Cells and Stacks
SD Fraser, V Hacker, and K Kordesch, Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria
& 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
AFC Design Principles
Fuel cells use a continuous stream of gaseous and/or
liquid fuels and oxidizers to electrochemically generate
an electrical output power. The overall electrochemical
reaction converting fuel and oxidizer into the reaction
product is the same for alkaline and acidic fuel cells. The
presence of an alkaline environment, however, has a
significant influence on the electrochemical conversion
process governing fuel cell operation. Significant differ-
ences exist between alkaline and acidic fuel cells with
respect to fundamental electrode reactions as well as
basic cell and stack design features. An overview of al-
kaline fuel cell fundamentals is provided in the following.
Electrode Reactions
The electrochemical half-cell reactions governing alka-
line fuel cell (AFC) operation can be written as follows:
Anode reaction : 2H2 4OH - 4H2 O 4e
 
Cathode reaction : O2 4e 2H2 O-4OH
Overall reaction : 2H2 O2 -2H2 O
Hydroxyl ions are thus converted into water at the
anode by consuming hydrogen fuel. Two electrons are
released per molecule of hydrogen in this half-cell re-
action. The hydroxyl ions are generated at the cathode,
consuming oxygen, water, and four electrons per mol-
ecule of oxygen.
Two transport processes occur between the electrodes
of an AFC: hydroxyl ions migrate from the cathode to the
anode, whereas liquid water is transported in the opposite
direction. The overall reaction produces 1 mol of water
for each mole of hydrogen consumed in the electro-
chemical reaction. Thus, significant quantities of water
are produced within an AFC, particularly if the cell is
operated at high current densities.
Electrons that are generated at the anode flow through
the external circuit and are consumed in the cathode
half-cell reaction. The cathode is the positive terminal
because, by convention, electrons always flow toward
the cathode. The anode is therefore the negative
terminal where electrons are generated. Technically, the
positive current flows in the direction opposite to that of
the electrons, i.e., from the positive to the negative
terminal.
One of the main advantages of AFC technology are
the facile kinetics of the oxygen reduction reaction in an
344
alkaline environment. Thus, comparably cheap metal
catalysts (e.g., nickel, silver, gold) can be used with the
cathode. However, this is not possible with acidic fuel
cells designed for low-temperature operation, which
strongly depend on platinum and platinum-based
catalysts.
One of the major problems associated with AFCs is
the carbon dioxide sensitivity of the alkaline electrolytes.
The resulting reactions form carbonates, which block the
electrolyte and gas pores and eventually mechanically
separate the active layers from the fuel cell electrodes.
These reactions can be written as follows:
CO2 2OH -CO3 2 H2 O
CO2 OH -HCO3 
CO2 2KOH-K2 CO3 H2 O
Thus, AFCs have often been used only when a carbon
dioxide-free supply of oxidizer was available. Air contains
some 0.03% carbon dioxide; therefore, carbonates may be
formed during air-breathing fuel cell operation, which
may lead to serious cell degradation effects. Removal of
the carbon dioxide content of the air can be done by
using an absorbing tower containing soda lime. With
carbon dioxide removal, terrestrial air-breathing AFC
operation is thus made possible without serious degrad-
ation effects limiting the long-term stability of the cells.
The degree of carbon dioxide tolerance does, however,
strongly depend on the electrode and cell design and will
therefore be specifically addressed later in the section
entitled AFC Single-Cell Designs. Recent investigations
indicate that AFC electrodes can be built to show no
effect caused by carbon dioxide, and that only the elec-
trolyte is influenced by the presence of carbon dioxide.
Requirements with Respect to Alkaline Fuel Cell
and Stack Design
The design of an AFC cell or stack basically has to
comply with the following:
over
provide a sufficient and uniform supply of hydrogen
the whole electrode area;
the wholea sufficient
provide and uniform supply of oxygen over
electrode area;
ternal
provide a way of conducting the electrons to an ex-
electrical circuit;
cathode toa way
provide of transporting the anions from the
the anode; and
 Fuel Cells Alkaline Fuel Cells | Cells and Stacks
from
provide a way of removing the reaction product water
the cell.
All these requirements have to be met in a light and
compact fuel cell design that is cheap enough for mass
production, rugged enough for real-world applications,
and durable enough to provide a shelf life and oper-
ational life demanded by the potential customers.
Most of these issues can only be met by developing
cell and stack designs that can be easily produced using
established mass production technologies. Only a pru-
dent cell and stack design will be able to turn the in-
trinsic advantages of AFC technology into a commercial
success. Many challenges are yet to be faced, although
many have already been solved in previous approaches to
cell and stack designs.
This article will first provides an overview of funda-
mental AFC single-cell designs, and then moves on to
discussing fuel cell stack designs. Three examples of AFC
stacks taken from different stages in the technological de-
velopment of AFCs will then be discussed in order to
provide the reader with an overview of the historical and
recent possibilities and limitations in AFC stack technology.
Alkaline Fuel Cell Single-Cell Designs
Three major approaches to AFC single-cell design can
be distinguished:
(1) cells with immobilized liquid electrolytes,
(2) cells with circulating liquid electrolytes, and
Electric load
H2
H2O
Heat
Figure 1 Alkaline fuel cell (AFC) single-cell with immobilized liquid electrolyte.
345
(3) cells with alkaline anion exchange membranes
(AAEMs).
Each of these fundamental approaches will be briefly
discussed in the following.
Cell Designs with Immobilized Liquid
Electrolytes
Cells using immobilized liquid electrolyte basically
consist of a spacer or matrix material soaked with liquid
electrolyte sandwiched between two gas diffusion elec-
trodes (Figure 1). The gas diffusion electrodes are nor-
mally designed for monopolar operation, with a metal
mesh providing sufficient electrical conductivity within
the gas diffusion electrodes.
The cell design with immobilized liquid electrolyte is
very simple and does not require any moving parts other
than optional blowers for the anode and cathode gas
channels. The simplicity of this design , however, comes
with some challenges with respect to the durability and
the robustness required in regular commercial appli-
cations. Because the liquid electrolyte can neither be
removed nor be completely replaced once it has been
inserted into the electrolyte chamber, any impurities or
carbonates formed within the electrolyte will inevitably
accumulate within the electrolyte chamber. This can
drastically reduce the cell performance and may even
lead to complete failure of the cell. Alkaline fuel cells
with immobilized electrolytes are therefore primarily
used when highly pure anode and cathode input gases are
O2 (air)
Cathode porous gas
diffusion electrode
Anode porous gas
diffusion electrode
Metal mesh
current collector
Heat
Matrix/spacer
Immobilized liquid
electrolyte
346 Fuel Cells Alkaline Fuel Cells | Cells and Stacks
available. An accumulation of impurities and/or car-
bonates within the liquid electrolyte can thus be limiting,
but the advantages of a simple cell design may outweigh
the limitations with respect to electrolyte replacement.
Another problem that has to be addressed with an
immobilized liquid electrolyte cell design is thermal
management. If a circulating liquid electrolyte design is
applied, the liquid electrolyte is also used for cell heating
and cooling purposes. This can be easily done by
pumping the electrolyte through an external heat ex-
changer before feeding it back into the electrolyte
chamber. If the electrolyte is immobilized, however, dif-
ferent methods of heating and cooling the cells have to be
considered. Moreover, an introduction of active tem-
perature control systems increases the complexity of the
fuel cell system.
Product water removal is also an important issue with
immobilized liquid electrolyte cells: as the electrolyte
cannot be pumped out of the cell, the reaction product
water cannot be removed by feeding the electrolyte
through external regenerators or vaporization units.
Therefore, the water has to be removed by evaporating it
through the porous gas diffusion electrodes into the
Electric load
KOH
H2
H2O
Heat
KOH + H2O
Figure 2 Alkaline fuel cell (AFC) single cell with circulating electrolyte.
anode and cathode gas streams. This requires that the
anode and cathode gas streams be supplied with high
stoichiometries. The evaporation of water into the elec-
trode gas streams is also desired with respect to internal
cell cooling, as the phase change of water can be effect-
ively used for cell cooling purposes. Dead-end operation
of cells with immobilized electrolytes is normally not a
feasible option, as product water removal would only be
limited to the purging intervals of the electrode gas
streams.
Cells Designs with Circulating Liquid
Electrolytes
Fuel cells with a circulating liquid electrolyte design
(Figure 2) are designed similarly to the immobilized cell
design, but the liquid electrolyte can be continuously or
intermittently replaced during operation or even com-
pletely drained when the cell is deactivated.
