continually deforms (flows) under an applied shear stress. Fluids are a subset of the phases of matter and include liquids, gases, plasmas, and to some extent, plastic solids. Fluids are substances that have zero shear modulus or, in simpler terms, a fluid is a substance which cannot resist any shear force applied to it.
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to
gradual deformation by shear stress or tensile stress. For liquids, it corresponds to the informal concept of "thickness" for example, honey has a much higher viscosity than water.
Viscosity is a property of the fluid which opposes the
relative motion between the two surfaces of the fluid in a fluid that are moving at different velocities. When the fluid is forced through a tube, the particles which compose the fluid generally move more quickly near the tube's axis and more slowly near its walls; therefore some stress (such as a pressure difference between the two ends of the tube) is needed to overcome the friction between particle layers to keep the fluid moving. For a given velocity pattern, the stress required is proportional to the fluid's viscosity.
A fluid that has no resistance to shear stress is known as
an ideal or inviscid fluid. Zero viscosity is observed only at very low temperatures in superfluids. Otherwise, all fluids have positive viscosity, and are technically said to be viscous or viscid. However, a liquid is said to be viscous if its viscosity is substantially greater than that of water, and may be described as mobile if the viscosity is noticeably less than water. A fluid with a relatively high viscosity, such as pitch, may appear to be a solid. This experiment is important as viscosity is a critical property of hydraulic oil, as it affects the performance and efficiency of complete systems as well as the wear rates of individual components like pumps and valves.
A hydraulic fluids viscosity is defined primarily by the size
and structure of its molecule chainsthe larger the molecules, the thicker the fluid. The hydrocarbon molecules in mineral oil vary in size, while synthetic oils have a more-consistently sized make-up. Also, as hydraulic fluid ages or experiences shear stress, oil molecules can break down and that lowers the viscosity.
Determining the right fluid viscosity is a balancing act. As
oil temperature rises, viscosity drops and it flows more easilyto a point. If the oil gets too thin, volumetric efficiency suffers and the system becomes less responsive and can lead to overheating, high wear and shorter component life. At the other extreme, if fluid viscosity is too high, mechanical efficiency is low and that leads to friction during startup, sluggish operation and, in the worst case, cavitation and mechanical failure.
The viscosity of a hydraulic fluid is a critical element in the
transfer of hydraulic power. The ideal viscosity range for a fluidand thus its highest efficiencyis usually between 10 and 100 mm/sec, depending on the application. If in doubt, always consult the equipment manufacturers recommendations.
Viscosity also plays vital role in Mechanical Engineering.
First, it is useful in bearing operation. As we know bearing (Journal Bearing) is continuously rotating, there will be friction between two ratating surfaces. This friction is reduced by using lubricant of optimum viscosity. This lubricant helps to form viscous layer which creates film between the rotating parts and helps in heat dissipation.
Second due to viscosity boundary layer forms (for
boundary layer formation there are other factors also) which is useful to control flow in turbomachines. In turbomachines if we want to extract more power from fluid then fluid should be in control.
Viscosity is important in Heat Transfer by convection also.
Convevtion is dependent on Reynold Number. Reynold Number changes according to vicsocity.(Re=F(viscosity, velocity, characteristic length)).
Plus, the viscosity of liquids is an important property that
must be measured precisely in some industries. For example, the viscosity of paints, varnishes, and similar household products is closely regulated so that the paints and varnishes can be applied smoothly and evenly with a brush roller. In fact, antique dealers and many householders are glad that furniture stripping liquid has finally been thickened. In the past, this thin, smelly liquid was difficult to use because it tended to run down and off the furniture before it had a chance to remove old paint and finishes. Now, however, the viscosity has been increased to produced an almost gel-like texture, so that the product is easier to apply and sticks well to the surface of the furniture.
In terms of food industries, viscosity measurements are
used in the food industry to maximize production efficiency and cost effectiveness. It affects the rate at which a product travels through a pipe, how long it takes to set or dry, and the time it takes to dispense the fluid into packaging. The production process has to be designed with the viscosity of the product in mind, making sure that pipes are angled to optimize flow, or that dispensers provide the right amount of force to induce flow, but not so much that the packaging will overfill.
Viscosity is also a characteristic of the texture of food. The
products viscosity must be measured and monitored during production to ensure that each batch is consistent and will go through the production process efficiently.
Lastly, for other industries such as petroleum, viscosity
measurements project the effectiveness of lubricating oil and determines design elements of pipelines anf for concrete, viscosity determines the self-leveling and pumping behavior of a mix and for cosmetics, viscosity should be considered when designing the feel and flow of cosmetic products Objective :
To determine the viscosity of four liquids which is water,
oil, dishwashing liquid and glycerin by using the sphere viscometer method.
