Res Welding Section 3

Resistance welding of sheet metals
- a guide to best practice

by Steve Westgate
Section 3 - Spot welding operation and control
Reproduced by permission from TWI
Copyright 2004, TWI Ltd
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Resistance welding of sheet metals - a guide to best practice. Section 3 - Spot welding operation and control
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Resistance welding of sheet metals - a

guide to best practice
by Steve Westgate
Section 3 - Spot welding operation and control

Introduction
Weld properties and quality factors
Quality control procedures (including testing & NDT)
Quality standards
Procedure development
Factors affecting quality
Design considerations
Seam welding
Projection welding
Introduction
This section of the guide provides information on the following topics:
quality criteria in resistance spot welding
best practice approach for setting up welding procedures
quality control and test methods for assuring that the welded product's desired performance is
achieved and maintained
effect of material, component and process factors on weld quality
design and application guidelines - potential problems associated with non-preferred or poor
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design
projection welding requirements - brief outline
Please note that information on Standards relating to resistance welding, and definitions of frequently
encountered terms used in resistance welding, can be found in Section 1 of the guide.
The following key points provide a brief summary of the quality requirements in the manufacture of
resistance welded components.
Quality requirements for resistance welding - Key points

Customer requirements: The quality of welds and product performance required by the
customer should be established as a basis for defining the job specification and process control
required. Include any additional factors required to meet fitness for purpose.
Materials: Bought-in materials should be controlled and traceable, and should suit customer
specifications. Include consumables such as electrode materials. Preweld operations, such as
press operations or surface treatment, should also be defined and controlled, as these can affect
the joining process.
Resources: The equipment should be suitable for the work, and verified. Competent staff are
required to set up and to operate the process. This has job knowledge and training implications.
Process validation: Establish and verify the process is capable of achieving consistent operation
and meeting the customer product specification. Record all process details and welding
parameters.
Process control: Define the process control measures required for the job, such as electrode
maintenance and parameter checks. Maintain records to verify their implementation during
production.
Weld quality control: Specify the method of testing and frequency of tests sufficient to assure
the required weld quality is achieved. (BS1140 - Resistance spot welding of uncoated and
coated steels - gives suggestions. EN/ISO Standards are in preparation). Include other test
requirements such as dimensional checks.
Weld properties and quality factors

Weld properties and quality requirements depend principally on the application and are normally based
on a Standard or recommended practice. Application or company Standards often take priority but
national or international Standards provide details for general use, e.g. British Standard BS1140 -
Resistance spot welding of uncoated and coated low carbon steel, or pr EN ISO 14373 (draft).
Aerospace quality applications are covered by specific Standards such as the American Military
Specification MIL-W-6858, where tight control of requirements is specified. Company Standards are
generally similar to the military specification in such cases.
Basic quality factors include:
visual appearance

weld size and fracture mode

static weld strength
Special factors may include:

spot weld section appearance
fatigue properties
impact properties
Weld size
The mean diameter of the fused zone is the main quality criterion for spot welds. This is normally
approximately the same size as the plug or button pulled from one sheet in a destructive test. The main
factors are as follows:
Refer to the relevant Standard
The minimum acceptable weld diameter is normally 4 t or 3.5 t, where t is the thickness of the
sheet (based on the thinner sheet when welding dissimilar thicknesses).
The minimum weld size criteria are normally common to all material types.
Plug fracture should normally occur.
Plug fracture may not be possible in thick material or when welds are tested in shear or torsion
loading. In other cases, interface fracture may indicate nugget flaws, or weld brittleness associated
with steel strength or composition.
Visual appearance
Various factors should be controlled, depending on the application, for example:

Surface indentation may be limited to 10 or 20% of the sheet thickness.
Non-marking or face welds are not possible without some risk to weld size.
Surface splash (weld spurs) should be avoided, as the sharp edges can be a safety hazard. Interface
splash is normally acceptable unless protruding from the sheet edges.
Surface cracks, burning or pits should normally be avoided.
Substantial component distortion or edge damage is not normally allowed.
Static strength
Static strength of the joint depends on the materials being joined and weld size. Test types are shown in
Fig.3.1 and typical shear values are shown for low carbon steel in Fig.3.2.
Minimum shear strength requirements are sometimes specified in standards.
To achieve a particular joint strength, the number and spacing of spot welds can be adjusted.
Note that the load distribution on a spot weld array may not be uniform.
Shear strength increases roughly in proportion to material tensile strength and weld diameter.
Cross-tension strengths are typically 70 to 80% of the shear strength, when plug fracture occurs,
but much lower in the case of interface fractures.