As mentioned earlier, the main advantages of the
circulating electrolyte design are as follow. First, the
electrolyte itself can be used as a cleaning medium, re-
moving impurities and carbonates out of the cell. The
Electrolyte inlet duct
O2 (air)
Cathode porous gas
diffusion electrode
Anode porous gas
diffusion electrode
Metal mesh
current collector
Flow of liquid
electrolyte
Electrolyte outlet duct
 Fuel Cells Alkaline Fuel Cells | Cells and Stacks
electrolyte can even be completely replaced from time to
time, similar to an oil change in an internal combustion
motor.
Second, the electrolyte can also be pumped through an
external heat exchanger and thus be used to either heat or
cool the cell during operation. This simplifies the stack
design considerably, as no additional cooling elements
have to be included in the fuel cell stack assembly.
Finally, the reaction product water can also be washed
out of the cell with the continuous flow of liquid elec-
trolyte. This water can be subsequently removed from the
electrolyte in an external water removal unit (e.g., water
vaporizing units) to avoid a dilution and hence also a loss
in conductivity of the electrolyte.
Cell Designs with Alkaline Anion Exchange
Membranes
The third and last basic design approach is the AAEM
design (Figure 3). This approach is essentially equivalent
to the design developed for modern proton-exchange
membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) systems. The liquid elec-
trolyte used with the immobilized or circulating liquid
electrolyte designs is thus replaced by a solid AAEM.
Several membranes have been considered and investi-
gated with respect to their application as an AAEM in AFCs.
Acid-doped polybenzimidazole (PBI) membranes are con-
sidered as alternatives to perfluorosulfonic acid (PFSA)
polymer membranes in PEMFCs. Polybenzimidazole
Electric load
H2
H2O
Heat
Single Cell i 1 Single Cell i
Figure 3 Alkaline fuel cell (AFC) single cell with alkaline anion exchange membrane (AAEM) and bipolar design.
347
membranes allow higher operating temperatures than do
PFSA membranes; this considerably improves the kinetics of
the oxygen reduction reaction and therefore enables a re-
duction in the noble metal loading of the fuel cell electrode
catalyst layers. Polybenzimidazole membranes can also be
doped with alkaline salts and thus find use in membrane-
based AFCs. The first investigations made with AAEM-
based AFCs in laboratory-scale single-cell assemblies have
proven promising, although the area-specific current and
power density achieved were still considerably lower than
those obtained with state-of-the-art PEMFCs.
The advantages of having a membrane instead of an
immobilized or circulating liquid electrolyte are that the
membranes are normally more reliable against reactant gas
leaks. Moreover, membranes can be applied in much
thinner layers than liquid electrolytes, whereas the liquid
electrolyte channels have to have a certain thickness to
ensure that the whole electrode area is covered with the
electrolyte. The use of thin membranes also enables the
design of very compact fuel cell stacks. Finally, membranes
provide a safe operation independent of the cell orien-
tation and independent of acceleration forces that might
be present if the stack is, for example, operated in vehicles.
However, limitations regarding thermal management and
removal of impurities from the electrolyte are similar to
those in the immobilized liquid electrolyte approach.
To date, AAEM-based AFCs have been primarily
developed and tested on a laboratory scale. The devel-
opment of large (kilowatt-scale) stacks or the use of
O2 (air)
Cathode porous gas
diffusion electrode
Anode porous gas
diffusion electrode
Cathode gas channel/
bipolar plate
Anode gas channel/
bipolar plate
Heat
Alkaline anion exchange
membrane
Single Cell i + 1
348 Fuel Cells Alkaline Fuel Cells | Cells and Stacks
AAEM-based AFCs in demonstration applications is not
known to the authors.
Alkaline Fuel Cell Stack Designs
The voltage of an operational single fuel cell is normally
lesser than 1 V. This voltage is too small for its direct
use in most applications. A number of single cells there-
fore have to be connected electrically in series to produce
usable output voltages. Thus, the resulting stack voltage is
derived by multiplying the single-cell voltage with the
number of cells installed in the stack, and the single-cell
current is the same as the stack current.
