1.

Scientific method refers to a body of techniques for investigating phenomena,

acquiring new[1] knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be
termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on gathering observable, empirical
and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning.[2] A scientific method
consists of the collection of data through observation and experimentation, and the
formulation and testing of hypotheses.[3]

2.The scientific method has four steps

1. Observation and description of a phenomenon. The observations are made

visually or with the aid of scientific equipment.
2. Formulation of a hypothesis to explain the phenomenon in the form of a causal
mechanism or a mathematical relation.
3. Test the hypothesis by analyzing the results of observations or by predicting and
observing the existence of new phenomena that follow from the hypothesis. If
experiments do not confirm the hypothesis, the hypothesis must be rejected or
modified (Go back to Step 2).
4. Establish a theory based on repeated verification of the results.

3.)1. Observation

This is the most fundamental of all of the processes. Observation may be defined as the
gathering of information through the use of any one, or combination of the five basic
senses; sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell.

The term observation may also be used to express the result of observing. In other words
one might observe and, as a result, gather observations. These observations can also be
called data or facts.

Observation should suggest objectivity as opposed to the expression of opinion. For

example, "John is a bad boy" is not an observation. On the other hand, "John exhibits
behavior that we characterize as bad" is an observation. "John is throwing Mary out of
the window" is also an observation.

Skilled observers seem to proceed from general perceptions of a system to more specific
ones so the nature of skilled observing can be thought of as analytical. Systems are first
observed as a whole then analyzed for subsystem information. Subsequently, subsystems
can be treated as a whole and subjected to further analysis in an ever tightening spiral.
Technology can be used to amplify the senses, which provides for even more analysis. A
microscope, for example, is a technology that allows us to see things that are too small to
be seen with the unaided eye.
In summary, observation is an objective process of gathering data through the use of
one's senses applied in an analytical way.

2. Measurement

Measurement is an observation made more specific by comparing some attribute of a

system to a standard of reference. An example is when the length of an object is
expressed in terms of the length of a meter or when the mass of an object is expressed by
referring to a standard such as a gram. Measurement and observation are the only process
skills that are actually two forms of the same thing.

There are many standards that can be employed to make observations more precise. For
instance, academic scholarship can be expressed as a grade. When one receives an "A" or
a "C" in a course one's performance has been measured relative to a standard. In a similar
fashion, a four star restaurant is a measure of quality.

As one can see from these examples, a measurement can range from highly concrete and
universal to rather conditional. Observing that a stick is 27 centimeters long requires little
interpretation. The meaning is rigid and understood by anyone, anywhere who is familiar
with the metric system. On the other hand, being an "A" student may require considerable
interpretation with meaning highly dependent upon circumstance. And, of course, with
respect to restaurants, "Charlie's Four Star Chili Dog Heaven" may be just that to some.

The nature of this process entails the description of some system attribute by comparison
to a standard of reference.

3. Classification

Classification is the process of grouping objects on the basis of observable traits. Objects
that share a given characteristic can be said to belong to the same set. The process is
somewhat arbitrary depending upon the identifying trait selected.

This is an important process to science because of an underlying assumption that kinship

in one regard may entail kinship in others. Science assumes that to a large degree the
universe is consistent with it's laws holding true everywhere. Therefore, if a set of objects
share one thing in common they may well share other attributes.

Also there is the notion of realness or depth. This means that the more characteristic a
trait is of a particular system the closer the kinship of those sharing the trait. For example,
consider the idea of a marble. What makes a marble a marble? Is color a fundamental
component of being a marble? We could, of course, classify objects on the basis of color
but is that a deep characteristic? Because some marbles are red does it follow that all red
objects are marbles? The issue here is that some traits are more expressive of the essence
of the system than are other shared traits. In most instances we should seek to classify on
the basis of traits that are essential to the idea of the set.
The nature of the skill of classification is two fold. First, one must be able to identify
traits and, second, one must select traits that express the deeper essence of the system.

