario.
requirements. Note that the current regulation does not allow
sales of PV surpluses to the grid; however, electricity decits 5.1. Storage scenario
from the PVs are either met by electricity from the grid (when
connected) or using batteries (if not connected). In this scenario, the PV system includes storage capacity. This
Table 1
Model equations.
Fig. 8. Potential households e storage scenario. Fig. 10. Potential households e no-storage scenario.
Source: Authors/simulation runs. Source: Authors/simulation runs
Fig. 9. Adopters' households e storage scenario. Fig. 11. Adopters' households e no-storage scenario.
Source: Authors/simulation runs. Source: Authors/simulation runs.
to other sectors would reduce demand from the grid's main distribution costs (Figs. 19 and 20) depend on system demand, this
(commercial) generators. implies that as demand drops so grid tariff increases, because costs
Fig. 17 shows the consequences of this scenario on the hourly have to be paid by fewer households. The opposite effect occurs for
electricity tariff. As previously discussed, the tariff depends on the generation component of the tariff (generation price), as this is
generation price, and the costs of trading, losses, restrictions, dis- the lowest price at which system demand can be satised. When
tribution and transmission. Also note that as transmission and demand is low, generation cost falls, because a low demand could
824 M. Jimenez et al. / Energy 111 (2016) 818e829
Fig. 15. Hourly load curve, Colombian Market e Storage Scenario. (Arrow indicates
direction of time).
Source: Authors/simulation runs.
Fig. 16. Hourly load curve, Residential Sector e Storage Scenario. (Arrow indicates
direction of time).
Source: Authors/simulation runs.
Fig. 22. Hourly load curve for Colombian market using the surpluses of residential
generation e no-storage scenario.
Source: Authors/simulation runs.
Fig. 23. Hourly load curve for Colombian market losing surpluses of residential gen-
eration e no-storage scenario.
Source: Authors/simulation runs.
that are more important than the price difference [55], and authors
like Islam [56] highlight the importance of education and infor-
mation over the adoption price difference. Most important to note
is that, in this case, grid parity was attained very early in the
simulation period; Fig. 29 shows simulation results for the sensi-
tivity analysis of the costs of photovoltaic systems that were revised
50% upwards and downwards, respectively.
This gure shows that even for extreme cases, differences in the
rate of adoption of PVs remain negligible when grid parity has been
attained (as is the case in many Colombian sites [15]) and PV prices
are highly competitive compared with the grid tariff, as the
magnitude of the difference between the two is very large.
Finally, what may happen when grid parity is only reached
around 2022, half way through the simulation period, i.e. in places
Fig. 27. Distribution cost e No-Storage Scenario.
where grid parity has not been attained yet? Three different al-
Source: Authors/simulation runs
ternatives are presented in Fig. 30, where the main conclusion is
that grid parity only delays adoption rates during the initial period,
but adoption levels converge to the same value at the end of the
system transformation. Thus, for robustness and soundness pur- simulation.
poses, this paper undertakes sensitivity analysis of parameters, as
reported below. 7. Conclusions
The rst evaluated parameter is the innovator's parameter (p),
which has been modied by 50% upwards and downwards from its Favourable conditions for PV systems e sunshine availability
initial value. Results are presented in Fig. 28. and low PV microgeneration cost [15] e will contribute to rapid
Results indicate that the value of the innovator's factor, p, is technology diffusion in the Colombian residential sector, as illus-
important for dening the time when adoption begins. When the trated in this paper. This will, however, have a great effect on grid
innovator's factor is larger the diffusion process starts earlier than electricity costs to non-PV users and will pose challenges to system
when this is lower; this is reasonable, considering that this factor operators, as they will confront complicated load duration curves.
describes innovator willingness and that information is available to The effect of the diffusion of PV systems on tariffs and load
him/her, increasing the adoption rate by households. It is important duration curves will depend on the chosen scenario. On the one
to note that regardless of the value of p at the end of the simulation hand, under the storage scenario, the system exhibits gradual de-
time, the number of adopters is the same, which gives robustness to creases in residential electricity demand and smooth variations in
the results presented in Section 5 and reliability to the model electricity demand for the entire electricity market, which is re-
ndings. ected in the load duration curve; furthermore, there are smooth
The second condition evaluated is the sensitivity to the price decreases in grid tariffs when PVs initially start penetrating the
conditions. In this case, a comparison is made with the adoption market, but increases at the end of the simulation period as dis-
level when the PV system cost is changed. To make this comparison tribution cost exceeds generation. On the other hand, for the No-
it is important to discuss the importance of the technology price for Storage Scenario, the entire system confronts dramatic changes,
adoption in a place with the Colombian conditions. The literature including extreme increases in grid tariffs and problems in the
reports that nancial issues rather than incentives become barriers system balances, as can be appreciated from the load duration
to the adoption of renewables [10]. Moreover, Claudy, Michelsen, curve.
O'Driscoll, and Mullen [54] highlight the importance of technology Comparing both scenarios, we observe rst that the adoption
information over the nancial issues, and explain that the tech- rates are similar in both scenarios despite the differences in PV
nology knowledge and awareness precede the product character- system costs, which can suggest that nance might not be the main
istics' evaluation. Other authors explain that there are other factors
Fig. 28. Adopter households' sensitivity to value of innovator's parameter p. Fig. 29. Adopter households' sensitivity to PV system cost.
Source: Authors/simulation runs. Source: Authors/simulation runs
828 M. Jimenez et al. / Energy 111 (2016) 818e829
Table A1
Abbreviations.
Abbreviation Explanation
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