There are essentially two different ways of integrating
many single cells into a fuel cell stack: the monopolar and
the bipolar approach. Both approaches are briefly dis-
cussed in the following, highlighting their relevance with
respect to AFC technology.
Monopolar Stacks
In a monopolar stack design, the anode of one cell is
connected to the cathode of the next cell, using a highly
conductive separate link (e.g., a wire or a metal mesh
attached to one or more edges of the electrodes) to
connect the cells. A simplified schematic of this mono-
polar design is shown in Figure 4.
The major limitation faced with monopolar cell designs
is that the electrons generated and consumed over the
whole geometrical surface area of the electrode have to
flow through the electrode to get to a current collection
point that is usually located at one or more edges of the
electrode. This nonuniform current distribution inevitably
H2 O2 H2
Figure 4 Monopolar stack design.
causes an additional voltage drop and thus decreases the
output power and efficiency of the cell assembly. Carbon
electrodes are good electrical conductors, but most
monopolar cells have metal meshes installed into their gas
diffusion electrodes to increase the in-plane conductivity
and thus reduce the planar voltage drop.
Bipolar Stacks
A completely different approach to interconnecting the
individual cells is the bipolar stack design, shown in
Figure 5. In this approach, the electrons generated or
consumed within the active layers of the electrodes do
not have to flow to one or more current collection points
located at the edge(s) of the electrode, but they can
directly flow through so-called bipolar plates located
between the anode and the cathode of two adjacent cells.
The electrons therefore do not have to flow within the
plane of the electrodes, but rather perpendicular to the
electrodes; hence, the voltage drop is significantly smaller
than with a monopolar design, and the introduction of a
metal mesh into the porous gas diffusion electrode is not
required. Gas channels machined into the bipolar plates
are also used to supply and distribute fresh fuel and
oxidizer over the cell area. Separate cooling channels can
also be machined into the bipolar plates if the cell is, for
example, to be cooled by a water cooling cycle.
Bipolar stack designs are the state-of-the-art approach
used with the majority of PEMFCs. The reason why the
bipolar plate design is also so beneficial for PEMFCs is
that the individual membraneelectrode assemblies
(MEAs) being very thin and flexible are mechanically
supported by the bipolar plates; the stack can thus be
made very compact and robust.
O2 H2 O2
 Fuel Cells Alkaline Fuel Cells | Cells and Stacks
H2 O2 H2 O2
Figure 5 Bipolar stack design.
Alkaline fuel cells (AFCs) are primarily made with
monopolar cells. This is particularly true for cells with
liquid electrolytes, and a contact between anode and
cathode which would short-circuit the cell has to be
avoided at all times. This can be achieved by introducing
an electrically isolating spacer or matrix materials that
prevent direct contact between the anode and the cath-
ode at the cost of preventing the use of a very thin
electrolyte channel design and including the mass of an
inert spacer material. Most AFCs with liquid electrolytes
are therefore based on monopolar designs. A bipolar
approach for circulating liquid electrolyte AFCs has been
developed and tested at Graz University of Technology,
although AFCs with AAEMs are attractive candidates for
PEMFC-like bipolar stack designs.
Once thin and sufficiently conductive AAEMs can be
produced and reproducibly built into MEAs, bipolar
stack designs would indeed be a very attractive option for
AFCs, too. Many of the findings about flow field design,
bipolar plate materials, and the reduction of the contact
resistance between electrodes and bipolar plates could
thus also be applied with AFC technology.
Overview of Historical Alkaline Fuel Cell
Stacks
Three different AFC stacks are presented in the fol-
lowing. The first AFC stack discussed is the one installed
into Karl Kordeschs Austin A40, the first privately built
fuel cell/battery hybrid vehicle driven on public roads.
The second stack discussed is the Apollo AFC system
349
Seal
Membraneelectrode assembly (MEA)
Bipolar plate
H2 O2 H2 O2
that has been used with the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA) Apollo missions to the
Moon. The third and last stack is a recent semi-
commercial AFC stack developed by the ZeTek
Corporation.
Karl Kordeschs Austin A40 Alkaline Fuel Cell
System
In 1970, Karl Kordesch privately built a fuel cell/battery
hybrid vehicle based on the Austin A40 and used it for his
personal transportation on public roads for 3 years. The
AFC stacks were built from electrodes donated by Union
Carbide Corporation and had previously also been used
with the fuel cell system developed for the General
Motors (GM) Electrovan.
