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1. Introduction
Information Systems Analysis and Design
Complex organizational process
Used to develop and maintain computer-based information systems
Used by a team of business and systems professionals
Design a description of the recommended solution is converted into logical and then
physical system specifications
Logical design all functional features of the system chosen for development in
analysis are described independently of any computer platform
Physical design the logical specifications of the system from logical design are
transformed into the technology-specific details from which all programming and
system construction can be accomplished
Implementation the information system is coded, tested, installed and supported in the
organization
Current practice combines analysis, design, and implementation into a single iterative and
parallel process of activities.
Prototyping
CASE Tools
Joint Application Design (JAD)
Rapid Application Development (RAD)
Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA)
Agile Methodologies
eXtreme Programming
13. Prototyping
Iterative development process:
Requirements quickly converted to a working system.
System is continually revised.
Close collaboration between users and analysts.
FIGURE 1-12 A class diagram from IBMs Rational Rose (Source: IBM)
JAD Participants:
Session Leader: facilitates group process
Users: active, speaking participants
Managers: active, speaking participants
Sponsor: high-level champion, limited participation
Systems Analysts: should mostly listen
Scribe: record session activities
Information Systems Staff: should mostly listen
End Result
Documentation detailing existing system
Features of proposed system
Upper CASE tools are used
Enables analysts to enter system models directly into CASE during the JAD session
Screen designs and prototyping can be done during JAD and shown to users
FIGURE 1-12 Illustration of a service, a credit check, used by applications and other
services
We are uncovering better ways of developing software by doing it and helping others do
it. Through this work we have come to value:
Individuals and interactions over processes and tools.
Working software over comprehensive documentation.
Customer collaboration over contract negotiation.
Responding to change over following a plan.
That is, while we value the items on the right, we value the items on the left more. We
follow the following principles:
Our highest priority is to satisfy the customer through early and continuous delivery of
valuable software.
Welcome changing requirements, even late in development. Agile processes harness
change for the customer's competitive advantage.
Deliver working software frequently, from a couple of weeks to a couple of months,
with a preference to the shorter timescale.
Business people and developers work together daily throughout the project.
Build projects around motivated individuals. Give them the environment and support
they need, and trust them to get the job done.
The most efficient and effective method of conveying information to and within a
development team is face-to-face conversation.
Working software is the primary measure of progress.
Continuous attention to technical excellence and good design enhances agility.
Kent Back, Mike Beedle, Arie van Bennekum, Alistair Cockburn, Ward Cunningham,
Martin Fowler, James Grenning, Jim Highsmith, Andrew Hunt, Ron Jeffries, Jon Kern,
Brian Marick, Robert C. Martin, Steve Mellor, Ken Schwaber, Jeff Sutherland, Dave
Thomas (www.agileAlliance.org)
The Agile Methodologies group argues that software development methodologies adapted
from engineering generally do not fit with real-world software development.
TABLE 1-4 Five Critical Factors That Distinguish Agile and Traditional Approaches to
Systems Development
Factor Agile Methods Traditional Methods
Size Well matched to small products and Methods evolved to handle large
teams. Reliance on tacit knowledge products and teams. Hard to tailor
limits scalability. down to small projects.
Criticality Untested on safety-critical products. Methods evolved to handle highly
Potential difficulties with simple critical products. Hard to tailor down
design and lack of documentation. to products that are not critical.
Dynamis Simple design and continuous Detailed plans and Big Design Up
m refactoring are excellent for highly Front excellent for highly stable
dynamic environments but a source environment but a source of expensive
of potentially expensive rework for rework for highly dynamic
Summary
In this chapter you learned how to:
Define information systems analysis and design.
Describe the different types of information systems.
Describe the SDLC.
Explain RAD, prototyping, CASE, and SOA.
Describe agile methodologies and eXtreme programming.
Explain Object Oriented Analysis and Design and the Rational Unified Process (RUP).
Tutorial 01
1. Match each of the key terms above with the definition that best fits it:
a. Systems development methodologies and techniques based on objects rather than data or
processes.
b. The third phase of the SDLC in which the description of the recommended solution is
converted into logical and then physical system specifications.
Design
Application software
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e. The organizational role most responsible for the analysis and design of information
systems.
System analyst
f. The use of previously written software resources, especially objects and components, in
new application.
Reuse
g. A structured process in which users, managers and analysts work together for several
days in a series of intensive meetings to specify or review system requirements.
Prototyping
i. The part of the design phase of the SDLC in which all functional features of the system
chosen for development in analysis are described independent of any computer platform.
Logical design
j. The part of the design phase of the SDLC in which the logical specifications of the
system from logical design are transformed into technology-specific details from which
all programming and system constructions can be accomplished.
Physical design
Outsourcing
l. The second phase of the SDLC in which the current system is studied and alternative
replacement systems are proposed.
Analysis
m. The fourth phase of the SDLC in which the information system is coded, tested, installed
and supported in the organization.
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Implementation
n. The final phase of the SDLC in which an information system is systematically repaired
and improved; or changes made to s system to fix or enhance its functionality.
Maintenance
p. Organizations that host and run computer applications for other companies, typically on a
per-use or license basic.
q. The traditional methodology used to develop, maintain, and replace information systems.
s. A person who has an interest in an existing or new information system. Someone who is
involved in the development of a system, in the use of a system, or someone who has
authority over the parts of the organization affected by the system.
Stakeholder
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v. A document provided to vendors to ask them to propose hardware and system software
that will meet the requirements of your new system.
w. A system that integrates individual traditional business functions into a series of modules
so that a single transaction occurs seamlessly within a single information system rather
than several separate systems.
2. In the section on choosing off-the-shelf software, eight criteria are proposed for evaluating
alternative packages. Suppose the choice was between alternative custom software
developers rather than pre-written packages. What criteria would be appropriate to select and
compare among competing bidders for custom development of an application? Define each
of these criteria.
3. Why is it important to use systems analysis and design methodologies when building a
system? Why not just build the system in whatever way seems to be quick and easy?
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Planning
Maintenance Analysis
Implementati Design
on
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Design
Implementati
on
Analysis
Maintenance
Planning
Develop
Prototype
Convert to
Operational
System
5. Based on the diagram below, what is the expected product for each phase in the SDLC?
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Feasibility Study
System Requirements
System Specifications
Working System
Enhancement
Situation: You are the IT manager at Low-Voltage Components, a medium-sized firm that makes
and sells specialized electrical cables to companies that manufacture electronic test
equipment. Low-Voltages largest customer, TX Industries, recently installed a
computerized purchasing system and wants Low-Voltage to connect to the new
system to receive purchase orders and production schedule forecasts. Low-Voltage
currently has the following information systems: finance, accounts receivable, and
accounts payable.