4. Quantification

Quantification refers to the process of using numbers to express observations rather than
relying only on qualitative descriptions.

The process has two major values. First, by expressing something in numerical terms the
need for translation of verbal meaning is reduced. Second, the use of numbers allows
mathematical logic to be applied to attempts to explore, describe and understand nature.

For example, consider a situation where one might try to describe the various hair colors
of students in a classroom. Try making an accurate and complete description using only
qualitative terms. At best we might develop groupings based on generic names such as
brunette and blonde (I am sure you will recognize these as an example of classification,
as described above). The problem we must deal with is that terms such as brunette and
blonde are not absolute. Some brunettes are obviously darker than others and some
blondes are clearly lighter than others and we need a scheme that will allow us to express
such variation. Numbers will allow us to do that. For example, suppose Sally's hair is the
darkest and Jeff's is the lightest. If we assigned a number such as 10 to Sally and 1 to Jeff
a range has been developed within which all other shades must fall. Incidentally, the
range could be reversed with Sally being assigned the 1 and Jeff the 10. It really doesn't
matter and the scheme would work just as well. Either way, by defining color as a
number the arithmetic logic of sequencing can be applied to the problem. In so doing, we
find that all observers of hair color are playing by the same rules. Everyone is accepting
the quantitative logic so that there is no question that haircolor #7 must fall somewhere,
probably midway, between #6 and #8. This leaves a lot of room for describing very
subtle differences. For instance, we can have some idea of the color difference between a
6.9 and a 7.2 but try describing that difference in qualitative terms.

Consequently the nature of the skill of quantification is one of application where one
seeks precision of expression by transferring the logic of mathematics to qualitative
problems.

5. Inferring

Inferring is an inventive process in which an assumption of cause is generated to explain

an observed event. This is a very common function and is influenced by culture and
personal theories of nature.

Inferences can also influence actions. For example, suppose two students receive a poor
grade on some project. One student observes the poor grade and infers that the reason he
received it was because the teacher does not like him. The second student infers that he
did not spend enough time on the project. Would you expect these two students to
respond to the poor grade in the same way? In both cases the event was the same but
different inferences about the cause of the event would likely lead to very different
responses.

The nature of this process is inventive within the parameters of cosmology and culture.

6. Predicting

This process deals with projecting events based upon a body of information. One might
project in a future tense, a sort of trend analysis, or one might look for an historical
precedent to a current circumstance. In either case, the prediction emerges for a data base
rather than being just a guess. A guess is not a prediction. By definition, predictions must
also be testable. This means that predictions are accepted or rejected based upon observed
criteria. If they are not testable they are not predictions.

It is not unusual to find that a data base is not available for a particular system. In such
cases predictions about that system are not possible. The first step in understanding such
a mystery system would be to observe it as objectively as possible with the goal being to
acquire the data base necessary to develop predictions.

The nature of the skill of predicting is to be able to identify a trend in a body of data and
then to project that trend in a way that can be tested.

7. Relationships

The process skill of relationships deals with the interaction of variables. This interaction
can be thought of as a kind of influence--counter influence occurring among a system's
variables.

Relationships can occur in multiple or single dimensions. An example of a multiple

dimension relationship is speed with distance and time representing the two dimensions.
Single dimension relationships can only be expressed relative to something else as in the
location in space of some object. It's location can only be expressed with relative terms
such as over, under, near, far, etc.

Of course the notion of relationships can be extended into more abstract areas such as
values, friendships, marriage, love, and growth, for examples.

The inherent nature of this skill is that it requires analytical thought in which one seeks to
dissect cause from effect. The causal elements are the system's variables and the effect is
the resulting interaction.

