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Analysis and Preservation of Pleistocene Human

and Animal Footprints: An Example from Toluquilla,
Valsequillo Basin (Central Mexico)
a b c d
David Huddart , Matthew R. Bennett , Silvia Gonzlez & Xavier Velay
a
Faculty of Education and Community Studies, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool,
United Kingdom
b
School of Conservation Sciences, Bournemouth University, Poole, United Kingdom
c
School of Biological and Earth Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool,
United Kingdom
d
School of Design, Engineering & Computing, Bournemouth University, Poole, United
Kingdom

Available online: 02 Dec 2008

To cite this article: David Huddart, Matthew R. Bennett, Silvia Gonzlez & Xavier Velay (2008): Analysis and Preservation of
Pleistocene Human and Animal Footprints: An Example from Toluquilla, Valsequillo Basin (Central Mexico), Ichnos, 15:3-4,
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ISSN: 1042-0940 print / 1563-5236 online
DOI: 10.1080/10420940802470599

Analysis and Preservation of Pleistocene Human and Animal

Footprints: An Example from Toluquilla, Valsequillo Basin
(Central Mexico)
David Huddart,1 Matthew R. Bennett,2 Silvia Gonzalez,3 and Xavier Velay4
1
Faculty of Education and Community Studies, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool,
United Kingdom
2
School of Conservation Sciences, Bournemouth University, Poole, United Kingdom
3
School of Biological and Earth Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom
4
School of Design, Engineering & Computing, Bournemouth University, Poole, United Kingdom
Downloaded by [189.227.127.32] at 19:46 21 December 2011

Roccamonfina prints in Italy with ages around 350 K BP (Mietto

Human and animal footprints found in the Valsequillo Basin
were formed on the upper bedding planes surfaces of a volcanic ash
(Xalnene Ash) deposited by a subaqueous volcano along the shores
of a Pleistocene lake. The footprints were made on lake shorelines
and the exposed lake floor during low stands associated, either
with water displacement during the volcanic eruption, or due to
climatically- driven fluctuations in the water balance. The Xalnene
Ash has been dated to at least 40 K BP and consequently the human
footprints provide evidence for much earlier colonization of the
Americas than is often accepted. The methodology used to record,
analyze and conserve these footprints used three-dimensional
laser scanning, with sub-millimeter precision. This data were
used to reproduce polymer models of individual footprints using
the application of rapid-prototyping technology. This technology
has wide significance for the study of ichnofacies in general.
The characteristics of the human footprints and some problems
associated with the volcanic ash as a molding medium for the
clarity of these characteristics are given. These human footprints
and their dating resolve the controversy related to the age of
the archaeological and associated megafaunal remains that were
reported in the Valsequillo Gravels in the 1960s and 1970s.
Keywords human/animal footprints, Toluquilla, Mexico, conserva-
tion, laser scanning, rapid prototyping
INTRODUCTION
The fossilization of human and animal footprints is rare, as it
requires unusual geological or geomorphological conditions to
secure their preservation. Well-documented examples include
the Laetoli prints in East Africa with an age of 3.6 Ma
BP (Leakey and Hay, 1979; Leakey and Harris, 1987), the
Address correspondence to David Huddart, Faculty of Education
and Community Studies, I.M. Marsh Campus, Liverpool John Moores
University, Barkhill Road, Liverpool, L17 6BD, United Kingdom. E-
mail: olfdhudd@livjm.ac.uk
et al., 2003), the Mesolithic prints from the Severn estuary
(Aldhouse-Green et al., 1992) and the Mesolithic to Bronze Age
Formby footprints in the United Kingdom (Roberts et al., 1996;
Gonzalez et al., 1997; Huddart et al., 1999a, 1999b; Gonzalez
and Huddart, 2002). In South America there is one childs
footprint in clay reported at Monte Verde in Chile (Dillehay,
1997) and middle Holocene footprints from Acahualinca in
Nicaragua (Kidder, 1943; Bryan, 1973), together with the Monte
Hermoso human footprints from Argentina (Politis and Bayon,
1995). In Mexico there are several locations where Quaternary
human and animal footprints have been reported, which include
the Pie de Vaca Formation, Tepexi de Rodrguez, Puebla
(Cabral-Perdomo, 2000; Rodrguez-de la Rosa et al., 2004);
Cuatrocienegas, Coahuila (Rodrguez-de la Rosa et al., 2004;
Lockley and Rodrguez-de la Rosa, in press); Mezcala, Jalisco
(Quevedo-Lara, 1998); Amanalco de Becerra, Estado de Mexico
(Sanchez, 1897, Leon, 1921); Santo Tomas de Jalieza, Oaxaca
(Lettow and Otto, 2004, 2005); and Guerrero (Jimenez-Lopez,
pers.comm. 2004). The authors have recently presented evi-
dence for the presence of human footprints in volcanic ash
from Central Mexico (Toluquilla Footprint Layer; Gonzalez
et al., 2006; Figs. 1 and 2), which may provide evidence for
the earliest known colonization (c. 40 K BP) of the Americas.
In this contribution we focus on the ichnofacies of the Toluquilla
Footprint Layer and the techniques used to analyze and preserve
these potentially important traces.
FOOTPRINT MAPPING AND PRESERVATION
Three-Dimensional Digitizing
Traditional methods of field recording footprints and other
trace fossils either require destructive sampling, photogram-
metry, or the casting of prints using plaster or resin-based
products. The success of such strategies is highly dependent