Peel failure loads are much lower than cross-tension loads and also depend on sample geometry.
Fig.3.1 Mechanical tests for spot welds:
Fig.3.1a) Shear test
Fig.3.1b) Cross tension test
Fig.3.2 Typical minimum spot

weld shear strength based on

minimum weld size for low

carbon steel sheet with a
minimum tensile strength of
280MPa. (This is not a
Standard. Specification
requirements may vary)
Spot weld section
Sections are normally only required for high quality work where there may be specific requirements
regarding nugget shape and flaws.
Weld penetration (nugget thickness) should normally be between 20 and 80% of each sheet
thickness.
A minimum nugget diameter may be specified (similar to weld diameter).
The size of nugget flaws such as cracks or porosity may be need to be controlled. However, in
practice, substantial flaws in the centre of the nugget may not significantly reduce the joint
strength, provided that they do not cause interface fracture on peel or chisel testing.
Even in the highest aerospace quality welds, such flaws may be up to 10% of the nugget size.
Fatigue properties
Fatigue properties of spot welds are relatively low because of the sharp crevice at the sheet interface at
the edge of the weld.
Spot weld quality is not specially changed for fatigue loaded structures, as larger minimum weld size
criteria may be difficult to guarantee.
Designs for fatigue loading should aim to minimise the localised stress on any one weld, and
ensure the load on the weld is in a shear mode, as far as possible.
Spot welds have poor fatigue performance in peel and such loading should be avoided.
When loaded in shear, the fatigue failure load of spot welds for 106 cycles is usually about 20% of
the static shear load.
A local stress factor has been proposed which takes account of shear and out-of-plane bending.
Using this approach, spot welded joints generally exceed the requirements of IIW class 125
(Fig.3.3)

Fig.3.3 Typical fatigue data for

spot welds in steel (0.8 to 2mm
thickness range), tested in
shear
For more information see FAQ: What is the fatigue performance of resistance spot welds?
Fatigue cracks start at the edge of the weld at the interface and generally grow up through the sheet
thickness, appearing on the surface in or near the edge of the electrode indentation. The crack then
extends in the sheet each side of the weld (Fig.3.4).
Fig.3.4 Fatigue tested spot weld in 0.7mm thick steel:
Fig.3.4a) plan view

Fig.3.4b) cross section
Impact properties
There are no standardised samples for impact testing. In many cases, simple structures are tested, which
represent actual components, such as automotive crush rails.
Impact performance of spot welded structures is generally good and depends largely on the component
design, provided that a sufficient number of welds is used. The mode of stress on the welds in a structure
during crushing includes significant peel loading. Thus, it is usually important to ensure that welds are
large enough and have sufficient ductility to give plug fracture in order to maximise the energy
absorption in the structure. Even when interface or partial plug failures occur on individual test coupons,
such failures may not be observed in actual structures because the properties/design of the structure tend
to dominate in the energy absorption and collapse of the component.
Quality control procedures

Control of quality can be achieved by process control, component testing and possibly non-destructive
testing.
Process control
This incorporates all aspects of the process and includes the material, component, equipment, tooling and
settings. The influence of these factors is summarised later in this section of the guide under Factors
affecting quality.
As weld quality is affected by the machine's force, time and current settings, there needs to be a
procedure for checking the functioning and calibration of the timer and air pressure/electrode force. In
this case, a simple current meter and load cell should be employed to routinely check that the outputs are
within prescribed limits. Deviations from these limits may indicate a fault or overdue maintenance. Such
equipment is also most useful for setting up new work and troubleshooting.
Some equipment has built in monitoring functions, e.g. constant current control or proportional air
pressure regulators. Periodic checks should be conducted to verify that calibration is maintained.
Process monitoring and weld quality checks may be recorded in a simple table and include the time, date
and signature of the checker. Alternatively the data may be displayed on a chart to provide a picture of
how well the process is controlled. This is the basis of statistical process control (SPC). Some timers

enable monitored values to be downloaded and displayed.
Test methods
Test methods are divided into two groups:

Type tests are laboratory tests to establish joint properties and the weldability of materials.
Routine tests are shop-floor tests used for setting up and maintaining weld quality in production.
Type tests include static shear and cross-tension tests (Fig.3.1), weld sections, fatigue, torsion and impact
tests. Many of these methods are standardised and are used to confirm the properties which can be
expected from a particular material and welding procedure. Information on Standards can be found in
Section 1 of the guide.
Routine tests are conducted preferably on actual components but alternatively on coupons of the same
material, welded under conditions as close as possible to the real part. Note that the fit-up conditions,
electrode alignment and current losses may not be accurately represented in coupons. There is some
standardisation of methods and measuring procedure but the component may dictate the destructive
method used. Hand tests are possible for thin materials but with stronger welds in thicker materials,
pneumatic chisels or hydraulic separators (less risk of repetitive strain or vibration injuries) are used.
Non-destructive testing
As there is a small percentage of scrap associated with periodic destructive tests, a non-destructive test
alternative is attractive.
Chisel test
Thin sheet steel assemblies may be tested using the so-called 'non-destructive' chisel test. This
involves driving a chisel between spots or around a spot weld until the material deforms, but
without tearing, so that examination of the crevice reveals the apparent size of the weld. A stuck
weld (non-fused) should break under this test. The deformed metal can then be hammered flat and
the component used as normal. The test is less reliable on coated steel welds but gives a reasonable
indication of strength. High strength steels and thicker materials risk damage to weld strength by
such a test.
Before using such a test to replace some of the full destructive testing on a new component or
material, the indications of this chisel test should be checked against the normal destructive test
results.
Ultrasonic test
As a post-weld NDT method, ultrasonic testing has proved in some automotive applications to be a
good indicator of weld size.
Ultrasonic testing of spot welds requires a special purpose high frequency transducer, with a water
column retained by a plastic membrane, see Fig.3.5. The bubble so formed provides a soft nose to
the probe, which is placed in the spot weld indentation. Multiple reflections of the ultrasonic signal
are then displayed on the flaw detector, as illustrated in Fig.3.6. Great skill is required to interpret
these signals in terms of weld quality. However, substantial reduction of destructive testing has

