- CHAPTER30

Emergency Preparedness
and Response

30.1 INTRODUCTION

It is vitally important to prepare for emergency or abnormal situations prior to their

occurrence. Humans play a dominant role during emergencies and human behavior
during stressful situations is often unpredictable. For example, the US Nuclear Reg-
ulatory Commission (NRC, 1975) once estimated that even highly-trained nuclear
reactor operators would do the wrong thing more than 9 times out of 10 in the first
minute after a nuclear reactor emergency shutdown.
Human factors plays a very important role in emergency preparedness and re-
sponse. Preparing for the emergency or abnormal situation prior to its actual oc-
currence will increase the likelihood that the human actions will mitigate the ab-
normal situation. The preparation should identify likely emergency scenarios,
develop a simple plan to handle the emergency, and then practice those simple
plans.

30.2 TOOLS

Study Scenarios and Training

The first step to prepare for an emergency or abnormal situation is to study and cre-
ate credible, written scenarios. The scenarios are used to develop action plans and
emergency procedures, and to ascertain and mark egress routes, plan the training,
and create simulations. It is extremely important that these scenarios and subse-
quent documents and training be updated and reviewed on a regular basis to ensure
that system changes are adequately considered.

Understand the System

Humans must process a vast amount of information and arrive at the correct deci-
sion. To do this reliably, a person must understand the system and its status dur-
ing the event. Training, as discussed previously, is used to ensure that the person
understands the system. The current status of the system requires several things-

Human Factors Methodsfor Improving Performance in the Process Industries 199

02007 American Institute of Chemical Engineers
200 EMERGENCYPREPAREDNESSANDRESPONSE

this includes the use of a large situation awareness display in the control room, lo-
cal and centralized alarms with adequate description, and appropriate event proce-
dures. Because emergency response events will always occur at the worst possible
time, it is important to have a visible structured process for plant operators to fol-
low. An example of a logic diagram to aid the plant in insuring that necessary
communications are completed is shown as Figure 30-1. By following a defined
logic process there will be less chance for human error in a high stress emergency
event.

Incident Command Systems

Incident command teams are a common ad-hoc team specifically organized to deal
with an abnormal event. These are used by fire and police departments and many
Fortune 500 companies. They involve a pseudo-militaristic structure to establish a
command hierarchy and provide intra-team communications. This structure allows
fire-fighters and other first responders to use their skill-based techniques to deal
with situations that are immediately in front of them and which could change sec-
ond-by-second. It also allows others (higher) in the command structure to use rule
and knowledge-based practices to focus on diagnosing patterns, taking preventive
or precautionary measures, etc. The needs of the two are quite different: firefight-
ers need things immediately at hand, clearly labeled and often painted in bright
colors; incident command needs excellent communications, a steady stream of in-
formation to make good decisions, and some degree of calmness to allow clear
thinking. A company or site that practices with an incident command structure
similar to their local emergency responders will integrate better in case of a large
emergency.

Drills
Drills should be carried out with sufficient frequency so that operators can under-
stand emergency situations and react properly. These exercises must be realistic,
using the same equipment, communications, and time pressures. These should be
used to train people and measure their ability to react appropriately.

Emergency Response Equipment (Selection and Maintenance)

Equipment necessary for abnormal events must be on hand and ready for use. Such
equipment may include respirators, HAZMAT suits, fire-resistant suits, extinguish-
ers, sprinkler systems, trucks, radios, and many others. Some of this equipment has
regulatory requirements, including respirators, fire extinguishers, and sprinkler sys-
tems.
Stores of emergency response equipment must be inventoried and inspected rou-
tinely to ensure that it exists and is in good condition. Some equipment may have a
shelf life and may need to be replaced if outdated.
 30.2 TOOLS 201

RELEASEEVENT
(to air, water, or land)

IDENTIFY MATERIAL. IF POSSIBLE TO DO SAFELY,

STOP AT SOURCE AND CONTAIN.
I

IMPLEMENT INCIDENT
COMMAND SYSTEM

I
1. 911 CALL LIST # 1 ASAP
2. LA STATE POLICE HOTLINE IN SEQUENCE GIVEN
(225) 925-6595 + USE NOTIFICATION
FORMS
(APPENDIX A)

3. PRODUCTION DUTY PERSON

CALL LIST # 2
(AFTER CALLING LIST # 3

1-800-424-8802
FOLLOWUP CALLS SHOULD BE MADE
1
TO EPA REGION 6 AT (214) 665 -2222 CALL LIST # 3
6. LA DEPT. OF ENVIRONMENTAL (AS DIRECTED BY
NOTIFICATION G R l q
-
1
CALL LIST # 4
8. OSHA Local: (225) 389-0474 (AS DIRECTED BY
1 -800-321-OSHA
NOTIFICATION GRlQ

Figure 30-1: A call-down flowchart for a chemical release event.

202 EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS AND RESPONSE

~~~~ ~

A company added foam capability to its fire monitors in an area where flamma-
ble hexane was stored in diked vertical storage tanks. They trained their fire
crews to use the foam in case of large leaks to suppress vapors being released
from the liquid. About a year later, a pressure storage vessel holding butane was
overpressured and its relief valve lifted to atmosphere. The fire crew used their
previous training and used foam which was completely inappropriate. Fortunate-
ly, no one was hurt and no damage occurred.
The company explained to the fire-crew leaders what the purpose of the foam
was, and developed a simpler rule for when to use foam.

30.3 REFERENCE

NRC (1979, Reactor Safety Study: An Assessment of Accident Risks in US Commercial

Nuclear Power Plants (Washington, DC: U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission).

30.4 ADDITIONAL REFERENCES

Erickson, P. (1999), Emergency Response Planning for Corporate and Municipal Man-
agers (Amsterdam: Academic Press, now Elsevier).
HSE (200 l), Performance Indicators for the Assessment of Emergency Preparedness in Ma-
jor Chemical Accidents (London, UK: U.K. Health and Safety Executive).
OSHA (2002)), 1910.38: Emergency Action Plans (Washington, DC: U.S. Occupational
Safety and Health Administration).
OSHA (2004), Principal Emergency Response and Preparedness Requirements and Guid-
ance (Washington, DC: U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration).