Essential Architecture A World History of Western Architecture

published in the series Essentials Essential

target group general audience

age from 14 years on
format 12 x 16 cm
pages 512 pages This is a handy, quick reference guide to Western architecture from prehis-

THE HisToRy of WEsTERN ARCHiTECTURE

architecture
toric times up to the present. The book is arranged in chronological order,

illustrations ca. 1000 illustrations covering all the main time periods (Antiquity, Middle Ages, Renaissance
etc.), movements such as Neo-classicism, Modernism etc. and well-known
architects. There are time lines before each section as well as brief introduc-

word count ca. 100 000 words

tions as to what is happening politically, socially and scientifically at the
time, and also in-depth looks at the famous architects of the period. The text
is accessible and authoritative. Highly illustrated and with a layout that is
easy to follow, this is, in short, an ideal quick guide to the history of Western
printing, paper full color on 140 g Offset architecture.

binding flexicover HERBERT PREss LoNDoN

an imprint of A&C Black
www.acblack.com

pub date spring 2008 ISBN 978-0-7136-8839-9

90100
architecture
THE HisToRy of WEsTERN ARCHiTEC TURE

9 780713 688399
12.99 Essential
HERBERT
special feature ca. 1 000 illustrations, introduction and reference

EssArcht_42mm_GB.indd 1 11.12.2007 15:22:49 Uhr

description This incredibly informative pocket-size explained in an easy-to-understand way. Sales arguments:
volume promises much and delivers. Each chapter is opened by a time-line and ca . 1 000 illustrations, low price
Organized chronologically, it encompasses an introduction pointing out the essential a survey of the greatest architects and
the story of architecture from pre-histor developments of the time in design and buildings
ical examples such as Stonehenge to building techniques. creative and technical inventions and
present day ecological office buildings and While the focus lies on Western architec their lasting effects
Blobitecture. ture, each chapter also includes pages chronologically and thematically sorted
The history of architecture unfolds examining the Islamic, Asian and African for easy reference
through colorful and insightful images styles and methods. unique combination of visual and text
and texts that trace the development of Fullcolor photographs are enriched by information
book packagers major movements and their architects floor plans and drawings that outline every
Leibnizstrasse 33 throughout the ages and around the thing you need to know about architecture.
D 10625 Berlin world. Technological innovations, build- Great for anyone interested in the stylistic
www.delius-books.de ing methods, and historical references are and technical aspects of everyday living.
ARCHITECTURE
A WORLD HISTORY

Daniel Borden, Jerzy Elanowski,

Cornelia Lawrenz, Daniel Miller, Adele Smith,
and Joni Taylor

Abrams, New York

 Contents 90 German High Romanesque
92 Building Techniques: The Vault
10 Pre- and Early History 94 Clunaic Pilgrimage Churches
12 Timeline 98 England and the Normans
14 Introduction 100 Northern Italy
18 Prehistoric Architecture 102 Islam & Christianity in Spain
20 Ancient Egypt 106 Norwegian Stave Churches
22 The Great Pyramids of Giza 108 Secular Architecture
24 Middle and Late Egypt 110 East Asian Religious Architecture
Stonehenge, page 18 28 Mesopotamia and Persia Pisa Baptistery, Cathedral, and Campanile, page 101 112 Great Mosques of Early Islam
32 Building Techniques: 114 Ancient Pueblos
Megaliths
4

5
34 Minoan and Mycenaean 116 Gothic
118 Timeline
36 Antiquity and Early Christianity 120 Introduction
38 Timeline 126 The Birth of Gothic
40 Introduction 128 Notre Dame de Paris
44 Building Techniques: The Classical Orders 130 High Gothic in France
46 Greek Architecture 132 Rayonnant and Flamboyant Gothic
50 The Acropolis in France
52 The Parthenon 134 Building Techniques: Gothic
Cathedrals
54 Early Roman Architecture
136 Early Gothic in the UK
56 The Colosseum
138 Westminster Abbey
58 Roman Urban Planning
140 Late Gothic in the UK
60 Roman Empire
142 Late Gothic in Germany
64 Early Christian Architecture
144 Bohemian and Polish Gothic
66 Byzantine Architecture 148 Iberian Gothic
68 Pre-Mughal Architecture 150 Late Gothic in Northern Italy
70 Early Buddhist Architecture 152 Italian Civic Architecture
72 Early Chinese Architecture 156 Rock Churches of Lalibela
74 Mesoamerican Architecture
158 Renaissance
76 Romanesque 160 Timeline
78 Timeline 162 Introduction
Colosseum, page 57 80 Introduction 168 Filippo Brunelleschi
84 Carolingian Renaissance 170 Building Techniques:
86 Monasteries The Dome of Florence Cathedral
88 Ottonian Cathedrals Chartres Cathedral, page 127 172 Leon Battista Alberti
Architecture: A World History Contents
 174 Ideal Urban Planning 258 Bohemian Baroque
176 Donato Bramante 260 Building Techniques:
178 Giuliano da Sangallo Baroque Dynamism
180 Michelangelo Buonarroti 262 Iberian Baroque
182 St. Peters Basilica 264 Sir John Vanbrugh
184 Raphael 266 Rococo Architecture
186 Jacopo Sansovino 270 Bartolomeo Rastrelli
188 Vincenzo Scamozzi 272 Islamic Architecture
Fillippo Brunelleschi: Florence Cathedral, 190 Giulio Romano 274 Ottoman Empire
page 170 276 Japanese Architecture
192 Andrea Palladio
194 Michele Sanmicheli 278 Baroque in Latin America
6

7
196 Baldassare Peruzzi
198 French Chteaux 282 Neoclassicism
202 Germany and Austria 284 Timeline
206 Northern Renaissance 286 Introduction
208 Renaissance in the UK 290 Building Techniques:
Neoclassical Styles
210 Iberian Renaissance
292 Sir Christopher Wren
212 Eastern Europe
294 WIlliam Kent
214 Mughal Empire
296 Robert Adam
216 East Asian Architecture
298 John Nash
Karl Friedrich Schinkel: Konzerthaus on 300 Sir John Soane
218 Baroque Gendarmenmarkt, page 309
302 Sir Robert Smirke
220 Timeline 304 Claude Nicolas Ledoux
222 Introduction 306 Carl Gotthard Langhans
228 Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola 308 Karl Friedrich Schinkel
230 Gian Lorenzo Bernini 312 Russian Neoclassicism
232 Francesco Borromini 314 Benjamin Henry Latrobe
234 Pietro Berrettini da Cortona 316 The US Capitol
236 Franois Mansart 318 Thomas Jefferson
238 Jules Hardouin Mansart
240 Louis Le Vau 320 19th Century
242 Versailles 322 Timeline
244 French Castles and Gardens 324 Introduction
246 Urban Planning in Paris 328 Building Techniques:
248 Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach Industrial Architecture
Versailles, page 243 250 Johann Dientzenhofer 330 William Wilkins
252 Jakob Prandtauer 332 The Inwood Family
254 Johann Balthassar Neumann 334 Gottfried Semper
Architecture: A World History Contents
 336 Scottish Baronial 418 Art Deco in New York
338 Egyptian Revival 420 Totalitarian Architecture
340 Sir Charles Barry
342 Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin 424 Architecture after 1945
344 Sir George Gilbert Scott 426 Timeline
346 William Butterfield 428 Introduction
348 Eugne Viollet-le-Duc 434 Mies van der Rohe
350 James Renwick Jr. 438 Seagram Building
352 Haussmannization of Paris 440 Louis Kahn
Charles Garnier: Paris Opra (Palais
Garnier), page 365 354 The Louvre 442 Syndey Opera House
356 Second Empire in the USA 444 Eero Saarinen
8

9
358 Richard Morris Hunt 446 Kenzo Tange
360 Henry Hobson Richardson 448 Oscar Niemeyer
362 Exoticism 450 Brutalism
364 Charles Garnier Le Corbusier: Notre Dame du Haut, page 415 452 Tadao Ando
366 Henri Labrouste 454 lvaro Siza Viera
456 Urban Utopias: Theoretical Urban
368 20th Century 1900 to 1945 Planning
370 Timeline 458 Building Techniques:
Daniel Burnham: Complex Curvature
Flatiron Building 372 Introduction
(Fuller Building), 378 Louis Sullivan 460 Skidmore, Owings & Merrill
page 381 464 I. M. Pei
380 Building Techniques: Steel Frames
382 Frank Lloyd Wright 466 Sir Norman Foster
386 Victor Horta 470 High Tech Architecture
388 Hector Guimard 474 Venturi & Scott-Brown
390 Antoni Gaud 476 Sir James Stirling
392 Charles Rennie Mackintosh 478 Aldo Rossi
394 Otto Wagner 480 New York Five
396 Joseph Maria Olbrich 482 Postmodern Classicism
398 Adolf Loos 484 Peter Eisenman
400 Peter Behrens 486 Frank Gehry
402 Erich Mendelsohn 490 Zaha Hadid
404 Gerrit Thomas Rietveld 494 Daniel Libeskind
406 Walter Gropius 496 Rem Koolhaas
408 Bauhaus Sir Norman Foster: Reichstag Dome,
498 Herzog & de Meuron
410 Social Housing Estates page 467 500 Blobs
412 Le Corbusier
416 Nordic Modernism 502 Index
Architecture: A World History Contents
 Pre- and Early History
Europe
10,000 BCE 4800 BCE 2500 BCE 2000 BCE 1600 BCE 1200 BCE
Neolithic period; mud Megalithic structures in Bronze Age; The Minoans construct The Mycenaeans rule Mycenae falls to
bricks are first used Brittany Stonehenge large royal palace com- the Mediterranean; invaders; start of a
plexes on Crete royal burial mounds at 400-year Greek dark
Mycenae age, during which
building halts and
Greek innovations stall
12

13
p. 18

p. 35
10 , 000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 500 300

Middle East
3200 BCE 1200 BCE builds the Ishtar Gate and
Sumerians rule Mesopotamia; Assyrian period; King Sen- the Hanging Gardens of
construction of a proto-zig- nacherib constructs Babylon
gurat, the White Temple in Uruk palaces at Nineveh

p. 29
560 BCE
2100 BCE 612 BCE Persian Achaemenid dy-
Construction of the Ziggurat Neo-Babylonian period; nasty; royal palaces and
at Ur King Nebuchadnezzar II tombs at Persepolis

Egypt
3000 BCE 2575 BCE 1550 BCE 332 BCE
Early Dynastic period; Old Kingdom; the Great New Kingdom; construction of Greco-Roman period; Ptolo-
Egyptian state forms; first Pyramids of Giza large temple complexes near maic pharaohs build temples
use of stone as a building Thebes and royal tombs in the in an early Egyptian style; cross-
material; first pyramid, the
2125 BCE Valley of the Dead; reigns of influences with Roman archi-
Step Pyramid of Djoser, is First Intermediate Pharaohs Hatshepsut and tecture mean that innovations
built period; Egypt splits in two, with Ramses II and styles are shared between
capitals in Memphis and the two
Thebes
p. 23