Learning Outcomes :
1. To understand the resistance of a fluid on which a force is
acting.
2. To calculate the viscosity of water, glycerin, dishwashing
liquid and oil.
3. To compare the level of viscosity of each liquid.
Problem Statement : The fluid that is very close to the pipe walls for instance travels more slowly than the fluid in the very center of the pipe. Fluid viscosity changes with temperature. Pressure has a small impact on gas viscosity and the pressure impact on the viscosity of a liquid is very small. When studying multiphase liquids (a mixture of gas, liquid and solids) there are other factors that come into play.
An example of a multi-phase liquid is crude oil flowing up
an oil well where part of the oil often turns to gas as pressure reduces and the mixture might also include water, pieces of rock, wax, and tar. The fraction of each phase will impact the viscosity of the mixture.
Foams such as mixtures of liquids and gas and emulsions
can exhibit higher apparent viscosity than either individual phase on its own.
For large organic molecules formed by combining a
number of smaller molecules such as plastics, viscosity is generally higher for polymers with higher molecular weights, where bigger molecules lead to higher viscosity.
A dilute polymer solution in a solvent, for instance can
show power-law behavior where it may have high viscosity under low shear, but low viscosity under high shear.
A change in viscosity based on the speed or force used, it
may increase or decrease. Other than temperature, viscosity of the same fluid may vary with sheer stress and pressure. Theoratical Background :
In this experiment, we will drop spherical balls of clay into
three fluids and calculate the viscosities of the fluids by measuring the velocities of the balls as they fall. Three forces act on a spherical ball of clay falling through a fluid: gravity, drag, and buoyancy. We will discuss drag in more detail in the next experiment: Gravity is simply the mass of the sphere (m) multiplied by the gravitational constant g. It is the weight of the sphere.
Gravity = mg
Buoyancy (Fb) is essentially the weight of fluid that is
displaced by the sphere. You can think of it as the weight of a spherical ball of the fluid. Thus, it is calculated by taking the mass of the fluid that would fill that sphere multiplied by the gravitational constant g. We can calculate the mass using the volume of the sphere, which is (4/3)r 3 where r=radius, and the density of the liquid (fluid).
Fb = (4/3)r 3 fluid g
The drag force is given by Stokes Law. This law only
applies for spherical objects in fluids that are flowing in a steady manner (not turbulent). Drag opposes the downward gravitational force and is dependent on the viscosity of the fluid (), the size of the sphere (d=diameter), and the spheres velocity (V) as it falls through the fluid.
Fd = 6Vd
Assuming the sphere is falling at a constant velocity in a
calm fluid, we can say that the sum of the forces pointing upwards is equal to the sum of the forces pointing downwards to get the following equation that will allow us to calculate viscosities of fluids.
Fb + Fd = mg
(4/3)r 3 fluid g + 6Vd = msphere g
Apparatus :
1. 1000 mL graduated cylinder
2. Stopwatch
3. Steel ball (d=3.0mm, 3.5mm, 4.0mm)
4. 4 type of fluid ( water, oil, dishwashing liquid, glycerin)
Procedure :
1. The graduated cylinder was filled with oil,water,glycerin
and dishwashing liquid.
2. Diamater of steel ball was recorded.
3. The highest volume of fluid was marked as initial and the lowest was marked as final. The height was measured between initial to final and recorded as h.
4. Ball with d= 3.0mm was dropped into the first fluid
(water). When the bottom reached initial, start stopwatch.
5. The stopwatch was stopped when the bottom reached
final mark and time taken was recorded. 6. The steps was repeated for three time, time taken was recorded and average time taken as recorded.