232
 TOLUQUILLA FOOTPRINTS, MEXICO
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FIG. 1. Location of the Toluquilla Quarry south of Puebla, Central Mexico. The Toluquilla Footprint Layer outcrops extensively between the Valsequillo
Reservoir and the Barranca Mina del Frances.
on the depth of the impression, the properties of the substrate
and the level of damage to the original print that is acceptable.
Footprints such as those found in coastal, intertidal sediments
around the UK, for example, are transitory and under constant
threat, and destructive sampling or plaster casting is considered
by most to be acceptable (Roberts et al., 1996; Gonzalez et al.,
1997; Huddart et al., 1999a, 1999b). In contrast, destructive
sampling or casting of the Toluquilla or the Laetoli footprints by
comparison would be unacceptable. Casting methods although
simple may not always record fine detail, particularly where
a releasing agent is required. In the case of the Toluquilla
footprints described here, although the volcanic ash in which
they are preserved is hard, it is easily abraded and the application
of a grease-based, releasing agent would have caused print
damage. There is also the risk in the case of plaster casting
of leaving fragments of plaster in deeply impressed prints.
Figure 3 illustrates this point with an example from the
Pie de Vaca Formation in Central Mexico. Here a line of
ungulate prints preserved in mudstone have been cast and
233
fragments of plaster remain within the prints. Not only does this
potentially damage the original but the casts are also less than
perfect.
The Laetoli footprints provide a good example of successful
preservation by casting. They were cast using either latex or
silicone rubber, with fine sand and French chalk being used as
a releasing agent (Jones, 1987). The quality of these casts is
superior and they have been used widely to create a number of
museum displays around the world. The process was invasive,
however, since the original surfaces were hardened and loose
fragments where glued in place prior to casting (Jones, 1987).
The damaged caused by this process is perhaps somewhat
academic in the case of the Laetoli footprints since the growth
of scrub vegetation over the re-buried footprint surfaces has
caused extensive damage (Agnew and Demas, 1995), and in
several cases the cast and associated photographs remain as the
only record of many of the footprints.
Another technique used widely at a number of famous
footprint localities, including those at Laeotli (Day and Wicken,
 234 D. HUDDART ET AL.
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FIG. 2. Ichnofacies from the Toluquilla Footprint Layer. (A) Adult left foot. (B) Short trail of child-sized footprints orientated up-slope. The impressions have
poorly defined heels reflective up slope locomotion. (C) Footprint trails on the floor of the Toluquilla Quarry. (D) Superimposed and cross-cutting prints. The main
print is an adult left foot with a clear pedal arch. The print is orientated across the slope and shows down slope slippageright to left. The heel of this print is
cross cut by a child-sized print moving up slope at an oblique axis to the first print. Slope on the slab varies between 4 and 8 . (E) Adult left foot showing the
toe pads and heel impression. (F) Typical child-size print showing poor anatomical definition. (G) Poorly defined adult footprint intersected by dessication cracks.
(See Color Plate XXXV)