10,000 BCE Neolithic cul-
ture appears on the east
coast of the Mediterra-
nean; grains are cultivated
18
and mud bricks are used
8000 BCE Neolithic culture
spreads to Syria and Iraq
Neolithic and Bronze Age
70005500 BCE Communi-
ties appear in southern
and central Europe
3500 BCE Neolithic cultures
in the Tigris and Euphrates
river valleys develop into
Bronze Age urban civiliza-
tions, and the Sumerian
civilization emerges as a
prominent culture
18001500 BCE Bronze these monuments is uncertain, they show humankinds
Age technologies arrive in
Europe, improving con-
struction techniques
Other Works
atalhyk, ca. 7500 BCE,
Anatolia, Turkey
Mehrgarh, ca. 70003200
BCE, Buluchistan, Pakistan
Skara Brae, ca. 31002500 (4-meter-) high stones were
BCE, Orkney, UK
Prehistoric Architecture
10,0001500 BCE
 Single family houses, barns, and communal dwellings were built  Early
buildings were made from natural materials such as timber, clay, and mud bricks
 Massive stone slabs were used to mark graves and important sites
 left: The Menhirs of Carnac, ca. 3300 BCE, Carnac, Brittany
Around 10,000 BCE, people began farming and creating
the first architecture in their settled communities. In
Turkey and the Middle East, early buildings and towns
19
were constructed from mud bricks, while Neolithic Euro-
peans used timber framing and made walls of woven
sticks covered with clay. The first buildings were primarily
Neolithic and Bronze Age
for the practical uses of shelter and storing food. How-
ever, early humans also created monuments, including
graves and other ceremonial structures. Stone circles and
menhirs, or upright rows of megalith stones, were
Reed-Thatched Houses, Cueva de Menga Grave at of which weighs 180 tons. As
erected. Several of these architectural feats, such as the
reconstruction, ca. 18001500 Antequera, ca. 30002000 BCE, was typical, after the burial
menhirs of Carnac, still stand. The tallest stone at Carnac BCE, Roeschitz, Austria Spain chamber was completed, the
stands 60 feet (18 meters) high. Though the purpose of whole structure was buried
Because only stone structures A dolmen is a type of Neolithic
under an artificial hill. When it
have survived, we see Neolithic tomb built from upright stones
early desire to manipulate nature on a large scale and to people as preoccupied with and capped by a horizontal roof was discovered and opened in
leave behind lasting markers of their existence. monuments and death. Less slab. Cueva de Menga is the the 19th century, the skeletons
durable dwellings, such as largest dolmen in Europe, built of several hundred people were
Stonehenge, ca. 31002200 markable engineering feat. The
these, are known only from using 32 megaliths, the largest found inside.
BCE, Wiltshire, UK stones are oriented to precisely
their foundations, which con-
Stonehenge is an example of mark the location of the sun on tained holes for their timber
megalithic construction that the summer solstice, showing a structure. These round houses
sophisticated knowledge of astro-
began as a series of circular dit- are typical of the Aunjetitz cul-
ches ca. 3100 BCE. The 12-foot- nomy. Little is known of the build- ture in Germany and Austria.
ers, but some believe the site to Dug partly into the ground,
erected 1,100 years later, a re- have been a place of worship. they had walls of wood mesh
covered with clay and thatched
roofs. Large rectangular build-
ings, called longhouses, shel-
tered whole communities. One
end of a longhouse was used
for grain storage, the middle for
sleeping and eating, and the
area near the door for work.
Prehistoric Architecture
 The Great Pyramids of Giza
About 75 years after the construction of Legend: Great Pyramids, 26th estimated number of workers
11 1
the Step Pyramid of Djoser, Djosers 1 Air Shafts century BCE, Giza needed ranges from 30,000 to
2 Grand Gallery Many mysteries surround the 300,000 men working for 20
grandson, Khufuson of Snefru 10
2
3 Horizontal Passage pyramids, especially their con- years. The Pyramid of Menkaure
began his own pyramid. Learning from 3 (foreground), son of Khufu, is
4 Ascending Passage struction. How were 2 million
the mistakes of Snefrus pyramids, the 9 about half as tall as his fathers.
4 5 Entrance blocks of stone quarried,
architects devised ingenious tech- dressed, and moved into place? The three main pyramids were
6 Descending Passage
niques to build Khufus Great Pyramid 5 Theories include the use of surrounded by a necropolis of
7 Mortuary Temple
on a truly monumental scale. At 480 long, straight ramps leading to the tombs of nobles, including
8 Subterranean Chamber
22

23
the top of the structure, or a the small pyramids for
feet (146 meters) high, the pyramid was 8
9 Queens Chamber Menkaures queens. The scale
the worlds tallest building until Lincoln 6 ramp winding up the outside
10 Air Shafts of the pyramids. Some of the project is staggering, but
Cathedral was completed in 1300.

Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt

7 11 Kings Chamber scientists believe an in- perhaps equally impressive are

Along with the two later pyramids next ternal ramp was used the leaps made in technical
to it, the Great Pyramid remains one of to build them, and skillbuilders, who started
that it still lies working with stone only 75
humankinds greatest achievements.
inside. years earlier, were able to
The Great Pyramid of Khufu has master masonry on
The
two air shafts and two main such a large scale.
chambers. Near the center of
the pyramid lies the main
roomthe Kings
Chamberand the
Queens Chamber lies
just beneath.

The masonry inside the Great The Great Pyramid of Khufu is

Pyramid is so fine that a knife made of about 2,400,000
tip cannot be inserted between blocks, each weighing an aver-
the stones. The Grand Gallery, age of 2.5 tons. The rough inte-
shown above, leads to the rior blocks were quarried ne-
Kings Chamber. Thought to be arby, but the granite for the
the pharaohs burial room, interior Kings Chamber came
today it holds only an empty from about 500 miles (800 km)
sarcophagus. away.
Pre- and Early History 10,000300 BCE

ca. 3200 BCE The proto-zig-
gurat White Temple is built
in the Sumerian city of Uruk
21122095 BCE Sumerian
28
ruler Ur-Nammu builds the
ziggurat at Ur
705681 BCE King
Mesopotamia and Persia
Sennacherib constructs
palaces at the Assyrian
capital Nineveh
605562 BCE King Neb-
uchadnezzar II builds the
Ishtar Gate and the Hang-
ing Gardens of Babylon
559330 BCE Persian
Achaemenid dynasty;
Persepolis and royal tombs
are built
Ziggurat at Ur,
Sumerian, ca. 21132096
BCE, Iraq
The ziggurat at Ur is the
best preserved of the an-
cient ziggurats. The stepped
pyramid has a core of mud
brick finished with an outer
casing of fired brick. Its walls
have flat buttresses and
slope in slightly with the zig-
gurats elevation, to exag-
gerate height. Three con-
verging ramps lead to the
first platform, and a central
stairway continues to the
top, where a small temple
to the citys patron god
Nanna once stood.
Pre- and Early History 10,000300
Ishtar Gate, Babylonian,
ca. 600 BCE, Iraq
Mesopotamia and Persia The Ishtar Gate was the largest
and most beautiful of eight en-
ca. 3200330 BCE
trances into the ancient city of
I Sumerians built cities and stepped ziggurats in present-day Iraq I Mud Babylon. After devastating inva-
brick was widely used I Assyrians adopted Sumerian styles I King Neb- sions, King Nebuchadnezzar II
uchadnezzar II rebuilt Babylon I King Darius founded Persepolis ordered the gates construction
I left: Winged Bull Gateway, 721705 BCE, found in Khorsabad, Iraq
as part of a fortified wall to pro-
tect the city. The gate was fin-
ished with bricks glazed with a
While the Egyptians were building cities on the Nile, an- deep blue color and decorated
other urban civilization developed in the region between with relief images of dragons
and young bulls. The arched
the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, in present-day Iraq. In this
central opening resembles later
29
area, known as Mesopotamia, the Sumerian culture Roman triumphal arches. A 1-
thrived. They developed agriculture and invented a mile- (1.6-km-) long processional
written language, which they etched into clay tablets. way led from the gate to the
Mesopotamia and Persia
Their cities were mainly composed of mud-brick build- citys main temple. It was lined
ings. Wet clay was pounded into wood molds and left to with tall blue-glazed brick walls
with reliefs of 120 lions. Each
dry in the sun. Later, the Sumerians began firing bricks in year, statues of the gods were
ovens, resulting in harder and more durable building ma- paraded through the Ishtar Gate
terials. Pigmented glazes were added to the bricks to and down the processional way
create brilliant colors. during the New Years celebra-
tion. Nebuchadnezzar II carried
The cities of Mesopotamia were dominated by
out other ambitious building
stepped pyramids called ziggurats. Unlike Egyptian
projects throughout Babylon.
pyramids, ziggurats were not built as tombs, but rather His own palace complex in-
as man-made mountains that reached to heaven. cluded the famous Hanging
The Sumerian gods were associated with the large distant Gardens of Babylon, named as
mountains to the east, and the ziggurats were one of the Seven Wonders of the
Ancient World.
Etemenanki Ziggurat at King Nebuchadnezzar II rebuilt
the tower as part of his recon-
Babylon, Babylonian, 605562
BCE, Iraq struction of Babylon. Excavations
show it had a square base plan
Believed to be the inspiration for
and three stairs. The Greek his-
the biblical Tower of Babel, the
torian Herodotos described the
ziggurat was part of a religious ziggurat as multi-colored,
complex located in the city
suggesting it was finished
center. The tower had seven tiers, with glazed brick. Alexander
with a temple to the god Marduk the Great conquered
on top. An earlier ziggurat nearby Babylon and ordered the
was already 1,000 years old when ziggurats destruction in
invaders destroyed it in 689 BCE. 323 BCE.
BCE Mesopotamia and Persia
 Classical Orders
The Classical orders are systems for designing build-
ings based on proportions between the individual
parts. The ancient Greeks developed the orders in
their early wooden temples. They used a basic struc-
tural systemthe post-and-lintel, or vertical columns
supporting horizontal beams. The Classical orders
gave their buildings an aesthetic sophistication by
ensuring consistency and visual harmony between
44

45
buildings, regardless of size or materials used.
There are three orders: the Doric, Ionic, and Corin-
thian. Each has a unique set of rules defining its use.

Antiquity
Antiquity

In theory, historians can use the orders like architec-

tural DNA to reconstruct a temple from a single
column or piece of entablature. The orders were later adopted by the Romans,
who added elements such as arches and vaulting. Forgotten for centuries during
the Dark Ages, the orders were redis-
covered during the Renais-
sance. Since then, architects
have used them to design
buildings that have a sense of
timelessness and elegance.
Corinthian Temple of Diana, ca. 200 CE,
Evora, Portugal
Each order has a unique column design. Doric
columns, from the Greek mainland, are broad,
with capitals composed of a round, pillowlike
echinus and a flat, square bottom slab called
an abacus. The thinner Ionic columns curling
volute capitals originate from the Greek
colonies in Asia Minor, while the
Corinthian capital, a variation on
the Ionic, has carved
acanthus
leaves.
Antiquity and Early Christianity 600 BCE 600 CE
Column Proportions of the Three Orders
Beginning with Palladio in the 1st century BCE,
architects have studied Greek and Roman buildings
to establish the ideal proportions for the three or-
ders. Columns are distinguished by the ratio be-
tween their base diameter and heightfor a Doric
column, it is about 1:6, for an Ionic column, 1:9. The
slight tapering of the columns at the top is called
entasis, and the area above the columns is known as
the entablature. Buildings created in the Doric order
have a frieze with alternating triglyphs and metopes
creating rectangular areas of high and low depth.
Triglyphs are styled after elements of earlier
wooden construction and are fashioned after the
ends of wood beams. The triangular pediment
below the roof line was sometimes filled with sculp-
tures, as at the Parthenon.
Classical Orders
 Callicrates: Temple of
Athena Nike, 427 BCE, Athens
The Acropolis Though small, the Temple of
Athena Nike sat in a promi-
ca. 550404 BCE
nent location overlooking the
I The Acropolis was a sacred hilltop in Athens dedicated to the goddess Athena grand stairway to the Acrop-
I Early temples were destroyed by the Persians I The sculptor Phidias oversaw their olis. The tiny site forced
reconstruction I The completed buildings were a triumph of Greek architecture Callicrates to design a small
I left: Mnesicles: The Erechtheion, 421405 BCE, Athens
structure only 11 feet (3.4 me-
ters) high. The temple has
tetrastyle, or four-columned,
ca. 550 BCE First temple The collection of buildings on the Acropolis represent the porticoes on both the front
dedicated to Athena is and back. The ratio of the col-
built on the Acropolis high point of ancient Greek architecture. The flat-topped hill
overlooking Athens was the site of a Bronze Age fortress and umns diameter to height is
480 BCE Persians attack 1:7, slightly squatter than the
50

51
Athens and destroy the later housed temples to the goddess Athena. Early archaic typical Ionic ideal of 1:9, but
temples on the Acropolis temples to the protectors of the city stood on this site, but in the columns are capped with
461429 BCE Pericles rules
480 BCE, after a devastating war with the Persians, the Acrop- Ionic capitals. The 16.5-