2. What factors will affect the complexity of Low-Voltages new order entry system?
Modification
Cost
Time Constraint
System Boundaries (Security)
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1. Introduction
There are various sources of software for organizations.
There are criteria to evaluate software from different sources.
3. Sources of Software
Information technology services firm
Packaged software producers
Enterprise-wide solutions
Application service providers (ASPs)
Open source software
In-house developers
6. Prepackaged Software
FIGURE 2-3 SAPs Business ByDesign, a product designed for medium sized
companies.
8. Cloud Computing
The provision of computing resources, including applications, over the Internet, so customers
do not have to invest in the computing infrastructure needed to run and maintain the
resources
16. Reuse
The use of previously written software resources, especially objects and components, in
new applications
Commonly applied to two different development technologies:
Object-oriented development
Component-based development
Object-oriented development
Object class encapsulates data and behavior of common organizational entities (e.g.
employees)
Component-based development
Components can be as small as objects or as large as pieces of software that handle
single business functions.
Object-oriented development reuse is the use of object classes in more than one
application (e.g. Employee).
Component-based development reuse is the assembly of an application from many
different components at many different levels of complexity and size (e.g. Currency
conversion).
Summary
In this chapter you learned how to:
Explain outsourcing.
FIGURE 3-1 Three computer applications at Pine Valley Furniture: Order filling,
invoicing, and payroll
FIGURE 3-2 System Service Request for purchasing a fulfillment system with name
and contact information of the person requesting the system, a statement
of the problem, and the name and contact information of the liaison and
sponsor.
FIGURE 3-6 The project workbook for the Purchase Fulfillment System project
contains nine key documents in both hard-copy and electronic form.
FIGURE 3-7 The project charter prepared for customer that describes the deliverables
and outlines of the project.
FIGURE 3-8 Level of project planning detail should be high in the short term, with less
detail as time goes on.
FIGURE 3-10 Gantt chart showing project tasks, duration times for those tasks, and
predecessors
FIGURE 3-13 A network diagram illustrating tasks with rectangles (or ovals) and the
relationships and sequences of those activities with arrows
FIGURE 3-15 A financial cost and benefit analysis for a systems development project
Red bars indicate critical path; lines through bars indicate percent complete.
PRECEDING ACTIVITIES indicate the activities that must be completed before the
specified activity can begin.
FIGURE 3-25 A network diagram that illustrates the activities (circles) and the sequence
(arrows) of those activities
Calculate the latest possible completion time for each activity by subtracting the activity
times in the path following the activity from the total expected time. This gives slack time
for activities.
Critical path contains no activities with slack time.
FIGURE 3-26 A network diagram for the SPTS project showing estimated times for each
activity and the earliest and latest expected completion time for each
activity
Early and late time calculations are determined and critical path established. (Note: Activity
#5 can begin late without affecting project completion time).
FIGURE 3-27 Activity slack time calculations for the SPTS project; all activities except
number 5 are on the critical path
FIGURE 3-28 Establishing a project starting date in Microsoft Project for Windows
FIGURE 3-29 Entering tasks and assigning task relationships in Microsoft project for
Windows
FIGURE 3-30 Viewing project information as a network diagram in Microsoft Project for
Windows
FIGURE 3-31 Gantt chart showing progress of activities (right frame) versus planned
activities (left frame)
Summary
In this chapter you learned how to:
Explain the process of managing an information systems project.
Describe the skills required to be an effective project manager.
List and describe the skills and activities of a project manager during project initiation,
project planning, project execution, and project closedown.
Explain what is meant by critical path scheduling and describe the process of creating
Gantt charts and network diagrams.
Explain how commercial project management software packages can be used to assist in
representing and managing project schedules.
Tutorial 03
1. Calculate the expected time for the following activities:
Activity Optimistic Time Most Likely Time Pessimistic Time Expected Time
A 3 5 7 5.0
B 5 7 10 7.2
C 7 9 14 9.5
D 2 6 7 5.5
E 1 3 5 3.0
F 5 7 10 7.2
G 8 7 14 8.3
H 1 2 5 2.3
I 4 7 9 6.8
J 5 8 11 8.0
o +4 r+ p
ET=
6
Optimistic Time+ 4 Most Likely Time+ Pessmistic Time
Expected Time=
6
2. A project has been defined to contain the following list of activities along with their required
times for completion
Notation TE TL
Act E calculate from 1st activity to last calculate from last activity to 1
ivit T activity activity
y choose the largest choose the smallest
+
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17+8=25 25-8=17
9 8 27-2=25 10 2
25 2 25+2=2 27 2
5 7 7
b. Calculate the earliest expected completion time.
27
1 2 4 7 9 10
d. What would happen if Activity 6 were revised to take six weeks instead of one week?
3. List the five key activities done by a project manager during a project execution?
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4. Explain the major differences between a network diagram and a Gantt chart.
5. Assume that you have a project with SEVEN activities labeled A-G. Derive the earliest
completion time (TE), latest completion time (TL) and the slack for each of the following
tasks (start at time = 0). Which tasks are on the critical path? Draw a network diagram for the
tasks shown. Highlight the critical path in the network diagram.
Notation
ET Slack
Activity
TE TL
5 0 3 4 4 3
5+3=8 B 8+4=12 E
A
12-3=9 8 12 16-4=12 13 16
5 5
5+4=9 9+4=13 13+5=18
9-4=5 16-4=12 21-5=16
4 0 6 0 5 0
C 9+6=15 15+5=20
15-6=9 D G
9 9 21-5=16
15 15 21 21
16-1=15 15+1=16
16+5=21
21-5=16
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1 0
Critical Path: A C D F G
F
16 16
6. What are the differences between problem identification and problem solving?
Problem identification is a way to find the gap or measurement between the current problem
and expectation.
Problem solving is the solution or alternative solution to reduce the gap or measurement.
7. Describe the activities performed by the project manager during project planning.
8. Match the key terms to the following definition that best fits it.
Project Management
Critical Path
c) A systems analyst with a diverse set of skills: management, leadership, technical, conflict
management and customer relationship who is responsible for initiating, planning,
executing and closing down a project.
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Project Manager
d) An end product of an SDLC phase.
Deliverable
e) The amount of time that an activity can be delayed without delaying the entire project.