1980; Jones, 1987; Day, 1991) is the use of vertical stereo
photographs to produce contour maps of individual prints using
photogrammetry. In the case of the Laetoli prints, this was
achieved by taking a series of vertical photographs in a variety of
light conditions using a camera sliding along a horizontal pole
suspended above the footprint trails (Jones, 1987). Mechanical
photogrammetry was used in the production of these contour
maps. Today digital photogrammetry provides a superior and
quicker option and vertical images are not necessarily required
given known points (x, y and z coordinates) for geo-referencing.
The accuracy of such techniques depends on the resolution of
the digital images and the accuracy of geo-referenced points,
but is of the order of 2 to 5 mm.
At Toluquilla we adopted a technique of three-dimensional
laser scanning, which provides a potential level of accuracy
of 0.1 mm in the vertical plane (Fig. 4). This was used
in conjunction with more conventional grid-based mapping
of footprint distributions. Three-dimensional digitizing via
a laser scanner is a technique that is finding increasing
application for a range of engineering, bio-medical, geological
and archaeological applications (e.g., Goskar et al., 2003; Kau
et al., 2005). In January 2004 we deployed a Konica-Minolta VI
900 three-dimensional digitizer at the Toluquilla site. The VI 900
uses laser triangulation technology in conjunction with digital
photography to create an elevation model that can be rendered
by a digital photograph. Resolution is of the order of 0.1 mm in
the vertical plane, with x and y accuracy of 0.22 and 0.16 mm
respectively, although in practice accuracy is more variable
due to variation in light conditions. The equipment was run
from a small generator and mounted on a tripod. The VI900 is
 TOLUQUILLA FOOTPRINTS, MEXICO
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FIG. 3. The Pie de Vaca Formation in Central Mexico. (A) Trail of ungulate footprints preserved in mudstone. (B) and (C) Remnants of plaster within deeply
incised ungulate prints, illustrating some of the problems associated with plaster casting.
FIG. 4. The Konica-Minolta VI900 three-dimensional laser scanner in use on
the floor of the Toluquilla Quarry in January 2004.
235
designed for use in laboratory light conditions rather than in
bright sunlight, having a red light laser. This proved to be a
significant issue in a location such as Mexico and working
was restricted to a brief hour at dawn and dusk each day.
Attempts to shield the device from ambient light conditions
proved difficult and the only practical solution for daytime
working is to place the scanner within a tent. Unfortunately
the control of the light conditions in this way causes serious
deterioration in the quality of the digital photographs obtained
with which to render the elevation models. This can be overcome
by locating geo-referencing points around the print and taking a
high-resolution digital photograph with a separate camera under
better light conditions.
Three-dimensional laser scanners such as the VI900 work
on the basis of line-of-sight and consequently positioning of
the instrument to avoid dead-ground within a print is critical.
Multiple scans of a single print from different angles can be
combined during post-processing to overcome this problem
provided that adequate geo-referencing points, preferably 3-
dimensional objects, are located around the scanned print. Small
cubes provide ideal geo-referencing points. In the case of the
Toluquilla footprints careful positioning of the scanner avoid
the need for multiple scans of any given print. Small data holes
in a scan may also occur where surface reflection is inhibited
by reduced illumination of the original surface, the angle of the
scanner with respect to the ground and/or the gradient of some
features on the surface.
 236
FIG. 5. A series of images showing scanned Toluquilla footprints being manipulated in the Konica-Minolta Polygon Editing Tool (PET). The images consisted
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of photographs draped over digital elevation models. (A)(D) Single adult left foot (Fig. 2A). (E) and (F) Typical adult footprints on the Toluquilla Footprint Layer.
Although at Toluquilla we focused on scanning individual