Antiquity
Antiquity

Athens during its golden

age of peace and pros- olis lay in ruins. As Athens entered its golden age, the ruler square-foot (5-square-meter)
perity; he begins the re- Pericles commissioned the sculptor Phidias to oversee the interior held a wooden cult
building of the Acropolis statue of Athena Nike, the
and puts the sculptor reconstruction of the Acropolis. Phidias skillfully laid out
goddess of victory. The entab-
Phidias in charge the structures on the Acropolis to create spatial harmony lature was decorated with re-
438 BCE The Parthenon and heighten visual drama. Each structure was placed to re- lief sculptures. The friezes de-
temple and its cult statue
of Athena are dedicated late spatially to one another and the landscape. Most of the picted victories of the
432 BCE Completion of buildings were built to Doric proportions, though some em- Greek military.
Parthenon sculptures ploy Ionic elements. The Acropolis is more of a high city than The Acropolis, reconstruction, 437404 BCE, Athens
404 BCE Athens is con- a temple complex and was added to throughout the Helle-
quered by the Spartans After climbing the great stairs, visitors
during the Peloponnesian nistic and Roman periods. passed through the Propylaea. Ahead
War and construction on was a bronze sculpture of Athena
the Acropolis ends The Propylaea, 437404 BCE, marble columns of the Propylaea
Promachos. To the left was the
Athens still serve as the entrance to the
south porch of the Erech-
The Propylaea was a gate that temples of the Acropolis. Built
theion, supported by six
surrounded the Acropolis. Today, under Pericles, the Propylaea was
marble columns carved
the ruined not meant to serve as a fortifica- as maidens.
tion, but rather as a demarcation
of where the holy area of the
Acropolis began. The gate was
fashioned out of white marble,
accented with gray marble or
limestone and reinforced with
iron. Construction of the Propy-
laea was never fully completed,
due to the outbreak of the Pelo-
ponnesian War between Athens
and Sparta.
Antiquity and Early Christianity 600 BCE 600 CE

ca. 600300 BCE The Etr-
uscans build temples and
tombs in central Italy
ca. 550 BCE Greek Doric
54
temples at Paestum, Italy
ca. 300 BCE The Romans
absorb Etruscan culture
Roman Antiquity
and architecture
ca. 30 BCE Vitruvius writes
his influential The Ten
Books of Architecture
ca. 50 BCE 100 CE Roman
buildings are built in far-
flung provincial cities
Other Works
Temple of Alatri,
ca. 600300 BCE, recon-
structed at the Villa Giulia,
Rome
Cloaca Maxima,
ca. 600200 BCE, Rome
Temple of Jupiter
Capitolinus, ca. 200 BCE,
Rome
Temple of Augustus
and Livia, ca. 25 BCE,
Vienna
Casa Sannitica,
reconstruction, ca. 200 BCE,
Herculaneum
Like Pompeii, Hercula-
neum was an Italian town
buried in the eruption of
Mt. Vesuvius in 79 CE. This
Antiquity and Early Christianity 600 BCE 600 CE
Early Roman Architecture
ca. 600 BCE 100 CE
I Early Romans embraced Greek culture I Classical orders were used I The Ro-
mans adopted Etruscan innovations like structural arches I Military victories ex-
panded Romes influence I Temples and aqueducts were built in new territories
I left: Roman Maison Carre, 1916 BCE, Nmes
Roman architects owed a large debt to the Greeks. They
dressed their buildings in the Classical orders and deco-
rated them with copies of Greek statues. Many distinctly
55
Roman features, such as the arch, were developed by the
Etruscans, who had lived in Italy centuries before. These
two cultures combined to produce the Roman style. The
Roman Antiquity
Roman Maison Carre in Nmes uses the Greek style but
is based on Etruscan models. Greek temples sat close to
the ground, with steps and columns wrapped all around.
This building is on a high podium. Stairs, only in the front,
lead to a porch of Corinthian columns.
Aqueduct, ca. 100 CE, Thermopolium, ca. 100 CE,
Segovia Ostia Antica
The Romans learned hydraulics Restaurants like this served hot
from the Etruscans, who had food as well as spiced wine from
built early sewers to drain clay jars set in the marble
Romes swamps. Using the sci- counter. The Romans pioneered
ence of arch building, the Ro- the use of concrete to create
house, one of the oldest in the opening onto it. The atrium roof mans were able to engineer curved forms. Here, the walls and
town, was based on Etruscan sloped inward and opened in the monumental aqueducts. This arches are concrete, poured into
models. The large atrium was the center, allowing sunlight and rain- example, built of unmortared a brick veneer that served as a
center of the home. A loggia, dec- water to enter. Richly decorated granite blocks, towers 92 feet framework and molded the con-
orated with Ionic columns, with stucco and frescoes, the (28 meters) above the streets of crete to look like bricks. The mo-
wrapped around the second floor, house likely belonged to a pros- Segovia and still carries water saics that adorn the buildings
with bedrooms and offices perous businessman. 19 miles (30 km) from a spring. floors were a Greek innovation.
Early Roman Architecture
 The Colosseum
When Emperor Vespasian came to power in 69 CE, Rome was in a state of chaos.
In order to appease the masses, he announced the construction of an enormous
public amphitheater. His sons Titus and Domitian succeeded him as emperor,
creating the Flavian dynasty and giving the building its official name, the Flavian
Amphitheater. When the ampitheater opened in 80 CE, the historian Dio Cassius
wrote that Rome celebrated with 100 days of games during which 9,000 animals
were killed. For centuries, the Colosseum witnessed staged battles between man
and beast and man against man, and was even flooded for mock naval battles.
56

57
Built to seat 50,000 spectators, its efficient system of tiered seating and spacious
passageways remains a model for stadium design to the present day. Later dam-
aged by fire and earthquakes, the Colosseum was abandoned, and its walls were

Roman Antiquity
Roman Antiquity

used as a marble quarry. In 1749 Pope Benedict XIV called for its preservation as
a shrine to the early Christians martyred there. Today the Colosseum is a vivid The Colosseums three-tiered
monument to the aspirations and decadence of imperial Rome. facade resembles the design of
Roman aqueducts. The arcades
are faced by three-quarter col-
umns and entablaturesDoric and square windows. At the
on the first story; Ionic, second; top, brackets carried the masts
and Corinthian, third. An attic from which the valerium, a can-
story has Corinthian pilasters opy for shade, was suspended.
The Colosseum, 7280 CE, Rome
The Colosseum was built on a drained lake bed in Em-
peror Neros once lavish gardens. A 131-foot (40-
meter) statue of Nero stood near the site, and it
was this colossus that gave the amphitheater
its popular name. Over centuries, the bronze
statue was remolded to resemble new rulers
and in the end melted down, but the
name still endures.

The oval could

shape of the Col-
osseums arena floor pre-
vented combatants from backing into corners.
Two years after it opened, Emperor Domitian or-
dered the construction of a network of tunnels
below the floor where gladiators and animals
Antiquity and Early Christianity 600 BCE 600 CE
be held. Trap
doors allowed cages or
scenery to be lifted from below. Tunnels con-
nected to aqueducts were used to flood the
stage for naval battles, while pipes to the city
sewer could later drain it.

330 Byzantium becomes
the capital of the Roman
Empire
395 The Roman Empire is
66
Anthemios and Isidoros:
Hagia Sophia, interior,
Byzantine Architecture 532537, Istanbul
After mobs destroyed the
330554 Cathedral of Constantinople in
I Constantinople (now Istanbul) was founded I Ravenna became the 532, Emperor Justinian vowed
western capital of the Roman Empire I New structural techniques were to rebuild on a monumental
used for Hagia Sophia I Buildings were decorated with mosaics scale. He gave his architects the
I left: Church of St. Vitale, ceiling vaults, 527548, Ravenna, Italy
difficult task of placing a round
dome on a square-planned
church. Their daring solution
The city of Rome was weak and militarily vulnerable was to use concave triangular
when Emperor Constantine dedicated his New Rome at sections of masonry, called pen-
dentives, that carry the domes
the Greek city of Byzantium, later called Constantinople.
weight to corner piers. The

67
divided into western and Soon after, the Roman Empire was split in two, with sep- ribbed dome rises 184 feet (56
eastern empires arate capital cities for each halfConstantinople in the meters) and seemingly floats
402 The capital of the east and the Italian city of Ravenna in the west. Among over a row of small windows.

Early Christianity
Early Christianity

western empire is moved
to Ravenna, a small but
easily defended Italian city
near the Adriatic Sea
53237 Eastern Emperor
Justinian builds the church
of Hagia Sophia in Con-
stantinople
554 Rome is reduced to a
camp of about 30,000
people, while Constan-
tinople has about 1 million
people
Other Works
Chora Church, ca. 333,
Istanbul
Hagia Irene, ca. 360,
Istanbul
Arian Baptistery, ca. 490,
Ravenna, Italy
St. Apollinare Nuovo,
493496, Ravenna, Italy
Church of St. Sophia,
527565, Sofia, Bulgaria
St. Apollinare in Classe,
530, Ravenna, Italy
Antiquity and Early Christianity 600
the structures from this period, Hagia Sophia in Istanbul
is exceptional both for its scale and the technical daring
of its construction. The monuments of Ravenna, al-
though smaller, are nevertheless renowned for their fluid
space and stunning mosaic decoration. Unlike earlier
Roman floor mosaics made with stone, Byzantine mo-
saics were made from glass, either in brilliant colors or
layered with gold leaf. The ceiling vaults of the octag-
onal Church of St. Vitale in Ravenna appear to dissolve,
replaced by angels, animals, and holy apostles floating in
a sea of heavenly light.
Mausoleum of Galla
Placidia, 425430, Ravenna,
Italy
This small tomb for the daughter
of Emperor Theodosius I, built in
the form of a Greek cross, is the
earliest and best preserved of
Ravennas mosaic monuments.
The vaulted ceilings and cupola
are covered with glass and gold
leaf tiles depicting a beardless
Jesus Christ and his 12 apostles,
as well as fanciful geometric mo-
tifs. The windows are panels of
translucent stone.
BCE 600 CE
Embellished with multicolored
marble and gold mosaics, the
building is both a culmination
of Roman architectural ambi-
tions and an inspiration for later
buildings. Orthodox churches
today use the central plan and
dome, and Islamic shrines, like
the Sultan Ahmed Mosque, are
modeled after it.
Anthemios and Isidoros:
Hagia Sophia, exterior,
532537, Istanbul
Perhaps due to its daring de-
sign or shortcuts taken in its
construction, the dome of
Hagia Sophia collapsed after an
earthquake in 563 and was re-
placed with the current version.
Later, the support walls were re-
built and heavily reinforced.
Crusaders sacked the city in
1204, leaving the building
badly damaged. In 1453, it was
converted to a mosque, and
Christian mosaics were plas-
tered over. Now a museum, the
building has been restored.
Byzantine Architecture
 Pagoda, 669 CE, at Xingjiao
Buddhist Temple, Shaanxi
Early Chinese Architecture Province
A combination of the layered
220 BCE 700 CE
Indian stupa tower and Chinese
 Neolithic Chinese built villages and tombs  China was unified, and con- watchtowers, the first Chinese
struction of the Great Wall began  Classic Chinese architectural styles deve- pagodas were built of wood
loped under the Han dynasty  The arrival of Buddhism inspired early temples and square in plan. Later pa-
 The pagoda form appeared  Buddhist shrines were carved into cliffs
godas were octagonal or round.
This early brick pagoda marking
the burial site of Xuanzang, a
220 BCE Emperor Qin Shi For centuries, Chinas vast area was populated by remote pilgrim who brought Buddhist
Huang first unifies China tribes, some nomadic and others living in farming villages scriptures back from India, has
under the Qin dynasty; his distinctly Chinese features such
mausoleum complex in surrounded by stamped-earth walls. In 220 BCE, China was
as projecting roof eaves.
72

73
Xian covers 1.3 square unified, and parts of the Great Wall were constructed to
miles (2 square km) protect the countrys borders. Other Works
206 BCE 220 CE During the Under the Han dynasty, the classic style of Chinese ar-

Around the World: China

Around the World: China

Han dynasty many classic Qin Shi Huang Mausoleum,

Chinese building styles chitecture developed. Palaces and temples were laid out 207 BCE, Xian, Shaanxi Province
first appear symmetrically. A grid of round columns supported a large, Mogao Caves, begun
ca. 100700 CE Buddhist horizontal roof with upturned eaves. Light, nonstructural ca. 400 CE, Dunhuang, Gansu
Chinese-style pagodas walls served as screens against the elements. The Indian Province
and temples are built
throughout the unified stupa form was combined with the Chinese lou, a multi- Longmen Caves,
empire story watchtower, to create Buddhist pagodas. begun ca. 500 CE, Henan
Province
Pavilion at Old Dragon campaigns also include the Ter-
Songyue Temple Pagoda,
Head (Lao Long Tou), racotta Warriors, spread the up-
520 CE, Dengfeng, Henan
ca. 220210 BCE, near turned eaves and steep roofed
Province
Shanhaiguan style throughout
Four Gates Pagoda, 611 CE, China.
Situated at the starting point of
Licheng, Shandong Province
the Great Wall, the Old Dragon
Great Wall of China, Head was built under Em-
peror Qin and renovated in
ca. 500 BCE1600 CE
the 15th century. Multilevel
The worlds longest man-made buildings first appeared in
structure, the Great Wall began China under the earlier
as a series of rammed-earth for- Han dynasty, and Em-
tifications. Successive emperors peror Qin, whose mas-
marked changing borders by sive building
extending the wall using stone
and brick. The present wall
dates from the 15th century. In
1449 CE, the Mongols in the
north defeated the Ming dy-
nasty, who had rebuilt the wall
to protect their capital, Beijing.
Antiquity and Early Christianity Early Chinese Architecture

