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Defence Technology 11 (2015) 308e317
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Effect of welding processes on mechanical and microstructural

characteristics of high strength low alloy naval grade steel joints
S. RAGU NATHAN a,*, V. BALASUBRAMANIAN b,1, S. MALARVIZHI b,2, A.G. RAO c,3
a
Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, 608 002, India
b
Centre for Materials Joining & Research (CEMAJOR), Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, 608 002, Tamil
Nadu, India
c
Naval Materials Research Laboratory (NMRL), Ambernath, Mumbai, 421 506, Maharastra, India
Received 19 May 2015; revised 8 June 2015; accepted 9 June 2015
Available online 30 June 2015

Abstract

Naval grade high strength low alloy (HSLA) steels can be easily welded by all types of fusion welding processes. However, fusion welding of
these steels leads to the problems such as cold cracking, residual stress, distortion and fatigue damage. These problems can be eliminated by
solid state welding process such as friction stir welding (FSW). In this investigation, a comparative evaluation of mechanical (tensile, impact,
hardness) properties and microstructural features of shielded metal arc (SMA), gas metal arc (GMA) and friction stir welded (FSW) naval grade
HSLA steel joints was carried out. It was found that the use of FSW process eliminated the problems related to fusion welding processes and also
resulted in the superior mechanical properties compared to GMA and SMA welded joints.
Copyright 2015, China Ordnance Society. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: High strength low alloy steel; Friction stir welding; Shielded metal arc welding; Gas metal arc welding; Tensile properties; Impact toughness

1. Introduction properties, such as high strength, excellent ductility, and good

High strength low alloy (HSLA) steels were primarily
developed to replace low-carbon steels for the automotive
industry in order to improve the strength-to-weight ratio and
meet the need for higher-strength construction grade materials.
When high strength steel is welded, non-uniform heating and
cooling in weld metal and base metal generate harder heat
affected zone (HAZ), cold crack susceptibility and residual
stress in weldments. HSLA steels demonstrate unique
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 91 04144 239734, 91 97150 64464 (mo-
bile); fax: 91 04144 238275.
E-mail addresses: ragucemajor@gmail.com (S. RAGU NATHAN),
visvabalu@yahoo.com (V. BALASUBRAMANIAN), jeejoo@gmail.com (S.
MALARVIZHI), gouravdrdo@gmail.com (A.G. RAO).
Peer review under responsibility of China Ordnance Society.
1
Tel.: 91 9443412249 (mobile).
2
Tel.: 91 9487691742 (mobile).
3
Tel.: 91 94215 40891 (mobile).
weldability, and also exhibit outstanding low temperature
impact toughness superior to that of high yield strength (HY)
steels. HSLA steels have much improved weldability
compared to HY steels [1]. Now-a-days, the micro-alloyed or
HSLA steels become an indispensable class for different ap-
plications like construction of large ships, oil and gas trans-
mission lines, offshore oil drilling platforms, pressure vessels,
building construction, bridges, storage tanks.
DMR-249A is a low carbon micro-alloyed high strength
low alloy (HSLA) steel, which is far superior grade compared
to the numerous grades which have been in use for naval
applications like construction of warships. Obviously,
DMR249A demands weld metal with superior properties
compatible with its own, i.e., a combination of high strength
and high toughness. This is due to its composition that consists
of 0.001e0.1wt% of alloying elements such as V or Ti [2]. An
acicular ferrite in weld metals and wrought steels has pre-
dominant one owing to its combination of high strength and

