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TheTennesseeWilliamsAnnualReview

Hoboes,Sissies,andBreeders:GenerationsofDiscontentinCat
onaHotTinRoof
ClaireNicolay Number 12

iven recent critical interest in the plays McCarthyera context and its complex treatment of
homosexuality, the time seems right to reexamine Tennessee Williamss use of history to discuss gender and
inheritanceinCatonaHotTinRoof.IcontendthatWilliamssCatcanbefruitfullyreadasaparableofthe
changingAmericandreamanditseffectsonmasculinity,whichinturnaffectsthestructureofthefamilyand
thelivesofwomen.Particularly,theNotesfortheDesignerandoffstagepresenceofJackStrawandPeter
Ochello Big Daddys meditations on his hobo past the relationship between Brick and Big Daddy and their
troubled marriages Maggies assumption of power in act 3: all are part of a subtle yet persistent historical
narrative.Thisnarrativetracesthelegacyofhomosocialityandmisogynyaswellastheculturaltransitionfrom
frontier ideals of freedom, selfreliance, and individualism to Cold War imperatives of consumption and
conformity. Williamss deliberate elision of homosexual and heterosexual concerns also helps to demonstrate
theoppressivestateofAmericanpatriarchycirca1954.
2 Cat on a Hot Tin Roof has maintained great popularity as a drama rooted in the tradition of theatrical
realism and closely focused on the dynamics of family inheritance. Changes done in collaboration with Elia
Kazan made the play acceptable to a wide general audience and created a blockbuster: the patriarch Big
Daddys role was emphasized, the character of Maggie was made more sympathetic, the complications of
BricksfraughtrelationshipwithhisfriendSkipperwerehealedwithconventionalheterosexuality,andahitwas
born.
3 Today, the Broadway and film versions of the play are viewed by critics as bowdlerized, and readers are
finding fresh inspiration in Williamss 1974 version, which restores the complexity and dark vision of the
original.Williamsalsopublishedanearlierrevisedversionthatsuggestshisdiscomfortwiththerevisionshe
madeforKazan:the1955NewDirectionseditionincludedboththeoriginalandBroadwayversionofact3but
privilegedtheformerbyplacingitfirst.However,despitethepragmaticchangesWilliamsmadewithKazan,
theplayhadgoodbones:someelementsofthemessier,moreambitiousCatremainedinthetextevenbefore
Williams published the New Directions edition. Ultimately, however, the original Cat Number One, as
Williamsdubbedit,andthe1975NewDirectionsversionwhichfollowsallofWilliamsschangesmadefor
the 1974 ANTA Playhouse productionmost clearly show what Brian Parker calls Williamss essentially
tragicintention(BringingBackBigDaddy94).
4 Thelasttwentyyearshaveseenaresurgenceofcriticalinterestinthisplay,correspondingtotheriseofnew
waysofthinkingaboutgender,particularlytheemergenceofqueertheory.Theearlytomid1990sweremarked
by several radical castigations of Williamss supposedly weak gay politics, followed inevitably by responses
thatanalyzedthetextsmoredeeply.Twodecadeslater,thecriticaldiscussionofCatisstillfocusedprimarilyon
themurkyissueofBrickssexuality,aswellasonthepoliticsofmasculinityintheplayitself. 1
5 As Michael Paller observes, Williamss best writing creates tension by juxtaposing two contradictory
impulses: his urge to conceal and the equally strong need to reveal (20). In Cat Williams maintained a
tantalizingambiguityinhisportrayalofBrickasawaytoavoidlimitingtheplaysperspective.Catnotonly
observesBrickstorturedlovelifeandraisesgayissuesbutalsoexaminesanarrayofhumanbehavioracross
the spectrum of sexuality. Clearly Williams was trying to do something more complex than depict closeted
homosexuality. As John S. Bak rightly suggests, Perhaps what is equally plausible is that Williams found it

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more dramaturgically significant (if not also more politically subversive) to intentionally articulate the
uncertaintyofBricksColdWarmasculinity,thevaguenesswithwhichhe,giventhevariouscontradictoryrules
andmoresofhissociety,doesordoesnotunderstandthelimitsofhismaledesire(227).However,asDouglas
Arrellobserves,BaksconceptionofBrickasheterosexualand,moreproblematically,asanexistentialisthero
doesntfittheevidenceintheplay:thischaracteris,rather,someonewhocannotfacethetruth,abouthimself,
hisrelationshipwithSkipper,andhisresponsibilityforSkippersdeath(62).
6 Williamscarefullyadjustedthedynamicsbetweenhischaracterstosuittheplaystheatricalneedsbutleft
manycluesinthetextofCattopreservehiscomplex,subversiveagenda.AsJamesGilbertobserves,Ineffect,
he was seeking an idiom to express the continuities between homosexual, heterosexual, and filial love that
pervaded the play (173). Williams used various strategies, most remarkably the oblique Notes for the
Designer,thecharactersStrawandOchello,andBigDaddysDepressionsurvivorsbackstory,toconveythis
controversialnarrative,onethathadbeenpushedundergroundbytheMcCarthyiteforcesatworkwhenCatwas
firstwrittenandunderproduction.AsRobertJ.Corberobserves,Catsexaminationoftheclosetispartofa
largercritiqueofpostwarstructuresofoppression.Williamsseemstohaveunderstoodthatoneofthewaysin
which the discourses of national security contained opposition to the Cold War consensus was by
homosexualizing it (117). Brick, unlike his father before him, has internalized and is controlled by the new
waveofantihomosexualmores.
7 The generational counterpoise between Brick and Big Daddy helps to clarify Bricks conflict. Although
therehasbeensomerecentexaminationofthetwomenshomosocialbonds,noonehassufficientlyexamined
how Big Daddys Depressionera perspective serves to underscore Bricks desperate sense of limitation in a
prosperous, conformist, postwar society. 2 Critics have analyzed Cat in terms of its response to Cold War
demandsforconformitybuthavenotexaminedthefullsocialhistoricalcontextforthisseachange.
8 DeanShackelfordobservesthatCatdemonstratestheextenttowhichsocietydehumanizesmenthroughits
overt homophobia. As such, the play largely demonstrates that a homosociallyoriented social structure is
responsible for problematizing homosexuality (105). I agree and would add that the play examines not only
masculine dehumanization but also female dehumanization and denigration: both Big Daddy and Brick are
trappedbytheirperceptionsofwhatpatriarchydemandsofthemandfreelyprojecttheirangerontothewomen
who love them and who are themselves radically constrained by their roles as breeders, as Big Daddy
jeeringly refers to Mae in act 2. Ultimately, the only solution Maggie finds for her own situation in this
patriarchalmessistousurpBrickspowerandmakehimthebreeder,thetraditionallyfemalerolesheherself
had desired. Thus, although my focus is on the issues of masculinity and male sexuality that have tantalized
recentcritics,MaggieisalsoessentialtotheseissuesinCatandhasthereforeacentralpartinthisdiscussion. 3