800 Charlemagne
crowned Holy Roman Em-
peror in St. Peters, Rome;
the Palatine Chapel is ded-
84
icated
814 Charlemagne dies
820 Plan for an ideal mon-
Early Romanesque
astery drawn at St. Gall,
establishing a model for
medieval monasteries
843 Charlemagnes em-
pire is divided
ca. 871 Fall of the Carolin-
gian Empire
Other Works
Monastery of Centula
(now Saint-Riquier),
ca. 800, near Amiens,
France
St. Salvator, 804875,
Werden near Essen,
Germany
Church of
Germigny-des-Prs, 806,
near Saint-Benot-sur-
Loire, France
Abbey Church of Fulda,
821, Germany
Church of Saint-Germain,
841859, Auxerre, France
Gatehouse of the
Lorsch Monastery,
ca. 792805, Lorsch,
Germany
This gatehouse stood at
Romanesque 7901140
Carolingian Renaissance
800ca. 871
I Carolingian monarch Charlemagne promoted architecture based on early
Christian models I In size, organization, and detail, buildings reflected canon-
ical Roman works I The basilica was reintroduced as an architectural form
I left: Odo of Metz: Palatine Chapel, octagonal dome, ca. 790ca. 800, Aachen
In a strategic effort to develop an empire with a culture to
rival that of Rome, Charlemagne spread culture to main-
tain cohesion throughout the Holy Roman Empire. The
Benedictine monasteries that he set up were often the
only source of social structure in an otherwise dispersed
population. By promoting Latin as the official secular and
religious language he was able to preserve the Classical
texts in circulation. Overtly, not much remains of his archi-
tectural legacy. Yet many of the Romanesque and Gothic
churches and monasteries functioning today were built
on the foundations of Carolingian architecture.
the entrance to the Lorsch Monas- ments of a westworkthe arched
tery. Scholars debate over the use entrance, the upper hall, and the
of its first-floor hall, but mor- two stair towersare recombined
phologically the building is clearly here in a creative evocation of the
linked to a westwork. The ele- Roman triumphal arch.
85
Early Romanesque
Odo of Metz: Palatine Chapel, 800,
Aachen, Germany
The Palatine Chapel is all that is left of a palatial
complex built by Charlemagne and based on the
Lateran in Rome. Charlemagne was clear about
his intentions of inheriting the legacy of the
Roman Empire and used architecture to assert
that claim. Strongly based on the church of St.
Vitale in Ravenna, but with a distinctly Carolin-
gian simplicity, the chapel is a centralized domed
building with arcades that join to an ambulatory
and a double-height gallery.
Church of St. Vitus, westwork, 873885,
Benedictine Abbey at Corvey, Germany
The disposition of programmatic elements in the
westwork gave Carolingian church facades a spe-
cific character. The westwork was both function-
ally and symbolically the gateway to the church.
As at Lorsch, a triple arcade opens onto a low
vaulted vestibule flanked by staircases that lead
to a double-height chapel space above. The twin-
towered facade of the westwork became a stan-
dard for most Romanesque and Gothic churches
in western Europe.
Carolingian Renaissance
 Islam & Christianity in Spain
7111492
I The Muslim rulers of southern Spain descended from the Umayyad dy-
nasty in Damascus I Architectural forms were derived from early Syrian
models I A local architectural culture developed that influenced both the
Muslims and Christians in Spain

711 Muslim armies con- Political struggles over Spain between Christians and
quer Spain Muslims led to a diverse architectural style on the Iberian
961976 Great Mosque of
Cordoba extended Peninsula. After the fall of Cordoba in 1236, its Great
102

103
1236 Cordoba falls to Mosque was converted into a church. The magnificent
Christian armies 10th century sanctuary was left intact, even after the con-
1238 Alhambra Citadel in struction of a 16th-century cathedral at the center of the

Late Romanesque in Spain

Late Romanesque in Spain

Granada begun as the seat

of the Nasrid dynasty hypostyle prayer hall, a building with columns supporting
1333 Conversion of the a flat roof. From this position, the cathedral rose from the
Alhambra from a citadel never-ending rows of arches, its buttresses hooking into
into a palace begins the columnar grid. The earlier mosque had been so mas-
1492 Spanish armies take
Granada, ending Muslim sive that an entire cathedral could go unnoticed within its
rule in Spain walls. The moment of transition between the seemingly
infinite horizontality of the mosque and
the vertical pull of the cathedral is at
once jarring and sublimeperhaps a
metaphor for the ambivalent relation-
ship that defined Islam and Christianity
in Spain. The followers of the
Great Mosque, begun 785, Cordoba
The first of its kind in Europe, the Great Mosque
at Cordoba served for centuries as a model for
Moorish architecture throughout the Iberian
Peninsula. The mosque that stands today is a re-
sult of many building campaigns under both Is-
lamic and Christian rule. The original mosque
was much smaller than it is now, with only 10
rows of arcades reaching the kibla, the wall ori-
enting worshippers toward Mecca in the south.
Caliph al-Hakam II extended the Great Mosque in
the mid-10th century, adding not only further
rows of arcades, but also ornamental domes with
complex patterns of intersecting ribs.
Romanesque 7901140
Great Mosque, interior, begun 785, Cordoba
Given how complex the interior feels, the Great
Mosque is astonishingly simple in plan. A contin-
uous wall defines the regular quadrangle. The
first third of the building is devoted to an exterior
court, and the remaining part is an expansive hy-
postyle hall used for prayer. Two tiers of arches
carry the roof, the lower set supported by an-
tique stone columns and capitals. The poly-
chrome effect comes from using a combination
of stone and brick wedges.
Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela,
Prtico de la Gloria, 116888
Pilgrims from all over Europe met near the Pyre-
nees Mountains and traveled to Santiago de
Compostela, the purported resting place of the
apostle St. James. The Romanesque portals of the
cathedral have been incorporated into the later
Baroque facade, a reminder of the medieval ori-
gins of the pilgrimage.
Islam & Christianity in Spain

101630 The spread of During the Middle Ages wood was the most popular and
Christianity in Norway is
enforced during the reign
of King Olaf II
106
Borgund Stave Church,
ca. 11501200, Lrdal,
Norwegian Stave Churches Sogn og Fjordane
The term stave comes from the
1016ca. 1250 Norse word stavr, referring to
I Traditional wood frame construction lined with boards, roofed with shin-
the large wooden posts that
gles, and treated with tar I Approximately 1,300 stave churches have been formed the structural basis for
indexed; of those, 28 survive in Norway the churches. The system of
I left: Urnes Stave Church, detail, 11th12th century, Sogn og Fjordane
braced posts set on founda-
tional stones created a stable
yet flexible frame around which
the church could be con-
structed. At Borgund, the 12 in-
often the only building material used in northern Europe.
terior posts support the tallest
Scandinavia was dotted with wooden forts, houses, and,

1031 King Olaf II is canon-
ized, prompting the
construction of shrines
107
portion of the roof, which then
later, churches. In Norway alone more than 1,000 wooden
descends almost to the ground
churches were built over the course of three centuries. over three separate slopes.
Although this tradition has all but disappeared, remark- Owing to the weather, there are

Wooden Architecture
Wooden Architecture

ca. 1050 Stave churches

begin to appear through-
out Norway
ca. 1130 Urnes, one of
the oldest surviving stave
churches, is constructed
atop the foundations of an
even older church
11501250 Most existing
stave churches are built
ca. 1250 The construction
of stave churches begins
to be phased out
Other Works
Heddaln Stave
Church, 12th and 13th
centuries, Notodden,
Telemark
Hopperstad Stave
Church, ca. 1150, Vik,
Sogn og Fjordane
Kaupanger Stave
Church, ca. 11501200,
Sogndal, Sogn og
Fjordane
Gol Stave Church, 13th
century, reconstructed,
Olso Folk Museum
Romanesque 7901140
ably, 30 original stave churches have survived. These have
been used to reconstruct other churches. In these simple
buildings, the Romanesque use of stone was artfully ex-
pressed in wood. Stave churches were built entirely of
wood, either dovetailed or pegged and wedged, but
never nailed. Columns, capitals, arches, and portals were
carved to mimic Romanesque details. These were often
combined with both figurative and abstract motifs from
Norse mythology.
Borgund Stave Church,
interior, ca. 11501200, Lrdal,
Sogn og Fjordane
The existing stave churches of
Norway are not stylistically ho-
mogeneous. They vary greatly
in plan, structure, and size.
Borgund is a large stave church,
with a complex plan and sec-
tion. Freestanding columns,
braced to carry the tall roof,
support the central portion of
the rectangular nave. A narrow
ambulatory encircles the nave,
echoed by an exterior porch.
Three gables and an apse
project from the main volume.
no large windows, only peep-
holes in a portion of the nave
wall, analogous to the
clerestory of Romanesque
churches. The apse roof follows
the general profile of the nave
and choir but then separates
from the main volume and proj-
ects into an amusing turret.
Often a single window over the
west porch brought dim light
into the building, but candle-
light services were common.
Urnes Stave Church,
ca. 1130, Luster, Sogn og
Fjordane
Of the 28 stave churches surviv-
ing in Norway, UNESCO chose
Urnes to represent this building
typology as a World Heritage
Site. One of the oldest surviving
churches, it was built using dec-
orative elements from a pre-
vious 11th-century structure. Its
carvings are exquisite, uniting
Christian symbolism with sin-
uous abstractions of dragons
and lizards.
Norwegian Stave Churches

1066 William the Con-
queror is crowned king of
England at Westminster
Abbey, and fortification of
108
London takes place
ca. 107797 The White first major accomplishment was the construction of the
Tower of the Tower of
Fortifications
London is constructed
1099 Jerusalem is cap-
tured by Christian armies
during the Crusades
1142 The Knights Hospi-
taller take possession of
Krak des Chevaliers
Romanesque 7901140
Other Important Works
Secular Architecture Qalat Salah El-Din
(Fortress of Saladin),
Castle Keep,
begun ca. 1080,
10661142 10th12th century, near Newcastle-upon-
Haffeh, Syria Tyne, UK
I Castles in the UK and Ireland developed in the late 9th century as a response Colchester Castle, Rochester Castle,
to Viking invasions I Earth and wood castles were rebuilt in stone under the 10691100, Essex, UK begun ca. 1080,
Normans I Permission to build a castle was granted by the king Richmond Castle, Kent, UK
I left: White Tower, Tower of London, interior, ca. 107797, London 107186, Hedlingham Castle,
Yorkshire, UK ca. 1140, Essex, UK
Anglo-Saxon England had efficient fortifications before Dover Castle, keep, begun ca. 1180, Kent, UK
the Norman Conquest of 1066, but very few stone struc-
The windows at the White Tower were enlarged
tures were built. William the Conqueror changed this sit- in the 18th century, making it appear more hos-
109
uation entirely in the second half of the 11th century. His pitable to a 21st-century visitor. Yet it is the omi-
nous solidity of Dover that communicates the
real purpose of the fortified residence: defensibil-
Tower of London, at the edge of the city, overlooking the
Fortifications
ity. During the Romanesque period, the main de-
Thames and surrounding countryside. The tower was fensive positions were on the roof instead of at
both a royal residence and a key fortress, influencing ar- the slits or loops that came into use later.
chitectural styles for fortifications throughout England.
With the launch of the first Crusade in 1095, military archi-
tecture was particularly important. Contact with the East
meant the introduction of
new technological inno-
vations that could both
be brought back for use
in European wars and put
to the test abroad.
White Tower, Tower of
London, ca. 107797
The White Tower is the keep, or
residence, built within the forti-
fied complex of the Tower of
London. The keep is rectangular
in plan, with stair towers at
three corners and the fourth oc-
cupied by a semicircular projec-
tion that contains the chapel.
The upper floor includes two Krak des Chevaliers, with rounded projections provided several lines of de-
large halls and the royal chapel, begun 1142, near Homs, Syria formed a complex polygon. In- fense. The castle was an impor-
all surrounded by a gallery Krak des Chevaliers was an ad- side, a wide buffer zone gave tant military outpost from
running along the perimeter vanced piece of military tech- way to a massive inner struc- which Crusaders could control
walls. nology. A set of fortified walls ture, with layered walls that the Syrian coast.
Secular Architecture
 Ancient Pueblos
ca. 1000ca. 1300
I The Anasazi inhabited large parts of southwestern North America I They
were the ancestors of modern-day Pueblo peoples I Many cliff dwellings and
stone pueblos were discovered in the late 19th century and later excavated
I left: Cliff Palace, ca. 1200ca. 1300, Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado

ca. 1000 Stone begins to The main social space for the Pueblo peoples was the
be used, along with the kivaa round, subterranean room that served spiritual,
traditional mediums of
wood and mud, as a con- political, and familial purposes similar to the functions of
114

struction material a chapel or parish church in Europe. The Anasazi lived in

ca. 113080 The Pueblo large communities of up to 1,000 people, divided into fa-
Bonito is abandoned
milial units. The life of each family revolved around the
Around the World: the Americas