8. Communication

This process actually refers to a group of skills, all of which represent some form of
systematic reporting of data. The most common examples include data display tables,
charts and graphs. The process is conceptually fairly simple and is frequently based upon
some type of two or three dimensional matrix wi

4.) Scientific attitude is really a composite of a number of mental habits, or of tendencies

to react consistently in certain ways to a novel or problematic situation. These habits or
tendencies include accuracy, intellectual honesty, open-mindedness, suspended judgment,
criticalness, and a habit of looking for true cause and effect relationships. It is a cognitive
concept; scientific attitudes are normally associated with the mental processes of
scientists. These habits are important in the everyday life and thinking, not only of the
scientist, but of everyone.

Scientific attitudes possess attributes thought to be either true or false and do not express
an evaluative quality. To lessen the semantic confusion, scientific attitudes may be better
labeled as "scientific attributes". The attributes of scientific attitude are rationality,
curiosity, open mindedness, aversion to superstitions, objectivity in intellectual honesty
and suspended judgment.

Rationality

It means 'the quality or condition of being rational'. Philosophers have the view that the
aim of science is the achievement of truth and the avoidance of error (Goldman, 1999).
On this view, science is rational to the extent that the beliefs that it accumulates are true,
and scientific reasoning is rational to the extent that it tends to produce true beliefs.
Rationality, normally defined as giving reasons for actions or for holding beliefs. Man is
a rational animal. Rationality is the process of using reason or logic to solve a problem.

A logical argument is sometimes described as "rational" if it is logically valid. However,

rationality is a much broader term than logic, as it includes "uncertain but sensible"
arguments based on probability, expectation, personal experience and the like, whereas
logic deals principally with provable facts and demonstrably valid relations between
them.

First of all, rationality is objective - it exists only when a valid practical syllogism is used.
Second, a choice is either rational or it is not - there is no gradation since there is no
gradation between valid and invalid arguments. Third, rationality only applies to actions -
i.e., shutting the window is a rational thing to do if you are cold (assuming it is cold
outside).

A person with rationality will prefer the reason in all the actions. That is the thing one
should learn form science. "Cause-and-effect" underlies everything. In simple
mechanisms, an action causes a reaction, and effects do not occur without causes. This
does not mean that some processes are not random or chaotic. But a causative agent does
not alone produce one effect today and another tomorrow.
He will show the tendency to test traditional beliefs for reason.

· Commitment to the value of rationality

· Tendency to test traditional beliefs

· Seeking for natural causes of events and identification of cause and effect relationships

· Acceptance of criticalness

· Challenge of authority

Curiosity

Curiosity is an innate capability of many living beings, but it can not be subsumed under
category of instinct because it lacks the quality of fixed action pattern; it is rather one of
innate basic emotions because it can be expressed in many flexible ways while instinct is
always expressed in a fixed way, and like any innate capability it confers a survival
advantage to certain species, and can be found in their genomes.

Every one shows desire for understanding new situations in general life. One will get so
many new situations if they open science books but how may of them are interested to
understand them is a big question mark?

Newspaper will reflect on the publics' attitude. If there is any accident especially crime
then public will show interest to investigate the situation and it will present in the front
page at news, head lines in news channels and life coverage with modern facilities but if
there is any peculiar thing related to science is innovated by Indian scientist that will
occupy the last page only. The findings, which are controversial to the religion, will come
to the front page in the media. In 2006, the news of solar system came in to media for
reducing the number planets around the sun. The news in 'EENADU' daily came as now
how can u go for astrology? Because the number of planets in astrology is, nine but now
scientists reduced to seven. The difference between astrological planets and the astrology
planets is not considered in this news.

Child is the first scientist. It is the answer given to the children by our great professor A.
P. J. Abdul Kalam because curiosity is more among the children. They wish to see the
outer world and pose so many questions to the elders. Elders will get confused to answer
the queries of the children. They never satisfy with the half answer.