been achieved by some of the major automotive manufacturers by using this method.
Fig.3.5 Ultrasonic probe
Fig.3.6 Ultrasonic test

with probe connected to a
flaw detector
* ultrasound reflected
from front face of sample
1, 2, 3: reflections from
bottom sheet surface
1', 2', 3': reflections from
weld interface
Substantial training and practice is required to achieve high reliability of weld quality indication,
and smaller companies may have problems maintaining a team of trained, fulltime ultrasonic
testing operators.
Ultrasonic indication is affected by the quality of surface indentation, the material type and
thickness. However, access is only required from one side and the probes are easily manipulated,
being about 15mm diameter and 50mm long.
Developments are continuing and PC-based equipment is now available which assesses the signal
automatically, in an effort to reduce reliance on the operator to interpret the signal. At present,
correlation with weld quality is reasonable but probably not as good as interpretation by a skilled
operator.
Quality standards
ISO 9001 (Quality management systems - Requirements) provides the basis for a quality management
system which can be used by an organisation to demonstrate its capability to meet customer requirements
for products (and/or services).
Additional Standards (summarised below) provide specific requirements for resistance welding

processes. Once all are issued, these will provide guidelines on quality requirements for resistance
welding.
Quality Standards in resistance welding - Key points

Scope Standard
1. Quality requirements
- elementary BSEN ISO 14554 part 1
BSEN ISO 14554 part 2
- comprehensive
2. Procedure development Draft BSEN ISO 15607

- general rules (all processes)
Draft BSEN ISO 15609 part 5
3. Specification and approval of procedures

Draft BSEN ISO 15613
4. Approval of procedures Draft BSEN ISO 15611
- pre-production test
Draft BSEN ISO 15614 part 12
- previous experience
BSEN 1418
5. Welding procedure tests
6. Approval of weld setters
Procedure development
In order to develop a welding procedure specification (WPS), the approach is based on that used for arc
welding but may need interpretation for resistance welding.
Appropriate equipment, tooling and electrodes should be chosen for the job, based on recommended
data. Electrode force and weld time are also usually available from recommended data or Standards.
Welding current is then adjusted until the required weld quality is achieved. Weldability of the materials
may be expressed as the available current range between minimum weld size and an upper limit of weld
splash (or other limiting factor). This is recorded from a weld growth curve as shown in Fig.3.7. The
growth curve can be repeated for more extensive examination of alternative welding conditions of time
or force in order to optimise weldability, by producing a weldability lobe (sometimes referred to as a
'welding window'). Welding current is usually set near the top limit to allow a good safety margin.

Fig.3.7 Weldability expressed using:

a) weld growth curve
b) weldability lobe (welding window)
Procedure development - Key points

1. Establish a procedure which is capable of producing components of acceptable quality (referred
to as the preliminary welding procedure specification (PWPS).
2. Record the technical contents of the PWPS according to prEN ISO 15609-5. (Includes details of
materials, joint design, equipment and tooling, process details and welding parameters.
Guideline record sheets are provided in the Standard.
3. Approve the procedure (based on pr BSEN ISO 15613 or 15611) using the testing requirements
of pr BSEN ISO 15614 part 12. The personnel authorised to approve procedures should be
suitably qualified and acceptable to contracting parties.
4. Record the results of the approval on a Weld Procedure approval record (WPAR).
5. Issue a welding procedure specification (WPS) for the job.
Factors affecting quality

Key factors are:
material
component
equipment

electrodes
welding parameters
human
The extent to which each factor influences quality depends on the application, and how easy it is to weld
the material combination with the parameters chosen. If there is a large acceptable current range (good
weldabilty), and the welding condition is set near the top of the range, there is greater tolerance to
process variables than if the welding condition has a narrow range. In the latter case, much tighter control
of other process factors needs to be maintained.
Previous experience, setting up trials and feedback from production quality checks will establish how
tightly the process needs to be controlled to achieve the required quality standards.
A summary of the factors is shown in Fig.3.8, with brief comments or recommendations where
appropriate. The effect on quality may be related to variation in weld size or strength, weldability (the
tolerance of the process to normal production variables), visual quality factors or effects on electrode life.
Fig.3.8 Factors which can affect weld quality
Materials
The material to be welded forms an important link in the quality chain and should not be
considered an uncontrolled process variable. Problems occasionally occur with batch-to-batch
variations in a given material, especially when working under narrow tolerance conditions.
Attention should be paid to material surface condition, cleanliness and any operations prior to welding
such as press forming which might affect fit-up and introduce surface contamination.
The key material characteristics which can affect weld quality and introduce process variability are as
follows -