VerandasinSamoaandMississippi
WilliamssstagedirectionsforCatonaHotTinRoofpreserveacollectionofsubversive,sometimespuzzling
ideasthatunderminetraditionalassumptionsabouttheplaysrealism.AsDavidSavranwrites,Theelaborate
stagedirectionsprovideperhapsthemostrevealingexampleofWilliamsspracticeoffracturingthecoherence
ofboththerealistictextandtheostensiblystablesubjectthattakesupresidencewithinit(103).Inparticular,
thelyricalNotesfortheDesigner,whichreadslikeasortofprosepoem,containsideasthatcomplicatethe
script. In vivid contrast to the enforced heterosexuality of the Broadway and film versions, the Notes
enshrinestheunseenStrawandOchelloanddirectsthatthebedsittingroomoftheplaysmainactionmust
evokesomeghostsitisgentlyandpoeticallyhauntedbyarelationshipthatmusthaveinvolvedatenderness
which was uncommon (15). As Shackelford writes, By suggesting they shared a form of marriage . . .
Williams illustrates the potential for relationships between two men outside conventional definitions of
masculinityandcompulsoryheterosexuality(110).Theirshadowybutpersistentexistenceintheplayoffersan
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alternatehistorythatchallengesthestatusquo,notonlysuggestingpossibilitiesforthefuturebutalsoasserting
analternativepastthatcontrastswiththeparanoid,conformistpresent.
10 The Notes also draws a specific if tentative connection between the plantation set and Robert Louis
StevensonsverandahonSamoa,evokingthequalityoftenderlightonweatheredwood...exposedtotropical
suns and tropical rains . . . the grace and comfort of light, the reassurance it gives . . . Why Samoa? Why
Stevenson? Williams summarily deprecates this surprising analogy, suggesting that it may be irrelevant or
unnecessary(15).However,oncethislyricalimageisconjured,itopensthevistaofthatbedsittingroomwith
teasing suggestions of ethnography and alternate cultures, of isolation and refuge. These unseen characters,
whoselivesandlovearesofleetinglymentionedintheplay,arepreservedintheroomasinapalimpsest,with
other lives written over theirs. The past, although very effectively covered over by the bombastic
heterosexuality of McCarthyite America, bleeds through this historical rewriting of U.S. intolerance and the
subterfugeitdemandedofWilliamssgenerationofgaymen.
11 TheimageofStevensonsSamoanverandahimpliesacomparisonofgenerations.Italsosuggestshistorical
cyclesofchange:fromtheplaysvantagepoint,thespecterofStrawandOchellospersonalfreedomisasalien
asStevensonsSamoanverandah.Bytheearly1950santicommunistshadbeguntoscapegoathomosexuals.As
one historian observes, After the war, which had fostered the emergence of samesex communities and the
increasingvisibilityofgaymenandlesbians,thepostwaryearsbroughtawaveofofficialhomophobia(May
82).Sexualnonconformitywasnowdefinedasanationalsecuritythreat,andtheperiodwasmarkedbyarrest
andharassmentofhomosexuals,whichwaspartofalargerColdWarvilificationofthenonmasculine.Likea
sepiatintedimageofStevensonsislandhome,StrawandOchellosworldisarefugefromcontemporarylife
andsuggestsalongerviewofhistoryasanantidotetoColdWartrauma.Thisgentlyrememberedpastputsthe
turmoiloftheestateandofthelargerculturebeyondintoperspective.
12 The bedsittingroom is Victorian with a touch of the Far East, a fitting style for a room influenced by
Stevenson (15). It also adds a desirable hint of what would later be known as otherness: difference from the
masterculture,fromtheenforcedmasternarrative.Althoughrepletewithahugeconsolecombinationofradio
phonograph . . . TV set and liquor cabinet, which situates the plays action firmly in the present, the bed
sittingroomisstillgroundedinalyricalsenseofhistorythatcontextualizestheplaysaction(16).

