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Unit Outline
17.1
17.2
17.3
AcidBase Reactions
Buffers
AcidBase Titrations
Advanced AcidBase
Equilibria
In This Unit
We will now expand the introductory coverage of acidbase equilibria
and explore the chemistry of more complicated aqueous solutions con-
taining acids and bases. First, we will address the different types of
acidbase reactions, and then we will move on to study buffer solutions,
acidbase titrations, and polyprotic acids. One of the more important
types of acidbase solutions in terms of commercial and biological ap-
plications is buffers because they allow us to control the pH of a solution.
So that you can get a feeling for the importance of buffers in your world,
we will also briefly discuss the chemistry of two important buffers in bio-
logical systems. In Precipitation and Lewis AcidBase Equilibria (Unit 18),
we will conclude our coverage of chemical equilibria with Lewis acids
and bases and the equilibria of sparingly soluble compounds.
Vasilyev/Shutterstock.com
18995_ch17_rev01.indd 553 6/3/14 6:29 PM
17.1 AcidBase Reactions
17.1a Strong Acid/Strong Base Reactions
In Chemical Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry (Unit 4) you learned that acids and
bases react to form water and a salt and that these reactions are called neutralization reac-
tions because, on completion of the reaction, the solution is neutral. However, acidbase
reactions do not always result in the formation of a solution with a neutral pH, and not all
acid-base reactions proceed to 100% completion (Interactive Figure 17.1.1).
0% 100%
0% 100%
0% 100%
There are four classes of acidbase reactions: strong acid + strong base, strong acid +
weak base, weak acid + strong base, and weak acid + weak base. For each, we will inves-
tigate the extent of the reaction and the pH of the resulting solution when equimolar
amounts of reactants are combined.
The reaction between a strong acid and a strong base produces water and a salt (an ionic
compound consisting of the cation from the strong base and the anion from the strong acid):
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) S H2O() + NaCl(aq)
acid base water salt
The net ionic equation for any reaction between a strong acid and a strong base is the
reverse of the Kw reaction.
Complete ionic equation:
H3O+(aq) + Cl(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH(aq) S 2 H2O() + Na+(aq) + Cl(aq)
Net ionic equation:
H3O+(aq) + OH(aq) S 2 H2O() K = 1/Kw = 1.0 1014
The large value of K for this reaction indicates that in a strong acid + strong base reaction,
the reactants are completely consumed to form products. The resulting solution is pH neu-
tral (pH = 7). Notice that a single arrow (S) is used to indicate that the reaction goes
essentially to completion.
Solution:
You are asked to write a net ionic equation for an acidbase reaction and to predict whether
the reaction is reactant- or product-favored and whether the solution is acidic or basic after all
reactants are consumed.
You are given the identity of the acid and the base.
HNO2(aq) + OH(aq) S H2O() + NO2(aq)
HNO2 is a much stronger acid than H2O (and OH is a much stronger base than NO2).
The reaction will favor the formation of the weaker acid and base, so the reaction is product- Video Solution
favored. Reactions between weak acids and strong bases are assumed to be 100% complete.
The pH of the solution is greater than 7 (basic) after all reactants are consumed because of Tutored Practice
the presence of the weak base NO2. Problem 17.1.1
Solution:
You are asked to predict whether an acidbase reaction is reactant- or product-favored and
what the pH of the solution is after the reactants are consumed.
You are given the identity of the acid and the base. Video Solution
HCN(aq) + CH3CO2(aq) CH3CO2H(aq) + CN(aq) Tutored Practice
Acetic acid is a stronger acid than hydrocyanic acid (and the cyanide ion is a stronger base
Problem 17.1.2
than the acetate ion). The equilibrium will favor the weaker acid and base (reactant-favored).
The pH of the solution at equilibrium is controlled by the predominant species in solution,
HCN and CH3CO2. The solution is basic (pH > 7) because Kb(CH3CO2) > Ka(HCN). Section 17.1 Mastery
17.2 Buffers
17.2a Identifying Buffers
Buffers are one of the more important types of acidbase solutions in terms of commercial
and biological applications because they allow us to control the pH of a solution. For ex-
ample, humans are composed of molecules that depend on hydrogen bonding for their
structure and function and are therefore highly sensitive to pH. Most of the reactions in a
17.2b Buffer pH
The common ion effect is the shift in an equilibrium that results from adding to a solution
a chemical species that is common to an existing equilibrium; we can use this to help us
understand the pH of buffer solutions. Consider a solution containing acetic acid, a weak
acid:
CH3CO2H(aq) + H2O() H3O+(aq) + CH3CO2(aq)
The addition of sodium acetate, a source of the weak base CH3CO2, shifts the equilib-
rium to the left, suppressing the acid hydrolysis (the forward reaction) and increasing the
pH. The following example problem demonstrates the common ion effect in an acetic acid/
sodium acetate buffer solution.
