Reinforcing Fibers Figure 2-1. Each rein- forcing tiber comes In a varlety of woaves ‘and may bo used in ‘combination with ‘other materials 10 produce the desired resutt Chapter 2 When combined with a matrix, the reinforcing fibers are what give the primary strength to the composite structure. ‘There are five common types of reinforcing fibers. These basic materials can be used in combination with one another (Inbrids), woven in specific patterns (fiber a = =eJ 4 d } « } Idé d CFIA ELESO LOOP fPde PP PoP PP PP PE LS Fiberglass - (Glass Cloth) Figure 2-2. Fiberglass ‘ean be recognized a8 ‘a white gleaming cloth, It Is considered to be the most ‘economic reinforcing fiber of advanced composites. w science), in combination with other matertals Buch as rigid foams (sandwich structures) or simply in combination with various matrix materials. Each particular composite com: bination provides specific advantages. Outligied below Is each of the five common types of reinforcing fibers and their characteristics As its name implies, fiberglass is made from small strands of molten silica glass which are then spun together and woven into cloth. There are many different weaves of fiberglass available, depending on the particular applica~ tion. The widespread availability of fiberglass and its low cost miake it one of the most popular reinforeing fibers. Fiberglass weighs more and has less strength than most other composite fibers. Fiberglass in the past has been tused for nonstructural applications, The weave was heavy and polyester resins were used, which made the part brittle, Fiberglass has benefitted as a reinforcing fiber from the use of newly developed matrix formulas. ‘The two common types of fberglass are E-glass and S-glass. E-glass is also known as “electric glass” because of it's high resistivity. E-glass isa borosilicate glass which is the most common type of fiberglass used for reinforce ment Seglass 1s a magnesia-alumina-siicate glass. S-glass 1s ‘ised where a very high tensile strength fiberglass 1s needed. When used with the newer types of matrix and with the proper use of fiber sciences, fiberglass is un excellent Feinforcing fiber as used in advanced composite applica tions today. Some of the new fiberglass composites cont pare favorably in terms of strength to weight ratios withi a Figure 2-9. Kovisr Is the most widely. used aramid fiver thes # to proxims times that of ‘aluminum alloy. As with most reinforcing {ibors, Keviar comes in various grades and weaves for different ses. traditional aluminum materials. By using some very clever methods to cumbine fiberglass with other more expensive fibers, such as Kevlar® or carbon/graphite, a hybrid material can be produced that yields a lower cost high strength material. This mixing of fibers to form hybrids is an exacting science that allows very little room for error, ‘An aramid fiber is usually characterized by tts yellow color, light weight. excellent tenstle strength and remark- able flexibility. Aramid is the name given to aromatic polymide fibers. Kevlar 1s a registered trademark of the Et DuPont Company and'ts the best known and most widely used aramid. Kevlar will ordinartly stretch a great deal before it breaks. The tensile strength of alloyed aluminum. fs about 65,000 psi, or about one-fourth that of Kevlar composite, However, the objective in aviation ts not neces- sarily to have a stronger part, but rather to have a part that weighs much less. By using a Kevlar reinforcing fiber, ‘a component can be fabricated with at least the strength of a metal counterpart, with a fraction of the welght. ‘The aircraft structural grade of Kevlar fiber ts known as Kevlar 49. Kevlar 29 \s used for boats and Kevlar 129 1s bullet proof material. A common misconception about Kevlaris that if Kevlar fabric is bulletproof, and an atreraft 4s made with Kevlar, then the aircraft is bulletproof. The bulletproof vest's Kevlar Is typically made of a different weave, weight and process than aircraft-type Kevlar. A bulletproof vest also omits the matrix which will tend to make a part more brittle. A bulletproof vest is made with 19.1 © « a ee Oe DO he Gr ae Or CF el OF Gs 20 Carbon Graphite multiple layers of Kevlar fabric which will stretch as the bullet impacts the fabric. preventing penetration. Aramid fs an ideal material for use In alrcraft parts that are subject to high stress and vibration. For example some of the advanced helicopter designs have made use of aramid to fabricate main rotor blades and hub as- semblies. The flexibility of the aramid fabric allows the blade to bend and twist in