Open mindedness

In the language of the general public, open-mindedness means being open to possible
theories and explanations for a particular phenomenon. But in science, it means that and
something more. Philosopher Jonathan Adler (1998) teaches us that science values
another aspect of open-mindedness even more highly: "What truly marks an open-minded
person is the willingness to follow where evidence leads. The open-minded person is
willing to defer to impartial investigations rather than to his own predilections...Scientific
method is attunement to the world, not to ourselves".

When Harold Urey, author of one textbook theory on the origin of the moon's surface,
examined the moon rocks brought back from the Apollo mission, he immediately
recognized this theory did not fit the hard facts laying before him. "I've been wrong!" he
proclaimed without any thought of defending the theory he had supported for decades.

Aversion to superstitious beliefs

A superstition is the belief that events are influenced by specific behaviors, without
having a causal relationship. Superstition is derived from the Latin words "super" (over,
beyond) and "sto, stare" (to stand). Therefore, superstion means one who overly stands,
or not being progressive. A superstition is a false belief based on ignorance (e.g., if we
don't beat the drums during an eclipse, the evil demon won't return the sun to the sky),
fear of the unknown (e.g., if we don't chop up this chicken in just the right way and burn
it according to tradition while uttering just the right incantations then the rain won't come
and our crops won't grow and we'll starve), trust in magic (e.g., if I put spit or dirt on my
beautiful child who has been praised, the effects of the evil eye will be averted), trust in
chance (if I open this book randomly and let my finger fall to any word that word will
guide my future actions), or some other false conception of causation.

In the academic discipline of folkloristic the term "superstition" is used to denote any folk
belief expressed in if/then (with an optional "unless" clause) format. If you break a
mirror, then you will have seven years of bad luck unless you throw all of the pieces into
a body of running water. In this usage, the term is not pejorative.

Superstitions are based on general, culturally variable beliefs in a supernatural "reality".

Depending on a given culture's belief set, its superstitions may relate to things that are not
fully understood or known, such as cemeteries, animals, demons, a devil, deceased
ancestors, the weather, ripping one's sock, gambling, sports, food, holidays, occupations,
excessive scrupulosity, death, luck, and spirits. In Western folklore, traditional
superstitions associated with bad luck include Friday the 13th, walking under a ladder,
and black cats. A Friday occurring on the 13th day of any month is considered to be a
day of bad luck in English, German, Polish, Bulgarian and Portuguese-speaking cultures
around the globe. Indian subcontinent there are so many superstitutions as a pregnant
woman should avoid going outside during an eclipse in order to prevent her baby being
born with a facial birthmark. No scientist can know all of the experimental evidence
underlying current science concepts and therefore must adopt some views without
understanding their basis. A scientist rejects superstition and prefers science paradigms
out of an appreciation for the power of reality based knowledge.

Superstition and psychology

B.F. Skinner placed a series of hungry pigeons in a cage attached to an automatic
mechanism that delivered food to the pigeon "at regular intervals with no reference
whatsoever to the bird's behavior". He discovered that the pigeons associated the delivery
of the food with whatever chance actions they had been performing as it was delivered,
and that they continued to perform the same actions:

One bird was conditioned to turn counter-clockwise about the cage, making two or three
turns between reinforcements. Another repeatedly thrust its head into one of the upper
corners of the cage. A third developed a 'tossing' response, as if placing its head beneath
an invisible bar and lifting it repeatedly. Two birds developed a pendulum motion of the
head and body, in which the head was extended forward and swung from right to left
with a sharp movement followed by a somewhat slower return. ("'Superstition' in the
Pigeon", B.F. Skinner, Journal of Experimental Psychology #38, 1947)

Skinner suggested that the pigeons believed that they were influencing the automatic
mechanism with their "rituals" and that the experiment also shed light on human
behavior:

The experiment might be said to demonstrate a sort of superstition. The bird behaves as if
there were a causal relation between its behavior and the presentation of food, although
such a relation is lacking. There are many analogies in human behavior. Rituals for
changing one's luck at cards are good examples. A few accidental connections between a
ritual and favorable consequences suffice to set up and maintain the behavior in spite of
many unreinforced instances. The bowler who has released a ball down the alley but
continues to behave as if he were controlling it by twisting and turning his arm and
shoulder is another case in point. These behaviors have, of course, no real effect upon
one's luck or upon a ball half way down an alley, just as in the present case the food
would appear as often if the pigeon did nothing -- or, more strictly speaking, did
something else.