The fuel cell (FC) stacks were installed in the rear
compartment of Karl Kordeschs Austin. The fuel cell
balance of plant components required, for example, for
automatic start-up and shutdown of the FC system were
also installed into the rear compartment as shown in
Figure 6. A lead battery was installed into the engine
compartment next to the electric motor.
These FC stacks can be seen in Figure 6. Each stack
has a voltage of 30 V and an electric output power of
2 kW. The transparent plastic container located on top of
the stacks contains soda lime. Fresh soda lime is red and
turns blue when used for carbon dioxide scrubbing due to
an optical indicator. The soda lime container is therefore
subdivided into six compartments in order to enable a
simple visual identification of the soda lime condition by
tracing the blue region of used soda lime, located near
350 Fuel Cells Alkaline Fuel Cells | Cells and Stacks

Figure 6 Six-kilowatt alkaline fuel cell (AFC) stacks in the rear

of Karl Kordeschs car. Courtesy of Prof. Kordesch.

the air inlet duct, toward the fuel cell supply line. The
two manometers located on the left- and right-hand side
of the soda lime container are used for pressure and flow
indication. The picture was taken from the passenger
cabin looking toward the opened trunk lid. The fuel cell
system was therefore easily accessible from the passenger
cabin as well as through the trunk. Seven 12 V leadacid
batteries, located in the engine compartment of the ve-
hicle, were electrically connected in series and operated
in parallel to the hydrogen/air AFC.
When the propulsion system was operated with low
electrical output power levels, the voltage of the AFC
stacks exceeded the voltage of the leadacid batteries.
The batteries were thus automatically recharged by the
AFC. A diode was installed to prevent the batteries from
electrolyzing water in the AFC when the AFC voltage
was lower than the battery voltage (e.g., because no
reactants were supplied to the AFC). The AFC could
thus be shut down completely and the electrolyte could
even be completely drained from the system and the
vehicle could still be moved by the battery power.

The Apollo Alkaline Fuel Cell System

The first manned capsules of the NASA were only de-
veloped for short excursions into space (on the Mercury
program). The capsules were therefore powered by bat-
teries. The second manned spaceflight program (Gemini
program) was already aiming at developing techniques
for advanced space travel in preparation of landing the
first American on the Moon. National Aeronautics and
Space Administration therefore decided to replace the
battery pack with a fuel cell system. At first, an acidic
PEMFC system was chosen for the Gemini spacecraft.
Due to continuing problems in the development of
durable PEMFC systems for space applications, NASA
decided to switch to AFC technology. In the early 1960s,
Pratt & Whitney Aircraft licensed the Bacon AFC
Figure 7 Apollo alkaline fuel cell (AFC) stack. Reproduced
from Richard BF (1969) Apollo fuel cell power system.
Proceedings of the 23rd Annual Power Sources Conference,
pp. 1113.
patents and subsequently won the NASA contract to
power the Apollo spacecraft with AFCs.
Pratt & Whitney Aircraft developed the PC3A-2 AFC
system for the NASA Apollo program. A photograph of
the PC3A-2 is shown in Figure 7.
The AFC was based on sintered nickel electrodes with
platinum metal catalysts and very high noble metal
loadings of up to 40 mg cm2. The electrodes were
2.5 mm thick and circular with a diameter of 200 mm.
 Fuel Cells Alkaline Fuel Cells | Cells and Stacks
The nominal operating temperature of the system was
between 200 and 230 1C, applying highly concentrated
potassium hydroxide (85%) as liquid electrolyte.
Thirty-one single cells were stacked together and
connected electrically in series; three of these stacks were
electrically connected in parallel. The nominal rating of
one of these AFC stacks was 1.5 kW (an overload oper-
ation at 2.3 kW was possible); each stack had a mass of
109 kg.
Ninety-two systems were delivered by Pratt &
Whitney. Fifty-four of these systems had actually been
used. The operation history of the Pratt & Whitney
systems includes nine flights to the Moon, three Skylab
missions, and the Apollo/Soyuz rendezvous mission.