127699 The Great

Drought takes place in kiva, so that several round kivas would be interspersed
what is today the south- with tight rows of rooms used for living, storage, and
western United States
sometimes even burial. The entire pueblo could be com-
ca. 1300 The Anasazi
people abandon their pared in scope to the large communal European abbeys
communities of the same era.
Pueblo Bonito, dwellings, As in many surrounding com- nity kivas. These were backed
Other Works ca. 920ca. 1180, Chaco Canyon munities, dwellings faced by layers of rooms that had dif-
National Park, New Mexico south, stepping down so that ferent uses depending on the
Tuzigoot, occupied from
ca. 1000, Verde River valley, Ari- The tallest structures at Pueblo the roof of one was the terrace availability of light. Roads lead-
zona Bonito were at the back of the of the next. At Pueblo Bonito, ing to neighboring settlements
White House, 10661275, structure, along the protective there were about 30 family and resource areas have been
Canyon de Chelly National north-facing windowless curve. kivas and two central commu- discovered.
Monument, Chinle, Arizona Pueblo Bonito,
Montezuma Castle, ca. 1100, ca. 9201180, Chaco Canyon
Verde River valley, Arizona National Park, New Mexico
Aztec Ruins National Monu- Pueblo Bonito was a semicirc-
ment, 111115 and mid-13th ular five-story megastructure
century, Aztec, New Mexico gathering a village with hun-
Great Kiva at Casa Rinuanda dreds of inhabitants into one
(Corner House), ca. 1150, building. In plan it looked
Chaco Canyon National somewhat like a cell, with a
Park, New Mexico membrane, nucleus, and free-
floating elements. In section it
Cliff Palace, traditionally lived in pit houses the pits, turning them into kivas resembled a Roman theater,
ca.1200ca. 1300, Mesa Verde on the mesa, began to move to and adding multilevel houses terracing down to a central
National Park, Colorado sheltering cliff dwellings. They that hugged the natural con- plaza. Its straight edge was
Around 1150 the Anasazi, who retained the circular forms of tours of the cliffs. closed off by a layer of rooms.
Romanesque Ancient Pueblos
 Gothic
11401500 12201520 12201520 Around the World:
Gothic in Rayonnant and Mediterranean Southeast Asia
p. 129
France Flamboyant Gothic and Africa
The construction of the Gothic Italian Gothic architec- As European cathedrals
choir of Saint-Denis, near ture features polychrome grew taller, cultures in
Paris, creates an archi- In France and England surfaces and geometric Southeast Asia were
118

119
structural elements such
tecture of light using forms; in Spain and building massive temple
as vaulting and ribs
skeletal frames that com- Portugal, Flamboyant complexes that also
become increasingly intri-
partmentalize buildings Gothic mixes with highly reached to the heavens,
cate and ornate
and increase the possibil- ornate local styles such as while in Ethiopia, chur-
ities of height and orna- the Manueline style ches were hollowed out

p.142
mentation of the earth

1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600

11741517 12301520
Gothic in Gothic in Central
the UK and Northern
Europe

p. 155
Gothic styles spread from
France to the UK, where
German, Austrian, Polish,
Flamboyant, or Deco-
and Bohemian architects
rated, and Perpendicular
adopt French Gothic
styles create new forms of
styles, building wider
tracery and vaulting
structures of brick
p. 141

p. 148
p. 133
 Chartres Cathedral, after 1194

114044 West facade The building that marks the beginning of the Gothic era
and ambulatory of Saint-
Denis is built
126
The Birth of Gothic At Chartres, the focus was on interior rather than
exterior clarity. The cathedrals external beauty
lies in how clearly the layers of construction
11401281
throughout different campaigns can be seen.
 Religious fervor sparked the construction of many churches  Light was Begun during the early Gothic period, the west-
used as an element of design  Skeletal structures replaced load-bearing ern facade is a fusion of a late Romanesque base
walls  Architectural elements such as the pointed arch, the flying but- with an early Gothic facade and a late Gothic
tress, the rose window, and the triple portal were first used together spire. Chartres was structurally revolutionary for
its time. When it was built, the cathedrals vaults
were the highest in Europe, and were supported
by flying buttresses. At 118 feet (36 meters) tall,
is the Abbey Church of Saint-Denis, near Paris. It was built the nave is an uninterrupted volume
under the direction of Abbot Suger, one of the most influ- framed by clustered columns and re-

ca. 1144 Abbot Suger de-
scribes the construction
of Saint-Denis
ca. 1160 Laon and Paris
127
ential political figures of the time. Suger, describing the markable fenestration. The
construction of Saint-Denis, wrote of a new light that was cathedral re- tains almost all
its medieval stained glass,
to pervade his church, one that would aid the religious ex-

Gothic in France
Gothic in France

cathedrals begun filling the interior with

11941220 Chartres
Cathedral is rebuilt in the
Gothic style after fire
ca. 120050 West facade
of Notre Dame de Paris is
built
123181 Construction of
nave and choir at Saint-
Denis
Other Works
Abbey Church of
Saint-tienne, vaults, late
11th century, Caen
Durham Cathedral,
choir-aisle vaults, later
choir, and nave vaults,
10931133
Nave of Sens Cathedral,
begun ca. 1130
Notre Dame de Paris,
begun ca. 1160
Nave of Noyon Cathe-
dral, begun ca. 1170
Soissons Cathedral,
south transept, begun
ca. 1180
Gothic 11401520
perience. Following the Neoplatonic emphasis on God as
light, Suger argued that the contemplation of physical
beauty would lead to enlightenment. It was the will to
turn light into an element of architecture that logically
led to the replacement of solid walls with skeletal struc-
tures and windows. Through a strict geometrical ra-
tionale, the architecture of light came to influence build-
ing techniques for centuries.
Abbey Church of Saint-
Denis, 11401281, near Paris
Saint-Denis was the first
building to use and unify all of
the architectural elements that
define Gothic as a style. Pointed
arches, column clusters, and
cross-rib vaulting had been
seen before, but it was not until
the building of Saint-Denis that
these elements came together
in a coherent whole. The result
was a skeletal enclosure based
on freestanding columns rather
than solid walls. In the ambula-
tory, stone ribs support brick
vaultsa technique that al-
lowed for minimal scaffolding
during construction.
splashes of colored light.
Laon Cathedral,
interior and facade,
begun ca. 1160
Although Laon retains
the round arches and
heavy walls of Roman-
esque architecture, the
deep recess of the por-
tals and windows
create a characteristi-
cally Gothic play of light
and shadow. The playful facade lacks the rigor and
sculptural unity of Paris or Amiens, but its com-
partmental nature made it a prototype for other
Gothic churches. The triple portal, the rose
window, and the open gallery are basic elements
of a Gothic facade. The naves divisions and
rhythms clearly borrow from Romanesque de-
signs, with the exception of one important inno-
vation: the new triforium passage, a low arcade
just below the clerestory, which added extra
height to the nave. This element was retained in
later Gothic churches, replacing the earlier tribune
gallery as the separation between the arcade and
the expanded clerestory above.
The Birth of Gothic
 Notre Dame de Paris
Notre Dame de Paris is neither the tallest nor the
most extravagant of Gothic cathedrals but has a mo-
numental dignity and clarity of plan that has made
it an architectural icon. Later modified, the first plan
of Notre Dame was strikingly compact. A long nave
with a semicircular apse was embraced by a double
ambulatory that continued alongside the nave, for-
ming the side aisles. The transept projected only
128

129
slightly beyond the exterior walls, but did not inter-
rupt the rhythm of the aisles. Although the simplifi-
cation of form and absolute emphasis on verticality

Gothic in France
Gothic in France

of later churches is still muted at Notre Dame, its satisfying proportions and well-
integrated ornament unify the space. The scholastic movement influenced the
strict compartmentalization of early
Gothic works, but also introduced con-
trast into architectureat Notre Dame,
slender shafts fall uninterrupted down
the height of the thin nave wall, but
stop abruptly, balancing on massive ca-
pitals.
Notre Dame, chevet with buttressing,
11631230, Paris
The flying buttresses at Notre Dame were among
the first of their kind and were modified during a
construction phase that enlarged the clerestory
windows. Architects sacrificed exterior clarity for in-
terior light, obscuring the exterior walls, and
making them less tangible and more mysterious.
Notre Dame, nave, after 1178, Paris
Full of contrast, Notre Dame has thin, transparent
nave walls, essential to the sublime light of Gothic
buildings, resting on monumental piers. The com-
plex problem of creating an illusion of weightless- Notre Dame, facade, not appear to rise fluidly from metrical figures: the square,
ness both inside and out is solved through the use 120050, Paris the soil, like Reims. Instead it is the circle, and the triangle, ar-
of lightthe interior is dematerialized with light The facade of Notre Dame is an orderly and comprehensible ranged on a grid throughout
and the exterior with the complexity of shadow. anything but vertical. It does image based on primary geo- its elevation.
Gothic 11401520 Notre Dame de Paris

1220 Reims architect Jean
Le Loup first links the trifo-
rium and clerestory
122670 Louis IX reigns in
132
France
ca. 1230 First mature Ray-
onnant works appear at
Late Gothic in France
Troyes and Saint-Denis
123181 Abbot Sugers
choir at Saint-Denis is
linked to a west narthex
with a new nave and
transepts
1246 Sainte-Chapelle is
begun in Paris
1254 Louis IX returns from
the Seventh Crusade
13371453 Hundred
Years' War between Eng-
land and France
1500 Many early Gothic
buildings are finished in
late Gothic styles
Gothic 11401520
Other Works Troyes Cathedral, crossing,
ca. 1230
Rayonnant and Flamboyant Abbey Church of Saint-Denis,
nave and transept, begun 1231,
Less concerned with height,
13th-century architects focused
Gothic in France Paris
Church of Saint-Urbain,
on refining the nave wall. By re-
choir and transept, begun 1262,
placing columns with groups of
12201500 Troyes colonnettes and running them
I Architects concentrated on details and ornamentation I Windows became
up the entire height of the wall,
Rouen Cathedral,
larger, with more glass I Interiors were brighter and felt more spacious north transept, west facade and they achieved progressively
towers, 12811500 more unified interior eleva-
tions. Vertical elements, like the
Palace of the Popes, 133551,
In the Rayonnant style the early and High Gothic obses- Avignon clerestory tracery, elegantly
dropped down to pick up the
sion with height was replaced with a systematic refine- Saint-Maclou, begun 1434,
arches of the triforium below,
ment of detail. Smaller churches and chapels were built Rouen
133
uniting the levels.
anew, while many existing buildings were modernized,
enlarged, or simply finished in the new style. The Abbey
Church of Saint-Denis was almost totally rebuilt, while
Late Gothic in France
Chartres Cathedral and Notre Dame de Paris received
elaborate new transept facades. Rayonnant-style build-
ings were no longer demonstrations of religious fervor
but were concerned with more secular explorations of
architectural language. After over 300 years, the limits of
Gothic architecture were finally reached in the 16th-cen-
tury French late Gothic style known as Flamboyant,
named after the extravagant flame-shaped tracery that
filled the last Gothic windows, portals, and facades. The
elaborate stone tracery of Flamboyant Gothic architec-
ture is usually fashioned after the same S-curved line that
is found in much Gothic art.
Rouen Cathedral, detail of
the west facade, late 15th
century
The Flamboyant style was con-
cerned with surface treatment
rather than the structural or
spatial problems that had Sainte-Chapelle, vaults in over the young French nation. to the intricate metal reli-
mostly been solved during the the upper hall, 124648, Paris The pivotal objects legitimizing quaries made to carry these ob-
High Gothic period. By virtue of The Court style betrayed a that power were precious relics jects of medieval worship.
being added to existing build- growing secular influence on often brought back from the Above the parish church, the
ings, Flamboyant ornamenta- French ecclesiastical architec- Crusades. Many scholars point private upper hall was simpli-
tion was often only an appliqu ture. Louis IX was eager to build to the jewel-like quality of fied to one entirely glazed
of overlapping layers of tracery. a shrine asserting his power Sainte-Chapelle as a response space.
Rayonnant and Flamboyant Gothic in France
 Gothic
Cathedrals
Medieval masons understood that forces in a building 2
1
could be expressed as directional loads, or vectors. The
structural feats in the construction of Gothic cathedrals 3

were a creative way of separating vertical and lateral

loads by redistributing spaces. Working with the same
design and construction methods used for centuries, 5
134