Slack Time
f) The process of dividing the project into manageable tasks and logically ordering them to
ensure a smooth evolution between tasks.
g) A technique that uses optimistic, pessimistic and realistic time estimates to calculate the
expected completion time for a particular task.
Project Workbook
i) A short document prepared for customer during project initiation that describes what the
project will deliver and outlines, generally at a high level, all work required to complete
the project.
Project Charter
j) A study that determines if the proposed information system makes sense for the
organization from an economic and operational standpoint.
Feasibility Study
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FIGURE 4-1 Systems development life cycle with project identification and selection
highlighted
FIGURE 4-3 Project selection decisions must consider numerous factors and can have
numerous outcomes.
Incremental commitment:
A selected project does not necessary result in working system.
A strategy in systems analysis and design in which the project is reviewed after each
phase, and continuation of the project is re-justified in each of these reviews.
Niche strategies but with a much narrower market focus. For example, a
niche market in the automobile industry is the convertible sports car
market. Within this market, some manufacturers may employ a low-
cost strategy while others may employ a differentiation strategy
based on performance or style.
FIGURE 4-10 Parallel activities of corporate strategic planning and information systems
planning
FIGURE 5-1 Systems development life cycle with project initiation and planning
highlighted
Figure shows an example of the tangible benefits for Customer tracking System. Benefits that
can be measured in dollars and with certainty
Intangible benefits are benefits derived from the creation of an information system that
cannot be easily measured in RM or with certainty.
May have direct organizational benefits, such as the improvement of employee
morale.
May have broader societal implications, such as the reduction of waste creation or
resource consumption.
Example:
Loss of customer goodwill,
Employee morale, or
Operational inefficiency.
Example of Intangible Benefits that cannot easily be measured in dollars or with certainty
One-time cost: a cost associated with project start-up and development or system start-
up.
These costs encompass activities such as:
Systems development,
New hardware and software purchases,
User training,
Site preparation, and
Data or system conversion.
FIGURE 5-5 One-time costs for Customer Tracking System (Pine Valley Furniture)
Recurring cost: a cost resulting from the ongoing evolution and use of a system.
Examples of these costs include:
Application software maintenance,
Incremental data storage expenses,
Incremental communications,
New software and hardware leases, and
Supplies and other expenses (i.e. paper, forms, data center personnel).
FIGURE 5-6 Recurring costs for Customer Tracking System (Pine Valley Furniture)
Both one-time and recurring costs can consist of items that are fixed or variable in nature.
Fixed costs are billed or incurred at a regular interval and usually at a fixed rate.
Variable costs are items that vary in relation to usage.
FIGURE 5-8 Break-even analysis for Customer Tracking System (Pine Valley
Furniture)
FIGURE 5-12 Context-level data flow diagram showing project scope for Purchasing
Fulfillment System (Pine Valley Furniture)
Figures show sample of Walkthrough Review Form and Walkthrough Action List
Summary
After this chapter, you should learn all the learning objectives listed at the beginning of the
class.
Tutorial 04
1. Assuming monetary benefits of an information system at $85,000 per year, one-time costs of
$75,000, recurring costs of $35,000 per year, a discount rate of 12 percent, and a five-year
time horizon, calculate the Net Present Value of these costs and benefits of an information
system. Also calculate the overall Return on Investment of the project and then present a
Break-Even Analysis. At what point does break-even occur?
Break-even 1.7
Analysis years
Yearly NPV (75000 44500 40000 35500 32000 29500
Cash Flow )
Overall NPV (75000 (30500 9500 45000 77000 10650
Cash Flow ) ) 0
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1
Discount Rate Value=
( 1+i )n
i = Discount Rate, n = Year
1 1
Discount Rate Value ( Year 1 )= = =0.89
( 1+ 0.12 ) ( 1.12 )1
1
1 1
Discount Rate Value ( Year 2 )= = =0.80
( 1+0.12 ) ( 1.12 )2
2
Overall NPV
Overall ROI =
NPV ofAll Costs
2. Describe the three commonly used methods for performing economic cost-benefit analysis.
3. Describe the concept of the time value of money. How does the discount rate affect the value
of $1 today versus one year from today?
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The concept of the time value of money is comparison of the current value with the future
rate. $ 1 is not going to be the same value next year because of the discount rate.
4. In a project, the initial investment for the project is RM45000. The present values for Year 1,
2, 3, 4 and 5 are RM25455, RM9917, RM7513, RM6830 and RM6209 respectively. How
much is the Net Present Value (NPV)?
Cost = RM 45000
Benefits = RM 25455 + RM 9917 + RM 7513 + RM 6830 + RM 6209 = RM 55924
NPV = Benefits Cost
= RM 55924 RM 45000
= RM 10924
(Economic Feasibility, Discount Rate, Intangible benefit, One-time cost, Tangible benefit,
Intangible Cost, Baseline Project Plan, Schedule Feasibility, Operational Feasibility,
Recurring Cost, Statement of Work, Intangible Benefit, Tangible Cost, Technical Feasibility)
5. Match each of the key terms above with the definitions that best fits it.
a. Analyzing an organizations activities to determine where value is added to products
and/or services and the costs incurred for doing so.
b. A strategy in systems analysis and design in which the project is reviewed after each
phase and continuation of the project is rejustified in each of these reviews.
Incremental Commitment
c. An ongoing process that defines the mission, objectives, and strategies of an organization.
Mission Statement
e. A series of statements that express an organizations qualitative and quantitative goals for
reaching a desired future position.
Objective Statement
f. The method by which an organization and defining the systems, databases, and
technologies that will best satisfy those needs.
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Competitive Strategy
g. An orderly means of assessing the information needs of an organization and defining the
systems, databases, and technologies that will best satisfy those needs.
Top-Down Planning
Bottom-Up Planning
j. Document prepared for the customer during project initiation and planning that describes
what the project will deliver and outlines generally at a high level all work required to
complete the project.
k. A process of identifying the financial benefits and costs associated with a development
project.
Economic Feasibility
l. The process of assessing the degree to which a proposed system solves business problems
or takes advantage of business opportunities.
Operational Feasibility
Recurring Cost
n. The rate of return used to compute the present value of future cash flows.
Discount Rate
o. A benefit derived from the creation of an information system that cannot be easily
measured in dollars or with certainty.
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Intangible Benefits
p. The process of assessing the degree to which the potential time frame and completion
dates for all major activities within a project meet organizational deadlines and
constraints for affecting change.