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dt.2015.06.001
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 S. RAGU NATHAN et al. / Defence Technology 11 (2015) 308e317 309

high toughness [2,4,5], thus this steel has designed to have a

ferrite microstructure with small amount of pearlite less than
10% by volume [2,3].
In these grade steels, the heat affected zone (HAZ) is prone
to failure due to the possibility of hydrogen induced cracking
and only way to weld such steels is to use low hydrogen
ferritic steel filler wire [6]. Charpy impact fracture of HSLA
steel was improved by intercritical heat treatment which en-
hances the microstructure through the formation of ferrite
microstructure with various morphologies, irregular martensite
and 75% of microstructure with high angle grain boundaries
[7]. The resistance to hydrogen-induced cracking and stress
corrosion cracking was improved by coarse grain heat affected
zone which consists of martensite-austenite constituents, thus
showing the importance of reduction in carbon content of
these steels [8].
Friction stir welding (FSW) is a novel solid state joining
technique that is presently attracting significant attention on
welding of hard metals such as steel and titanium [9e11].
FSW has appeared as an easy, ecological and promising pro-
ductive welding method that reduces material waste and
avoids radiation and harmful gas emissions, usually associated
with the fusion welding processes. Mechanical action in the
Fig. 1. Experimental details (unit:mm).
form of frictional stirring on the base material has modified the
microstructure from the coarse grains to very fine grains due to
plastic deformation and fast cooling rate [12e14]. Welding of Ltd. The basic classification of Mn and Ni base E 8018-C1
steels is affected by both the temperature and composition with nominal composition of 0.06% C, 1.8% Mn and 2.5% Ni
which extensively affects the microstructure evolution. Fric- electrode was used to weld the naval grade steels. The welding
tion stir welding enables us to control these factors and pro- conditions and parameters used to fabricate the defect free
duce superior joint strength [1]. Much of the tool degradation joints are presented in Tables 2 and 3.
may be attributed to the high heat (temperature around ASTM E8M-04 guidelines were followed for preparing the
1200  C) and the stresses generated during friction stir tensile test specimens. 100 kN electromechanical controlled
welding of the high strength materials. However, the devel- universal testing machine (Make: FIE Bluestar, India; Model:
opment of the wear resistant tool materials has benefited the UNITEK-94100) was used to evaluate the tensile properties.
FSW process and paved way for the rapid implementation of In each condition, three specimens were tested and the average
this process in the fabrication of high strength steel structures value was presented. Charpy impact specimens were prepared
[15,16]. The present investigation is to study the feasibility of to evaluate the impact toughness of the weld metal and hence
friction stir welding of naval grade HSLA steel and compare the notch was placed (machined) in the weld metal (weld
the mechanical properties and metallurgical characteristics of center). Since the plate thickness was small, the sub-size
FSW joints with the fusion welded (SMA and GMA welded) specimens were prepared. Impact testing was conducted on a
joints. pendulum-type impact testing machine (Enkay, India) at room
temperature. The amount of energy absorbed in fracture was
2. Experimental details recorded. The absorbed energy is defined as the impact
toughness of the material.
The rolled plates of naval grade HSLA steel with thickness Vicker's microhardness tester (Make: Shimadzu, Japan and
of 5 mm were cut to the required dimensions Model: HMV-2T) was used for measuring the hardness dis-
(100 mm  150 mm) by abrasive cutting to prepare the joint tribution across the welded joint along with mid thickness
configurations, as shown in Fig. 1(a) and (b). The chemical region with a load of 0.5 N. The specimen for metallographic
composition of parent metal is presented in Table 1. The examination was sectioned to the required size from the joint
microstructure of parent metal (Fig. 2(a) and (b)) is composed comprising weld metal, HAZ (heat-affected zone), and base
of ferrite with small amount of pearlite. A non-consumable metal regions, and polished using different grades of emery
rotating tool made of tungsten base alloy was used to fabri- papers. Final polishing was done using the diamond com-
cate FSW joints. The tool was manufactured through powder pound (particle size of 1 mm) on the disc polishing machine.
metallurgy route having a shoulder diameter of 25 mm and a The specimens were etched with 2% of Nital solution to reveal
tapered pin, tapering from 12 mm at the shoulder to 8 mm at the microstructural features of joints. Microstructural exami-
the pin tip. The electrode for SMAW and filler wire for nation was carried out using an optical microscope (Make:
GMAW processes were supplied by Honavar Electrodes Pvt. MEJI, Japan; Model: MIL-7100) incorporated with an image
310 S. RAGU NATHAN et al. / Defence Technology 11 (2015) 308e317