135
4
cathedral architects introduced innovations that were
pivotal to the development of Gothic planning. By

Gothic
Gothic

modifying the system of vaulting and using flying

buttresses, architects gained an unprecedented
freedom in plan. This created the Gothic aesthetic as
well as the structural 6
a support needed for
the new heights of
b cathedrals. 7

Legend: Reims Cathedral, plan,

1 Radiating chapels 12111311
c The four-part ribbed vault, the
2 Ambulatory
flying buttress, and the use of
3 Choir dead weight for stability revo-
lutionized medieval construc-
4 Crossing
tion. Gothic churches were
d 5 Transept based on sets of flexible struc-
6 Nave tural bays instead of the
monolithic barrel vault. Using
7 Narthex adjustable ribs, masons could
vary the proportions of each
a Transverse rib bay without affecting its
height. The geometry of the
e b Flying buttress pointed arch produced smaller
c Clerestory lateral loads and transferred
the vertical ones directly down
f d Triforium to the supporting columns. Reims Cathedral, main cathedral is composed of the rium that takes up the blind
e Buttress Any residual lateral forces were nave looking west, mid-13th
removed through flying but- following elements in ascend- space of the aisle roof, and fi-
f Main arcade century ing order: the arcade linking the nally the clerestory window
tresses connected to weighted
g
g Aisle pillars outside. The nave wall of a High Gothic nave with its aisles, the trifo- reaching up to the nave vault.
Gothic 11401520 Gothic Cathedrals
 Westminster Abbey
Henry III commissioned the rebuilding of Westmin-
ster Abbey in the Anglo-French Gothic style. Preoccu-
pied with geometry, Gothic buildings that were built
by French architects had plans based on regular
grids, with an emphasis on height. The English Gothic
method instead presupposed long volumes that
were subdivided into various programmatic ele-
ments. Westminster Abbey combined French height
138
and sleek proportions with English length, resulting
in a truly monumental space. Unlike in France, where
royal functions were distributed between different
Gothic in the UK
buildings at Reims, Saint-Denis, and Paris, Westmin-
ster Abbey was at once Englands coronation church,
mausoleum, and national shrine. As part of a com-
plex of buildings of which only Westminster Hall sur-
vives, it was the most important church in England,
as well as the center of governance.
Gothic 11401520
Westminster Abbey, begun
1245, London
Designed in direct reference to its
French counterparts, Westmin-
ster Abbey included features
often absent from other English
cathedrals. A thin nave wall re-
quiring flying buttresses, an un-
139
obscured clerestory, and a chevet
with radiating chapels were all
borrowed from contemporary
Gothic in the UK
French models. Yet the English
combined traditional and experi-
mental styles to distinguish West-
minster Abbey from its French
prototypes. The prominent
transepts, subdivisions of spaces,
and great length, typical even to
pre-Gothic plans, were combined
with an abundance of color and
variation in details that guar-
antied a distinctly English flavor.
Westminster Abbey, Lady
Chapel, fan vaulting, 150319
The lady chapel was often
added to the east ends of Eng-
lish cathedrals in honor of the
Virgin Mary. Although the
foundation stone was laid in
1220, this chapel was replaced
in the early 16th century. The
ceiling is an exquisite example
of fan vaulting, paralleled only
by Kings College Chapel at
Cambridge. The vaults stone
decoration conceals the struc-
tural ribs beneath lavish
hanging fan cones.
Westminster Abbey
 Other Works
Fortified Cities Old Town of vila, founded
11th century, Spain
Carcassonne and Mont-Saint-Michel Monpazier, 1284, Pays-de-
12041448 Bergerac, France

I Present-day Mont-Saint-Michel and Carcassonne are the result of major Aigues-Mortes, rebuilt in the
restoration work I Restorations focused on Gothic and Picturesque qualities 13th century, France
I left: Crossing Tower, begun 11th century, Mont-Saint-Michel, France Citadella, 13th century, near
Vicenza, Italy
1204 New monastic build- The origins of fortified cites and towns are as varied as Caernarfon, 13th century, UK
ings are built at Mont- the places themselves. Some were ancient forts like Car- Historic Center of Avignon
Saint-Michel with exqui- with Fortified Papal Complex,
site Gothic vaulting cassonne, occupied and rebuilt by consecutive invaders.
146

147
13th and 14th century, France
1226 External defensive Others, such as the castles on the Loire, were villages and
walls are built around monasteries whose inhabitants built fortifications during
Carcassonne Mont-Saint-Michel, Tour Tied to France, but reaching out Mont-Saint-Michel, view
the violent 9th and 10th centuries. Still others were com-

Gothic Fortifications
Gothic Fortifications

de la Libert, 11th16th to England, its architecture from the east, 11th16th

1262 The residents of Car-
cassonne are expelled by missioned by dukes or kings and built in one campaign as century, France reflects the remarkable tension century, France
the king after a revolt military outposts. Mont-Saint-Michel is a combination of The entire history of medieval that existed between the two The nave and transept of the
1270 The old chancel of all three, but due to its unique situation on an outcrop Anglo-Norman and later French countries. At Mont-Saint-Michel abbey church cross at the peak
Carcassonne Cathedral is accessible by foot only at low tide, it does not fit any one architecture is revealed on one opposites were reconciled. The of the mountain, where a tower
demolished to make room rocky outcrop named Mont- bold fortifications spoke of the both conquers and ennobles
for a new Gothic chancel, category completely. Carcassonne, on the other hand, is
Saint-Michel. Begun as a Bene- invincibility of its medieval the summit of the island. The
completed in the 1320s the definitive example of the ancient fortified citya dictine abbey and Norman builders. Yet the same people Romanesque nave was sophis-
1448 The choir at Mont- spontaneous network of narrow winding streets leading military outpost during the prayed to God with humility, ticated for its time, with a light-
Saint-Michel is begun in up to a central castle or church. During the 19th century ness that anticipated Gothic
10th century, it sits in a shallow from fragile chapels balanced
the Flamboyant style to
replace the destroyed Eugne Viollet-le-Duc (p. 348) renovated Carcassonne, bay off the coast of Normandy. over cold waters. additions. The nave terminates
Romanesque choir restoring the citys Gothic elements. with a sublime Flamboyant-
style choir almost as tall as the
Fortified City of Carcas- tower itself. Its spiky pinnacles
sonne, primarily 13th and 14th seem to grow out of the moun-
centuries, France tain island.
Carcassonne is one the oldest
fortifications in France. Located
on the site of a prehistoric hill-
fort, Romans later built stone
fortifications there during the
1st century BCE. Later, Visigoths,
Arabs, and Franks all occupied
and added to the fortress. The
existing castle, church, and
walls date back to the 12th and
13th centuries, when the town
acquired its picturesque me-
dieval look.
Gothic 11401520
 Siena Cathedral,
late 13th century
Late Gothic in Northern Italy The Siena Cathedral is intensely
ornamented. The facade has
12091420 white marble bands dominat-
I Gothic architecture made little impact in Italy I Gothic elements were
ing over thinner green inlays.
used as two-dimensional motifs in screen facades I Contrasting colors of Inside, the proportions are al-
marble resulted in striking polychrome walls tered, and equal value is given
I left: Milan Cathedral, pinnacles, after 1387
to white and green marble, cre-
ating an aesthetic that recalls
ancient Egypt. Leading
1209 St. Francis of Assisi Gothic architectural styles arrived late in Italy, and human- artists worked on further sculp-
founds the Franciscan ist Renaissance thought began early, resulting in Gothic tural ornamentation.
monastic order
architectural styles being only an inflection upon the pre- Other Works
150

151
130821 Dante Alighieri
writes The Divine Comedy dominantly Classical tradition. Even key buildings such
St. Maria Novella, begun 1246,
1348 Outbreak of the as the cathedrals of Florence or Siena were transitional Florence
Black Plague stops en- moments between the established Italian Romanesque

Gothic in Italy
Gothic in Italy

largement of Siena St. Francesco, 1250, Bologna

Cathedral and new Renaissance ideas. With the founding of inde- St. Croce, by Arnolfo di Cambio,
1386 Construction of the pendent city-states in the 13th and 14th centuries, the begun 1294, Florence
Milan Cathedral in the absolutist role of the church was greatly diminished. St. Francesco, Gothic rebuild-
Rayonnant style begins ing begun 1320, Siena
Italian cathedrals were often funded by the city or its oli-
13871401 Scholarly de- Orvieto Cathedral, by Lorenzo
bates take place over the garchy and built by civic consensus. The very nature of the Maitani, 1330
construction of Milan process prohibited powerful individuals such as Abbot
Cathedral Basilica of St.
Suger from materializing unified ideas of God and light in Milan Cathedral,
1420 Renaissance styles nave, begun 1386 Francesco d'Assisi,
are incorporated into Flo- vertical masterpieces of faith and political ego. Italian
The effect inside Milan 122853, Assisi
rence Cathedral Gothic styles were often highly ornate and colorful.
Cathedral is mystical. A simple Latin cross in
Milan Cathedral, facade, Shadows are cast on plan, the monastery
begun 1386, completed early the heavy pillars that contains upper and
19th century march down the cathe- lower pilgrimage
Milan Cathedral was poised to drals five wide aisles. churches. Splendid
be the masterpiece of Italian Unusual hexagonal frescoes cover the
Gothic architecture. Architects column capitals with interior.
and scientists from Italy, France, large statues top the
and Germany were invited to continuous row of
discuss and contribute to the pillars.
proposed plans of 1387. Con-
sensus was hard to reach, as the
architects defended their own
building cultures and styles as
being superior methods. The
Neo-Gothic facade was com-
pleted only in the early 19th
century.
Gothic 11401520 Late Gothic in Northern Italy

ca. 1090 King Kyanzittha
begins construction of nu-
merous temples based on
the Shwezigon Pagoda
154
111350 Reign of Surya-
varman II; Angkor Wat
built in the capital city of
Around the World: Southeast Asia
the Khmer Kingdom
1177 Angkor reconquered
after being attacked by the
Chams
1181 King Jayavarman VII
converts to Buddhism and
builds Angkor Thom over
the ruins of the old capital
1287 Bagan is sacked by
the Mongols
ca.1430 Khmer abandon
Angkor Thom after the
kingdom is sacked by the
Thai
Angkor Wat, early 12th
century, near Siem Reap,
Cambodia
The largest of many Hindu
temples built in the an-
cient Khmer capital,
Angkor Wat is a layered
rectangular compound
surrounded by a wide
moat. Rich with detail and
highly symbolic, it is
meant to evoke both a
mandala rising from the
primordial ocean and
Vishnus mountain abode.
Gothic
Shwezigon Other Works
Pagoda, 11th century,
Southeast Asia near Bagan, Myanmar Bapuon Temple,
ca. 1060, near Angkor,
The Shwezigon Pagoda Cambodia
Angkor Wat and Bagan was the archetype for
ca. 1090ca. 1430 Ananda Temple,
later pagodas in the re-
ca. 10901105, Bagan,
I The Bagan kings and the Khmer of Cambodia were contemporaries I Over
gion. Gilt in gold leaf, Myanmar
the temple is not en-
2,000 religious structures were built in Bagan Mahabodhi Temple,
tered by worshippers,
I left: Angkor Wat, detail, early 12th century, near Siem Reap, Cambodia mid-12th century,
but is rumored to hold Bagan, Myanmar
relics of the Buddha.
The Khmer and Bagan kingdoms occupied large areas Preah Khan
Ancient City of (Lokesvara Temple),
roughly equivalent to present-day Cambodia and Bagan, 12th13th after 1180, Angkor,
Myanmar (Burma). Although the sites are now accessible centuries, Myanmar Cambodia
155
to tourists, political turmoil has made it difficult to con- Made of bricks from the Dhammayazika
duct archaeological research and comprehensive restora- Pagoda, ca. 1196, near
dusty soil on which
Bagan, Myanmar
tion programs. As a result, much remains to be discov- they stand, thousands
Around the World: Southeast Asia
Gawdawpalin
ered about the relationships between architecture and of domed structures
dot the plains of Bagan. Temple, late 12th cen-
local religious practices. At Angkor Wat, geometry played tury, Bagan, Myanmar
The stupas, pagodas,
a major role in defining the layout of the main temple de- Bayon Temple, early
and temples are built in
voted to Vishnu. According to Hindu beliefs, the square 13th century, Angkor,
many different archi-
was the ultimate celestial form. Multiplying, dividing, su- Cambodia
tectural styles.
perimposing, and layering the square was the answer to
constructing the perfect building. At Arimaddanapura,
which was the capital of the kingdom of Bagan (also
known as Pagan), the stupa, a form of burial mound, was
reinterpreted to produce complex domed shrines to
Buddha, and temples were built by the wealthy.
Southeast Asia
 Bet Amanuel, 12th century