BigDaddysAmericanDream
BigDaddyisoftenconsideredthemostsympatheticcharacterinCat:adyingmanwhohasfoughthiswayup
frompoverty,amanwhospeaksfreelyinahouseofsecrecyanddeceit.LikeMaggie,heisalive,andhisflaws
adddimensionandcomplexitytothischaracter.Despitehisappealwhichhasbeenpowerfullyreinforcedby
Burl Ivess iconic stage and screen portrayalthis character is grounded in a powerful homosociality that
crossesoverintomisogyny.Also,despiteBigDaddystoleranceofhomosexualityandvividinsightsaboutthe
corruption and falsehoods of society, he is nonetheless caught up in capitalist ideology and rigid patriarchal
homosociality. He has achieved the American dream of wealth, land ownership, and family, yet now finds
himselfquestioningit.
14 BigDaddycomesfromaneraofeconomicinstabilitythatseemsfarremovedfromtheprivilegedplantation
wealthandcircumscribedcultureofBricksformativeyearstheseriesofeconomiccrisesbeforeWorldWarI,
thewaritself,theDustBowl,andtheDepressionarevaguespectersbytheprosperousColdWareraoftheplay,
keptaliveonlyinBigDaddysdialogue.Thischaracter,borninthe1890s,hasabackstorythatwouldmakehim
part of the immense army of migrant laborers, usually known as hoboes or tramps, who constituted a
significantpartoftheAmericanworkforceinthedecadesbeforethe1920s(Chauncey78).Despitethespare
detailsinhisspeeches,itisnotdifficulttopiecetogetherBigDaddysexperience.Hequitschoolatageten,
rode the rails, and stayed on the road until 1910, sleeping in hobo jungles, railroad YMCAs, and flophouses
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around the country. All of these experiences signal his experience in hobohemia, which George Chauncey
describes as part of an early twentiethcentury bachelor subculture that rejected domesticity and middleclass
materialism. This group, which included seamen, transient laborers, and common laborers, was based on a
sharedcodeofmanlinessandanethicofmalesolidarity(7779).
15 Big Daddys apparent tolerance of homosexuality gives us another glimpse of what was by 1954 a lost
world of men riding the rails, camping outdoors, scraping for survival without seeing women for months on
end.TheearlysociologistNelsAnderson,himselfaveteranofhobohemia,wrotein1923,Allstudiesindicate
thathomosexualpracticesamonghomelessmenarewidespread.Theyareespeciallyprevalentamongmenon
theroadamongwhomthereisatendencytoidealizeandjustifythepractice.Andersonalsoassertsthat,onthe
road,boysareaccessiblewhilewomenarenot,sotheboydoesnotneedtoremainlonginhobosocietyto
learn of homosexual practices. Migrant boys were invariably approached by solicitous men and so had to
find ways to avoid predators (wolves). Tolerance of manboy relationships among migrants reflected their
prevalence:Itisnotuncommontohearaboywhoisseentravelingwithanoldermanspokenofasthewife
or woman (Anderson 14445). Small wonder that Big Daddy found it easy to interact with Straw and
Ochello, or that he seems unperturbed by Bricks possible homosexuality. Big Daddys inability to deal with
womenexceptonasexuallevelalsoreflectshisexperienceinthehobosubculture.
16 Hardenedandeducatedontheroad,BigDaddyfinallyfindshisgruelingstruggleforexistenceinterrupted
byluckychance:Ihadwornmyshoesthrough,hockedmyIhoppedoffayellowdogfreightcarhalfamile
downtheroad,sleptinawagonofcottonoutsidetheginJackStrawandPeterOchellotookmein.Hiredme
tomanagethisplacewhichgrewintothisone(11819).AsinaHoratioAlgerstory,BigDaddyhastraveled
from rootless poverty to prodigious wealth: his dutiful suffering, resourcefulness, and industry have led to a
deserved payoff. His life exemplifies the American ethos of hard work and bootstrapsthe school of hard
knocksandthemythosofgoldenAmericanluck.
17 ThenewColdWarorder,withitsaffluenceandincreasingcontrolofsexualityandothersocialbehavior,
contrastsmarkedlywiththevanishedworldofhobohemiathatBigDaddyevokes.Nowtheharshfreedomof
hisworkingmansculturehasbeenreplacedwiththestaidandmendaciousatmosphereofbourgeoisaspirations:
theindividualstruggletosurviveandwinmaterialsuccessisreplacedbythecapitalistimperativetoconsolidate
wealth and maintain social control. Moreover, these new, unsatisfying values are integral to the new order,
which also threatens to change the meaning of Big Daddys great achievement: acquisition and mastery of
28,000 acres. Big Daddys speeches in act 2 reveal his sneaking realization that the American dream has
failedhim.HisdisillusionwithmaterialismisexpressedinhiscontemptfortheEuropeanfiresaleandBig
MamascompulsiveacquisitionofEuropeanobjetsdart.Heishorrifiedattheextremegulfbetweenrichand
poorinravagedpostwarEuropeandbecomesrevoltedwhenheencountersababybeingpimpedbyitsmother
inMorocco.InthispassageweseethefissuresinBigDaddysAmericancomplacency.Ratherthanquestion
vast inequalities of wealthwhich he has also experiencedhe flees home to the unexamined pleasures of
plantationlife.TheEuropeantrophieshavebeenacquired,onlytobesquirreledawayoutofsight.
18 Thusdespitehisdiscomfortwitholdworldpovertyandinequality,BigDaddydoesnotrejectmaterialism:
heisdeeplycommittedtothatpartoftheAmericandream.Indeed,hecandefinehimselfonlyaspossessorofa
vast plantation, and he hoards that ownership exultantly. Although he himself inherited the plantation from a
gay couple with no other heirs, Big Daddy clings to the idea of creating a blood dynasty so the wealth and
powersymbolizedbytheplantationwillremainhisinperpetuity.Evenhissexualfantasyismaterialistic:Ill
strip her naked and smother her in minks and choke her with diamonds! (98). The aggressive nature of his
fantasyisalsosignificant:BigDaddysdesiretostrip,smother,andchokehisdreamgirlalbeitwithlargesse
suggeststheinextricableconnectionbetweenhisconceptionofmaterialandsexualdominance.
19