Table 1
Chemical composition (wt.%) of parent metal.
C Mn N Si Mo Ti V Nb Ni Cu Al W
0.08 1.42 0.015 0.19 0.02 0.016 0.032 0.035 0.69 0.126 0.032 0.04

Table 3
SMA and GMA welding conditions and parameters.
Parameter SMAW GMAW
Filler metal (electrode) E 8018-C1 as per SFA 5.5
Filler diameter/mm 4 1.2
Current/A 152 255
Voltage/V 25 30
Welding speed/(mm$min1) 153 300
Electrode Baking temperature/ C 300 e
CO2 gas flow rate/(L$min1) e 12
Heat input/(kJ$mm1) 1.489 1.530

of parent metal was 438 MPa and 610 MPa, respectively. But the
yield strength and tensile strength of FSW joint are 502 MPa and
664 MPa, respectively. Similarly, the yield strength and tensile
strength of SMAW joint are 473 MPa and 578 MPa, respectively,
which are 5.2% lower than those of parent metal. However, the
yield strength and tensile strength of GMAW joint are 485 MPa
and 580 MPa, respectively, which are 5.1% lower than those of
parent metal. Of the three welded joints, the joints fabricated by
FSW process exhibited higher strength values. Percentage of
elongation of parent metal is 29%, whereas the percentage of
elongation of GMAW joint is 22%. This suggests that there is a
24% decrement in ductility due to GMAW process. Similarly,
the percentages of elongation of FSW and SMAW joints are
19%, which are 35% lower that those of the parent metal. Of the
three types of welded joints, the joints fabricated by GMAW
Fig. 2. Micrographs of parent metal. exhibited higher ductility values compared to FSW and SMAW
joints. The stress (load) -displacement curves of parent metal and
welded joints are shown in Fig. 3.
analyzing software (Metal Vision). Field-emission scanning
Charpy impact toughness test results are presented in Table
electron microscopy (FESEM, make: ZEISS) was also used to
4. The impact toughness of parent metal is 78 J at room
characterize the weld metal microstructure.
temperature. When the weld metal is welded by FSW process,
it exhibits 48 J, which is 38% lower than that of the parent
3. Results
metal. The lowest impact strength is showed by the joint
fabricated by FSW process compared to SMAW (62 J) and
3.1. Tensile and impact toughness properties
GMAW (69 J) joints. The fusion welded joints (SMAW and
GMAW) exhibits higher yield strength, lower tensile strength,
The tensile properties of the parent metal and welded joints
and decreased elongation and reduced toughness t. FSW joint
are presented in Table 4. The yield strength and tensile strength
shows higher yield and tensile strength, lower elongation and
toughness.
Table 2
FSW conditions and welding parameters.
3.2. Macrostructure
Process parameters Values
Rotational speed/rpm 600 The cross-sectional macrographs of the weld joints are
Welding speed/(mm$min1) 30
displayed in Fig. 4. All the three joints are free from macro-
Axial force/kN 15
D/T ratio of tool 5 level defects. The cross-section of FSW joint appears like
Tool shoulder diameter/mm 25 basin-shape (Fig. 4(a)). It comprises of advancing side heat
Pin length/mm 4 affected zone (ASHAZ), advancing side thermo-mechanically
Tool inclined angle/( ) 0 affected zone (ASTMAZ), stir zone (SZ), retreating side
Heat input/(kJ$mm1) 1.056
thermo-mechanically affected zone (RSTMAZ), retreating
 S. RAGU NATHAN et al. / Defence Technology 11 (2015) 308e317 311

Table 4
Mechanical properties of the parent metal and welded joints.
Joint 0.2% Offset yield Tensile strength/MPa Elongation in Impact toughness Hardness of weld Fracture location
strength/MPa 25 mm gauge @ RT/J metal @ 0.5 N load/HV
length/%
PM 438 610 29 78 270 Center
FSW 502 664 19 48 410 ASHAZ
SMAW 473 578 19 62 315 PM
GMAW 485 580 22 69 304 PM

side heat affected zone (RSHAZ), weld metal (SZ), heat
affected zone (HAZ) in the FSW macrostructures. The mac-
rograph of SMAW and GMAW joints reveal weld center line
(WCL), coarse grain heat affected zone (CGHAZ) and fine
grain heat affected zone (FGHAZ). In SMAW process, the
resultant bead structure was a coarser one due to high heat
input leading to the slower cooling rate. The wider arc column
is also a reason for this wide FZ (Fig. 4(b)). In GMAW pro-
cess, the energy density is comparatively higher than that in
SMAW process. The high self-quenching rates that are asso-
ciated with this process certainly promote the fast cooling
rates. This could be attributed to this narrow FZ (Fig. 4(c)).
Fig. 5 shows the hardness variations across the weld. The
hardness of the as-received parent metal is approximately
270 HV. The hardness of stir zone varies from 300 HV to
410 HV, depending on the grain size and phases sampled from

Fig. 3. Load vs displacement curves of PM and welded joints.

Fig. 5. Microhardness survey across the cross-section of the welded joints.