Solution:
You are asked to calculate the pH of a weak acid solution before and after the addition of its
conjugate base.
You are given the identity of the weak acid and its conjugate base, the volume and concen-
tration of the weak acid, and the amount of conjugate base.
c
Step 3. Set up a new ICE table for the buffer that now includes the concentration of the
common ion, the acetate ion.
0.015 mol CH3CO2
2
3 CH3CO2
2 4 initial 5 5 0.12 M
0.125 L
Solution:
You are asked to calculate the pH of a buffer solution.
You are given the identity of the weak acid and weak base in the buffer and the concentra-
tion of the species in the buffer solution.
Step 1. Write the balanced equation for the acid hydrolysis reaction. In this example the
weak acid is the ammonium ion.
NH4+(aq) + H2O() H3O+(aq) + NH3(aq)
Step 2. Set up an ICE table for the buffer solution.
We can rewrite this equation in terms of pH and pKa by taking the negative logarithm of
both sides.
3 weak acid 4
2log 3 H3O 1 4 5 2logaKa b
3 conjugate base 4
3 weak acid 4
2log 3 H3O 1 4 5 2log 1Ka2 1 a2log b
3 conjugate base 4
3 weak acid 4
pH 5 pKa 2log
3 conjugate base 4
3 weak acid 4 3 conjugate base 4
Because a2log b 5 a1 log b,
3 conjugate base 4 3 weak acid 4
3 conjugate base 4
pH 5 pKa 1log (17.1)
3 weak acid 4
Equation 17.1 is the HendersonHasselbalch equation, a very useful form of the Ka
expression that is often used to calculate the pH of buffer solutions. It is important to note
that the HendersonHasselbalch equation is used only for calculations involving buffer solu-
tions. It is not used if a solution contains only a weak acid or only a weak base.
The HendersonHasselbalch equation shows the mathematical relationship between
the weak acid pKa and the pH of a buffer, and that buffer pH can be manipulated by chang-
ing the ratio of [conjugate base] to [weak acid]. Notice that in the special case where [weak
acid] = [conjugate base], the ratio of concentrations is equal to 1 and the pH of the buffer
solution is equal to the weak acid pKa.
When [weak acid] = [conjugate base], pH = pKa + log(1) = pKa + 0 = pKa
Buffer components are chosen based on the relationship between weak acid pKa and
the target pH for the buffer. For the buffer to be effective, it should contain significant
amounts of both weak acid and conjugate base. Effective buffers, those that can best resist
pH change upon addition of a strong acid or base, have a [conjugate base] to [weak acid]
ratio between 1:10 and 10:1. Because log(10/1) = 1, this results in a buffer pH that is
approximately equal to the weak acid pKa 1. This type of buffer solution has a high
Solution:
You are asked to calculate the pH of a buffer solution using the HendersonHasselbalch
equation.
You are given the concentration and identity of the species in the buffer solution.
Step 1. Write the balanced equation for the acid hydrolysis reaction.
H2PO4(aq) + H2O() H3O+(aq) + HPO42(aq)
Step 2. Set up an ICE table for the buffer solution.
Solution:
You are asked to calculate the pH change when a strong acid is added to a buffer solution.
You are given the amount of strong acid, the concentration of the species in the buffer solu-
tion, and the volume of the buffer solution.
Step 1. Write the balanced equation for the acid hydrolysis reaction.
CH3CO2H(aq) + H2O() H3O+(aq) + CH3CO2(aq)
Step 2. Use the HendersonHasselbalch equation to calculate the pH of the buffer solution
before the addition of HCl.