prints, it is also possible to scan a surface as a series of adjacent
panels and to assemble these during post-processing into a single
mosaic. The key to this is a grid of surveyed geo-referencing
points common to all scanned panels. It provides an excellent
strategy for precision mapping individual footprint trails.
Data from Toluquilla was post-processed using Konica-
Minoltas Polygon Editing Tool (PET; Fig. 5), and was output
for inclusion in spatial information software as ASCII xyz
data files. Using these, data were then imported into a spatial
information package from which contour maps were generated
(Fig. 6).Precision measurements of footprint attributes were also
then taken from these images.
On the negative side the equipment is bulky11 kg for the
scanner to which one must add the weight of a tripod, laptop and
generator. The equipment also does not operate below 10 C and
is occasionally temperamental in a field context, being designed
primarily for office use. Despite this it provides a unique tool
for the precision mapping and preservation of the footprints and
other ichnofacies.
Rapid Prototyping
It is possible to turn the digital information derived from
three-dimensional digitizing back into a solid object (polymer
model) for public display using rapid proto-typing technology.
This design and engineering technology is normally associated
with the development of new consumer products, such as mobile
phone cases, but was used here to re-create the Toluquilla
footprints for public display (Fig. 7). Given that the application
of this technology to natural sciences is novel and may have
wider application in the study of human footprints or other
ichnofacies, the process is described here in some detail.
The point cloud captured by the scanner was processed by
the Polygon Editing Tool (PET) software from Konica-Minolta.
D. HUDDART ET AL.
This processing joins all the pointsup to 300,000 points per
laser scan, giving a three-dimensional model. This creates a
series of polygons and consequently a mesh of the scanned
surface. Small imperfections such as small holes associated with
missing polygons can be repaired within the PET software by
selecting the sides defining a hole and then filling the space with
new polygons. A mathematical interpolation is used to keep
the curvature of the surface smooth. Once the holes are filled
the software exports the data to an industry format STL file
(stereolithography). The STL format is an ASCII file listing the
triangular surfaces that describe the meshed surface. This is the
standard input for most rapid prototyping machines.
In the case of the scanned footprint only a top surface was
available. Therefore, to generate a true three-dimensional model,
bottom and side surfaces had to be created. The STL file was
imported to a more advanced polygon editorRapidform from
INUS Technologyto achieve this and was also trimmed to
form a neat rectangle around the footprint. There are some
inherent problems involved in creating the three-dimensional
model that necessitated advanced polygon editing, modeling
and optimization. For example, in order to have an economic
and practical casting process, a pattern with an overall thickness
of 5 mm was necessary. This meant that the bottom surface of the
footprint had to match the top surface. However, an exact match
would have doubled the data file involved causing processing
problems. The bottom surface was therefore optimized to
represent the overall shape of the top surface but without
any of the detailed ground surface asperities. Maintaining a
regular thickness of 5 mm for the model especially in areas of
high-gradient was also problematic and overcome by generating
individual polygons manually. The optimized three-dimensional
model was finally exported to an STL file.
The rapid prototyping system selected for this research is
based on the Fused Deposition Modeling technology (FDM)
 TOLUQUILLA FOOTPRINTS, MEXICO 237
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FIG. 6. A selection of contour maps, orthogonal to the footprint plane, for footprints on the floor of the Toluquilla Quarry. In all cases they are adult left feet and
the contour interval is 1 mm. (A) corresponds to the footprint in Figure 2A and Figure 5(A)(D).