Fig. 4. Macrographs of weld cross-section 3.3 Microhardness. (LHDR: Lowest hardness distribution region).
312 S. RAGU NATHAN et al. / Defence Technology 11 (2015) 308e317
each indentation. The microhardness of weld metal regions of
SMAW and GMAW joints varies from 300 HV to 320 HV,
depending on the grain size and phases sampled from each
indentation. Hardness is found to be very high in HAZ of
SMAW and GMAW joints. The failure location of the welded
joints is consistent with hardness distribution profile. The
failure occurred in all the joints along the lowest hardness
distribution region (LHDR).
3.3. Microstructure
Fig. 6 shows the microstructures of the various regions of
FSW, SMAW and GMAW joints. Since the intensities of heat
and mechanical actions are more in TMAZ and SZ, both
advancing side (AS) and retreating side (RS) of the FSW joint,
the microstructural fruition in these zones is considered to be
discussed initially. The SEM micrograph of weld metal region
is shown in Fig. 7. The high magnification SEM image clearly
shows that FSW joint consists of upper bainite and acicular
ferrite throughout the stir zone whereas the SMA and GMA
weld metal consists of acicular ferrite and martensite. There is
an appreciable morphology difference in the formation of
acicular ferrite in both SMA and GMA weld metals.
Fig. 6. Optical micrographs of various regions of welded steel joints.
3.4. Fracture surface analysis
The fractured surfaces of the tensile and impact tested
specimens of parent metal and welded joints were analyzed
using a scanning electron microscope. The fractographs of
tensile and impact specimens are displayed in Figs. 8 and 9.
The modes of failure of the tensile tested parent metal and
welded joints are ductile with acceptable plastic deformation
and are evident from the fracture location and fractured sur-
face shown in the Fig. 8(a)e(l). No brittle cleavage fracture
was found in any of the tensile tested fractographs presented at
high magnification in the Fig. 8 (c), (f), (i) and (l). However,
an appreciable difference in fracture pattern was found. Fine
and secondary dimples are the key features of superior tensile
strength of FSW joint compared to other fusion weld joints
and parent metal. A substantial dissimilarity in size and
alignment of the dimples in the fracture surface of FSW joint
(Fig. 8(f)) is observed with respect to parent metal and other
joints (Fig. 8(c), (i) and (l)). Variation in size of the dimples
and presence of voids (Fig. 8(i)) show that the ductile fracture
occurred with considerable reduction in tensile strength of
SMAW joint. Also the numerous micro-pores were observed,
which may be the reason for attaining reduced tensile strength
 S. RAGU NATHAN et al. / Defence Technology 11 (2015) 308e317
Fig. 7. SEM micrographs of weld metal region.
with respect to parent metal and other (FSW & GMAW)
joints. In Fig. 8(l), the entire surface shows a coarse and
elongated dimple fracture which may be ruptured in ductile
shear. The elongated cavities and coarse dimples suggesting
localized slip which in turn results in more ductility without
reducing the tensile strength of GMAW joint.
The scanned images and fractographs of fracture surface of
charpy v-notch impact tested specimens are shown in
Fig. 9(a)e(l). At higher magnification, few secondary dimples
can be observed at the lip of the dimples. This could be the
reason for high impact strength of the parent metal (Fig. 9(c)).
Scanned image of FSW joint depicts the type of brittle frac-
ture. However, fracture morphology consists of cleavage facets
which are characterized by the depth size of the dimple in the
fracture surface can be clearly seen in Fig. 9(f). The size
variation of dimples and the presence of micro-pores and
secondary cracks (Fig. 9(i)) might be the reason for the drop of
impact energy absorption of SMAW joint compared with the
parent metal and GMAW joint. At higher magnification the
presence of finer dimples and the secondary dimples are evi-
denced (Fig. 9(l)). This might be the reason for the higher
impact energy absorption for the GMAW joint. The dimple
size exhibits a directly proportional relationship with the
313
strength and ductility, i.e., if the dimple size is finer, the
strength and ductility of the respective joint are higher and
vice versa [6,17].
4. Discussion
4.1. Effects of welding processes on microstructure
The weld metal microstructure of fusion welded joints is
greatly influenced by the chemical composition of filler metal
and the heat input of the process. In general, higher heat input
leads to slower cooling rate which results in he coarse grains in
weld metal [18]. However, lower heat input leads to fast
cooling rate which results in fine microstructure. Though the
lower heat input can produce finer grains compared to higher
heat input, the intrinsic nature of the process also plays major
role in refining the weld metal microstructure. Of the three
processes used in this investigation, the FSW process supplies
lower heat input (1.05 kJ/mm) to the weld region compared to
SMAW and GMAW processes which supply 1.493 kJ/mm and
1.530 kJ/mm, respectively. While the fast cooling rate (i.e.,
lower heat input) and mechanical action for refining micro-
structure process are coupled, the formation of upper bainite
with small amount of acicular ferrite is possible. This could be
one of the reasons that FSW joint consists of upper bainite
grains in the stir zone (Fig. 6(b) and Fig. 7(a)). Due to low heat
generation in SZ, TMAZ and HAZ (Fig. 6(a) and (g)) the
characteristics are also better than those of other fusion welded
joints (Fig. 6(b), (h), (c) and (i)). This may be due to unique
weld metal characteristics and similar thermal properties of
SZ, TMAZ, HAZ and PM [19].
Owing to higher heat input, phase transformation occurred
in the SMAW and GMAW weld metals. Parent metal micro-
structure (ferrite and small amount of pearlite) was trans-
formed into acicular ferrite, small amount of retained austenite
and martensite by heat input and chemical composition. Var-
iations in filler metal and parent metal chemical composition
lead to the thermal variations in weld metal and parent metal
as well as the solidification of weld metal. Slow cooling rate
may reduce the interfacial energy between the austenite and
ferrite, which results in formation of acicular ferrite. An
acicular ferrite microstructure has the potential of combining
high strength and high toughness [2]. Microstructural stability
is more in acicular ferrite compared to bainite in higher tem-
peratures [20]. Due to high heat input and intensity of GMAW
process, the coarse grains in weld metal and HAZ (Fig. 7(c))
were formed. The relatively slow cooling rate of GMAW
process led to the formation of martensite and acicular ferrite
with some retained austenite in weld metal region. Moreover,
filler metal addition also play vital role in weld metal micro-
structure. It is not possible to produce homogeneous weld
metal by fusion welding processes.
4.2. Effects of welding processes on tensile properties
The weld metal is comparatively stronger, and the joint
properties are controlled by weld metal chemical composition
314 S. RAGU NATHAN et al. / Defence Technology 11 (2015) 308e317