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Afterfacingdeathandbelievinghehasareprieve,BigDaddyfeelsalienatedfromeveryoneinhisfamily
exceptBrick.Theoldmanisrepelledbyhiswife,hateshisoldestsonandhisfamily,andcomplainsaboutthe
mendacityrequiredofhim:HavingforinstancetoactlikeIcareforBigMama!Ihaventbeenabletostand
thesight,sound,orsmellofthatwomanforfortyyearsnow!evenwhenIlaidher!regularasapiston...
(110). Pretend to love that son of a bitch of a Gooper and his wife Mae and those five same screechers out
therelikeparrotsinajungle?Jesus!Cantstandtolookatem!(112).Despitehiscontemptuousdisgustforhis
family, Big Daddy feels he has been acting his required role as husband, father, and wealthy pillar of the
community.
20 Althoughheclaimstolivealifeofmendacityashefulfillshissocialduties,BigDaddyisnotquitethe
actor he considers himself. His antipathy for Big Mama, exacerbated by pain and anxiety, lies right on the
surface of the play, requiring her to respond with denial. For example, the stage directions note that he is
famousforhisjokesatBigMamasexpense...thoughsometimestheyreprettycruelandBigMamahasto...
coverthehurtthattheloudlaughdoesntquitecover(6768).Heopenlymockshergirthanddismissesher
statements. When she tries to tone down his obnoxious behavior at the party, he snaps, You dont know a
goddamthingandyouneverdid!(77).Whatmakeshimangriest,however,isthethoughtthatshemighthave
somecontroloverhisestate.Convincedthatsheistryingtousurphispower,herages,AndyouthoughtIwas
dyingandyoustartedtakingover,well,youcanjuststopnowthisbusinessoftakingoverbecauseyourenot
takingoverbecauseImnotdying(78).Thisspeech,withitsincantatoryrepetitionsofdyingandtaking
over,demonstratesBigDaddysparanoiaabouthisproperty,anextensionofhisself.
21 WhenBigDaddydeclares,Igrowtolerance,heseemsproudlyinearnest,buttheresstrongironyhere:he
may be tolerant of homosexual love, but of what else? His intransigence and spite against everyone in his
familyexceptBrickandMaggieisstriking,andhismisogynyisunderscoredbyabusiveverbalattacksonhis
wifeaswellashiscrudeconceptionofwomenaseitherbreedersorsexualobjects.BigDaddystragedyisnot
hisimpendingdeathbuthisdisillusionandinabilitytoexperiencereciprocallove.Aftertheparty,BigMama
urgentlyinsists,AndIdidsomuch,Ididloveyou!Ievenlovedyourhateandyourhardness,BigDaddy!
Aftersheruns,sobbing,outoftheroom,heremarkstohimself,Wouldntitbefunnyifthatwastrue....(80),
the line that Brick ironically echoes at the end of Williamss preferred version. Thus, Big Daddy reveals the
marriagesemptycore:Afterallthoseyears,asBigMamasays,hecantseeherforwhatsheis,cantrelate
toher,anddoesnttrusther.BigDaddysdetachmentfromhumanfeelingisremarkable.Notonlycanhecoolly
discuss his sexual disgust for Big Mama with their own son, but he also observes others emotions with
detachment.Forexample,hebluntlysaysthatPeterOchelloquiteatinlikeadogdoeswhenitsmastersdead
afterthedeathofhispartner(119).ThisstatementisstrikingnotonlyasanexampleofBigDaddyshomespun
vernacularbutalsoasanindicationofthischaractersemotionaldistance.GivenwhatweknowofBigDaddy,
thesewordsarenotunkindindeedtheyarepositivelymildcomparedtohisabuseofBigMama.However,the
analogyofprofoundhumanemotiontoanimalbehaviorischaracteristicofBigDaddy:hecannotunderstandor
feellovebutmerelyrecognizesitasafactoflife.
22 Oneintriguing,iffacile,elementoflatetwentiethcenturycriticismofthisplayisthefrequentassertionthat
BigDaddyisarepressedhomosexualorjustplainlygay. 4 Suchargumentsarebasedverytenuouslyonthree
assumptions: that Big Daddys bowel cancer, an ailment he shares with two gay characters in the short story
TheMysteriesoftheJoyRio,issymbolicallyconnectedtohomosexualitythatBigDaddysinheritanceof
theplantationfromthegaycouple,StrawandOchello,musthaveinvolvedsomesortofsexualconnectionand
thatBigDaddyslineIknockedaroundinmytimeisnotabroad,vernacularreferencetohishobopastbutan
obliqueacknowledgmentofhomosexualactivity. 5 AsAlanSinfieldcomments,EvengaycriticsinterpretBig
DaddysbowelcancerinCat...asthewagesofsodomy,thoughitseemstomethatBigDaddyhasthrivedin
the wake of his earlier experiences, and his current illness signifies a current (social) sickness (193). If Big
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Daddyisindeedconfessinghomosexualactivityinthisscene,surelyBrick,caughtupinwhatEveKosofsky
Sedgwickandothershavecalledhomosexualpanic,wouldrespondinhorrororatleastsurprise. 6
23 Giventhepervasivenessofhomosexualityinearlytwentiethcenturyhobohemia,alongwithBigDaddys
outsizedappetites,WilliamsclearlyleavesopenthetantalizingifobscurepossibilitythatBigDaddymight
have engaged in homosexual acts. However, the characters lines would have to be substantially revised to
supportareadingofhimasarepressedhomosexualor,asinCorber,avictimofhomosexualpanic.Thereare
simply too many specific details in the play underscoring his crude heterosexual orientation. Take just one
examplefromact2:WhenBrick,inanagonizedmoment,triestotellasmuchasheknowsoftheTruth,Big
Daddyinterruptstoask,HowwasMaggieinbed?Brickrespondswryly:Great!thegreatest!Inresponse,
BigDaddynodsasifhethoughtso (124). With great economy, this brief comic interlude serves to defuse
slightlyBricksanguishedspeechdemonstrateBigDaddyslimitedunderstandingofhissonandhisdilemma
contrast the older mans rough yet honest essentialism with his sons selfabsorbed idealism and amusingly
confirmMaggiesbeliefthattheoldmanharborsalittleunconsciouslechfome(23).Ifinditunthinkable
that Williams would have written this passage for a homosexual character not only would it ring
psychologicallyuntrue,butitwouldservenodramaticpurpose.
24 Though Brick is virtually a case study in homosexual panic, Big Daddy does not fit into this paradigm,
because his America is not the same one that Brick inhabits. As Sedgwick points out, the constantly shifting
nature of the line between acceptable homosociality and proscribed homosexuality is an exceedingly potent
andembattledlocusofpowerovertheentirerangeofmalebonds(185).Inthisoldercharactersformationand
experienceofmasculinity,then,WilliamstracesanAmerican,evenWhitmanian,roadnottaken:BigDaddyhas
learned traditional American values like selfreliance and individualism as well as workingclass values of
physical toughness and homosociality. However, the fact that his life spans two historically and culturally
specificversionsofmasculinityonegroundedinusefulfrontiermythsandidentifiablymasculinework,the
other grounded in the preservation of wealth and social identityreveals ideological conflicts at the core of
Americanculture.
25 AlthoughBigDaddyhasbeguntorealizetheinsufficiencyofhisdream,hehasnotgivenuponit:heclings
desperatelytohis28,000acresofland(atalismaninthefaceofdeath)andtohisdesiretocreateadynasty.
Despitehisdawningcomprehensionofthefalseessenceofcapitalism,hestillneedsanheirtomakesenseof
hisstriving.