Composition:
Variations will affect electrical resistivity, weld nugget formation and possibly weld failure
characteristics
Thickness:
Variations in weld nugget size will result owing to the different heating requirements for weld
nugget growth in different thicknesses of sheet. Thickness variations are often more noticeable on
sheet edges - which is usually where spot weld flanges are located - due to variations in material
thinning in a complex pressed part, for example
Surface coating:
Variability in composition and thickness can alter the surface resistance, which, in turn, will affect
nugget growth. The formation of excessive surface oxides due to inadequate or prolonged material
storage should also be noted and avoided wherever possible
Cleanliness:
Good housekeeping is an important factor. The presence of a light coating of press oil does not
influence quality variability; however, factory dirt and debris from transport and storage have a
tendency to adhere to oiled panels and can contribute significantly to quality variation. Heavy
press lubricants may also affect weld quality
Use of sealants and inter-weld adhesives:

This is currently common practice in vehicle body assembly, where paste type materials are used.
The electrode force locally squeezes out the sealant/adhesive to establish electrical contact and
permit weld nugget formation. Variation in viscosity of these materials (due to partial curing, for
example) can lead to irregular weld nugget growth.
Materials - Key points
1. Ensure materials used, including any coatings, meet the specification established for the
application.
2. Avoid surface contamination of materials, particularly during storing or handling of
components.
3. Establish that controls put in place for materials are adequate to avoid weld quality problems,
i.e. look out for batch-to-batch variation in weld quality.
Components
Good design and component consistency contribute significantly to weld reliability. Please refer to
Design Considerations (later in this Section of the guide) for recommendations on features and
dimensions to be considered.
Poor fit-up, gaps and misalignment can cause variability in weld size because the contact area and
the effective applied force between the components can vary (Fig.3.9). Gaps are a problem if
significant force is required to bring the parts into close contact and alignment. Variation in steel strength

can affect the spring-back of pressings and the resultant fit-up of parts. Whilst resistance welding can
accommodate some degree of component misfit, this should not be used as a means of accepting poor
quality presswork. In some cases, the order in which welds are made can influence the creation or
improvement of gaps. Improved clamping in jigs or local tacking may be appropriate.
Fig.3.9 Examples of fit-up problems
Limited accessibility is often a factor that dictates electrode shape and size, and sometimes also gun
design. A particularly difficult-to-reach weld in an assembly may demand the use of non-optimum
equipment or electrodes. This may then affect the weldability of all the other welds produced using the
same equipment. Such factors need to be considered in component design.
Edge distance and flange width provide the space available to make a weld in a controlled manner.
Weld splash and variable weld quality can result if welds are made too close to the edge of a sheet
(Fig.3.10).
Fig.3.10 Weld made on the sheet

edge (1mm thick steel)

Weld spacing closer than recommended values can result in reduced weld size. This is because some
current is lost through the neighbouring weld due to shunting (Fig.3.11). Where close pitch welds are
essential, use higher current to compensate for the shunt loss.
Fig.3.11 Shunt current losses

through the component or through
a close weld
Components - Key points

Avoid, or take action to improve, bad and variable component fit-up.
Higher electrode forces may be needed to correct difficult fit-up situations
Choose the order in which welds are made to prevent progressive build up of gaps.
Pulsed current schedules may help to reduce the effect of poor fit-up on weld quality, especially
for materials thicker than about 1.5mm
Check that close pitch welds do not suffer shunt current losses and compensate if necessary.
Equipment
Details of equipment types and power supplies are provided in Section 2 of the guide. Guidelines for jigs
and tooling are also provided.
The size and mechanical characteristics of welding equipment can affect the welding tolerance of
materials, or limit the force or current available for a particular application. If equipment is too large, it
may not be possible to set the desired force consistently, and the mechanical characteristics of the
machine (such as friction and inertia) may affect weld formation and likelihood of weld splash.
Welding equipment - Key points

1. Ensure suitable equipment is chosen to allow required settings to be achieved within the
machine's capacity.
2. Avoid undue flexure of the arms or electrode holders as this could lead to skidding or
misalignment of the electrodes.
3. Ensure that the machine and timer are working correctly, and that water cooling is adequate.
4. Ensure that any tooling is properly insulated and does not interfere with force application or
current flow.
5. Plan maintenance to avoid undue deterioration or failure of the mechanical system or of current
supply to the electrodes.
Electrodes
Electrodes should be chosen to suit the particular application. In combination with the welding
parameters, a suitable welding tolerance must be achieved. The various factors related to electrodes are
covered in detail in Section 2 of the guide.
Electrode wear is inevitable. How much the electrodes can be allowed to wear depends on the tolerance
of the initial welding condition. A certain amount of wear might result in unacceptable welds in a
difficult application, yet have little effect in an easy application with good weldability. It is most
important to have sufficient control of size and shape of the contact tip so that the contact area (which
controls the current density and tip pressure) does not change so much that weld quality is affected. A
draft standard pr EN ISO 8166 covers procedures for determining electrode life.
The rate of electrode wear depends on a large number of factors. Typical electrode lives for 1mm
sheet under good conditions are:
low carbon steels: 5,000 to 10,000 welds

zinc coated steel: 500 to 5,000 welds*
200 to 1,000 welds**
aluminium alloys:
* depends on coating type and welding conditions
** surface condition generally has a more significant effect on life than alloy type in aluminium alloys.
Electrodes are cleaned about every 10 welds when spot welding aluminium alloys to aircraft quality
standards.
The procedure for control of electrodes must be chosen accordingly. The amount of allowable tip wear
and the frequency of electrode maintenance must be set up empirically. Frequent light dressing probably
provides the tightest control of electrode condition.
Electrodes - Key points