Rock Churches of Lalibela The churches at Lalibela are ex-

ca. 1185 King Gebre
Mesqel Lalibela ascends to
the Ethiopian throne
1187 Jerusalem is recap-
156
tremely varied in style. Built in
three major groupsa north-
ca. 11851270 ern, western, and eastern
I Rock-hewn and cave churches existed in Akum, Tigray, and Lalibela in groupthey seem to draw on
Ethiopia I The Lalibela monoliths were entirely isolated from the sur- Classical, Byzantine, and Islamic
rounding rock I The churches have been use since the 13th century architecture while also incorpo-
I left: Bet Ghiorgis (St. Georges Church), early 13th century
rating several traditional
Ethiopian aspects into their de-
signs. Bet Amanuel is part of the
The rock-hewn churches at the Ethiopian town of Lalibela eastern group. Its symmetric
rank among the most interesting interpretations of archi- and Classical facade dividers
mimic an actually built struc-
tectural tectonics and of the very nature of building. The

tured by Muslims; King
Gebre Mesqel Lalibela
orders the carving of
157
ture. The church is thought to
12 churches cannot really be classified as buildings, for to have possibly been a royal
build means to assemble something larger from smaller chamber.
elements. Instead, these churches are enormous carvings

Around the World: Ethiopia

Around the World: Ethiopia

several rock-cut churches

in Lalibela to create a new
Jerusalem
ca. 1229 King Gebre
Mesqel Lalibela dies; Bet
Ghiorgis (St. Georges trenches were dug around the corners of the monoliths,
Church) may have been
commissioned as a me-
morial church; legend
states that St. George
oversaw the construction
1270 End of the Zagwe
dynasty, which had ruled
this area of Ethiopia since
the 9th century
Gothic
hewn out of solid red volcanic rock, presumably with
hammer and chisel. Although laborious, the process of
making the churches was straightforward. Huge
which were then carved inside and out to mimic cornices,
pilasters, columns, and lintelselements that usually play
structural roles in buildings, but that here are purely or-
namental. Despite their sculptural qualities, structural sta-
bility must have been an issue in creating the churches,
since the hollowed monoliths cause stress to the rock
through compression and, more importantly, tension.
Bet Mariam, 12th13th
centuries
The Rock Churches of Lalibela
are part of a system of tunnels,
passages, crypts, and water fea-
tures. Bet Mariam (the Church
of Mariam) sits in the middle of
a large court carved directly out
of the volcanic rock terrane. It is
connected by a narrow passage
to Madhane Alam, the largest of
the churches, which bears a
striking resemblance to a Greek
temple, with its sloping roof
and peristyle.
Other Works
Bet Medhani Alem, 12th13th
centuries
Bet Mascal, 12th13th
centuries
Bet Denagel, 12th13th
centuries
Bet Golgotha Mikael and King
Lalibelas Tomb, 12th13th
centuries
Bet Mercoreos, 12th13th
centuries
Bet Ghiorgis (St. Georges
Church), early 13th century
Bet Ghiorgis was the last church
to be built at Lalibela and is
dedicated to St. George, the
national saint of Ethiopia. Fash-
ioned on a cruciform plan re-
sembling a Latin cross, the
church is in an 82-square-foot
(25-square-meter) pit that is
reached via a tunnel. The
church was carved atop a three-
tiered base and, as with tradi-
tional Ethiopian churches, has
three west-facing doors.
Rock Churches of Lalibela
 Renaissance
14901530 12201620 15191598 Around the World:
High and Late Renaissance Renaissance India and East
Renaissance in Western p. 205 on the Iberian Asia
in Italy Europe Peninsula In India, architects of the
Mughal empire were
Classical styles are rede- Italian Renaissance styles Gothic styles remained greatly influenced by
160

161
veloped and modernized; are adopted in varying de- strong in Spain and Por- Islamic and Persian styles.
Mannerist architecture grees throughout the UK, tugal, which were greatly Meanwhile, in East Asia,
develops France, and northern influenced by the Moorish terraced temples,
Europe; countries appro- tradition. During the late palaces, and fortresses
Giuliano da Sangallo
p. 173

priate the styles to their Renaissance the Desorna- were built with swooping
p. 178 own building traditions mentado style developed eaves

1420 1450 1500 1550 1600 1620

14201490 Donato Bramante p. 176 Pierre Lescot 15001620 Pedro Machuca

Michelangelo Buonar- Cornelis Floris de Juan Bautista de Toledo
Early roti p. 180 Vriendt Renaissance in Juan de Herrera
Renaissance Baldassare Peruzzi Robert Smythson Central and
p. 196 Lieven de Key
in Italy Raphael p. 184
Eastern Europe
The rediscovery of Michele Sanmicheli Italian architects were

architectural styles from
antiquity transforms
Italian architecture
Filippo Brunelleschi
p. 168
Leon Battista Alberti
p. 172
p. 217
p. 194 brought to Germany,
Jacopo Sansovino p. 186 Austria, Poland, and
Giulio Romano p. 190 Bohemia by wealthy pa-
Andrea Palladio p. 192 trons in order to mod-
Vincenzo Scamozzi ernize central and eastern
p. 188 European residences
Jacopo Strada
Alberto Luchese
Lder von Bentheim
Georg Ridinger

p. 211
p. 199

Elias Holl

1377 Born in Florence
139298 Trains as a
goldsmith
168
1402 Participates in a con-
test for the two bronze
doors of the Florentine
Baptistery, but his design
Early Renaissance in Italy
loses to Ghibertis
140204 Travels for his
studies to Rome, probably
with Donatello
1415 Creates his first linear
perspective drawing,
greatly influencing both
art and architecture
1417 Designs a cupola for
the Florence Cathedral
1446 Dies in Florence
Other Works
Palazzo di Parte
Guelfa, 142122,
Florence
Sagrestia Vecchia
(the Old Sacristy) of
St. Lorenzo, 142140,
Florence
Barbadori Chapel at
St. Felicit, 142325,
Florence
Palazzo Busini, before
1427, Florence
St. Maria degli Angeli,
143437, Florence
St. Spirito, 143482, Flo-
rence
Renaissance 14201620
Filippo Brunelleschi
1377, Florence1446, Florence
I Leading builder of domes in Florence I His technical prowess and
knowledge of the architecture of antiquity gained him great prestige
I Developed a system by which he could measure the dimensions of a
room exactly, thereby becoming a pioneer of freestyle perspective
Filippo Brunelleschi is one of the key figures of Renais-
sance architecture. Although his early works were still
very much related to Gothic designs, he later developed
169
an individual architectural style that combined elements
from Tuscan Romanesque and Gothicsuch as massive
pillars, lancet arches, and medieval ornamentationwith
Early Renaissance in Italy
a formal style from antiquitycolumns, elegant pillars,
and geometric forms and proportions. Brunelleschi es-
tablished fixed mathematical and technical principles in
his designs. He was able to make a clear break with the
styles of Gothic architecture with the design and con-
struction of the massive dome of the Florence Cathedral
(p. 170). Brunelleschi was also an innovator of perspective
drawing and construction techniques. Ospedale degli Innocenti, 142445, Florence
Pazzi Chapel at Brunelleschis design of the Ospedale degli Inno-
St. Croce, 142961, centi, an orphanage, included a nine-part loggia,
Florence or gallery, that is arcaded with composite arches
that mix the Classical orders. In contrast to Gothic
This small chapel was
one of the first cen- arches, half-circle arches are used, spanning a
wider space and creating a more geometric fa-
trally planned con-
structions of the cade. As with many of his other buildings,
Brunelleschi was concerned with mathematic
Renaissance. The
and geometric precision in the design.
arcaded facades
middle cupola mir- Basilica of St. Lorenzo, 142069, Florence
rors the shape of the Brunelleschi linked elements of local building
main interior space. tradition with elements of the architecture of an-
The inner chamber tiquity. The evenly arranged windows allow a
was originally consistent amount of light into all the sections of
planned as a burial space, which was an innovation from medieval
chapel for the family architecture. The combination of gray sandstone
of the benefactor, structures and white plasterwork is one of
Andrea de Pazzi. Brunelleschis trademarks.
Filippo Brunelleschi
 The Dome of Florence Cathedral
In 1294 the citizens of Florence decided to build a new
cathedral. As one of the richest Renaissance city-
states, Florence was able to afford a building of phe-
nomenal size. Filippo Brunelleschis (p. 168) bold
dome, designed after most construction had finished,
was a groundbreaking achievement in engineering.
The design relied on the law of physics that two cor-
relating, inclined structures will mutually support one
170

171
another. Brunelleschi positioned bricks in an overlap-
ping ring arrangement, using a fast-drying mortar to
join them in a herringbone pattern. He was therefore

Building Techniques
Building Techniques

able to abandon traditional methods of scaffolding.

Composed of two shells, the
inner shell supports the weight
of the outer shell. This system
was first developed in antiquity.
Ten marble columns, inter-
twined within the structure,
also help support the dome.

Filippo Brunelleschi: design competition in 1418

Dome of Florence Cathedral,
142036
The Florence Cathedral is a
monument to a citys self-confi-
dence. Following decades of
architectural standstill, the citi-
zens of Florence decided in
1357 to push ahead with the
construction of the massive
cathedral. Brunelleschi won the
Renaissance 14201620
with his piecemeal herring-
bone-patterned dome. Almost
immediately builders faced the
problem of constructing the
buildings curvature, because
an architect had never before, The enormous height of the The dome reflects the Floren- dome stood at the forefront of fourth-largest Christian cathe-
not even during antiquity, been dome was increased through tine topography, influenced by modern cathedral design. At dral in the world, following St.
able to erect a circular room the construction of an octag- the communal spirit of the city, 502 feet (153 meters) in length, Peters Basilica in Rome, St.
that could span a 138-foot onal foundation. Large round centralized around and united and 125 feet (38 meters) in Pauls Cathedral in London, and
(42-meter) diameter. windows illuminate the dome. by the church. Brunelleschis width, the cathedral is the the Milan Cathedral.
The Dome of Florence Cathedral