Brick'sAmericanNightmare
Big Daddys hardscrabble American experiencea bleak, aggressively masculine struggle that demands but
doesnotnecessarilyrewardhardworkisforeigntoBrick.Ironically,BigDaddysplebianefforts(Iworked
likeanigger!)havemadehissonachildofwealthandprivilege,constrainedbysocialexpectationsthathave
become more stringent with the Cold War demand for conformity. Rather than fight for survival in a hostile
world, Brick plays on the symbolic field of conflict in football, which was lionized in the South during the
1950s. The rules of this male game reflect the eras strict code of obedience, conformity, and homosociality.
Although the homosocial code of Big Daddys workingclass, Depressionera transience had allowed some
sexualnonconformity,therulesofhomosociality,asSedgwickpointsout,havealwaysbeenperilouslyunclear
andpronetorevision,andBricksprosperous,postwarAmericanowdemandsarigid,stylizedperformanceof
masculinity(185).
27 InBrick,Williamscreatedafocalcharacter,passiveinhisroleasanobjectofdesirenotonlyforSkipper
andMaggiebutalsoforhisdotingparents,hisfans,andevenalthoughthisdesirebecomestwistedbyenvy
Gooper and Mae. Bricks charisma is made potent by his emotional distance: every character in the play is
fixatedonhim,whileheremainsuncommunicativeandselfinvolved.GeorgeW.CrandellcitesBrickssense
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ofselfimportanceanduniquestatusinthePollittfamily,hisrefusaltocooperate,indifferencetoothers,and
lackofempathyasclearsignalsofhisclinicalnarcissism(42930).IwouldaddthatBricksnarcissismworks
notonlyonarealisticbutalsoonasymboliclevel:hisdistanceandunattainabilitymakehimasymbolofthe
ultimatelyunsatisfyingAmericanDream.BigDaddy,inparticular,seemstodependonBricktogivehisown
career an ultimate meaning. On the surface, Brick fulfills everyones desires: his beauty, athleticism, wealth,
charm,andelusivenessmakehimanobjectofuniversalattraction,butheisultimatelyrevealedasparalyzedby
fright,unabletolookhonestlyathimselfandhisdesires,andunabletoparticipateinlove.
28 Williams made various stabs at illuminating this famously ambiguous character, and his statement that
Brickishomosexualwithaheterosexualadjustmenthasperhapsconfusedasmuchasclarified.However,this
somewhat opaque comment, which has been widely interpreted, becomes clearer in the context of the 1954
lettertoEliaKazanwhereitappears.Inthesamesentence,WilliamscallsMarlonBrandothenearestthingto
Brick that we both know and suggests that people like Brando and Brick are often undersexed, prefer pet
raccoonsorsportstosexwitheithergender(Notebooks662,n.962).Thus,aheterosexualadjustmentoccurs
because the subject does not have the requisite desire to pursue his true sexual nature. Brick prefers (or
sublimates his desire in) sports and thus avoids social and personal conflict by conforming to heterosexual
mores.
29 MaggiealsoatteststoBrickslowlevelofdesire,evenintheirhappierpast:Suchawonderfulpersontogo
tobedwith,andIthinkmostlybecauseyouwerereallyindifferenttoit.Shedescribeshissexualcoolnesshis
approachtosexismorelikeopeningadoorforaladyorseatingheratatablethangivingexpressiontoany
longingforherandconcludesthat[y]ourindifferencemadeyouwonderfulatlovemakingstrange?but
true...(30).BothMaggieandSkipperfindthemselvesthwartedbyBrickscoolnessbutinexorablydrawnby
thecharismaitfuels.
30 Bricksglamour,narcissism,anddetachmentalsocreateunfulfilledloveinothers.WhenBigMamalearns
that Big Daddy is terminally ill, she hysterically rejects Mae, crying Git away from me . . . I want Brick!
WheresBrick?Whereismyonlyson? (147).Theunappealing Gooper must certainly have been scarred for
lifebysuchtreatment.Brick,however,seemscaughtintheamberofhisadolescence:likeateenager,healways
turnshisheadorotherwiserejectshismothersaffection.Andalthoughtheyhaveacontentiousrelationshipand
untilthetimeoftheplaylittlecommunication,BigDaddyisalsoundertheswayofhischarismaticson.As
Maggiedeclares,BigDaddydotesonyou,honey(22).AfterBigDaddyverballyskewershisfamilyandthe
foolpreacher,alongwiththeElks,Masons,andRotary,hetellsBrick,YouIdolikeforsomereason,did
alwayshavesomekindofrealfeelingforaffectionrespectyes,always.Poignantlyhedeclares,Youand
beingasuccessasaplanterisallIeverhadanydevotiontoinmywholelife!(11011).Liketheplantation,
Brick represents the old mans ideal of selfreliance. Big Daddy cant accept Gooper as heir but yearns to
straighten . . . out his younger son and shower him with the hardwon fruits of his lifes efforts (102). He
wantstohaveitbothways:tochooseanheirasStrawandOchellodidbutalsotocontinueabloodline.
31 UntiltheconfrontationbetweenSkipperandMaggie,Bricksconformitytothedominantsexualmodehad
allowedhimtoavoidselfexaminationandsocialconflict.However,Skippersconfessiontriggeredapanicked
response from Brick, who hung up the phone and never spoke to him again, thus leading to Skippers self
destructionanddeath.ThistragicseriesofeventshasdestroyedBricksillusions:bereftandguiltridden,hecan
nolongertakerefugeinthesentimentalideaofGreekfriendship.AsWilliamsperceivesinhisdiscussionofthe
heterosexuallyadapted,ifamaskisrippedoff...thatsquiteenoughtoblastthewholemechanism...knock
theworldoutfromundertheirfeet,andleavethemnoalternativebutowninguptothetruthorretreatinto
somethinglikeliquor...(Notebooks662,n.962).Thisdescriptionmaybeconsideredacapsulesummaryof
BricksstorylineinCat.
32