1. Choose electrodes to suit the particular application, using recommended tip sizes where
appropriate.
2. Provide adequate water cooling to minimise the rate of electrode wear.
3. Change or dress the electrodes (using a reliable method) before electrode wear begins to affect
weld quality.
Also see Electrode maintenance in Section 2 of the guide.
Welding parameters
The three prime welding parameters (electrode force, weld time and welding current), together with
squeeze and hold settings, should all be optimised for specific applications. There is a range of operating
parameters that will result in acceptable weld formation, depending on the material being welded, and the
electrodes and machine used. Appropriate welding procedures are developed accordingly.
Correct choice of parameters, based on recommended values from Standards, should result in
consistent weld quality and good tolerance to process variables. The use of an inappropriate welding
procedure for a given material will increase the risk of making poor quality welds. This may increase unit
production costs as a result of higher scrap rates and possible disruptions to production.
Electrode force is chosen according to material type and thickness and the electrode tip diameter.
The range of electrode forces for spot welding uncoated and coated low carbon steels is included in
Standards such as BS1140. Although electrode forces lower than the recommended values would permit
lower capacity equipment such as lighter weight guns to be used, the achievable weld size and the
weldability range are likely to be reduced. Low forces are likely to be used where access is difficult and
there is a risk of electrode skidding due to flexibility in the arms or electrode holders. High forces
normally provide good weldability ranges but require higher current, stronger equipment and may
increase electrode wear.
The electrode tip pressure (force per unit area of the contact tip) used for uncoated low carbon steels is
nominally 70 to 100N/mm2. Compared with uncoated low carbon steels, the forces required for other
materials are typically:
uncoated low carbon steels: 100%

coated steel: 120 to 150%
120 to 150%
high strength steels:
200 to 250%
stainless steels: 300 to 400%
nickel based alloys:
Electrode force - Key points

1. Choose the appropriate force for the material type and thickness being welded.
2. Adequate squeeze time should be allowed to ensure required electrode force is achieved prior to
current flow.
3. Electrode force must be sufficient to close the joint; insufficient force will result in excessive
resistance which leads to interfacial splash and poor weld quality.
4. Extra force may be needed to compensate for poor part fit-up.
5. Excessive force will close the joint but will reduce resistance at the sheet interface, leading to
insufficient heating and poor weld quality
6. The rate of electrode approach should be controlled, where possible, to avoid mechanical
impact damage to the electrodes, which adversely affects their life.
Meeting demands for high production rates often results in the need for short weld sequence times.
Such settings may have reduced process tolerance, and a compromise must be made between reliability
and productivity. The values set depend on such factors as how the sequence is triggered, the electrode
approach rate and stroke.
Squeeze time can be optimised by measuring the force dynamically using a squeeze analyser, which
indicates the force at which current is initiated. Squeeze time should not be so short that the set force is
not fully reached before current flows.
Weld time is chosen to suit the materials and thickness combination being joined. Shorter weld times
usually require higher forces to help maintain a reasonable welding range. A single pulse of current is the
most efficient use of time and heat, and is suitable for most applications. When using pulsed schedules,
cool time between pulses should normally be short (e.g. 2 cycles) to limit the heat lost from the weld
between pulses.
Hold time is not normally critical, with 5 to 10 cycles being commonly used. Longer times may be
required where spring-back forces could unduly load the spot weld if the electrode force is released
before the weld has cooled sufficiently.
Time sequence - Key points

Squeeze time should be long enough to allow the set force to be reached before current flows.
Select a suitable weld time for the application from Standard guidelines.
Short weld times often need higher electrode force to avoid reduced welding tolerance.
Welding current is the most influential parameter. An acceptable current range can be established for
a given material, thickness combination and weld time. Insufficient current results in inadequate weld
nugget growth. Even a significant increase in weld time may not be capable of compensating for a lack
of current. The use of excessive weld current results in weld splash, poor electrode life and increased
variability in quality.
'Constant current' can be selected on many timers as a feedback control of welding current. Within limits,
this provides correction for the effect on welding current of changes in mains voltage, deterioration of

conductors in the welding circuit and inductive losses. It does not correct for electrode wear, or shunt
current losses.
Welding current - Key points