3 CH3CO2
2 4 0.25
pH 5 pKa 1 log 5 2log 11.8 3 10252 1 loga b 5 5.14
3 CH3CO2H 4 0.10
Step 3. Assume that the strong acid reacts completely with the conjugate base. Set up a table
that shows the amount (in moles) of species initially in the solution, the change in amounts of
reactants and products (based on the amount of limiting reactant), and the amounts of reac-
tants and products present after the acidbase reaction is complete.
Step 4. Use the new weak acid and conjugate base concentrations to calculate the buffer pH
after adding strong acid.
0.12 mol 0.23 mol
3 CH3CO2H 4 5 5 0.12 M 3 CH3CO2
2 4 5 5 0.23 M
1.00 L 1.00 L
3 CH3CO2
2 4 0.23
pH 5 pKa 1 log 5 2log 11.8 3 10252 1 loga b 5 5.03
3 CH3CO2H 4 0.12
pH = 5.03 5.14 = 0.11
Video Solution
Is your answer reasonable? Addition of 0.020 mol HCl to the buffer decreases the pH only
slightly, by 0.11 pH units. If the same amount of HCl is added to 1.00 L of water, the pH Tutored Practice
decreases by 5.30 pH units, from a pH of 7.00 to a pH of 1.70. Problem 17.2.5
Direct addition: The correct amounts of the weak acid and conjugate base are added to
water.
Acidbase reaction: For example, a conjugate base is created by reacting a weak acid
with enough strong base to produce a solution containing the cor-
rect weak acid and conjugate base concentrations.
Solution:
You are asked to describe how to prepare a buffer solution with a known pH using the direct
addition method.
You are given the identity and Ka values for three possible weak acid/conjugate base pairs
and the volume and target pH of the buffer solution.
c
Notice that the volume of buffer is cancelled in the ratio. The required amounts of weak acid
and conjugate base are independent of the solution volume, so the volume of a buffer has no
effect on the buffer pH.
Step 3. Determine the amount of weak acid and conjugate base that must be combined to
produce the buffer solution. Mixing 2.9 mol HCO3 and 1.0 mol CO32 (or any multiple of this
ratio) will result in a buffer with a pH of 9.85. Alternately, assuming that each is present in the
form of a sodium salt, combine 240 g NaHCO3 and 110 g Na2CO3 in a flask and add water (to a
total solution volume of 500 mL) to make the buffer solution.
84.0 g
2.9 mol NaHCO3 3 5 240 g NaHCO3
1 mol NaHCO3 Video Solution
106 g Tutored Practice
1.0 mol Na2CO3 3 5 110 g Na2CO3
1 mol Na2CO3 Problem 17.2.6
Solution:
You are asked to describe how to prepare a buffer solution with a known pH using an acid
base reaction.
You are given the identity and Ka values for three possible weak acid/conjugate base pairs,
the concentration of the weak acid and the strong base used to make the buffer, and the
target pH of the buffer solution.
Step 1. Choose a weak acid/conjugate base pair. The acetic acid/acetate ion buffer system is
the best choice here because the desired pH is close to the pKa of the weak acid. Write the
balanced equation for the acid hydrolysis reaction.
CH3CO2H(aq) + H2O() H3O+(aq) + CH3CO2(aq)
Step 2. Determine the necessary weak acid/conjugate base ratio using the rearranged Ka ex-
pression for the weak acid.
(The HendersonHasselbalch equation can also be used to determine the weak acid/conjugate
base ratio.)
[H3O+] = 105.25 = 5.6 106 M
3 CH3CO2H 4 3 CH3CO2H 4
3 H3O 1 4 5 5.6 3 1026 5 Ka 5 11.8 3 10252
3 CH3CO2
2 4 3 CH3CO2
2 4
3 CH3CO2H 4
Notice that volume units (L) are cancelled in the ratio. The required amounts of
3 CH3CO2
2 4
weak acid and conjugate base are independent of the total solution volume, so the volume of a
buffer has no effect on the buffer pH.
Step 3. Determine the amount of weak acid and strong base that must be combined to pro-
duce the buffer. Recall that a strong base will react completely with a weak acid forming water
and the conjugate base of the weak acid. In this case, the weak acid and strong base react in a
1:1 stoichiometric ratio, so
initial amount of weak acid required = amount of weak acid in buffer
+ amount of conjugate base in buffer
initial amount of weak acid required = 0.31 mol + 1.0 mol = 1.31 mol CH3CO2H
The amount of strong base required is determined by the reaction stoichiometry. Set up a
stoichiometry table that shows the amount (in moles) of species initially in the solution, the
change in amounts of reactants and products (based on the amount of limiting reactant), and
the amounts of reactants and products present after the acidbase reaction is complete. In
this case, the stoichiometry table is used to determine the initial amount of reactants needed
to produce a buffer containing 0.31 mol acetic acid and 1.00 mol acetate ion.
The combination of 1.31 mol CH3CO2H with 1.00 mol OH (as NaOH) will produce the buffer
solution.
Step 4. Determine the volume of weak acid and strong base solutions that must be combined
to produce the buffer solution.
1.0 L
1.31 mol CH3CO2H 3 5 2.6 L CH3CO2H solution
0.50 mol CH3CO2H
1.0 L
1.00 mol NaOH 3 5 1.00 L NaOH solution
1.00 mol NaOH
Mix 2.6 L of 0.50 M CH3CO2H with 1.00 L of 1.00 M NaOH to produce a buffer with a pH of
Video Solution
5.25. Note that any ratio of these volumes will produce the buffer with a pH of 5.25. For exam-
ple, combing 1.0 L of 0.50 M CH3CO2H with 0.38 L of 1.00 M NaOH also produces a buffer with Tutored Practice
a pH of 5.25. Problem 17.2.7
Alpha
CH3CO2H(aq) + H2O() H3O (aq) + CH3CO2 (aq)
+
0.40
When the solution is highly acidic, the acid form predominates and very little of the
0.20
mol CH3CO2
2 1.00
aCH3CO22 5
mol CH3CO2H 1 mol CH3CO2
2
0.80
The relationship between pH and solution composition is shown graphically in an Fraction of
Fraction of
alpha (a) plot, a plot of solution composition (a) versus pH. The alpha plot for the acetic NH4+
0.60 NH3
acid/acetate ion buffer system shown in Interactive Figure 17.2.1 has the following
Alpha
features: 0.40
When the solution pH is more than about 2 pH units below pKa (4.74), the solution
0.20
As shown in the following example problem, we can use solution stoichiometry to cal- 12
culate the pH at four different points of a strong acid/strong base titration. In some of these 10
calculations we will again use a stoichiometry table to assist us in keeping track of the initial
8
amounts of reactants and the amounts of reactants and products in the solution after a
pH
reaction takes place. Note that a stoichiometry table is different from an ICE table, which 6
is used to keep track of changes that occur in an equilibrium system. 4
Solution: 12
You are asked to calculate the pH at four different points in a strong acid/strong base 10
titration.
8
You are given the volume and concentration of the strong acid and the concentration of the
pH
strong base. 6
Write the balanced net ionic equation for the acidbase reaction. 4
H3O+(aq) + OH(aq) S 2 H2O()
pH
6 solution
pOH = log(0.014) = 1.85
pH = 14.000 1.85 = 12.15 4
Buffer solution
Solution:
You are asked to calculate the pH at five different points of a weak acid/strong base titration.
You are given the volume and concentration of the weak acid and the concentration of the
strong base.
Write the balanced net ionic equation for the acidbase reaction.
C6H5CO2H(aq) + OH(aq) S H2O() + C6H5CO2(aq)
c
0.00550 mol
Concentration after reaction (M) 3 C6H5CO2H 4 5 5 0.0579 M
0.0950 L
0.00200 mol
3 C6H5CO22 4 5 5 0.0211 M
0.0950 L
Use the rearranged Ka expression (or the HendersonHasselbalch equation) to calculate pH.
3 C6H5CO2H 4 0.0579
3 H3O 1 4 5 Ka 5 6.3 3 1025 a b 5 1.7 3 1024 M
3 C6H5CO2
2 4 0.0211
pH = 3.76
c. The half-equivalence point, the titration midpoint, is reached when half the amount of
strong base required to reach the equivalence point has been added to the weak acid solu-
tion and, as a result, half of the weak acid originally in the flask has been consumed. In this
example the midpoint in the titration is when 37.5 mL of NaOH is added to the solution.