Like the pigeons, many people associate behavior (head-turning or worship of God(s))
with an external phenomenon that was not necessarily connected in any way with
personal behavior. Does eating chicken before a baseball game improve batting? Wade
Boggs, one of baseball history's best hitters, believed it did: He ate chicken daily for over
20 years. It may seem silly, but millions of people worldwide perform similar rituals for
luck. In his newly updated book, Believing in Magic (Oxford University Press, 2000),
Stuart A. Vyse, Ph.D., a psychology professor at Connecticut College, investigates why
so many rational people believe so strongly in things that seem so irrational.

"We face many important and uncertain challenges, and superstition provides the illusion
of control when it's lacking," Vyse says. Practicing superstition can be psychologically
beneficial. "Superstitious rituals can reduce tension and give a sense that you're doing
what you can to help out," he says.

Objectivity-intellectual honesty
Objectivity, another form of intellectual honesty in research, means that we let nature
"speak for itself" without imposing our wishes on it--that we report the results of
experimentation as accurately as we can and that we interpret them as fairly as possible.
Objectivity is critical to the process of science, but it does not mean that such attitudes
must characterize each and every scientist for science as a whole to work.

There is an objective base proof on heaven and hell. The temperature of heaven can be
rather accurately computed. Our authority is the Bible, Isaiah 30:26 reads, Moreover, the
light of the moon shall be as the light of the sun and the light of the sun shall be sevenfold
as the light of seven days. Thus, heaven receives from the moon as much radiation as the
earth does from the sun, and in addition, seven times seven (forty nine) times as much as
the earth does from the sun, or fifty times in all. The light we receive from the moon is
one ten-thousandth of the light we receive from the sun, so we can ignore that. With these
data we can compute the temperature of heaven: The radiation falling on heaven will heat
it to the point where the heat lost by radiation is just equal to the heat received by
radiation. In other words, heaven loses fifty times as much heat as the earth by radiation.
Using the Stefan-Boltzmann fourth power law for radiation

(H/E)4 = 50

where E is the absolute temperature of the earth, 300°K (273+27). This gives H the
absolute temperature of heaven, as 798° absolute (525°C).

The exact temperature of hell cannot be computed but it must be less than 444.6°C, the
temperature at which brimstone or sulfur changes from a liquid to a gas. Revelations
21:8: But the fearful and unbelieving... shall have their part in the lake which burneth
with fire and brimstone." A lake of molten brimstone [sulfur] means that its temperature
must be at or below the boiling point, which is 444.6°C. We have then, temperature of
heaven, 525°C (977°F). Temperature of the hell is less than 445°F. Therefore, heaven is
hotter than hell.

Jacob Bronowski (1977) often argued that the unique power of science to reveal
knowledge about the world does not arise because scientists are uniquely virtuous. It
arises because fallible scientists are immersed in a process of checks and balances--a
process in which scientists are always there to criticize and to root out errors. Philosopher
Daniel Dennett (1999/2000) points out that "scientists take themselves to be just as weak
and fallible as anybody else, but recognizing those very sources of error in themselves.
They have devised elaborate systems to tie their own hands, forcibly preventing their
frailties and prejudices from infecting their results".

Suspended judgment

All good scientists are skeptics. This means that they maintain an attitude of doubt or of
suspended judgment about scientific ideas.In non-legal contexts, a judgment is a
balanced weighing up of evidence preparatory to making a decision. The formal process
of evaluation can sometimes be described as a set of conditions and criteria that must be
satisfied in order for a judgment to be made. Diederich describes: "A scientist tries hard
not to form an opinion on a given issue until he has investigated it, because it is so hard to
give up opinion already formed, and they tend to make us find facts that support the
opinions... There must be however, a willingness to act on the best hypothesis that one
has time or opportunity to form."