1. Set up welding current near the upper limit of weld quality to obtain the largest safety margin
above the minimum weld size.
2. Use constant current where appropriate to maintain this important factor under close control.
Problems that affect the choice of settings can arise in some applications.
When a mixture of material or thickness combinations must be welded on a single
machine, separate programmes should be set up on automated equipment. Even force
can be changed using electrically operated regulators if necessary, but the electrode
tip must be chosen to suit the combination requiring the largest weld size. On manual
equipment, a compromise setting, broadly acceptable to each material combination,
must be set up. However, this can limit the weld quality or consistency that can be
achieved.
If insufficient transformer capacity is available to allow optimum settings to be used,

a longer weld time/lower force condition may be acceptable - but weld quality and
consistency may again be reduced.
Human factors
In manual operations, especially when using portable spot welding equipment, there may be variations in
alignment of gun and component, as well as inaccurate spot placement in terms of spacing and edge
distance. In addition, there may be movement of the gun during welding. While uncoated steels with a
wide welding range can usually tolerate such conditions, greater problems would be expected when
welding coated steels. In order to compensate for the higher risk of poor quality welds, high currents are
often used and weld splash is common. Electrode dressing may also be carried out less reliably, leading
to poorer control of tip size and alignment.
These conditions can lead to more variable weld size, poorer weld appearance and increased risk of
splash metal remaining at the weld (weld spurs) causing a laceration safety hazard.
Consider the ergonomics of the welding operation. Component orientation and clamping jig design
have an influence on ease of welding and operator fatigue. Where possible, provide aids to correct
alignment of the component and the gun plus its electrode tips. Also try to avoid difficult to reach
locations.
Correct robot programming is equally important. Care taken by the robot programmer to achieve
good alignment of electrodes and component can result in more consistent weld quality, and a reduction
in splash and distortion at the weld.
Human factors - Key points

1. In manual operations, position the component and design the jigging to avoid difficult access
locations.
2. Provide guides for good alignment where possible.
Design considerations
Material type and thickness
Weldability of the materials and, in the case of dissimilar grades, their compatibility, should be
considered at the design stage. Some high strength steels are hardenable under spot welding cooling
rates, and low peel or tension strength can result. Free-cutting steels with high sulphur can lead to
brittleness in the heat affected zone of projection welds, for example, and are not normally recommended
for welding applications.
There are no firm rules about the weldability of high strength steels as it can depend on the type of steel
as well as the chemical composition. Micro-alloyed and dual phase sheet steels can be less susceptible to
hardenability and low ductility welds than carbon manganese steels of equivalent strength, for example.
This is more evident with the higher strength steels, probably because the carbon and carbon equivalent
levels are higher in the C/Mn steels.
Special welding procedures may be required for borderline cases, e.g. higher heat input pulsed
conditions, which help to reduce the quench rate. Refer to manufacturers' guidelines for material
suitability and conduct proving trials where necessary.
Indirect material effects can affect weldability: component fit-up can be worse in stronger steels in which
spring-back characteristics can be different or variable.
Dissimilar and multiple thickness combinations can have limitations. Recommended settings are
available for two-thickness combinations and these provide a good starting point for other combinations.
In dissimilar thickness spot welds, the ratio of thickness should not exceed 3:1. Trials are normally
required to set up procedures and establish joint performance for special cases where this ratio is
exceeded.
Multiple thickness joints should normally be limited to three thicknesses, where any outer sheet should
not be less than 25% of the total joint thickness. Penetration of the weld nugget into the outer sheet
becomes difficult if it is thinner than this. A smaller electrode tip in contact with the thinner sheet can
improve penetration but the weld sizes required between the sheets needs to be considered.
Low resistance of the thin outer sheet increases the problem by reducing nugget penetration. Examples of
this include zinc coated steels with low interface resistance and some special steels (e.g. interstitial free).
Material and thickness combinations - Key points

1. The weldability of high strength steels depends on the type and composition. Check
manufacturers' data and do trials if necessary.
2. The maximum thickness ratio for spot welding two sheets should not normally exceed 3:1.
3. No more than three thicknesses should normally be welded together, with the outer sheet at
least 25% of the total thickness.
4. Conduct trials to verify the weldability of special cases.
Component dimensions
The guidelines for component dimensions define the area required to make the weld and the space
needed to provide access for the electrodes.
Edge distance and flange width are related to the required weld size, as shown in the Key points
immediately below. The sheets should make flat contact over this area. Dimensional variability of the
parts and accuracy of weld placement should also be taken into account. Failure to provide sufficient
contact area will lead to variable weld quality, edge damage and weld splash.
It is difficult to be specific about access limitations but Fig.3.12 illustrates typical problems. In many
cases, special electrodes and procedures can be adopted to make welds with difficult access, but
production and weld quality issues may be raised. These may include water cooling, electrode wear and
electrode maintenance procedures.
Fig.3.12 Typical access problems

a) Length l limited by stroke of machine if b) Depth d limited by design of gun arm,
channel is not open ended. electrode and adaptor.
Width w limited by electrode and adapter Length l limited by machine stroke or by
diameter. Clearance required to avoid loss of rigidity with small diameter
short circuit or damage to side of adaptors.
electrode.

Component dimensions - Key points

1. Edge distance should not be less than 1.25D, and the flat contacting overlap should not be less
than 2.5D - where D is the electrode tip diameter (nominal weld diameter).
2. Access should be sufficient to allow standard electrode assemblies to be used where possible.
3. Avoid locations requiring an electrode assembly that is too flexible to allow the necessary force
to be applied, or where the electrode or holder are likely to short circuit against the component.
4. If special electrode assemblies are necessary, these should be compatible with production
requirements and allow the desired weld quality to be achieved reliably.
Special cases
Face welds 'non-marking'

A flat electrode or backing bar can be used to minimise marking on one side of the component.
However, weld quality is likely to be reduced because penetration of the nugget into the face sheet
is reduced. This is a particular problem in dissimilar or multiple thickness welds where the face
sheet is less than half the total thickness. For best results, ensure that the opposing electrode is well
aligned to the flat backing electrode and that the component is presented squarely between the
electrode. Keep the electrode face clean. 'Self-aligning' electrodes may give problems due to their
limited ability to correct any misalignment and poorer cooling than standard electrodes.