Schedule Feasibility
q. A cost associated with an information system that can be easily measured in dollars and
certainty.
Tangible Cost
Technical Feasibility
One-Time Cost
t. A benefit derived from the creation on an information system that can be measured in
dollars and with certainty.
Tangible Benefits
u. The process of assessing potential legal and contractual ramifications due to the
construction of a system.
v. A cost associated with an information system that cannot be easily measured in terms of
dollars or with certainty.
Intangible Cost
w. The plan is the major outcome and deliverable from the project initiation and planning
phase and contains the best estimate of the projects scope, benefits, costs, risks, and
resource requirements.
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FIGURE 6-1 Systems development life cycle with analysis phase highlighted
9. Interviewing Groups
Drawbacks to individual interviews:
Contradictions and inconsistencies between interviewees
Follow-up discussions are time consuming
New interviews may reveal new questions that require additional interviews with
those interviewed earlier
Interviewing several key people together
Advantages
More effective use of time
Can hear agreements and disagreements at once
Opportunity for synergies
Disadvantages
More difficult to schedule than individual interviews
Direct Observation
Watching users do their jobs
Obtaining more firsthand and objective measures of employee interaction with
information systems
Can cause people to change their normal operating behavior
Time-consuming and limited time to observe
FIGURE 6-4 An example of a business formAn invoice form for QuickBooks, from
jnk.btobsource.com.
JAD Participants:
Session Leader: facilitates group process
Users: active, speaking participants
Managers: active, speaking participants
Sponsor: high-level champion, limited participation
Systems Analysts: should mostly listen
Scribe: record session activities
IS Staff: should mostly listen
End Result
Documentation detailing existing system
Features of proposed system
Upper CASE tools are used
Enables analysts to enter system models directly into CASE during the JAD session
Screen designs and prototyping can be done during JAD and shown to users
TABLE 6-6 Long-Held Organizational Rules That Are Being Eliminated Through
Disruptive Technologies
Rule Disruptive Technology
Information can appear in only one place Distributed databases allow the sharing of
at a time. information.
Businesses must choose between Advanced telecommunications networks can
centralization and decentralization. support dynamic organizational structures.
Managers must make all decisions. Decision-support tools can aid nonmanagers.
Field personnel need offices where they Wireless data communication and portable
can receive, store, retrieve, and transmit computers provide a virtual office for
information. workers.
The best contact with a potential buyer is Interactive communication technologies allow
personal contact. complex messaging capabilities.
You have to find out where things are. Automatic identification and tracking
technology knows where things are.
Plans get revised periodically. High-performance computing can provide
real-time updating.
Summary
In this chapter you learned how to:
Describe interviewing options and develop interview plan.
Explain advantages and pitfalls of worker observation and document analysis.
Explain how computing can support requirements determination.
Participate in and help plan Joint Application Design sessions.
Use prototyping during requirements determination.
Describe contemporary approaches to requirements determination.
Tutorial 05
1. Describe four traditional techniques for collecting information during analysis. When might
one be better than another?
Traditional Methods
a. Interview
- Observation (gesture)
- Open-ended questionnaire (ask another related question)
- Active
- Person-contact
- First-hand information
- Bias to individual
b. Questionnaire
- Analysis (statistical view of point)
- Wider participant
- General point of view
- Fast, cheap
- Closed-ended
c. Observation during work days
- Direct contact
- Passive
- Seldom ask questions
- 1-2 weeks (slow)
- Incomplete requirements
- Complete picture of the activities
d. Document Analysis
- History
- SOP
- Redundancies (blank form, filled-up form)
2. What is JAD? How is it better than traditional information gathering techniques? What are its
weaknesses?
JAD
- Joint Application Design
- Intensive group-oriented requirements determination technique
- A series of intensive meeting for requirements determination
- Save time
- Generate more idea
- More interaction
- High quality result
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Weakness
- High commitment needed
- Expensive
- Need proper planning
5. How can CASE tools be used to support requirements determination? Which types of CASE
tools are appropriate for use during requirements determination?
6. Describe how prototyping can be used during requirements determination. How is it better or
worse than traditional methods?
When definition and requirement not complete when the system is complicate
communication problem with clients only involved a few stakeholder
Pros:
- Prototype certain part
Cons:
- Interaction problem
- SDLC not around
- No proper documentation because of refinement of prototype
7. When conducting a business process reengineering study, what should you look for when
trying to identify business processes to change? Why?
Reengineering
- Change / restructure whole process
- When the direction of company change
- Find key process in order to identify problem encountered
- Speed, quality and customer satisfaction need to be consider
8. What are disruptive technologies and how they enable organizations to radically change their
business processes?
9. Why is continual user involvement a useful way to discover system requirements? Under
what conditions it might be used? Under what conditions might it not be used?
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10. Describe Agile Usage-Centered Design. Describe the Planning Game. Compare and contrast
these two requirements determination techniques.
(Formal System, Scribe, Open-ended Question, Informal System, JAD Session Leader,
Closed-ended Question, Disruptive Technologies, Nominal Group Technique, Key Business
Process, Business Processing Reengineering)
11. Match each of the key terms above with the definition that best fits it.
a. Questions in interviews and on questionnaires that ask those responding to choose from
among a set of specified responses.
Closed-ended Question
b. Technologies that enable the breaking of long-held business rules that inhibit
organizations from making radical business changes.
Disruptive Technologies
c. A facilitated process that supports idea generating by groups. At the beginning of the
process, group members work alone to generate ideas, which are then pooled under the
guidance of a trained facilitator.
d. The structured, measured set of activities designed to produce a specific output for a
particular customer or market.
Formal Systems
f. The search for, and implementation of, radical change in business processes to achieve
breakthrough improvements in products and services.
Informal Systems
h. The person who makes detailed notes of the happenings at a Joint Application Design
session.
Scribe
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Open-ended Question
j. The trained individual who plans and leads Joint Application Design sessions.
Case Study
Situation: The school, Elmwood College is considering a new system that will speed up the
registration process. As a systems analyst, you are asked to develop a plan for
fact-finding.
Analysis
- Interview
- Questionnaire
- Observation
- Document Analysis
3. Suppose the development budget is tight. How might that affect the fact-finding process?
Budget
- Sources (planning)
- Programmes
- Time framer (shorter)
Covers 4W1H
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Todd Wagner, a systems analyst, was assigned to perform a preliminary investigation. After
reading his report. Mary asked him to proceed with the systems analysis phase, saying that a
formal presentation was unnecessary. Todd was scheduled an interview tomorrow with her, and
he asked you to help him prepare for the meeting.
1. Make a list of the topics that you think Todd should cover during the interview.
2. Prepare a list of specific questions that Todd should ask. Include open-ended, closed-ended,
and range-of-response questions.
[Open-ended] What are the problems with the current operating procedure?
[Open-ended] What are the expectation of the new system?
[Closed-ended] What are the duration of the purposed system?
[Closed-ended] How often they contact the alumni? (which month)
[Closed-ended] How often they update alumni information?
[Range-of-response] Do you happy with the current system?
Before completing this part of the case, you should review the presentations section in the
Systems Analysts Toolkit.
This time, Mary Louise, the registrar, wanted a formal presentation. She requested that the
college president and all the administrative vice presidents receive invitations to attend. The
registrar wanted to ensure that she would have support for the new alumni System.
Unfortunately, Todds car would not start the morning of the presentation. Therefore, he arrived
12 minutes late for the presentation and was out of breath and disorganized. He immediately
apologized and began to set out his notes. He then noticed that an easel was not in the room to
hold his flip charts. Consequently, he moved a table closer to the front wall, placed the flip chart
on the table, popped it against the wall, and began his presentation.
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The flip chart was not very steady in that position, however, so Todd stood next to it to hold it. In
order to flip to the next chart, Todd had to juggle the entire flip chart. He was so busy with the
charts that he did not notice that people in the back of the room strained to see them. The
registrar finally interrupted to point out that not everyone was able to see the charts. Todd rushed
out of the room to find an easel. When he finally returned with an easel, he found that several of
the attendees had left. He did finish the presentation but with little of his original enthusiasm.
2. For each mistake listed, describe what Todd should have done differently.
4. What do you think Todd should do next to try to salvage the project?
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FIGURE 7-1 Systems development life cycle with the analysis phase highlighted
FIGURE 7-2 Comparison of DeMarco and Yourdon and Gane and Sarson DFD symbol
sets
5. Developing DFDs
Context diagram is an overview of an organizational system that shows:
the system boundaries.
external entities that interact with the system.
major information flows between the entities and the system.
Note: only one process symbol, and no data stores shown
6. Context Diagram
7. Developing DFDs
Level-0 diagram is a data flow diagram that represents a systems major processes, data
flows, and data stores at a high level of detail.
Processes are labeled 1.0, 2.0, etc. These will be decomposed into more primitive
(lower-level) DFDs.
8. Level-0 Diagram
FIGURE 7-6 Incorrect and correct ways to draw data flow diagrams
FIGURE 7-8 Level-1 diagram showing the decomposition of Process 4.0 from the level-
0 diagram for Hoosier Burgers food-ordering system
FIGURE 7-9 Level-2 diagram showing the decomposition of Process 4.3 from the level-
1 diagram for Process 4.0 for Hoosier Burgers food-ordering system
Data flow splitting is when a composite data flow at a higher level is split and different
parts go to different processes in the lower level DFD.
The DFD remains balanced because the same data is involved, but split into two parts.
Primitive DFDs
Lowest logical level of decomposition
Decision has to be made when to stop decomposition
Rules for stopping decomposition
When each process has been reduced to a single decision, calculation or database
operation
When each data store represents data about a single entity
When the system user does not care to see any more detail
When every data flow does not need to be split further to show that data are handled
in various ways
When you believe that you have shown each business form or transaction, online
display and report as a single data flow
When you believe that there is a separate process for each choice on all lowest-level
menu options
FIGURE 7-16 IBM Credit Corporations primary work process before BPR
FIGURE 7-17 IBM Credit Corporations primary work process after BPR
17. Electronic Commerce Application: Process Modeling using Data Flow Diagrams
Process modeling for Pine Valley Furnitures Webstore
Completed JAD session.
Began translating the Webstore system structure into data flow diagrams.
Identified six high-level processes.
TABLE 7-4 System Structure of the WebStore and Corresponding Level-0 Processes
WebStore System Processes
Main Page Information Display (minor / no processes)
Product Line (Catalog) 1.0 Browse Catalog
Desks 2.0 Select Item for Purchase
Chairs
Tables
File Cabinets
Shopping Cart 3.0 Display Shopping Cart
Checkout 4.0 Check Out Process Order
Account Profile 5.0 Add/Modify Account Profile
Order Status/History 6.0 Order Status Request
Summary
In this chapter you learned how to:
Understand logical process modeling via data flow diagrams (DFDs).
Draw data flow diagrams of well structured process models.
Decompose data flow diagrams into lower-level diagrams.
Balance high-level and low-level data flow diagrams.
Use data flow diagrams for analyzing information systems.
Use decision tables to represent the logic of choice in conditional statements.
1. Logic Modeling
Data flow diagrams do not show the logic inside the processes.
Logic modeling involves representing internal structure and functionality of processes
depicted on a DFD.
Logic modeling can also be used to show when processes on a DFD occur.
FIGURE 8-1 Systems development life cycle with the analysis phase highlighted
FIGURE 8-2 Current logical DFD for Hoosier Burger's inventory control system
Condition stubs: that part of a decision table that lists the conditions relevant to the
decision.
Action stubs: that part of a decision table that lists the actions that result for a given set
of conditions.
Rules: that part of a decision table that specifies which actions are to be followed for a
given set of condition.
Indifferent condition: in a decision table, a condition whose value does not affect which
actions are taken for two or more rules.
Procedure for Creating Decision Tables
Name the condition and the values that each condition can assume.
Name all possible actions that can occur.
List all possible rules.
Define the actions for each rule.
Simplify the table.
TABLE 8-5 Structured English Representations of Processes 4.0, 5.0, and 6.0 from
FIGURE 8-8
Process 4.0: Check Out Process Orders
READ Customer-ID
READ Check-Out
FIND Customer-Information from Customer-Tracking System
DO
READ Item-Profile
ADD Item-Profile to Order
UNTIL Shopping-Card is Empty
ADD Order to Purchasing-Fulfillment-System
READ Order-Number from Purchasing-Fulfillment-System
READ Return-Code from Purchasing-Fulfillment-System
DISPLAY Invoice
Process 5.0: Add/Modify Account Profile
READ Customer-Information
ADD Customer-Information to Customer-Tracking-System
DISPLAY Customer-Information
Process 6.0: Order Status Request
READ Order-Number
FIND Order-Status-Information from Purchasing-Fulfillment-System
DISPLAY Order-Status-Information
Summary
In this chapter you learned how to:
Use Structured English as a tool for representing steps in logical processes in data flow
diagrams.