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In the 1954 letter to Kazan, Williams identifies an innocence and blindness in the heterosexually
adjustedpeoplethatmakesthemvery,verytouching,verybeautifulandsad(662,n.962).Brickrevealshis
ownnavetbyhisearnestdevotiontoanidealisticneoclassicalmodeoffriendshipwithSkipper,whichMaggie
triestovalidateandwhichseemstobemusetheearthyBigDaddy,whohasjustnowreturnedfromtheother
sideofthemoon,deathscountry,andisnoteasytoshockbyanythinghere(122).Brick,ontheotherhand,
revealshimselftobehorrifiedbyhomosexualityandinconsolableatbeingsuspectedasgay.
33 Bricks paranoid condition, homosexual panic, is caused by cognitive dissonance: as Sedgwick observes,
the paths of male entitlement . . . required certain intense male bonds that were not readily distinguishable
from the most reprobated bonds (185). He wishes to interpret his relationship with Skipper in a culturally
approvedwayasamanlybutnonsexualattachmentbutthealternativemeaningofsuchafriendshipcantbe
stifled.MylesRaymondHurdhasdocumentedtheextendedparallelbetweenBrickandSkippersrelationship
and that of Achilles and Patroclus, as well as some of the ambiguities inherent in this classical paradigm.
AlthoughthefriendshipofAchillesandPatroclusissometimesmemorializedinidealized,nonsexualizedterms,
the bonds have always had an alternate reading: for example, Hurd notes that Patroclus is referred to as
AchillesmasculinewhoreinShakespearesTroilusandCressida(63).Bricksnaveconstructionofapurely
nonphysical,spiritualrelationshipcantbearthelightofscrutiny:whenMaggieandBigDaddytrytosupport
hisvisionofanexceptionalfriendship,real,real,deepfriendship!betweentwomenassomethingcleanand
decent (that is, not sexual), it is he who seems dissatisfied with this explanationhis frustration wont be
placatedbyeitherMaggiesorBigDaddysacceptance(122,58).
34 Bricksspeechesinact2suggesthowthoroughlyhehasbeenconditionedintohomosocialconformity:he
raves about fucking sissies, Fairies, and Sodomy. As Williams comments in the stage note here, his
contemptuousepithetshelpusgaugethewideandprofoundreachoftheconventionalmoreshegotfromthe
world that crowned him with early laurel (122). Brick reveals little interest in the morality of homosexual
behaviorrather,heisobsessedwithhowpeoplefeelaboutthingslikethat?How,howdisgustedtheyareby
things like that (121). He excitedly recounts a typical episode of homosexual panic as performed by his
fraternity,whichshunnedapledgewhosupposedlyattemptedtodoa,unnaturalthing,scaringhimAllthe
wayto...NorthAfrica,lastIheard!(122).Theimmensedistanceofexilehereindicatesthedegreeofshame.
35 Although they differ in their responses to homosexuality, Big Daddys and Bricks homosocial worlds
intersectintheirmisogyny.Bothseemtofeeltheyhavebeenropedintomarriage:alienatedbytheirwomens
financialdependence,thesemencantbelievetheirwivesaremotivatedbytrueemotion.Thesesuspicionsare
expressed by their agreement that Mae and Maggie are squaring off over the inheritance, by Big Daddys
insistence that Big Mama is trying to take over, and, most strikingly, by their wry refusal to accept their
wivesprotestationsoflove.WhenBrickechoesBigDaddyinthefinallineoftheplay,heexpressesboththis
darksuspicionandtheaccompanyingemotionalemptiness.
36 Both father and son are incapable of loving their spouses and detached in sex both have bought into
deceptive and unsatisfying American myths of masculinity and both have been betrayed by the American
gospelofprosperity.Thesemen,lonelyintheirselfabsorption,areironicallyshoweredwithlovetheycannot
accept.Meanwhile,theirdevotedwomenhavealsobecomeemotionallydeformed:BigMamaisclownishand
overbearing, while Maggie, as she says herself, has gone through thishideous!transformation, become
hard! Frantic! (27). The plantation has become a substitute for love and happiness, which Brick may
disavowbutforwhichMaggiewillfight.