flight, absorbing much of the stress. In contrast, a blade made of metal would develop fatigue and stress cracks more frequently under the same conditions. ‘Aramid materials also have their drawbacks. Because aramid stretches. it can cause problems when it ts cut Drilling aramid can be a problem when the drill bit grabs a fiber and pulls it until it stretches it to the breaking point. ‘This material will look fuzzy. Ifthe fuzzing material around fastener holes or seams is not sealed, it may act asa wick and absorb moisture. The moisture in the form of water, oil, fuel or hydraulle fluid will probably not damage the aramid fibers, but may cause problems with the resin system used by causing them to deteriorate, which may cause layers of laminates to separate, The fazzingaround the drilled hole may also prevent a fastener from seating properly, which may cause the fastened joint tw full Some manufacturers recommend the use of fiberglass to repair aramid material because even a slight amount of moisture will prevent aramid from bonding properly. Al- though aramid exhibits great tensile strength, it does not have us much compressive strength when compared to carbon/graphite. Americans are fond of the term graphite, while Europeans luke carbon, Carbon correctly describes the fiber since tt contains no graphite structure. Regardless of what you call it, you order tt by number. If you order Carbon #584 you will get the same weight and weave as if you order Graphite #584, It 1s the same material. Some structural repair manuals may call for Carbon #584 in one area, and. Graphite #584 in another, Until a uniform term is decided on, probably the easlest way to refer to this material Is to call it carbon/graphite. Get accustomed to referring to it in either way, ‘This black fiber is very strong, stiff, and used for its rigid strength characteristics. Carbon/graphite fiber com: posites are used to fabricate primary structural com- ponents such as the ribs and skin surface of the wing. Even very large aircraft can be designed with a much reduced number of reinforcing bulkheads, ribs and —.Figure 2-4. Carb- onvGraphite. While the correct name for thle material Is carb- (on, I Is ofton referred 10.28 graphite; fre- quently Inthe same publication. Whichever name Is used, itis the same ‘material, Boron Ceramic stringers, thanks to the high strength and high rigidity of carbon fiber composites. Carbon/graphite is stronger in compressive strength than Kevlar, however, ft 1s more brittle than Kevlar. Carb- fon/graphite has the problem of being corrosive when bonded to aluminum, Special corrosion control techni- ques are employed when carbon/graphite materials are in contact with aluminum components. Usually a layer of fiberglass 1s used as a barrter, and the aluminum Is anodized, primed, and painted prior to assembly. Boron fibers are made by depositing boron (an element) onto a thin filament of tungsten. The resulting fiber 1s, about .004-inch in diameter, has excellent compressive strength and stiffness, and ts extremely hard. Because boron can be hazardous to work with, along with i's high expense, it is not commonly used tn civil aviation, In designing a composite component that needs both strength and stiffness. associated with boron. many civil aviation manufacturers are utlllzing hybrid composite materials of aramid and carbon/graphite instead of boron. Ceramicfibers are used where a high temperature applica- tion is needed. This form of composites wil retain most of the strength and flexibility at temperatures up to 2,200 degrees F. The tiles on the space shuttle are made of a special ceramic composite that 1s heat resistant and dissipates heat quickly. Firewalls are often made of ali« « TOP bd Ie ‘« 4 LU SSPE edd dP PP PL? ceramic fiber composites to dissipate the heat, Ceramic fibers are often used with a metal matrix. PEPE EL Fiber Usage Ascomposite materials gain in use, new reinforcing fibers BRay be developed. At the present time, the most used reinforcing fibers are fiberglass, aramid and carb- Cavaraphite, Throughout this book, these three materials will be focused on to a greater extent. Figure 2-5 ts a chart of the different types of materials and tieiuse, as well as their projected use in, the future Nouee that boron is the only fiber that is declining in tts use rTM 1977, 1807 1092 (estimate) Composite Materials 2,265. 24,045 49,000 Aircratt/Aerospace: 4,079. 