Use decision tables to represent the logic of choice in conditional statements.
Select among Structured English and decision tables for representing processing logic.
Understand how logic modeling techniques apply to the development of electronic
commerce applications.
Tutorial 06
1. Answer TRUE or FALSE.
a. Logic modeling graphically represents the processes that capture, manipulate, store, and
distribute data between a system and its environment and among components within a
system.
b. A primitive level data flow diagram is the first deliverable produced during requirements
structuring.
c. A data flow represents data in motion, moving from one place in the system to another.
TRUE
FALSE (process)
e. Assume we have placed a data store between Process 5.1 and Process 5.5; we would say
that these processes are decoupled.
2. Does DFD provide an accurate representation of time/ timing in a particular system? Justify
your answer.
Context Diagram
One process
Data flow
Entities
No data store
Level 4 symbols
No, because in DFD didnt state the start time and end time.
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3. Draw out the different symbols used in a Data Flow Diagram. Label them appropriately.
4. Using the example of a retail clothing store in a mall, list relevant data flows, data stores,
processes, and sources/sinks. Observe several sales transactions. Draw a context diagram and
a level-O diagram that represent the selling system at the, store. Explain why you chose
certain elements as processes versus sources/sinks.
5. What is balancing? State how you can determine if a DFD diagram is not balanced. What is
the importance of balancing a DFD?
Balancing is the concept where the number of Input / Output between 2 subsequent levels
have to be the same.
To make the DFD clearer, easy to understand and consistent.
7. Identify the five basic procedures to follow when constructing a decision table.
(a) Condition
(b) Action
(c) Rules (can be derived based on condition)
(d) Decide on which action to be taken based on the rules
(e) Simplification of Decision Table
8. An individual wishes to withdraw cash from an ATM machine. Prepare a decision table to
represent this situation. Please note any assumptions that you make.
Simplify
Condition Rules Condition Rules
PIN Number Y Y Y N N N PIN Number Y Y Y N
Withdraw Amount < > = < > = Withdraw Amount < > =
Action Action
Take Card * * * * * * Take Card * * * *
Take Cash * Take Cash *
Print Receipt * Print Receipt *
Update Balance * Update Balance *
End Transaction * * * * * End Transaction * * *
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Context Diagram D1
Level-0 Diagram D2 change to D1
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DF6 The data flow from DS2 to P2 in Level 0 but the data flow from DS2 to P1.2 in Level 1
DF3 There are data flow from P1 to DS1 in Level 0 but there are no data flow from P1 to DS1
in Level 1
P1.4.2 Should have input
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FIGURE 8-1 Systems development life cycle with analysis phase highlighted
FIGURE 8-2 Relationship between data modeling and the systems development life
cycle
8. Attributes
Attribute: a named property or characteristic of an entity that is of interest to the
organization
Naming an attribute: i.e. Vehicle_ID
Place its name inside the rectangle for the associated entity in the E-R diagram.
Required attribute: an attribute that must have a value for every entity instance
Optional attribute: an attribute that may not have a value for every entity instance
Composite attribute: an attribute that has meaningful component parts
Derived attribute: an attribute whose value can be computed from related attribute
values
11. Relationships
Relationship: an association between the instances of one or more entity types that is of
interest to the organization
Degree: the number of entity types that participate in a relationship
The maximum number of instances of entity B that may be associated with each
instance of entity A
Mandatory vs. Optional Cardinalities
Specifies whether an instance must exist or can be absent in the relationship.
19. Domains
Domain: the set of all data types and values that an attribute can assume
Several advantages
Verify that the values for an attribute are valid
Ensure that various data manipulation operations are logical
Help conserve effort in describing attribute characteristics
Summary
In this chapter you learned how to:
Concisely define each of the following key data modeling terms: entity type, attribute,
multivalued attribute, relationship, degree, cardinality, business rule, associative entity,
trigger, supertype, subtype.
Draw an entity-relationship (E-R) diagram to represent common business situations.
Explain the role of conceptual data modeling in the overall analysis and design of an
information system.
Distinguish between unary, binary, and ternary relationships and give an example of each.
Define four basic types of business rules in a conceptual data model.
Relate data modeling to process and logic modeling as different views of describing an
information system.
Tutorial 07
1. Match each of the key terms below with the definition that best fits it:
a. A detailed model that captures the overall structure of organizational data while being
independent of any database management system or other implementation considerations.
b. A detailed, logical representation of the entities, associations, and data elements for an
organization or business area.
Candidate Key
e. A candidate key that has been selected as the unique, identifying characteristic for an
entity type.
Identifier
f. An attribute that may take on more than one value for each entity instance.
Multivalued Attribute
g. An entity type that associates the instances of one or more entity types and contains
attributes that are peculiar to the relationship between those entity Instances.
Associative Entity
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h. Specifies that each entity instance of the super-type must be a member of some subtype in
the relationship. Specifies that an entity instance of the super-type is allowed not to
belong to any subtype.
i. Specifies that if an entity instance of the super-type is a member of one subtype, it cannot
simultaneously be a member of any other subtype.
j. An assertion or rule that governs the validity of data manipulation operations such as
insert, update, and delete.
2. Define the following key data modeling terms: entity, attribute, relationship, degree,
cardinality, and associative entity.
Process Modeling
Process that captured, distributed and data stored within the system and its environment
Data Modeling
Data and relationship within data in the system
Logic Modeling
Internal representation of a process
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1. Introduction
FIGURE 9-1 Systems development life cycle with design phase highlighted
2. Database Design
File and database design occurs in two steps.
a. Develop a logical database model, which describes data using notation that
corresponds to a data organization used by a database management system.
Relational database model
b. Prescribe the technical specifications for computer files and databases in which to
store the data.
Physical database design provides specifications
Logical and physical database design in parallel with other system design steps
FIGURE 9-2 Relationship between data modeling and the systems development life
cycle
Foreign Key: an attribute that appears as a nonprimary key attribute in one relation and
as a primary key attribute (or part of a primary key) in another relation
Referential Integrity: an integrity constraint specifying that the value (or existence) of
an attribute in one relation depends on the value (or existence) of the same attribute in
another relation
(b) Relations
(b) Relations
default length is 1 character (e.g., CHAR(5) for a field with a fixed length
of 5 characters, capable of holding a value from 0 to 5 characters long).