MaggieUsurper
Inact1,Brickdemands,Justhowinhellonearthdoyouimaginethatyouregoingtohaveachildbyaman
thatcantstandyou?Maggietartlyresponds,ThatsaproblemIwillhavetoworkout(66).Maggiessiege
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pleading,flattering,bullying,insinuating,promenadinghasrunupagainagainstthegreatwallofBricks
refusal. However, her response here is unexpected and funny, a signal of Maggies inner strength and a
premonitionoftheplaysconclusion.
38 DespitewhatMariaSt.Justdescribedasthetripartitenatureoftheplayadramaticbalanceamongthe
three major characterscritical discussion of the character Maggie has stagnated as the spotlight remains
trainedonthemen.However,anydiscussionofthemasculinemustcontendwiththefeminineaswell,evenif
onlyfordefinitionandcontrast.Moreover,Catsquestioningofthemeaningofmasculinitysuggeststhehighly
structured nature of gender roles. By the end of the play, we see a reversal: if masculinity is defined as the
activeexertionofpowerandcontrol,thenMaggiehasbecometheman.
39 Indeed, I would argue that Maggie, not Brick, is truly Big Daddys heir. Maggies progress is a female
variant of Big Daddys: both characters are intelligent, resourceful outsiders who strongly desire not only
release from poverty but also material success. Thus they use every means at their disposal to ingratiate
themselveswiththeplantationowner(s)andpursuethesymbolicprizeoftheplantation.AsMichaelP.Bibler
observes,BigDaddyusefullybecameStrawandOchellosinheritor,whichremediedtheircrisisofinheritance
(21). Maggie aims to solve the next plantation owners crisis of inheritance, using the unwilling services of
Brick to offer Big Daddy the only solution he desires. Like Big Daddy before her, Maggie is on the make,
forcedbyimpoverishedcircumstancestofendforherself.ThoughBigDaddyrosefromdaylaborertooverseer
toOchellospartnerand,ultimately,owneroftheplantation,Maggiehasfarmorelimitedtoolsandprospects
for advancement. As a woman, she is expected to wield soft power through sexual attraction. She shrewdly
exploits Big Daddys interest in her, which culminates in her melodramatic performance of femininity. Her
publicdeclarationoffecundityandpromiseofanheiristoomuchforthedyingmanorhiswifetoresist.Both
heandBigMamaferventlywanttobelieve,andMaggiesperformanceissoaudaciousandassuredthateven
theaudiencecanbelievethatshewillsucceedinmakinggoodonherclaim. 7
40 Inthe1952shortstoryThreePlayersofaSummerGame,aprogenitorofCat, Maggie gradually takes
powerfromBrickashelapsesintoalcoholism.Vampirelike,MaggiedrainsBrickslifeforceasthoughshe
hadherlipsfastenedtosomeinvisiblewoundinhisbodythroughwhichdrainedoutofhimandflowedintoher
the assurance and vitality that he had owned before marriage. The transfer of energy strengthens her: she
becamevividasBrickdisappearedbehindtheveilofhisliquor(14).Bytheendofthestory,sheiscompared
to some ancient conqueror, such as Caesar or Alexander the Great or Hannibal parading a noble conquest
(44). The symbiosis between these two characters remains in the play, but it has evolved from the obvious
parasitismofThreePlayerstoamorecomplexdynamic.Maggiescharacterisfarmoresympatheticandfully
drawnthanthatofhercounterpartinThreePlayers,andWilliamswashappytodevelophercharacterization
even further for Kazan. Maggies unrequited love casts her in a softer light her shrewd analyses of Bricks
problem and of their joint situation are also sympathetic. Although she preys on Bricks weakness to take
control,thisstepistakenonlyaftershehasexhaustedavarietyofotheroptions.Maggiesfinalchoiceishighly
pragmatic:shenolongertriestowinBrickonherownterms,nolongerseekshisloveorattraction,buttakes
chargetosavehispotentialfortune.Inaradicalreversalofgenderroles,shewillforceBricktocreateherheir,
makinghimthebabymakingmachine.
41 Some critics have complained that Cats conclusion lacks dramatic force. 8 This complaint assumes that
Brick is the plays protagonist. However, the plays trajectory clearly shows a shift in its attention from Big
DaddyandBricktoMaggie.AlthoughBrickisthefocus(orasWilliamsputit,themystery)oftheplay,the
playsactionbelongstoMaggie.Whenshemakesherfalsedeclarationofpregnancy,theaudienceisputinto
suspense:canshemakegoodonthispromise?Andifso,how?Whatwillbeherfinalgambit?
42 Theplaysconclusionshowsheremotionaltransitionassheshiftsfrompleadinglovertofirmbutgentle
keeper.WewatchMaggiediscardherlastillusionsassheholdsthebigpillowforlornlyasifitwereheronly
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companion,forafewmoments,thenthrowsitonthebed(172).Welearn,alongwithBrick,thatMaggiehas
seen a doctor and knows she is ovulating. Finally, she makes her audacious move: when she confiscates his
bottles and throws away his crutch, the formerly impervious Brick is now helpless. Softly, Maggie exclaims,
Oh,youweakpeople,youweak,beautifulpeople!whogiveupwithsuchgrace.Whatyouwantissomeone
to . . . take hold of you.Gently, gently with love . . . In the 1975 version she adds, in an echo of Three
Players,andhandyourlifebacktoyou,likesomethingoldyouletgoof.ThefinalexchangeechoesBig
MamaandBigDaddyinact2:likeBigMama,Maggiestrenuouslyprotestsherlove(Idoloveyou,Brick,I
do!),whichpromptstheson,likehisfatherbeforehim,toreply,Wouldntitbefunnyifthatwastrue?(173).
43 Bythefinalsceneofact3,MaggiehasapparentlymanipulatedBrickintoafinalreversal:afterrefusingto
impregnatehiswife,hewillnowpresumablybecomeabreeder,thetermmockinglyusedbyBigDaddyinact
2. Both Cat Number One and the New Directions 1975 version conclude not with any suggestion of a
possible reconciliation between Brick and Maggie but rather with the dark suggestion that Brick will cede
control of his life and legacy to Maggie and slip further into his alcoholic refuge, the Pollitt heir will be
spawned by coercion, and the legacy of misery combined with wealth will be passed to another generation.
ThereissomethingverysouthernandatthesametimeChekovianaboutthisending,suggestingasitdoesthe
sense of helplessness and surrender to circumstances, the destructive sense of misplaced pride, and the
importanceoftheplantation/estateovertheindividual.
44 Maggiespragmaticmove,whichpushesBrickintothepassiveroleofbreeder,showsthatshehasfinally
given up hope of gaining Bricks love. There is some hope at the plays end, in the strong suggestion that
Maggie will produce an heir as Williams synthesized it in a letter to Maria St. Just: Life! Maggie! (Five
OClockAngel5).Nonetheless,thefuturelooksbleak:Brickwillsurrenderhisselfdetermination,Maggiewill
forfeit her chance at romantic love, and another child will inherit the family legacy of financial wealth and
emotionalpoverty.Thepatriarchalimperativesoclearlyembeddedinculturewillbeserved.