The ZeTek Mk2 Alkaline Fuel Cell Stack
ZeTek was the parent organization of three companies
involved in the development of products for transporta-
tion, marine, and stationary power generation appli-
cations. ZeTek was developing and building AFC stacks
that were used in a number of demonstration applications
including a prototype taxi operated on the streets of
London, England. This taxi used a 5 kW AFC with cir-
culating liquid electrolyte. Following this first onboard
power generation application, ZeTek introduced a series
of commercial vehicles including airport tow tugs and
fuel cellpowered boats. Two delivery vans, one with a
maximum power of 63 kW and the other with 68 kW,
were built. The fuel cell power of those vans was 5 and
Figure 8 Phantom view of the ZeTek Mk2 AFC stack. Courtesy
of Zetec Corp.
351
7 kW, respectively. In 2000, ZeTek introduced a new taxi,
the Millennium Taxi.
Fuel cells used in these demonstration applications
were based on the ZeTek Mk2 module (Figure 8). The
ZeTek Mk2 stacks had an electrical power output of
434 W. Each stack consisted of 24 individual cells, con-
nected in a combined series/parallel configuration, and
provided an output current of 108 A at 4 V. Current
densities of up to 120 mA cm2 were measured at an
operating temperature of 70 1C. The normal operating
point was 100 mA cm2 at an average cell voltage of
0.67 V.
Conclusions
AFCs have been investigated and developed extensively
since the 1950s. Many of the spectacular milestones in
fuel cell history were achieved with AFC technology.
Despite the achievements in alkaline technology, AFCs
were nevertheless been overtaken by other fuel cell
technologies in the mid-1980s and 1990s. PEMFC
technology has replaced AFCs in most applications, as
state-of-the-art PEMFCs are compact, light, and robust.
A wider market introduction of PEMFCs has not yet
been achieved, though. One of the reasons is that
PEMFCs are still far away from being competitive with
established energy conversion technologies on a com-
mercial scale. The problems and delays in finding an-
swers to the pressing questions in PEMFC development
have fueled a renewed interest in AFCs. AFCs can pro-
vide useful solutions to the cost problems in PEMFC
technology. For instance, the excellent oxygen reduction
kinetics in alkaline environments allow use of low-cost
noble metalfree electrodes. Such catalysts will most
likely not be available anytime soon for the acidic
PEMFCs. Carbonate formation in AFCs, often cited as
one of the major problems that would even prevent their
use in terrestrial applications, can be limited by applying
soda lime, circulating electrolytes, or advanced electrode
structures. Lastly, the availability of new and innovative
materials will also provide the possibility to investigate,
develop, and finally apply new and innovative approaches
in AFC cell and stack design.
Nomenclature
Abbreviations and Acronyms
AAEM alkaline anion exchange membrane
AFC alkaline fuel cell
FC fuel cell
GM General Motors
MEA membrane-electrode assembly
352 Fuel Cells Alkaline Fuel Cells | Cells and Stacks
NASA National Aeronautics and Space
Administration
PBI polybenzimidazole
PEMFC proton-exchange membrane fuel cell
PFSA perfluorosulfonic acid
See also: Fuel Cells Alkaline Fuel Cells: Overview;
Overview Performance and Operational Conditions; Fuel
Cells Overview: Introduction; History: Fuel Cells.
Further Reading
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anionic membranes for alkaline fuel cells. Journal of Power Sources
101: 267--274.
Cifrain M and Kordesch KV (2004) Advances, aging mechanism and
lifetime in AFCs with circulating electrolytes. Journal of Power
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Cifrain M and Kordesch K In: Handbook of Fuel Cells Fundamentals,
Technology and Applications, vol. 1, Part 4. 2678280.
de Geeter E, Mangan M, Spaepen S, Stinissen W, and Vennekens G
(1999) Alkaline fuel cells for road traction. Journal of Power Sources
80: 207--212.
Ferguson RB (1969) Apollo fuel cell power system. Proceedings 23rd
Annual Power Sources Conference, pp. 1113.
Gulzow E and Schulze M (2004) Long-term operation of AFC
electrodes with CO2 containing gases. Journal of Power Sources
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Hao Yu E and Scott K (2004) Journal of Power Sources 137: 248--256.
Kordesch K (1971) City car with H2-air fuel cell and lead battery. In: 6th
Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference, SAE Paper
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Kordesch K (1984) Brennstoffbatterien. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
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