Curved surfaces
Welds made on curved surfaces tend to be hotter against the convex, outer surface and cooler
inside. This is because of the relative difference in contact area of the electrodes. In extreme cases
this can lead to overheating of the outer surface but limited penetration into the inner sheet. This
problem can be worse with dissimilar thickness welds when the thinner sheet is on the inside.
The problem can be corrected by using different electrode tip diameters (provided that no error can
be made with electrode position). The smaller electrode tip should contact the inside surface.
Seam welding
The seam welding process is an adaptation of resistance spot welding and involves making a number of
spot welds to form a continuous, leak-tight joint by means of rotating copper alloy wheel electrodes. The
electrodes are not opened between spots. The electrode wheels apply a constant force to the workpieces
and rotate at controlled speeds. The welding current is either pulsed to give a series of discrete spots, or
continuous for high speed applications. Seam welding equipment is normally fixed and the components
being welded are manipulated between the wheels. The process may be automated. The general
principles of seam welding are illustrated in Fig.3.13 for conventional wide wheel seam welding.
Fig.3.13 Conventional
wide-wheel seam welding
There are a number of process variants for specific applications:

Wide-wheel seam
Wheel contact width normally 5 t mm flat (where t is single sheet thickness in mm)
General purpose welding (domestic radiators up to 6 m/min)
Narrow-wheel seam
Wheel contact shape typically 6mm radius
Knurl drive on wheel edge with contact surface continuously planished
Controls electrode contamination when welding coated steels, such as for vehicle fuel tanks

Consumable-wire seam welding

Shaped, consumable copper wire fed between the wheels and sheets to be joined, to give consistent
clean contact
Used for welding coated steels, e.g. tin cans and vehicle fuel tanks
Mash seam welding

Narrow overlap of sheet edges, which are partly crushed together during welding
High speed welding of tin cans and drums (0.2mm tinplate up to 100m/min)
Wide-wheel or consumable-wire processes used
Foil butt-seam welding

Foil welded onto each side of butted edges of sheets
Typically 4mm wide stainless steel foil used to preserve corrosion resistance on coated steel
Virtually flush finish with no crevice; used for producing wide panels
Fig.3.14 Alternative seam

welding techniques:
a) Narrow wheel seam
b) Consumable wire seam
welding in a mash welding
configuration (small overlap)
Various national Standards or guidelines, such as British Standard BS 6265, cover procedures and
provide recommendations for seam welding uncoated and coated low carbon steels. The number of spots
per unit length depends on the sheet thickness and is chosen to give typically 25% overlap of the spots.
Other parameters are related by the equation:
NxTxV=30 where:
N = number of spots/cm
T = current on time plus off time in cycles per pulse (1cycle = 0.02s at 50 cycles/s mains
frequency)
V = welding speed in m/min

Electrode forces and welding currents are higher than for spot welding a given thickness, but
current pulse times are shorter. Example - 1mm low carbon steel: 1.5 kN electrode force, pulsed
current 2cycles on-time/3cycles off-time, 7,000A welding current and 2m/min welding speed. Higher
speeds are achievable with continuous current and tight process control. Larger diameter wheels also
benefit high speed welding by providing a longer footprint and maintaining force better on the cooling
weld.
Material limitations are similar to those in resistance spot welding, and good access to both sides of
the component is required without obstructions. There are also limitations on the curvature of the
components, to allow access for the wheels, and on the corner radii, where skidding may occur. Wheels
should normally be of a similar diameter, although a larger diameter is normally needed on the outside of
a cap-to-tube type joint. This helps to balance the wheel contact areas and thus avoid overheating the
outside contact surface. In automated systems, welding speed is usually reduced when welding round
corners. Problems can also occur on corners if the pressed flange is badly wrinkled. Tack welds are used
to prevent build-up of gaps between sheets. The height of tooling used to manipulate the component may
need to be adjusted to avoid misalignment, when wheel diameter changes with wear and dressing.
Special precautions are required for coated steels. Rapid contact-face wear can occur, and continuous
dressing is preferable using knurl drive systems. In addition, distortion of the weld area resulting from
misalignment should be minimised as this can lead to cracking. In this case, the melted coating can
penetrate the steel at the edge of the weld. This can also occur when welding close to a sharply formed
flange radius.
Seam welding - Key points

1. Maintain a consistent wheel contact face by continuous dressing/planishing or periodic
reshaping, especially when welding coated steels.
2. Tack components with spot welds where necessary to avoid the build-up of gaps.
3. Maintain good alignment of the seam with the wheels.
4. Choose wheel diameters appropriate to the component curvature and welding speed.
Projection welding
Projection welding is not covered in detail in this guide, as there is a wide range of possible applications,
and only a few applicable Standards. The guidelines for spot welding apply in general but the following
additional comments apply.
In projection welding, the size and position of the weld or welds are determined by the design of
the component to be welded. Force and current are concentrated in a small contact area which occurs
naturally, as in cross wire welding, or is deliberately introduced by machining or forming. An embossed
dimple is used for sheet joining, and a 'V' projection or angle can be machined in a solid component to
achieve an initial line contact with the component to which it is to be welded. See Fig.3.15 and 3.16.