16,879 34,900 TYPES OF FIBERS Carbon/Graphite 532 4,953 10,800 28,530 Aramid 361 4716 8,670 18,780 |_Boron ay 15 10 8 other 2 * 2 82 Figure 25, US. Demand for Advanced Composite Fibers ang Materials (thousand ie Fiber Placement 22 the strength of a reinforcing material in a matrix ts dependent on the weave of the material, the wetting process, or how the matrix is applied. filament tensile Strength and the design of the part. ‘The tensile strengths of many of the fabrics reported in many articles and books are Just of the raw fabric. and fot with the resin in it, Since the composites used 1n aviation use a resin material, the tensile strength will Gecrease because the resins tend to make the structure fnore brittle, causing them to break at a lower tensile strength. To find the amount of strength in a laminate that ts 50% fers and 50% resin, take the tensile strength of the fibers ‘added to the tensile strength of the resin and divide by two. This information {s not really required by tech20 (estimate 200. 500 3,530 3,780 82 Fiber Science Figure 2-6. In light, the structure tends to bond and twist. The fiber layers are isid in 4s way to limit the for- ces, thoreby cus- niclans, but it will give you an idea of how strong the part may become. 275,000 + 20,000 _ 147,500 PSI The selective placement of fibers to give the greatest amount of strength in various applications is known as Jiber science. The strength and stiffness of a composite ‘butldup depends on the orientation of the plies to the load direction. A sheet metal component will have the same strength no matter in which direction tt ts tested. For example, a helicopter rotor blade has high stress along its length because of the centripetal forces. If it is made of metal, the strength Is the same in all directions, giving strength in directions that are not needed, If fabricated of composites, the blade may have the majority of fibers running the length of the blade to give more strength in the direction where the most stress 1s concentrated. These vectors of strength might be referred to as zero degree plies to react to an axial load like that to which a rotor blade is subjected. 45 degree plies to react to shear vectors or 90 degree piles to react to side loads. For example, if a wing in flight bends up as well as twisting, the part can be manufactured so that the fibers will run the length of the wing and reduce the bending tendency. and then have a layer with the fibers running 23Fiber Orientation ‘Warp Figure 2-7. All design, ‘manutecturing, and repalr work bogins with the orientation of the fabric. To recog- nize and understand the reasons, these tour baste terms aro necessary. 24 at 45 degrees, and at 90 degrees to limit the twist. Each layer may have the major fibers running in a different direction. The strength of the fibers are parallel to the direction that the threads run. This is how designers can customize the fiber direction for the type of stress the part might encounter. Another example, the X-29 forward swept wing ex- perimental Jet fighter, required extremely strong wings to withstand the aerodynamic forces which caused wing failure on similar all-metal aircraft, In order to withstand these multidirectional stresses, the wings were produced with 156 layers of unidirectional carbon/graphite using multidirectional fiber orientation, Some ofthe terms which are used to describe fiber orfentation are listed as follows: ‘The threads which run the length of the fabric as it comes off the bolt are referred to as the warp. The warp direction 1s designated at 0 degrees. In a woven application, there are typically more threads woven into the warp than the fill direction. This material will be stronger in the warp direction than the fill direction. FABRIC ROLL SELVAGE EDGE Since the warp direction {s often critical in fabricating or repairing composites, it may be identified by inserting another type of thread at pertodic intervals. The plasticbacking on the underside of pre-pregs may also be marked to identify the warp threads. . weft (fill) The weft threads are those that run perpendicular to the : warp fibers. They are designated as 90 degrees. The Ul, o or welt, threads are the threads which interweave with the - warp threads. o 5) Selvage Edge A tightly woven edge produced by the weaver to prevent - the edges from raveling is referred to as the selvage edge. 9° It 4s parallel to the warp threads. The selvage edge 1s - removed for all fabrication and repair work because the 9 weave 1s different than the body of the fabric and would - not give the same strength as the rest of the fabric. o oO Blas The blasisat a 45 degree angle tothe warp threads. Fabric can be formed into contoured shapes by using the bias. Fabrics can often be stretched along the bias but seldom along the warp or weft, This ts important to keep in mind Af Mt Is necessary (0 wrap a fabric around a contoured shape. | Fabric Styles Material commonly can be found in three styles that are @ : used in aircraft construction. i i Unidirectional Fiber orientation in which all of the major fibers run in’ J one direction, giving strength in that direction are known as unidirectional. This type of fabric is not woven together oe Le., there 15 no welt. Sometimes, small cross threads are tSca to hold the major fiber bundles in place, but is not" O= considered woven together. Occasionally, you may see @ e eo Figure 2-8. When ail SMALL e : the major fibers run — cross none direction, THREADS e& Unidirectiona, the . Sstreagth ofthe fabrke da in that deection. = MAJOR FIBER e BUNDLES, & & 25 ‘ e eBidirectional or Multidirectional Figure 2-9. Beceuso in bidirectionaymutt- directional tabric the ‘mojor fiber bundles run in both direc- tions, the directions ere not necesserlly la- terchangeable. Typk cally, the warp hes more threads than the wet 26 Fabric Weaves strand ofa different type of fiber along with the major fiber. which is used to help align the fibers correctly. Unidirec- Uonal fabrics may be laminated together with the fibers ofeach layer running at a different direction than the first layer. Tapes are unidirectional, and usually only of carb: ‘on/eraphite material. It is less expensive than fabric, and creates a smoother surface. Tapes are sometimes replaced with fabrics for repair work. Unidirectional tapes arc usually preimpregnated with resin because unidirectional materials are diflicult to manually saturate with resin. “This type of fiber orfentation calls for fibers to run in (wo or more directions (bidirectional). Usually these are woven. together and may be seer in many different weaves. Again, the warp threads usually have more fibers that are woven. together than the weft so it {s important to line up the warp threads when doing a repair. There is usually more Strength in the warp direction than the fill direction. Chopped fibers that are compressed together are often called mats. These mats are typically used in combinal! swith other woven or unidirectional layers of fabric. & 7 ts usually not as strong as a unidirectional or bidirectional fabric, and not commonly used in repair work. Fabrics are woven together in a number of weaves and weights, Fabrics are more resistant to fiber breakout, Gelamination and more damage tolerant than unidirec- o®) O01. oe Ty Lay a Oo ho Fe A? | wu vARP q 1 LLITT Fa 7 c G cutoo & 24 : O : eee . PLAIN WEAVE. ‘CROWFOOT SATIN WEAVE o. GRAPHITE: STYLE 9K-70.PW KEVLAR: STYLE 285 ° KEVLAR: STYLE 120, (1140 DENIER YARN) . & @s | e. | © poonnann o nooo, « TITITTTT It | Fe Syrrerrrt ro : i | E eae 1 @. 8] i Eee OWI, Ty fo . ee Eo I hr * coy TOO TOOT, @. co TOIT _—— e. q| TOC TI ©. = Foor Lor Gl e. ee SSS e 6 HARNESS SATIN WEAVE GRAPHITE: STYLE 3K-135-6H GRAPHITE: STYLE 1K-50-5H © E KEVLAR: STYLE 181 e {380 DENIER YARN) @ ag Figure 2-10. While each fabric le not necessarily avaliable In all weaves, exch different fabric @ icand that Is produced in # different weave has It's own style number, e.; Kevisr and graphite plain @ a: iwoave have diferent style numbers. | ° 27 @ se —6 -__—__ > = @FIBERGLASS TYPES 112, 116, 126, 164 ° of ee Trt LECCE, & a oe Ti TOT J TIT Tit c aad B-SHAFT SATIN WEAVE WARP FACE FIBERGLASS, onononoy, eo OO Feo de dedb dee or Ecoreo : p Tit roe 4 zs Tel T A d . TTT jeune p TL IT TL CS p d c ] TH TO, FIBERGLASS ‘TYPE 120 (45S) BSHAFT SATIN WEAVE ‘SPECIAL BALANCED FIBERGLASS TYPES 1881, 1582, 1584, 7781 Figure 2-11. Each fabric ls produced in diferant weaves to provide speciic structural proper- ties. 28 ; schemataCII TIT Oy BAY eee ° Geo) eH 3 TL Oo q TITT : IT II TT B r ITT T Tlelel p Ee co Ae wane q a 5] C at ee ooo ore PLAIN WEAVE (CROWFOOT SATIN WEAVE GRAPHITE: STYLE 2K70PH KEVLAR. STYLE 288 KEVLAR: STYLE 120 (1140 DENIER YARN) 3 © noonjoon ° Gajnoooy, Lkadehalake I TIT TI | et oon d ; ia b eo at TITI at C. et f LITT tr I A bj 5 cot Eb t TTI TILIOIOI 5 outdo TT IL t i TTT CCCI Rie TI : a : doles TITL II mo Leo, dl : q Sesseneeeeeee oa T TL a Wooo ooo cools Sse SS TRARNESS SATIN WEAVE SHARNESS SATIN WEAVE GAAPHTE: STYLE aK-1364H GRAPHITE: STYLE 1K05H : REWAR: STYLE a st TSooEmER van ie ag Figure 2-10. While each fabric is not necessarily available in all weaves, each different fabric ie and that Is produced in a different weave has i's own style number, je.; Keviar and graphie pisin 2a Sale te aiwnerepe masters a7a per Weaves MATERIAL Fiberglass CarbonsGraphite