LONG Capable of storing up to two gigabytes of one variable-length character
data field (e.g., to hold a medical instruction or a customer comment).
NUMBER Positive and negative numbers in the range 10-130 to 10126; can specify the
precision (total number of digits to the left and right of the decimal point)
and the scale (the number of digits to the left and right of the decimal
point) (e.g., NUMBER(5) specifies an integer field with a maximum of 5
digits and NUMBER(5, 2) specifies a field with no more than five digits
and exactly two digits to the right of the decimal point).
DATE Any date from January 1, 4712 B.C. to December 31, 4712 A.D.; date
stores the century, year, month, day, hour, minute and second.
BLOB Binary large object, capable of storing up to four gigabytes of binary data
(e.g., a photograph or sound clip).
Sequential file organization: a file organization in which rows in a file are stored in
sequence according to a primary key value
Hashed file organization: a file organization in which the address for each row is
determined using an algorithm
Pointer: a field of data that can be used to locate a related field or row of data
Summary
In this chapter you learned how to:
Concisely define each of the following key database design terms: relation, primary key,
normalization, functional dependency, foreign key, referential integrity, field, data type,
null value, denormalization, file organization, index, and secondary key.
Explain the role of designing databases in the analysis and design of an information
system.
Transform an entity-relationship (E-R) diagram into an equivalent set of well-structured
(normalized) relations.
Merge normalized relations from separate user views into a consolidated set of well-
structured relations.
Choose storage formats for fields in database tables.
Translate well-structured relations into efficient database tables.
Explain when to use different types of file organizations to store computer files.
Describe the purpose of indexes and the important considerations in selecting attributes to
be indexed.
Tutorial 08
1. Match each of the key terms below with the definition that best fits it:
Relation
b. The process of converting complex data structures into simple, stable data structures.
Normalization
c. A Relation that contains a minimum amount of redundancy and allows users to insert,
modify, and delete the rows without errors or inconsistencies.
d. A relation for which every non-primary key attribute is functionally dependent on the
whole primary key.
e. A relation that is in second normal form and that has no functional (transitive)
dependencies between two (or more) non-primary key attributes.
f. An integrity constraint specifying that the value (or existence) of an attribute in one
relation depends on the value (or existence) of the same attribute in another relation.
Referential Integrity
Data Type
h. The process of splitting or combining normalized relations into physical tables based on
affinity of use of rows and fields.
Denormalization
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i. One or a combination of fields for which more than one row may have the same
combination of values.
Secondary Key
Primary Key
FALSE
c. When using the sequential file organization, the addition of rows requires rewriting the
file.
TRUE
d. Data security can be built into a file through encryption, passwords, or prohibiting users
from directly manipulating a file.
TRUE
TRUE
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3. Transform the E-R diagram of Figure 10.21 into a set of 3NF relations.
Normalization process of splitting / converting complex data structures into a simple and
stable relations
Denormalization combine two / more relations
Data in one relation always being referenced / combined when another
relation is being called
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8. What are the four key physical database design decisions you will make?
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FIGURE 10-1 Systems development life cycle with logical design phase highlighted
Form: a business document that contains some predefined data and may include some
areas where additional data are to be filled in
An instance of a form is typically based on one database record.
Report: a business document that contains only predefined data
It is a passive document used solely for reading or viewing data.
A report typically contains data from many unrelated records or transactions.
Common Types of Reports:
Scheduled: produced at predefined time intervals for routine information needs
Key-indicator: provides summary of critical information on regular basis
Exception: highlights data outside of normal operating ranges
Drill-down: provides details behind summary of key-indicator or exception reports
Ad-hoc: responds to unplanned requests for non-routine information needs
FIGURE 10-2 The layout of a data input form using a coding sheet
FIGURE 10-3 A data input screen designed in Microsofts Visual Basic .NET
5. Highlighting Information
Notify users of errors in data entry or processing.
Provide warnings regarding possible problems.
Draw attention to keywords, commands, high-priority messages, unusual data values.
Highlighting can include use of
upper case all capital letters
bold blinking
italics reverse video
underlining audible tones
boxing intensity differences
size and color differences offsetting nonstandard information
FIGURE 10-6 Customer account status display using various highlighting techniques
(Pine Valley Furniture)
7. Displaying Text
Case: mixed upper and lower case, use conventional punctuation
Spacing: double spacing if possible, otherwise blank lines between paragraphs
Justification: left justify text, ragged right margins
Hyphenation: no hyphenated words between lines
Abbreviations: only when widely understood and significantly shorter than full text
(a) Poorly designed help screen with many violations of the general guidelines for displaying
text
FIGURE 10-8 Contrasting the display of tables and lists (Pine Valley Furniture)
9. Assessing Usability
Objective for designing forms, reports and all human-computer interactions is usability.
There are three characteristics:
Speed Can you complete a task efficiently?
Accuracy Does the output provide what you expect?
Satisfaction Do you like using the output?
Usability: an overall evaluation of how a system performs in supporting a particular user
for a particular task.
Summary
In this chapter you learned how to:
Explain the process of designing forms and reports and the deliverables for their creation.
Apply the general guidelines for formatting forms and reports.
Use color and know when color improves the usability of information.
Format text, tables, and lists effectively.
Explain how to assess usability and describe how variations in users, tasks, technology,
and environmental characteristics influence the usability of forms and reports.
Discuss guidelines for the design of forms and reports for Internet-based electronic
commerce systems.
Correction
Problem
1) In general, forms are used to present or collect information on a single item.
TRUE
2) The contents of a form or report correspond to the data elements contained in an associated
data flow located on a data flow diagram.
TRUE
3) The data on all forms and reports must consist of data elements in data stores and on the E-R
data model for the application or must be computed from these data elements.
TRUE
FALSE
5) On the Internet, form interaction is the standard method of gathering and displaying
information when consumers order products, request product information, or query account
status.
TRUE
Tutorial 09
1. What is usability? Based on guidelines for usability of forms and reports, investigate the
usability of the design for reports that you are going to design for a web site.
Usability overall evaluation of how the system performs towards a specific user / task
2. Identify nine common errors that occur when designing the layout of Web pages.
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5. As a Website designer, how can you avoid errors caused by links that do not provide enough
information?