Results :
Diameter of the ball = 0.003m
Density of ball, = 7800 kg/m
Type of Densit Distanc Time Averag Velocity, Viscosity
fluid y of e taken,t (s) e time, , fluid, travelle tavg v=h/tav d, h (m) g =2/9rg (kg/m (s) ) (m/s) ( /v)
(kg/ms)
Water 1000 0.9 0.47 0.40 0.43 2.09 0.016
0.41
Glycerin 1260 0.9 0.69 0.69 0.67 1.34 0.024
0.63
Oil 876 0.9 1.13 1.05 1.11 0.81 0.042
1.16
Dishwashi 1046 0.9 5.29 5.30 5.27 0.17 0.195
ng Liquid 5.23 Diameter of ball = 0.0035m
Density of ball, = 7800 kg/m
Type of Densit Distanc Time Averag Velocity, Viscosity
fluid y of e taken,t (s) e time, , fluid, travelle tavg v=h/tav d, h (m) g =2/9rg (kg/m (s) ) (m/s) ( /v)
(kg/ms)
Water 1000 0.9 0.33 0.35 0.35 2.57 0.020
0.37
Glycerin 1260 0.9 0.55 0.56 0.58 1.54 0.028
0.64
Oil 876 0.9 1.00 0.95 0.99 0.91 0.051
1.03
Dishwashi 1046 0.9 3.97 3.95 3.94 0.23 0.196
ng Liquid 3.90 Diameter of ball = 0.004m
Density of ball, = 7800 kg/m
Type of Density Distanc Time Averag Velocity, Viscosity
fluid of fluid, e taken,t (s) e time, , travelle tavg v=h/tav (kg/m) d, h g =2/9rg (m) (s) (m/s) ( /v)
(kg/ms)
Water 1000 0.9 0.24 0.26 0.27 3.33 0.018
0.32
Glycerin 1260 0.9 0.47 0.45 0.45 2.00 0.029
0.43
Oil 876 0.9 0.72 0.69 0.71 1.27 0.048
0.71
Dishwashi 1046 0.9 2.84 2.90 2.85 0.32 0.184
ng Liquid 2.82 Discussion :
The terminal velocity of two spheres having different diameters
would not be identical.Assuming that both spheres are made of the same material, the difference in diameter would cause a change in the geometry such that the weight of the spheres would be significantly different. The changes in size and weight would change all three forces listed in equation above. The weight would increase proportionately to the buoyancy force due to the fact that the buoyancy force is directly related to the mass of fluid which is being displaced. The change in size would also cause a change in drag force due to the increase in surface area of the sphere.This increase in drag force would not be enough to counteract the relatively large increase in the net downward force created by the weight minus the buoyancy force. Due to this, the terminal velocity of the larger sphere would be significantly higher than that of the smaller sphere.
The viscosity found for two different size spheres should,
theoretically, be the same due to the fact that viscosity is a property of the fluid through which the sphere is moving and not a property of the sphere itself. The largest error for this experiment is human error. As the starting and stopping of the timing device is performed by a human, it is expected that some error will be present. Also, the distance across which the sphere is travelling is measured by the human eye,which accounts for more error. Also, in this experiment, the assumption is made that both the fluid through which the sphere is travelling and the sphere itself are perfectly homogenous materials with uniform densities. This is not likely to be the case due to the fact that all of the bearings and all of the dishwashing liquid were not likely to have come from one batch of materials which would allow for less variation in material properties. Further, the density of the dishwashing liquid was obtained through experiment which allows for further human error. Finally, less error could have been achieved by limiting variables within the experiment. By this, I mean to say that a lower degree of error likely would have been achieved had we used the same ball bearing for each trial. This would have limited variables in the experiment and allowed us to average the time for each trial and use that value of average time to calculate a terminal velocity and then a single viscosity. The temperature of the ambient air should be recorded because the fluid is likely to be at the same temperature given the amount of time that the fluid has been surrounded by air at the same temperature. The temperature of the fluid is the significant measurement because the density of the fluid is directly related to its temperature. If the temperature were greater, the fluid would be less dense; conversely, if the temperature were lower, the opposite would be true.This method could be used in gasses, however, there would likely be a much larger degree of error due to the speed at which the sphere would fall and the ability of a human to react quickly enough to measure such an occurrence. If some form of automation was used to measure the time in which the sphere moved between two given points in a gas, this experimentcould likely be performed successfully in such an environment. This method could be successfully completed in opaque fluids, however, it would require methods other that human observation due to
a humans inability to see in order to record the time the
sphere takes to pass from the starting point to the stopping point. A method such as thermal imaging could be used to accomplish such an experiment. This method would not work,however, with non homogeneous fluids such as those mentioned. Conclusion :
From the experiment, we can see that the different size
and weight of sphere ball affect the the time taken for the ball the reach its final even in the same liquid. For example the ball with diameter of 0.003m took average time of 0.43 seconds to reach the final whereas ball with a diamater of 0.004m took average time of 0.27 seconds to reach the final. When larger and heavier ball is used, the force will be greater due to higher terminal velocity.
From the data above, we can conclude that the order of
viscosity from the lowest to the highest is water, glycerin, oil, shampoo. It is determined by observing that shampoo has the highest viscosity and the slowest time while water has the lowest viscosity and the fastest time. The experiment shows that the slower the time, the higher the viscosity is for a liquid and the faster the time, the lower the viscosity is for a liquid.