Fig. 8. SEM fractographs of tensile specimens.

and microstructure. The strong carbide/nitride forming ele-
ments, like Nb, Ti, V, etc., have very limited solubility in
ferrite and austenite, and normally the precipitates act as fine
dispersion of carbides, nitrides and/or carbonitrides and
contribute to strength due to precipitation hardening [21]. This
could be the reason that the yield strengths of all the joints
increase compared to the yield strength of the parent metal.
The yield point elongation is attributed to the interaction of
solute atoms and moving dislocations [22].
Due to filler metal addition and high heat input, the quite
increase in molybdenum and nickel may result in formation of
ferrite with martensite and retained austenite. This indicates
that there is a 5% reduction in the strength values of fusion
weld joints compared to parent metal due to an increase in
prior-austenite grain size in reheated and isothermally held
specimens [17]. Variation of ductility with microstructure and
chemical composition is more complex. In general, all factors,
except for grain size, which increase the strength would
decrease the ductility. Also the ductility is severely affected by
the presence of MnS inclusion in steels and varies with size,
shape and volume fraction. The inclusions act as stress raisers,
and the cracks easily initiate at the inclusion, either due to
 S. RAGU NATHAN et al. / Defence Technology 11 (2015) 308e317 315

Fig. 9. SEM fractographs of impact specimens.

cracking of inclusions or decohession of inclusion and matrix
[23]. Thus in all the cases, the nucleation of acicular ferrite is
that a Mn depletion zone is formed around inclusions due to
MnS precipitations on Ti2O3 which may lead to the reduction
of the ductility of joint compared to parent metal.
In the case of FSW, the material is severely plastically
deformed due to the stirring action of the pin tool, resulting in
a fine grain structure. Dynamic recrystallization is a phe-
nomena occurring during the material movement in FSW.
Fig. 3 illustrates the effects of different welding processes on
strength and ductility. The loadedisplacement graph clearly
indicates that the strength of FSW specimen is 8% more than
that of base metal [24]. The increased strength is attributed to
the fine grain microstructure consisting of acicular, upper
316 S. RAGU NATHAN et al. / Defence Technology 11 (2015) 308e317
bainite and small cluster of martensite regions. Although the
formation of martensite increases the strength, it decreases the
ductility and toughness. The fractograph in Fig. 9(e) shows the
brittle cleavage fracture features, thereby confirming the
presence of martensite in the FSW stir zone microstructure.
Also, the elongated spherical inclusions of MnS may also be
an important factor in reducing the ductility. High angle grain
boundaries (>10 ) result in enhancement of strength [2]. This
is because the plates of acicular ferrite nucleate intragranularly
on non-metallic inclusions within large austenite grains, and
then radiate in many different orientations from those in-
clusions whilst maintaining an orientation relationship with
the austenite [2e4]. However, the misorientation angle be-
tween the grains could be the key feature in increasing the
yield strength and tensile strength compared to parent metal.
4.3. Effects of welding processes on impact toughness
properties
Charpy V-notch impact toughness of parent metal is 78 J at
room temperature, whereas the impact toughness of FSW joint
exhibits 48 J which is 38% lower than that of parent metal.
The higher impact strength was achieved by joint fabricated by
GMAW process compared to FSW and SMAW processes. The
increased percentage of bainite leads to an enhancement of
tensile properties, and the presence of small cluster of
martensite is detrimental to impact toughness [25]. The pres-
ence of precipitate carbides raises the impact transition tem-
perature and lowers the charpy shelf energy. The impact
strength of upper bainite adversely affected by the presence of
cementite as thin film at the lath boundaries of bainite in-
creases the presence of martensite which does not contribute to
the strength but lowers the toughness [26]. This could be the
reason for reduction in toughness of FSW joint with respect to
parent metal as well as fusion weld joints.
In the case of fusion welds, GMAW joint exhibited higher
impact toughness than SMAW joint due to slower cooling rate.
The formation of acicular ferrite with high angle grain
boundaries and the parallel stacking of ferrite and carbides
(Fig. 7(c)) arranged in the packets could make the propagation
path of critical crack pass through an acicular ferrite micro-
structure, thereby leading to an improvement in toughness
without compromising strength [2,3,10]. However, the reduced
toughness of the fusion zone in SMAW joint compared to
GMAW joint with respect to parent metal is attributed to the
presence of retained austenite in the martensite microstructure
which leads to void the formation in the austenite during
deformation [27].
4.4. Effects of welding processes on hardness
The post weld microstructure of SZ consists of shear
transformed bainitic ferrite with carbides and acicular
ferrite, which could be the reason for higher hardness
values. The microhardness values are less significant in
affecting the mechanical properties because the inherent
nature of the tool rotational speed has more influencing
factors over the hardness values [28]. Also the SZ micro-
structure formed at peak temperature with highly strain-
induced area and localized fast cooling rate to room tem-
perature occurred during FSW and subsequent trans-
formation to a completely upper bainite and lath bainitic
microstructure are the major contributors of the hardest stir
zone in the FSW joint weld zone.
From Fig. 5(b) and (c), it could be understood that the
lower hardness of GMAW and SMAW joints were recorded,
and the raising of hardness value towards the CGHAZ and
FGHAZ is due to the presence of coarse distorted micro-
structure invariably in weld metal compared to fine and coarse
grain heat affected zone. The hardness profiles (Fig. 5(b) and
(c)) of the welded joints are in agreement with the resultant
strength properties at the highest and intermediate strength
levels, respectively. The higher hardness was found in the area
where the prior-austenite grain size was relatively smaller than
that closer to the fusion line [8] and also the higher hardness
conforming the micro-segregation of the major alloying ele-
ments in these regions [21].
5. Conclusions
In this investigation, an attempt was made to study the
effects of welding processes by evaluating the weld metal
microstructure and mechanical properties of naval grade high
strength low alloy (HSLA) steel joints. From this investiga-
tion, the following important conclusions are derived:
1) Of the three welded joints, the joint fabricated by FSW
process exhibited higher strength values, and the
enhancement in strength value is approximately 13% due
to grain refinement in SZ, unique weld metal composition
and strain-induced deformation during FSW.
2) Of the three joints, the joint fabricated using GMAW
exhibited 28% and 10% higher impact toughness,
respectively, compared to the joints fabricated by FSW and
SMAW processes. The presence of martensite-austenite
(M-A) constituents and the ferrite laths in bainitic matrix
in the weld zone microstructure are the key reasons for
enhancement of toughness properties.
3) Hardness of FSW joint (410 HV) is higher in the stir zone
compared to the HAZ and BM regions. The lower hard-
nesses of the SMAW joints (315 HV) and GMAW joints
(304 HV) were recorded. This is due to severe plastic
deformation and continuous dynamic recrystallization
occurred in the stir zone and localized heating and fast
cooling rate of the FSW process contributed to higher
hardness in the stir zone.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to The Director, Naval Material
Research Laboratory (NMRL), Ambernath for financial sup-
port through CARS project No: G8/15250/2011 dated
29.02.2012 and providing base material for this investigation.
 S. RAGU NATHAN et al. / Defence Technology 11 (2015) 308e317
Also the authors are grateful to Dr. A.K.Lakshminarayanan,
Associate Professor, SSN College of Engineering, Chennai,
India for his valuable suggestions, guidance and discussion to
carry out this investigation.
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