from Stratasys. The STL file was transferred to the Insight
preprocessing software (Stratasys). Using this software the
three-dimensional model was orientated vertically to improve
the accuracy of the built pattern. The model was then hori-
zontally sliced into more than 1,600 thin sections (0.125 mm).
The FDM process used these sections to create two-dimensional
contours that were stacked one upon another to create the three-
dimensional model. During the physical fabrication process,
each of these contour layers is built up from a semi-molten
ABS filament. A second nozzle extruded support material for
any structures that had an overhang angle of less than 45 from
horizontal. Depending on the size of the footprint this whole
process took 4080 hours. To reduce the time and the amount of
material for building the footprint two optimization processes
were carried out with the Insight software. The first process
reduced the size of some of the supports and eliminated the
redundant ones. The second process sparsely filled the inside
of the part. This meant that each slice was created with solid
perimeters attached to an internal framework effectively giving
a honeycomb structure to the internal geometry of the pattern.
The FDM process was selected for its excellent stability,
good feature definition and its innovative water soluble, support
material. Time and environmental exposure do not alter the size
of the part or its features. Once a prototype is removed from the
FDM system, and it reaches room temperature, the dimensions
are fixed. Although advanced operators of an FDM system can
produce smaller features, most FDM prototypes are constrained
to a minimum feature size that is twice the bead width. Therefore
the minimum feature size ranges from 0.40.6 mm; sufficient ac-
curacy to resolve coarse sand grains. This was suitable for an ac-
curate definition of the surface features of the volcanic ash. After
the part was created with the FDM process, it required only one
 238
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FIG. 7. Rapid-prototyping model of adult left foot. (A) Photograph of the original footprint in situ. (B) Photograph of a polymer model of the same footprint.
(See Color Plate XXXVI)
post-processing step, namely removal of the support material.
By using ABS this step was automated. The part was submerged
in an ultrasonic bath of water-based solution for a few hours at
65 C. The supports were then dissolved leaving the footprint
model clean and preserving any small or fragile features.
The footprint fabricated by the FDM process was used
as a pattern to create a silicone rubber mould. To make the
mould the pattern was suspended in a box. A casting gate and
some venting rods were attached to the pattern before pouring
de-gassed silicone rubber into the box. After further de-gassing
in a vacuum chamber the mould was removed and placed in
an oven to cure. When fully cured and removed from the box,
the silicone rubber was then cut following a visible parting line
marked previously on the edge of the pattern. The pattern model
was faithfully reproduced in the silicone mould. The mould
was then reassembled and taped together ready for casting.
For the footprint a strong and durable polyurethane resin was
mixed under vacuum together with some color dies before being
injected into the mould. After curing the resin in the oven the
cast prototype was removed from the mould. The casting gate
and runners were trimmed off. The cast footprint was an exact
reproduction of the pattern model. This allowed it to be handled
and studied easily. Up to 30 casts could be made before the
silicone mould deteriorates.
The process used to create physical prototypes of the
footprints is novel and creates unique reproductions of the prints
for public display (Fig. 7). To date the project team has focused
on the production of individual footprints but it is possible to
create models of larger surfaces. Although each pattern is limited
in size, 0.5 m square in the case of the equipment used here, it is
possible to merge scanned data together and create interlocking
D. HUDDART ET AL.
three-dimensional models that could be fabricated separately
and then reassembled like a puzzle. This would allow for the
reproduction of a footprint trail, or a footprint cluster.
TOLUQUILLA FOOTPRINT LAYER
Stratigraphy
The Toluquilla footprint layer contains a range of human
and animal footprint traces preserved on the upper bedding
planes of an indurated, coarse, basaltic volcanic ash (Xalnene
Ash), which was deposited in a shallow Pleistocene lake
(Lake Valsequillo) located in the Valsequillo Basin during the
Pleistocene (Fig. 1). The Xalnene Ash was deposited from
a subaqueous, monogenetic volcano (Cerro Toluquilla) which
erupted within Lake Valsequillo some time before 40 K BP. The
human and associated animal footprints occur on bedding plane
surfaces exposed throughout the eastern end of the Valsequillo
Basin, but are best exposed in the floor of an abandoned quarry
close to Cerro Toluquilla (Fig. 1). The footprints were made
and preserved during the latest stages of deposition of the ash
and are present in several layers in the top 20 cm of the ash
sucession where they are interbedded with lake sediments. The
Xalnene Ash was exposed on lake shorelines during low stands
in the water level and the traces are associated with desiccation
cracks formed during exposure of the lake floor. Human and
animals traversing the lake shore and exposed lake floor left a
range of short trials and individual prints in the coarse ash (Fig.
8). Lake marginal transgressions preserved the traces through
burial by lake sediment and subsequent pulses of volcanic ash.
The volcanic ash is cut by a number of irregular, silt-filled
hydrofractures formed by the loading of underlying saturated
 TOLUQUILLA FOOTPRINTS, MEXICO 239

FIG. 8. Artists impression of the lake shore and footprint formation.

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lake silts by the ash during deposition. This indicates that the
ash has not undergone post-depositional re-working.
The stratigraphic context and geochronological control for
the Xalnene Ash is shown in Figure 9 and is discussed in detail
within Gonzalez et al. (2006). The Toluquilla Footprint Layer
has been dated to 38 8.57 K BP (TW0410) using OSL
dating of baked, silt xenoliths within the ash and with respect to
a succession of radiocarbon dates (9.15 0.5 K BP (W1896) to
38.9 0.8 (Oxa-14355)) within the stratigraphically younger,
fluvial sediments exposed in the Barranca Caulapan (Fig. 1).
It is on this basis that the human footprints of the Toluquilla
Footprint Layer are believed to provide evidence of early human
occupation of the Americas.
Ichnology
The footprints are exposed on bedding planes that outcrop
sub-parallel to the ground surface west of Cerro Toluquilla,
between the margins of the present Valsequillo Reservoir to the
south and the Barranca Mina del Frances to the north (Fig. 1).
The prints are best exposed in a small quarry 1 km to the west
of Cerro Toluquilla, where bedding planes of Xalnene Ash are
exposed on the quarry floor (Fig. 1). Here the ash and associated
lake sediments drape a bedrock high composed of basement
rocks (Balsas Group conglomerate). As a result the original
surface slope of the ash varies locally from the horizontal to as
much as 8 .
There are two superimposed ichnofacies on the quarry floor
(Fig. 10). One ichnofacies consists of human and animal
footprints and is described further below. This is overlain by
another anthropogenic ichnofacies, consisting of: (1) angular
tool marks associated with the metal caterpillar tread of a
bulldozer (Fig. 10); (2) the angular tool marks left by the teeth
of a mechanical excavators bucket and picks (Fig. 11); (3) tyre
marks formed skidding vehicles; and (4) rectilinear tool marks
formed by mechanical pick working of the quarry floor (Fig.
12). Superimposed on these distinct ichnofacies are a series of

FIG. 9. Summary stratigraphy and geochronological control for the Valsequillo Basin.
 240 D. HUDDART ET AL.
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FIG. 10. Overview of the Toluquilla Footprint Layer exposed in the floor of the Toluquilla Quarry showing the natural ichnofacies overlain by anthropogenic
tool marks dating from quarry operation. (See Color Plate XXXVII)

natural erosional scars associated with the down-slope flow of
storm waters, but post-lithification. These form distinct arcuate
scours, open down-slope, over 1 to 10 m wide and 10 to 30
cm deep (Fig. 13). All three elements are morphologically and
temporally distinct.
The human and animal footprints consist of a series of
shallow, elongated enclosed depressions on the bedding plane
surfaces of the ash. These depressions vary from as little as 10 cm
in diameter to more than 25 cm. They form distinct lines, or
trails, and are contemporaneous with the dessication cracks,
which are best developed on the more horizontal surfaces. Both
the depressions and dessication cracks pre-date lithification of
the ash and, although infilled with loose gravel from storm
run-off, these depressions are morphologically distinct from
the later post-lithification erosional scours present on the slab.
Individual depressions are identifiable as being human and
animal footprints (Robbins, 1985; Leakey and Harris, 1987;
Day, 1991). The best examples meet all of the human footprint
recognition criteria set out in the literature, namely:
1. Where it is possible to see the toe impressions, there is a
nondivergent great toe (hallux) which is about twice as big
as toe 2 beside it (Robbins, 1985).
2. Deep heel and ball impressions, encircled by the typical
figure of eight contours (Robbins, 1987) are present (Fig.
6A).

FIG. 11. Three-dimensional laser scan of anthropogenic tool (pick) marks on the quarry surface to stress how different they are to the human footprints.
 TOLUQUILLA FOOTPRINTS, MEXICO 241

3. The lateral toes do not project beyond the hallux tip and
usually leave minimal impressions (Robbins, 1985; Figs. 6A,
C).
4. Where present toes 2 to 4 make small, nearly circular pad
impressions when flexed to grip the ground (Robbins, 1985;
Fig. 2E).
5. Occasionally medial longitudinal pedal arches can be rec-
ognized (Robbins, 1985) in some of the prints (Figs. 6B,
C).
6. Footprint trails can be recognized (Figs 2B,C, 12).
7. Foot indices calculated for a sample of the Toluquilla
footprints fall within a range of values for modern Homo
sapiens sapiens, with relatively broad feet (Day, 1991).
Average values for modern foot indices ranged between 35
and 45 while the mean foot index for adult footprints in
the Toluquilla Quarry is 45.97. The stature of the adults is
estimated from the Toluquilla footprints to be 117190 cm
using the scatter diagram and regression of mean foot-length
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and stature of Homo sapiens sapiens (Day, 1991).

It is important to stress, however, that there is strong
morphological variability in the footprints and that not all
of the larger footprints can be clearly identified as being
human. These prints, however, occur in association and as
part of trails, with depressions that can be identified as being
human using the above criteria. The Toluquilla footprints are
not as morphologically distinct as other footprints sites, such
as those at Laetoli (Robbins, 1987) or at UK coastal sites
(Aldhouse-Green et al., 1992; Gonzalez and Huddart, 2002;
Gonzalez et al., 1997; Huddart et al., 1999a, 1999b; Roberts
et al., 1996) and have a high proportion of partial footprints,
compared to other sites, which are interpreted as toe and heel
impressions (Fig. 12). The length of footprint trails at Toluquilla
is also shorter than that recorded from some other sites. This lack
of fine anatomical detail, the absence of extended trails and the
high proportion of partial prints within the Toluquilla Footprint
Layer reflects five factors:
1. The moulding medium (coarse lapilli ash) is often too coarse
to record fine anatomical detail such as individual toes. The
non-cohesive nature of the ash would also lead to frequent
side collapse in the deeper impressions.
2. The former shoreline and lake bed, by analogy with similar
modern surfaces, is likely to have shown spatial variation
in the rate of dessication and consequently there is likely
to have been spatial variation in the presence and definition
of the footprints. We suggest that this may also explain the
absence of extended trails.
3. The ash surface shows strong variation in gradient from
over 8 to near horizontal surfaces at other locations and
the footprint traces often reflect locomotion over this gently
inclined surface. We attribute the high proportion of toe
FIG. 12. Maps showing one area of the Toluquilla Footprint Layer exposed and heel prints to the inclined surface and many of the
in the floor of the Toluquilla Quarry. This map is taken from Gonzalez et al. prints appear to show evidence of foot slippage. In fact the
(2006). best and most complete footprints are found on the most
 242 D. HUDDART ET AL.
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FIG. 13. Erosional scours on the floor of the Toluquilla Quarry. Note that these do not resemble the footprint traces.

horizontal ash surfaces. The dessication cracks are also best
developed on the more horizontal surfaces. Syn-depositional
modification of the footprints is more likely to have occurred
on the inclined surfaces. In fact some of the best examples
occur on the horizontal surfaces.
4. Superimposed prints and trackways suggest that the surface
was exposed for a period of time reinforcing the idea that the
surface may have suffered syn-depositional modification.
5. Footprints are present in several layers suggesting that they
formed at different time intervals, however the quarry surface
is not in all cases cut parallel to the bedding surfaces and is
effectively diachronous.
by the authors and by previous investigators (Irwin-Williams,
1967; Armenta Camacho, 1959, 1978; Ochoa-Castillo et al.,
2003).
DISCUSSION
Conservation Threat
The Toluquilla Footprint Layer is exposed in a number of
locations within the Valsequillo Basin and is experiencing rapid
natural degradation during summer storm events (Fig. 13). The
best known footprint surfaces are those exposed in the floor