MeetinginAPlaceofStone
BigDaddysoriginaldreamshavebeenlostordebasedintheattainmentoftheverywealththathadseemedso
essential. When Cat on a Hot Tin Roof is considered as a meditation on how the changing landscape of the
American Dream affects masculinity, the structure of the family, and individual lives, Williamss original
epigraphfromYeatsisprofoundlyapt.InToaFriendWhoseWorkhasCometoNothing,thepoetadvisesa
friend to adhere to a masculine, chivalric code of conduct: to suffer failure with silent dignity rather than
participateindemeaningpublicsquabblingwithamorallyunequalfoe.Williamsusedonlythefinalfourlines
of the poem as the epigraph for early drafts of Cat, which both broadens the meaning and makes it more
ambiguous: Amid a place of stone, / Be secret and exult, / Because of all things known / That is most
difficult. These relatively obscure lines were replaced, apparently at Kazans urging, with the most famous
linesfromDylanThomassmostfamouspoem:Andyou,myfather,thereonthesadheight,/Curse,bless,me
nowwithyourfiercetears,Ipray./Donotgogentleintothatgoodnight,/Rage,rageagainstthedyingofthe
light.CriticshavereadthisexchangeasemblematicofKazansredirectionoftheplaysfocusfromMaggieto
Big Daddy. Certainly the Thomas epigraph overtly, even blatantly, spotlights the father, Big Daddy, and his
position on the sad height of lifewhich is death. However, a closer examination of the Yeats epigraph
revealsnotsomuchafocusonMaggiebutadeeper,moreambiguousmeditationontheplightofeachcharacter
inCatonaHotTinRoof.Eachhashaddreamsvanquishedandfacestheneedtogoon.Eachcanbereadas
inhabitingtheplaceofstonedescribedbyYeats:thebleak,unyieldingendofhisorherwork. 9
46 BigDaddysdisillusionwiththeconventionalsuccesshepursuedsorelentlesslythroughouthislifeandhis
accommodationstosocietysmendaciousrequirementsBigMamassad,repressedunderstandingofherfailure
to achieve Big Daddys love or respect Maggies similar failure to create a relationship with Brick even
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Goopersfaileddreamofinheritingthe28,000acres:thesevariousgoalsmustallbeconfrontedasBigDaddys
deathdrawscloser.Mostpoignantly,Brickcannotbeartoexamineeitherhimselforhisfailedrelationshipwith
Skipper.HisretreatfromthefrayisnotthehonorablediscretionadvocatedbyYeats,butratheratragicfearof
engagementintheworld.

Notes
1 This wave of criticism revitalized the discussion of Cat, but some of its excesses have required refutation. Even in 2004,

Michael Paller found it necessary to address some of the more contentious issues raised by queer theorists such as John Clum and
NicholasdeJongh.
2SeePalmerandBray,especially16871,onthecomplexdynamicbetweenBigDaddyandBrick.
3SinceIamprimarilyinterestedinteasingoutWilliamssownideasaboutgenderandsexualityinCat,IfollowBrianParkers

assertionthatthe1975NewDirectionsversionandCatNumberOnearetheonlytextsclearlyapprovedbytheauthor(Swinginga
Cat,1984).OtherversionsandvariationsproducedbyWilliamsscollaborationswithEliaKazanareinterestingtomeprimarilyas
theyhelptoilluminatetheplaywrightschoicesinCatNumberOneandthe1975version.
4Cf.Savran101,Shackelford114,Corber11718.
5 According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the phrase knock around has had a meaning of To move about, wander, or

roam,inanirregularwayalsotoleadanirregularlifesincetheearly19thcentury.OfalltheexamplesgivenintheOED,theonly
possibly sexualized usage refers to a woman: Mrs. van Neylands been a married woman, and shes knocked around (1959,
McCutchan,StormSouthxiii,198).
6Sedgwickobservesthatthedoublebindofantihomosexualenforcementcreatestheacutemanipulability,throughthefearof

onesownhomosexuality,ofacculturatedmenandsecond,areservoirofpotentialforviolencecausedbytheselfignorancethatthis
regimeconstitutivelyenforces(186).
7InCatNumberOne,BigDaddydoesnotpersonallywitnessherrevelation,buthispresumedresponseisjoyfullyarticulated

byBigMama.
8SeeCrandell,CatonaHotTinRoof,11718.
9Williamssfirstfulllengthdraft(designatedbyBrianParkerasTexas10),verysimilartoCatNumberOne,issubtitledA

Place of Stone and also contains this epigraph. Kazans earliest editing has been found on this draft: he deleted the epigraph and
inauguratedtheseriesofchangesthatwouldforegroundBigDaddysrole(Parker,BringingBackBigDaddy3).Fortheequationof
theplaceofstoneepigraphwithMaggie,seeGilbert179.ForParkersclassificationoftheplaysmanydrafts,seeAPreliminary
StemmaforDraftsandRevisionsofTennesseeWilliamssCatonaHotTinRoof.

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