6. As a Website designer, how can you avoid errors caused by hidden links?
Hidden link
Phishing website false advertisement
White text on the white background
7. Identify ten validation tests and techniques used to enhance the validity of data input.
8. When should you use tables? When should you use graphs?
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4. Methods of Interacting
Command line
Includes keyboard shortcuts and function keys
Menu
Form
Object-based
Natural language
6. Menu Interaction
Menu interaction: a human-computer interaction method in which a list of system
options is provided and a specific command is invoked by user selection of a menu
option
Pop-up menu: a menu-positioning method that places a menu near the current cursor
position
Drop-down menu is a menu-positioning method that places the access point of the menu
near the top line of the display.
When accessed, menus open by dropping down onto the display.
Visual editing tools help designers construct menus.
Guidelines for Menu Design
Wording meaningful titles, clear command verbs, mixed upper/lower case
Organization consistent organizing principle
Length all choices fit within screen length
Selection consistent, clear and easy selection methods
Highlighting only for selected options or unavailable options
7. Form Interaction
Form interaction: a highly intuitive human-computer interaction method whereby data
fields are formatted in a manner similar to paper-based forms
Allows users to fill in the blanks when working with a system.
FIGURE 11-9 Example of form interaction from the Google Advanced Search Engine
8. Object-Based Interaction
Object-based interaction: a human-computer interaction method in which symbols are
used to represent commands or functions
Icons: graphical pictures that represent specific functions within a system
Use little screen space and are easily understood by users
FIGURE 11-10 Object-based (icon) interface from Microsoft Visual Basic .NET
Key:
Target Selection = moving the cursor to select a figure or item
Text Selection = moving the cursor to select a block of text
Data Entry = entering information of any type into a system
Cursor Positioning = moving the cursor to a specific position
Text Correction = moving the cursor to a location to make a text correction
Menu Selection = activating a menu item
= no clear conclusion from the research
Status information: keep user informed of whats going on, helpful when user has to
wait for response
Prompting cues: tell user when input is needed, and how to provide the input
Error or warning messages: inform user that something is wrong, either with data
entry or system operation
FIGURE 12-11 Combining XML data with XSL style sheet to format content
Summary
In this chapter you learned how to:
Explain the process of designing interfaces and dialogues and the deliverables for their
creation.
Contrast and apply several methods for interacting with a system.
List and describe various input devices and discuss usability issues for each in relation to
performing different tasks.
Describe and apply the general guidelines for designing interfaces and specific guidelines
for layout design, structuring data entry fields, providing feedback, and system help.
Design human-computer dialogues and understand how dialogue diagramming can be
used to design dialogues.
Design graphical user interfaces.
Discuss guidelines for the design of interfaces and dialogues for Internet-based electronic
commerce systems.
Describe internet and distributed system.
Tutorial 10
1. Answer TRUE or FALSE
a. Interface design focuses on how information is provided to and captured from users.
TRUE
FALSE (Menu)
c. One guideline for menu design is making sure that command verbs clearly and
specifically describe operations.
TRUE
d. The selection of devices users will use for interaction is made during implementation.
e. When using a mouse, usability problems may occur in the areas of movement scaling and
adequate feedback.
TRUE
2. Describe the process of designing interfaces and dialogues. What deliverables are produced
from this process? Are these deliverables the same for all types of system projects? Why or
why not?
Process
(a) Get / know user requirements
Aim of each interface / dialogue
What are the data to be captured
Flow
Target user
(b) Start designing
Could start interface
A series of interface dialogue
(c) User feedback
Deliverable prototype
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3. Briefly identify and define the five most widely used interaction methods.
5. Identify the eight guideline categories for the design of human-computer dialogues.
(a) Consistent
(b) Clear information (user knows exactly what to do)
Feedback
Where are you right now? (page)
Easy navigation
(c) Presentation layout (bold, highlighting)
6. Identify nine common errors that might occur when designing the interface and dialogues of
Web sites.
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1
main menu
0, system
1.2.1
enter withdrawal 1.3.1
amount input old
1, 1.2 password
1, 1.3
1.3.1.1
input new
password
1.3, 1.3.1
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1. System Implementation
Six major activities:
Coding
Testing
Installation
Documentation
Training
Support
FIGURE 13-1 Systems development life cycle with the implementation phase
highlighted
Purpose:
To convert final physical system specifications into working and reliable software
To document work that has been done
To provide help for current and future users
3. The Process of Documenting the System, Training Users, and Supporting Users
Two audiences for final documentation:
Information systems personnel who will maintain the system throughout its
productive life
People who will use the system as part of their daily lives
User Training
Application-specific
General for operating system and off-the-shelf software
TABLE 13-2 Deliverables for Documenting the System, Training and Supporting Users
1. Documentation
a. System documentation
b. User documentation
2. User Training Plan
a. Classes
b. Tutorials
3. User Training Modules
a. Training materials
b. Computer-based training aids
4. User Support Plan
a. Help desk
b. Online help
c. Bulletin boards and other support mechanisms
7. Automated Testing
Improves testing quality
Reduce testing time up to 80%
Functions:
Create recorded data entry and user action scripts
Compare test results between test cases
Simulate high-volume for stress-testing
Performance testing determines how the system performs on the range of possible
environments in which it may be used
10. Installation
Installation: the organizational process of changing over from the current information
system to a new one
Four installation strategies:
Direct Installation
Parallel Installation
Single-location installation
Phased Installation
Resident expert
Traditional instructor-led classroom training
E-learning, distance learning
Blended learning (instructor plus e-learning)
External sources (e.g. vendors)
User involvement
Commitment to project
Commitment to change
Extent of project definition and planning
30. Electronic Commerce Application: System Implementation for Pine Valley Furnitures
WebStore
Developing test cases for the WebStore include testing categories as follows:
Simple functionality
Multiple functionality
Function chains
Elective functions
Emergency/crisis
Participants
Machine Characteristics (processor, operating system, memory, browser, etc.)
Test Result
Comments
FIGURE 14-7 How the mean time between failures should change over time
When content significantly changes, site may need to be reregistered with search
engines.
Future Editions
Consistency is important to users.
Post indications of future changes to the site.
Batch changes.
Summary
In this chapter you learned how to:
Describe the process of coding, testing, and converting an organizational information
system and outline the deliverables and outcomes of the process.
Prepare a test plan for an information system.
Apply four installation strategies: direct, parallel, single-location, and phased installation.
List the deliverables for documenting the system and for training and supporting users.
Compare the many modes available for organizational information system training,
including self-training and electronic performance support systems.
Discuss the issues of providing support for end-users.
Explain why system implementation sometimes fails.
Describe the threats to system security and remedies that can be applied.
Show how traditional implementation issues apply to electronic commerce applications.