The subject matter of science has been described as "judgments on which it is possible to
obtain universal agreement." These judgments do not concern individual events, which
can be witnessed only by a few persons at most. They are the invariable association of
events or properties, which are known as the laws of science. Agreement is obtained by
observation and experiment - a court of appeal to which men of all races and creeds must
submit if they wish to survive.

5. Science Definition

The word science comes from the Latin "scientia," meaning knowledge.

How do we define science? According to Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, the

definition of science is "knowledge attained through study or practice," or
"knowledge covering general truths of the operation of general laws, esp. as
obtained and tested through scientific method [and] concerned with the physical
world."

What does that really mean? Science refers to a system of acquiring knowledge. This
system uses observation and experimentation to describe and explain natural
phenomena. The term science also refers to the organized body of knowledge people
have gained using that system. Less formally, the word science often describes any
systematic field of study or the knowledge gained from it.

These are the different branches of science:

Aerodynamics: the study of the motion of gas on objects and the forces created

Anatomy: the study of the structure and organization of living things

Anthropology: the study of human cultures both past and present

Archaeology: the study of the material remains of cultures

Astronomy: the study of celestial objects in the universe

Astrophysics: the study of the physics of the universe

Bacteriology: the study of bacteria in relation to disease

Biochemistry: the study of the organic chemistry of compounds and processes occurring
in organisms

Biophysics: the application of theories and methods of the physical sciences to questions
of biology

Biology: the science that studies living organisms

Botany: the scientific study of plant life

Chemical Engineering: the application of science, mathematics, and economics to the

process of converting raw materials or chemicals into more useful or valuable forms

Chemistry: the science of matter and its interactions with energy and itself

Climatology: the study of climates and investigations of its phenomena and causes

Computer Science: the systematic study of computing systems and computation

Ecology: the study of how organisms interact with each other and their environment

Electronics: science and technology of electronic phenomena

Engineering: the practical application of science to commerce or industry

Entomology: the study of insects

Environmental Science: the science of the interactions between the physical, chemical,
and biological components of the environment

Forestry: the science of studying and managing forests and plantations, and related
natural resources

Genetics: the science of genes, heredity, and the variation of organisms

Geology: the science of the Earth, its structure, and history

Marine Biology: the study of animal and plant life within saltwater ecosystems

Mathematics: a science dealing with the logic of quantity and shape and arrangement

Medicine: the science concerned with maintaining health and restoring it by treating
disease

Meteorology: study of the atmosphere that focuses on weather processes and forecasting
Microbiology: the study of microorganisms, including viruses, prokaryotes and simple
eukaryotes

Mineralogy: the study of the chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical)
properties of minerals

Molecular Biology: the study of biology at a molecular level

Nuclear Physics: the branch of physics concerned with the nucleus of the atom

Neurology: the branch of medicine dealing with the nervous system and its disorders

Oceanography: study of the earth's oceans and their interlinked ecosystems and chemical
and physical processes

Organic Chemistry: the branch of chemistry dedicated to the study of the structures,
synthesis, and reactions of carbon-containing compounds

Ornithology: the study of birds

Paleontology: the study of life-forms existing in former geological time periods

Petrology: the geological and chemical study of rocks

Physics: the study of the behavior and properties of matter

Physiology: the study of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of living
organisms

Radiology: the branch of medicine dealing with the applications of radiant energy,
including x-rays and radioisotopes

Seismology: the study of earthquakes and the movement of waves through the Earth

Taxonomy: the science of classification of animals and plants

Thermodynamics: the physics of energy, heat, work, entropy and the spontaneity of
processes

Zoology: the study of animals