rami tUonal material. The cost of woven fabric is usually higher because of the weaving operation, ‘There are many weaves available in composite fabrics. ‘Some of the most common patterns are shown. Satin weaves are very common for repair applications. The eight harness satin weave is woven by interlacing a thread over seven threads and under one thread, as shown, Some typical styles of satin weaves for repair operations, are the 7781, 181, and 1581. All have a 57 warp and 54 fill with a thickness of .009 inch. The differences in these fabrics is in the number of yams which are used to produce the thread. The 7781 has 75 yarns warp and fil. The 1581 has 150 yams warp and fl, and the style 181 has 225 yarns warp and fil ‘The four harness weave interlaces a thread over three threads and then under one. The style 120has a 60 thread warp. 58 thread fill, with 450 yarns warp and fill and a thickness of 004 inch “The Style 120 for Kevlar and fiberglass, and the SK-70-PW for carbon/graphite, are tight weaves and are resistant to, moisture penetration. Because of this, they are often found in the construction of honeycomb panel structures, ‘The eight harness and crowfoot satn weaves are looser weaves and drape easily around contours. The 1K-50-5H carbon/araphiie weave Is a thin fabric with good draping characteristics, however, because of its expense, It 18 seldom used. Each type of material (Kevlar, fiberglass, carbon /graphite) can be found in various weaves. Make sure you are using the correct type of material (Kevlar, carbon/graphite. oF fiberglass). and in the proper form (bidirectional, unidirec- « ional, mats}, and in the proper weight and weave for each application. These will be listed in the structural repair manual. SPECIFICATION Fiberglass Fabvic, Style 7781 Carbon'Graphite Fabric, Style S64 ‘Aramid Fabric, Style 285 ‘As an option, Fiberglass Style 778% ‘Figure 2-12. The structural repair manual will give the style of tabric required for repalr work. 29oC PEPE TES FILES CARBONIGRAPHITE Figure 2-13. Inireply Tee sor oars a types of reinforcing {fibers woverrtogether to produce cloth. *\oenatass Figure 2-14. Interply ee. rgeeate ner, FIBERGLASS layers of different ralnforcing meteris! CARBONIGRAPHITE — which are laminated r. Each layor different material FigeRcLASS— \ \ CARBONIGRAPHITE — 30 |{ I ' Hybrids Intraply Hybrid Interply Hybrid Gelective Placement Figure 2-15. This 1Baam may use carb- on/graphite where stifiness Is desired, and blends a fiberglass to reduce the cost of the struc- ture. ‘Amanufacturer can design a part by using different types of ber combinations hybrid) to tailor a part for strength or to reduce cost, This can be done in a number of ways. ‘The different materials are combined to give the charac- teristics of cach different fiber. For example, Kevlar may be combined with carbon/graphite to produce a structure that combines the flexibility of Kevlar with the stifiness of carbon/graphite, Another example would be a combina- tion of Kevlar and fiberglass to produce a less expensive high-strength material. There are three commonly used. Kinds of hybrid structures used in aviation today: Invraply hybrids utile reinforcing material that is woven. from two or more different fibers. The strength of the final structure can be designed based on the proportions of each fiber used. ‘An tnterply hybrid uses two or more layers of different reinforcing material which are laminated together. Each layer, in addition to being a different material, may be used in the form of unidirectional or bidirectional fabric. Fibers may be selectively placed to give greater strength, flexibility or reduced cost. The I-beam shown in figure 2-15 may use carbon/graphite where stiffness is desired. and blends in fiberglass to reduce the cost of the structure sa selective placement. 31 9 NO O00) Oo q 4 coeeooo0on90 Sy« IAI up i « TW EW * Pid PFE EEE EE ET ETT [i | When a part is manufactured, the designer can decide on the fiber science, or the placing of the fibers. to produce the greatest strength for a specific stress. He can also use different types of fibers together as a hybrid to develop the characteristics of different fiber materials, or he may elect, tousea core structure. Asa result, each different designer of different aircrafts will have different types of combina- tions of fibers to customize a part for a specific aircraft. Each aircraft part is made differently as opposed toa sheet ‘metal component which are all typically the same type of material throughout the structure, or possibly throughout the entire atreraft skin.