Fig.3.15 Examples of small components

with projections, and projection welded
items
EN 28167 gives recommendations for embossed projections, and BS 2630 provides procedures and
recommendations for welding uncoated low carbon steel. BS7670 covers the specification and welding
of weld nuts and studs. For additional information on annular projections please see FAQ: Are there any
general recommendations on the dimensions and use of annular projections in resistance welding?
Fig.3.16 Projection welded pulley with

embossed projection welded sheet
halves and annular projection welded
boss
Consistency of projection shape and height is essential. Typically, projections should be consistent
within about 10% of the required projection height. Prior to completing the weld, components should
touch only at the projections, otherwise current and force will be lost through other contacts.
Equipment should be in good mechanical condition, with minimum flexure of the head as this
could affect alignment. Low friction and good head follow-up characteristics are important to allow
consolidation of the weld and avoid splash. Self-aligning systems can contribute to the follow-up if
properly set up and maintained. Head approach speed may also affect cold collapse of the projection.
When welding a line of projections, these should be aligned across the machine, not into the machine's
throat, otherwise the projections furthest from the transformer will carry less current. Current feed to the
electrodes may also need to be modified to maintain a uniform share of current to the outmost

projections.
The main electrode requirements are flat parallel surfaces. When choosing the electrode material,
electrode hardness has to balanced against electrode conductivity and the best compromise reached.
Tungsten/copper inserts are suitable in some cases for providing resistance to mechanical wear.
When welding coated steel, the main problem is alloying of the electrode tip. This produces wear which
alters the contact face of the electrode. Good cooling of the electrode assembly minimises wear but
electrodes should be replaced, or dressed flat where feasible, before wear becomes sufficient to affect
weld quality.
Electrode force is critical in providing sufficient contact pressure to allow controlled weld growth
and avoid splash. If the force is too high, excessive cold collapse of the projection reduces component
stand-off and higher current is required. Periodic checking of electrode force is recommended.
Weld time is usually short for projection welding. Most heat is generated during the first few cycles of
weld time, while the projection gives a high concentration of current. Additional time is of use in some
cases since it allows weld growth and may also assist in eliminating surface coatings from the weld
interface where their effect could decrease weld properties.
Projection welding - Key points

1. Several welds can be made in one operation.
2. Welds can be made at a closer pitch and closer to an edge than is recommended for spot
welding.
3. Large, flat electrodes are used, which reduces wear and minimises marking on at least one side.
4. Rigid equipment is required and well aligned electrodes, to ensure uniform distribution of force
and current between individual projections or around an annular projection.
5. Low inertia and friction are desirable in the welding head to allow rapid follow-up of projection
collapse.
6. Consistency of projection shape and height (typically within about 10%) is essential.
This is one Section of a TWI Best Practice Guide. You can select other Sections from the
Introduction and Contents page of this guide.
Copyright 2004, TWI Ltd

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Resistance welding of sheet metals

- a guide to best practice

Section 3 - Spot welding operation and control

Reproduced by permission from TWI

Copyright 2004, TWI Ltd

WORLD CENTRE FOR MATERIALS JOINING TECHNOLOGY

TWI WORLD CENTRE FOR MATERIALS JOINING TECHNOLOGY

Search Go Advanced search

Resistance welding of sheet metals - a

Section 3 - Spot welding operation and control

best practice approach for setting up welding procedures

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Quality requirements for resistance welding - Key points

Weld properties and quality factors

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weld size and fracture mode

Special factors may include:

Various factors should be controlled, depending on the application, for example:

Substantial component distortion or edge damage is not normally allowed.

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Fig.3.1 Mechanical tests for spot welds:

Fig.3.1a) Shear test

Fig.3.1b) Cross tension test

Fig.3.2 Typical minimum spot

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minimum weld size for low

Spot weld section

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Fig.3.3 Typical fatigue data for

Fig.3.4 Fatigue tested spot weld in 0.7mm thick steel:

Fig.3.4a) plan view

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Fig.3.4b) cross section

Quality control procedures

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enable monitored values to be downloaded and displayed.

Test methods are divided into two groups:

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Fig.3.5 Ultrasonic probe

Fig.3.6 Ultrasonic test

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Quality Standards in resistance welding - Key points

2. Procedure development Draft BSEN ISO 15607

3. Specification and approval of procedures

6. Approval of weld setters

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Fig.3.7 Weldability expressed using:

Procedure development - Key points

Factors affecting quality

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Fig.3.8 Factors which can affect weld quality

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Use of sealants and inter-weld adhesives:

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Fig.3.9 Examples of fit-up problems

Fig.3.10 Weld made on the sheet

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Fig.3.11 Shunt current losses

Components - Key points

Welding equipment - Key points

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low carbon steels: 5,000 to 10,000 welds

Electrodes - Key points

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