mol CH3CO2H = (0.0750 L)(0.100 mol/L) = 0.00750 mol CH3CO2H
mol OH = (0.0375 L)(0.100 mol/L) = 0.00375 mol OH
total volume of solution = 75.0 mL + 37.5 mL = 112.5 mL
c
0.00750 mol
Concentration after reaction (M) 3 C6H5CO22 4 5 5 0.0500 M
0.1500 L
C6H5CO2(aq) + H2O() C6H5CO2H(aq) + OH(aq)
Kw 1.00 3 10214
Kb 1C6H5CO22 2 5 5 5 1.6 3 10210
Ka 6.3 3 1025
2 4 0 5 " 11.6 3 10
3 OH2 4 5 "Kb 3 3 C6H5CO2 210
2 10.05002 5 2.8 3 1026 M
pOH = log(2.8 106) = 5.55
pH = 14.00 pOH = 8.45
c
0.00250 mol
Concentration after reaction (M) 3 OH2 4 5 5 0.0143 M
0.1750 L Video Solution
pOH = log(0.0143) = 1.845
Tutored Practice
pH = 14.000 1.845 = 12.155 Problem 17.3.2
The shape of the titration plot for an ammonia/hydrochloric acid titration (Interactive Interactive Figure 17.3.4
Figure 17.3.4) is very similar to that of a weak acid/strong base titration plot. The pH plot for Explore a weak base/strong acid pH
the titration of a weak base with a strong acid has four regions of interest: titration plot.
1. The initial pH is greater than 7 because the solution contains a base.
14
2. As the strong acid is added, the pH drops sharply and then decreases gradually until
12
the equivalence point is reached. This is the buffer region of the titration, where
the solution contains a weak acid and its conjugate base. At the midpoint of this 10
region, half of the base originally present in the flask has been consumed and the half- 8
equivalence point, also called the titration midpoint, is reached. As shown in the
pH
6
example problem that follows, at this point in the titration, the solution pOH is equal
to the weak base pKb. 4
Solution:
You are asked to calculate the pH at five different points in a weak base/strong acid titration.
You are given the concentration and volume of the weak base and the concentration of the
strong acid.
Write the balanced net ionic equation for the acidbase reaction.
NH3(aq) + H3O+(aq) S H2O() + NH4+(aq)
a. Ammonia is a weak base, and the pH of the solution is calculated using methods introduced
in Acids and Bases (Unit 16):
3 OH2 4 5 "Kb 3 3 NH3 4 0 5 " 11.8 3 10252 10.1002 5 0.0013 M
pOH = log(0.0013) = 2.87
pH = 14.00 pOH = 11.13
b. Before the equivalence point, all HCl is consumed by excess weak base. First consider the
stoichiometry of the acidbase reaction; then, because the solution contains a buffer, calcu-
late pH using the rearranged Ka expression or the HendersonHasselbalch equation.
mol NH3 = (0.0750 L)(0.100 mol/L) = 0.00750 mol NH3
mol H3O+ = (0.0200 L)(0.100 mol/L) = 0.00200 mol H3O+
total volume of solution = 75.0 mL + 20.0 mL = 95.0 mL
14
12
10
8
pH
0
10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00
Volume of titrant added (mL)
Solution:
You are asked to use a titration plot to determine information about an acidbase titration.
You are given a pH plot for an acidbase titration.
a. The species titrated is an acid because the initial pH is less than 7.
b. The species titrated is a weak acid. The pH at the equivalence point in the titration is
greater than 7 (basic) because of the presence of the conjugate base of the weak acid.
Video Solution
c. The equivalence point in the titration occurs when 30 mL of base has been added. At the
half-equivalence point (after 15 mL of base is added), the pH (which is equal to pKa) is Tutored Practice
approximately 3.7. The Ka for the weak acid is 103.7 or 2 104. Problem 17.3.4
17.3d pH Indicators
The pH of an acidic or basic solution can be determined using an acidbase indicator or a pH
meter. An acidbase indicator is a weak organic acid that can be used to indicate the pH of
a solution because the acid form of the indicator has a different color than its conjugate base
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
pH
Color range as a function of pH for some acidbase
indicators
14 14
12 12
Indicator pKa
10 10
Phenolphthalein 9.3 Cresol red, pKa = 8.3
8 8
Bromothymol blue 7.0
pH
pH
6 6
Methyl red 5.1
4 4
2 2
0 0
10 20 30 40 50 20 40 60 80 100 120
Volume of NaOH added (mL) Volume of NaOH added (mL)
Figure 17.3.6 Indicator choices for a strong acid/ Figure 17.3.7 Indicator choice for a weak acid/
strong base titration weak base titration
Alpha
H2CO3
The concentrations of species in a polyprotic acid solution can be calculated using the
0.40
same techniques and assumptions used when considering buffer solutions. The approach
involves identifying the species present in significant quantities in the solution, then deter-
Step 3. Substitute these equilibrium concentrations into the Ka1 expression and calculate the
pH of the solution.
3 HCO2 3 4 3 H3O 4
1
1x2 1x2 x2
Ka1 5 4.2 3 1027 5 5 5
3 H2CO3 4 0.202x 0.20
Because the value of Ka1 is small compared with the initial acid concentration, it is reasonable
to assume that the amount of weak acid ionized (x) is very small compared with [H2CO3]0.
pH
Although the presence of two equivalence points in Figure 17.3.9 clearly indicates that 6
this is the titration of a diprotic acid, there are cases when a polyprotic acid titration plot does
4
not show all of the possible equivalence points. Interactive Figure 17.3.10 shows a series of
calculated pH plots for the titration of two weak diprotic acids that have the same pKa1 value 2
14 14
pKa1 = 3.0 pKa1 = 3.0 Figure 17.3.9 pH plot for the titration of maleic
12 12
pKa2 = 7.0 pKa2 = 4.6 acid with NaOH
10 10
8 8
pH
pH
6 6
2013 Cengage Learning
4 4
2 2
0 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 10 20 30 40 50 60
Volume of NaOH added (mL) Volume of NaOH added (mL)
The pH titration plot for a diprotic acid varies with pKa.
Alpha
H2CO3
Under conditions of respiratory acidosis, there is an excess of acid in body fluids. The equi- 0.40
librium system lies to the left on the alpha plot. Respiratory acidosis can be treated by ex-
haling large amounts of CO2. This will decrease the concentration of H2CO3 in the blood, 0.20
H N C C O H H N C C O H
H CH3
Glycine Alanine
Although amino acids are often written as shown above, with CO2H and NH2
groups, this is not a completely accurate representation of their molecular structure. Amino
acids exist as zwitterions, compounds containing both a positive and negative charge,
when dissolved in water, in bodily fluids, and in the solid state. Increasing the pH of a solu-
tion containing an amino acid deprotonates the zwitterion, and decreasing the pH proton-
ates the zwitterion.
pH decreases pH increases
H H O H H O H H O
1 1 H 3O 1 1 1 OH2
H N C C OH 2 H2O
H N C C O2 2 H O H N C C O2
2
The pH at which an amino acid has equal numbers of positive and negative charges is
called the isoelectric point (pI). Each different amino acid has a unique isoelectric point.
Most of the amino acids have pI values near 6, with the exception of the amino acids with
acidic side groups (lower pI values) and the amino acids with basic side groups (higher pI
values).
Zwitterionic amino acids can act as buffers, absorbing acid or base to produce the fully
protonated or fully deprotonated form, respectively. Under physiological pH conditions,
H N C C O
17.1 AcidBase Reactions 0.60 H
Alpha
The reaction between a strong acid and a strong base has a large equilibrium constant Fraction of
Fraction of
0.40
and produces water and a pH-neutral salt (17.1a). H H O H H O
1
H N C C O H H N
1
C C O
The reaction between a strong acid and a weak base has a large equilibrium constant 0.20
17.2 Buffers
A buffer solution contains a mixture of a weak acid and a weak base, typically the con-
jugate base of the weak acid (17.2a).
The HendersonHasselbalch equation is one method used to calculate the pH of a buf-
fer solution (17.2b).
In a buffer solution, when [weak acid] = [conjugate base], the pH is equal to the weak
acid pKa (17.2b).
The most effective buffers contain significant amounts of weak acid and conjugate base
and have a pH equal to the weak acid pKa 1 (17.2b).
Buffer capacity is the amount of strong acid or base that can be added to a buffer with-
out a drastic change in pH (17.2b).
Two methods for preparing a buffer are the direct addition method and the acidbase
reaction method (17.2c).
Key Terms
17.2 Buffers 17.3 AcidBase Titrations 17.4 Some Important AcidBase Systems
buffer solution titrant amino acid
common ion effect half-equivalence point zwitterion
HendersonHasselbalch equation acidbase indicator isoelectric point
buffer capacity
alpha (a) plot