In total, 269 prints were located, classified, photographed,

and mapped in the upper layers of the ash, on the quarry floor.
Approximately 60% of the prints recorded are identified as
human, with 36% of these being classed as childrens prints
on the basis of their size.
Several types of animal prints were noted, including dogs,
big cats, and animals with cloven feet. The latter were dominant
(37% of the total). The limited faunal range is surprising,
but probably reflects the coarse nature of the ash surface
and consequently the preferential preservation of prints from
relatively heavy animals. A large range of sizes exists within
the cloven feet class; there is, however, some evidence to
suggest that two populations may exist within this class: small,
consistent with deer (Fig. 14), and big, which may belong to FIG. 14. Contours maps of two cloven footprints, probably formed by a small
camels or bovids. This interpretation is consistent with the deer species. Contour interval is 1 mm and the maps are orthogonal to the
megafaunal remains found within the Valsequillo Gravels both footprint plane.
 TOLUQUILLA FOOTPRINTS, MEXICO
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FIG. 15. Flow chart showing the potential of three-dimensional laser scanning and rapid-prototyping in the analysis and preservation of ichnofacies.
of the Toluquilla Quarry which is also suffering anthropogenic
degradation since the quarry is traversed by a well-frequented
mountain bike route and is easily accessible to vehicles from
an adjacent road. The potential for future aggregate extraction
cannot be discounted nor can the threat of vandalism. To
complete this review of conservation threats one must also draw
attention to the rapid urban expansion of the city of Puebla and
the satellite town of San Francisco Totimehuacan, which may
pose a potential longer-term threat.
Although loss of the footprints in the Toluquilla Quarry
would be unfortunate it is important to note that the footprint
surface continues under adjacent lake sediments and slope
colluvium and there is no reason to suspect that footprints
do not occur in these areas. Consequently a potential footprint
reserve is present should the exposed prints be lost over time.
A conservation and preservation strategy for the site is clearly
required in the coming years, particularly if the importance of
the site is confirmed by further work both within the Valsequillo
Basin and elsewhere in the Americas.
We suggest that three-dimensional scanning of the footprint
surface to create a database of footprints from the Toluquilla
Footprint Layer is a viable method of long-term preservation,
not just for the scientific community but also for the general
243
public (Fig. 15). Digital data and associated images can be
provided via the World Wide Web, whilst rapid prototyping
allows the physical re-creation of the footprints and their easy
visualization for display within museums and at other public
venues.
Colonization of the Americas
The footprints reported here are important additions to
the story of the colonization of the Americas. The initial
colonization of this continent remains a contentious issue, with
different theories as to when it happened and by whom (e.g.,
Dixon, 1999; Chatters, 2000; Fiedel, 2000). Some researchers
believe the settlement was 30 K BP or older (Bonnichsen
and Turnmire, 1999). However, the most accepted dates of
occupation are in the latest Pleistocene, related to the Clovis
First model, while the oldest directly radiocarbon dated-human
remains found so far are around 11.5 K BP (Dillehay, 2000;
Gonzalez et al., 2003). This hypothesis of human settlement
is complicated, however, since the earliest accepted human
occupation date (12.5 K BP) comes from the Monte Verde site in
southern Chile (Dillehay, 1989, 1997), where lithic technologies
are very different from the Clovis sites in the southwest United
States.
 244 D. HUDDART ET AL.
The human footprints and their dating (Gonzalez et al.,
2006) at Toluquilla help to resolve the controversy related
to the age of the archaeological (lithics and worked bone)
and associated megafaunal remains that were reported in the
Valsequillo Gravels in the 1960s and 1970s (Armenta Camacho,
1959, 1978; Irwin-Williams, 1962, 1966, 1967, 1978); Szabo
et al., 1969; Guenther et al., 1973; Steen-McIntyre et al., 1981;
Pichardo, 1997). They also suggest that other sites in Central
Mexico with the same type of fossiliferous gravels associated
with lithics which have been claimed to be of great antiquity in
the past should be studied; e.g., Tequixquiac in the north of the
Basin of Mexico (Barcena, 1882). In Oaxaca it is suggested
by Lettow and Otto (20045) that similar human footprints
on an ash boulder are as old as 25,00030,000 years old.
These potentially early Mexican sites need to be re-evaluated
carefully in a wider continental scale approach, rather than as
isolated sites. Evidence from South America too from Pedra
Furada (Guidon and Delibrias, 1986; Parenti 2001; Pessis, 1996;
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Santos et al., 2003) and Monte Verde 1 (Dillehay, 1989, 1997,
2000; Dillehay and Collins, 1988) has suggested that there may
have been earlier occupation of the Americas. Despite dating
controversy from these locations, from the evidence presented
here and in Gonzalez et al. (2006), the Clovis First model
of human occupation can no longer be accepted as the first
evidence of human presence in the Americas. A new timing for
the initial migrations, as well as new routes of migration, needs
to be considered.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The hospitality of Luis Mendez and family during fieldwork
is gratefully acknowledged. The work was funded through a
NERC grant NER/T/S/2002/00467, and is part of the EFCHED
thematic program and through NERC grant NE/C519446/1.
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