1450 Alberti writes De Re
Aedificatoria, in which he
subordinates residential
needs to the overall plan
174
148485 Leonardo da
Vinci plans a city equipped
with infrastructure
Renaissance
1527 Drer sketches plans
for a fortified ideal city
1547 The German city of
Jlich is codesigned by an
Italian architect
155471 Sabbioneta in
Parma, Italy, is built as an
ideal city
1593 Scamozzi sketches
the fortified town of Pal-
manova, one of the few
ideal cities realized
Piazza Ducale,
149294, Vigevano
Vigevano was rebuilt be-
tween 1492 and 1494. The
town received its new
piazza under the order of
Ludovico il Moro, a
Other Works
Romes Water Supply Infra-
structure, redesigned by
Leon Battista Alberti, ca. 1450
Central Plan of Florence, by
Giorgio Vasari, ca. 1555
Mannheim Gridded Layout,
1606, Germany
Renaissance 14201620
Ideal Urban Planning
14501593
I The styles of antiquity inspired Renaissance urban planning I Earlier
cities were reorganized I Utopian plans for ideal states were popular yet
seldom realized I Rich citizens patroned massive building campaigns that
reshaped Renaissance Europe
Pierro della Francesca: ized both art and architecture ideala city constructed in
Cities were the central stages of power during the Renais- Ideal City, ca. 1470, Galleria during the Renaissance. accordance with the rules of
sance. The technical and artistic developments of the Ren- Nazionale delle Marche, Urbino Through this innovation archi- perspectiveis harmonious
tects were able to envisage and balanced. Because Renais-
aissance were adopted in the construction and planning The technique of using linear projects in an orderly fashion sance architects looked back to
175
of new cities, as architects sought to create a better world. perspective, attributed to the and create more accurate drafts antiquity as the age of reason
Strong building laws were passed, which were upheld by Italian artist and architect Fil- and studies. This 15th-century and order, they adopted similar
architect guilds. Palaces constructed by the new noble ippo Brunelleschi, revolution- painting of the Renaissance styles in their own ideals.
Renaissance
classes took over city landscapes, replacing small work- Bernardo Rossellino: Palazzo
shops and market stalls. Streets and alleyways became Piccolomini, 1459, Pienza
centrally organized according to rules of perspective, and
Pope Pius II rebuilt his hometown of
cathedrals, castles, palaces, and town halls were moved Pienza in 1459, including the construc-
into the center of the city. The discovery of gunpowder tion of Palazzo Piccolomini on the
drove builders to fortify their new cities with trenches and town square. Nearby the palace he also
erected a cathedral, an episcopal
bastions in order to create more easily defendable cities.
palace, and a town hall, framing the
Consequently Renaissance cities often resembled mighty trapezoidal piazza. The cathedral stood
mountains in terms of their size. in the center, around which all building
member Sforza dynasty of Milan. located on the upper floor, while axes were oriented. Rossellino mod-
Thought to have been designed businesses were at street level. eled his designs for the Palazzo
by Bramante, the piazza is sur- The elongated space is nearly in Piccolomini on Leon Battista
Albertis Palazzo Rucelai
rounded on all three sides by the ideal proportions of 1 : 2, and
facades that are all uniformly de- the citys main street gives on to in Florence.
signed and aligned. The houses of the square through an arcade that
wealthy citizens were found here. unites the entire area.
Residential areas were
 St. Peters Basilica
At the beginning of the Renaissance, St. Peters Basilica was still the ancient St. Peters Basilica, facade after the drafts of and the papal bureau. There was also an aes-
basilica that Constantine I built. Within a few decades, however, one of the might- Carlo Maderno, and Michelangelos dome, thetic problem: the facade should practically re-
160712, Rome main in the background, so as not to obstruct
iest and largest cathedrals in the world was built. In 1455, the initial plans for the
Carlo Maderno was only able to construct the the view of Michelangelos magnificent dome.
expansion of the churchs foundations were prepared, and before long they de- To solve these problems, a two-story cross
facade after great difficulty. The nave of the
veloped into a gigantic new construc- structure was built using the Corinthian
church was exceptionally wide, and the in-
tion project. Many famous architects cumbent Pope Paul V required that there order. Second-floor windows provide a
worked on the over 200-year-long be a structural link between the vestibule platform for papal speeches.
development and planning of the
182

183
cathedral, including Bramante (p. 176),
Raphael (p. 184), Michelangelo (p. 180),
and Bernini (p. 230). Each architect con-

Late Renaissance in Italy

Late Renaissance in Italy

tributed innovative ideas and drafts of

ever-increasing size and magnificence.
Early drafts featured a centralized floor
plan with four arms of equal length.
From 1605 to 1621, under the direction
of Carlo Maderno, St. Peters Basilica
acquired its present form. From the
standard design of a church with a
cross-shaped floor plan grew an enor-
mous central nave with lateral rows of
columns.
Michelangelo conceived the powerful, 433-foot-
(132-meter-) tall dome over the putative grave of
St. Peter the Apostle. A gigantic windowed
drum soars above the round floor plan, upon
which the arch of the dome sits. After the
death of Michelangelo in 1564, the di-
rection of the domes building was
passed on to Giacomo della Portas.
The floor plan of St. Peters Basilica
spans an area of about 50,000 square
feet (4,645 square meters), large enough
for 60,000 people. The layout changed from
a Greek cross to a Latin cross as the floor plan
evolved with each successive architect who
took on the project.
Renaissance 14201620 St. Peters Basilica
 Andrea Palladio
Andrea di Piero della Gondola
1508, Padua1580, Vicenza
I The most significant Renaissance architect and theorist I Initiated new
rules of villa architecture I Revolutionized Venetian church facades using
temple motifs from antiquity I Influenced architects throughout the world

1508 Born in Padua
1521 Begins an appren-
ticeship in Vicenza to be-
192
Proportion, symmetry, and the allusion to elements of an-
tiquity are the distinguishing hallmarks of Andrea Pal-
ladios architectural style. His designs have clear floor

come a mason and
sculptor
1538 Becomes ac-
quainted with the human-
193
plans and characteristically symmetrical facades with pil-
lars, pilasters, porticoes, pediments, and mezzanines. Pal-
ladio adopted proportion and symmetry from his ancient

Late Renaissance in Italy

Late Renaissance in Italy

ists in northern Italy, via

Count Giangiorgio
Trissino
1541 Undertakes the first
of four trips to Rome
1570 Publication of the
architectural treatise The
Four Books of Architecture
1580 Dies in Vicenza
Villa Poiana,
ca. 154550 Poiana windows comprise the mezzanine
Maggiore, Vicenza
The villas facade demon- flanking parts are symmetrically
strates the chief motifs of
Renaissance 14201620
Roman predecessors, traveling several times to Rome in
order to study ancient Roman styles. His greatly influen-
tial reinterpretation and publication of the proportions
and symmetry of Roman architecture, use of two-story fa-
cades, hierarchically ordered columns, and sculptural
floors were functionally appropriated to the needs of
people during the Renaissance.
Other Works by Palladio
Villa Pisani, 1544, Bagnolo
Villa Barbaro, 1554, Maser
Casa Antonini, 1556, Udine
St. Pietro di Castello, 1558,
Venice
St. Giorgio Maggiore, 1562,
Venice
St. Francesco della Vigna, 1562,
Venice
Villa Cagollo, 1565, Vicenza
Palladian architecture. Five small ment. Due to the patrons family
history, which had a long military
level, and the facades central and tradition, Palladio refrained from
using elaborate decorations so as
proportioned, united by the pedi- to make the villa appear fortified.
Villa Capra (La Rotonda), corridors lead from all four forms within his plan and fol-
156691, Vicenza columned halls to the central tur- lowed the format of ancient tem-
As the principal example of reted room. Palladio combined ples, opening the building to
Italian villa architecture, the villas orderly square, circular, and cubic the surrounding landscape.
Villa Cornaro, 155254,
Piombino Dese, Treviso
The villas two-story columned
entrance, lined with Ionic and
Corinthian columns, gives the
villa a grandiose appearance
that is visible from the street.
The decorative interior merges
living quarters and work areas
through the duplication of the
main floor and the open unity
between the side wings and en-
trance. The main floor was de-
signed to look like an ancient
Roman atriuma style popular
with the oldest members of the
aristocracy.
Andrea Palladio

1494 The French invasion
of Italy reveals the Italian
Renaissance to France
198
151547 Reign of
Franois I, under whose
patronage many Italian ar-
chitects come to France
High Renaissance in France
ca. 1520 Chteaux of the
Loire River valley are built
by Frances wealthy elite
1531 Formation of the first
School of Fontainebleau
and the popularization of
Italian interior dcor
1535 Pierre Lescot begins
work on the Louvre
154759 Italian Catherine
de Medici is married to
the French king Henry II
1620 Marie de Medici
popularizes Baroque styles
Chteau Chambord,
staircase, 152637, Loire
Valley
The double-helix staircase
runs openly through the
center of the chteaus
floors. Two parallel shafts
allow for undisturbed
movement from top to
bottom. The staircase
stands out as the center
point of the castle, and is
surrounded by the long
windows of the central
towers.
Renaissance 14201620
French Chteaux
14941620
I Ecclesiastic architecture retained late Gothic styles for a long time I French
royalty was particularly well disposed toward new ideas I Chteaux became
models for noble residences throughout Europe I Developments included
the corps de logis and intricate lighting effects in galleries
Gothic styles remained popular for a long time in France.
The Italian Renaissance style was first adopted into French
chteaux in the Loire River valley and, by 1530, was the
199
popular style for all noble houses. New constructions
rarely featured extensive ornamentation, but were struc-
turally intricate, like their Gothic predecessors, and there-
High Renaissance in France
fore intricate looking. Floor plans departed slowly from
the divided layouts of Gothic architecture, but gradually
a uniquely French style developed. Chteaux consisted
of a complex of buildings centered around a square-
Chteau Chambord, chteau architecture. The often included four round
shaped inner courtyard, enclosed on all sides. The corps
de logis, or central main building, contained living quar- 152637, Loire Valley densely concentrated orna- corner towers with conical
ters and was usually flanked by a striking staircase and The Chteau Chambords roof is mentation, including sculpted roofs, gabled dormer windows
comprised of over 300 towers, leaves and lilies, is reminiscent that break through the plane of
decorative secondary rooms. In contrast to secular build-
gables, and chimneys, creating of Gothic ornamentation. the roof, and simple rectan-
ings, French churches of the Renaissance era kept true to a stunning example of French French Renaissance designs gular crossbar windows.
their Gothic roots, as their arched style developed into
Chteau Chambord, floor
the Flamboyant style. Renaissance architecture plan
Despite its multifaceted facades
and elaborate roofing, the floor
plan of Chteau Chambord is
extremely symmetrical. Four
large corridors extend in a cross
formation from the central
elaborate staircase on each
floor, into living space. Living
spaces are also found within
the round towers located at the
buildings corners and at the
quadratic core of the build-
ingthe corps de logisin a
similar style to a medieval
castle.
French Chteaux
 Northern Renaissance
ca. 1500ca. 1630
I The northern bourgeoisie preferred Gothic gabled houses, and late Gothic
and traditional styles continued to dominate I City residences were occupied
by governors because regional princes of the north spent their time traveling
I Architecture in the north developed more slowly than other artistic forms

ca. 1500 Belgium and the
Netherlands are at the
forefront of European
trade, prompting wealthy
206
The Renaissance began in northern Europe about 100
years later than in Italy. Gothic elements such as gazebos,
balconies, gates, and delicately decorated facades re-

merchants to build estates
1543 The Rossum family
constructs residences in
207
mained common in the north until that point. An indi-
vidual variety of architecture developed in Belgium and
the Netherlands that was different than the architecture

Renaissance in Belgium and the Netherlands

Renaissance in Belgium and the Netherlands

Renaissance styles in
Amheim, Vaasen, and
Zaltbommel
157280 After winning in-
dependence from Spain,
the Netherlands develops
its own styles of architec-
ture; cities, guilds, and in-
dividuals fund new town
halls and banks
ca. 1630 Baroque styles
emerge
found in Renaissance Italy. The designs of small middle-
class homes with tall sliding gates and simple floor plans
changed little with the passage of time. Belgian and
Dutch architects typically utilized elements from antiq-
Cornelis Floris de Vriendt: Cornelis Floris de Vriendt, who However, northern architectur-
uity only as decoration. Thus, northern European architec- Town Hall, 156164, Antwerp had traveled to Rome, drafted al features, such as the separate
ture remained largely the same until the early 16th
This town hall was one of the the town hall in the Renais- tower portion of the facade and
centurywhen the first architectural texts relating to first buildings to mimic the hori- sance style. A ground floor ar- a highly ornamented entrance-
Roman architectural styles appeared and Italian styles zontal outlines found in Italian cade placed atop square bases way, remained, and were com-
were sporadically adopted in the north. palaces. The Flemish architect is indicative of Italian influence. bined with the new styles.

Other Works Lieven de Key: Vleeshal Old Civil Registry, 153437,

(Butchery), tower design,
Palace of Margaret of 160204, Haarlem
Austria, by Rombout II
Lieven de Key was one of the
Keldermans, begun 1507,
most famous architects in the
Mechelen
Netherlands during the Renais-
Palace of the Prince sance. In the Vleeshal, his de-
Bishops of Lige, signs blend popular northern
152638 styles, such as the gabled roof,
Salm Inn, 1534, with Italian Renaissance influ-
Mechelen ences, such as polychrome
Oude Kerk, tower, facades like those found in
by Joost Jabsz Bilhamer, Siena and Florence, and portrait
1566, Amsterdam friezes. Quoining, or the white,
accentuated corner stones,
Leiden Town Hall,
shows the adaptation of pop-
facade, ca. 15971600
ular French styles.
Renaissance 14201620
Brugge
The acade of the Old Civil Reg-
istry unites elements of antiq-
uity with late Gothic styles,
creating a striking Renaissance
facade. The symmetrical align-
ment, Classically ordered
columns, and sculptural figures
on the roof indicate Roman in-
fluences. Divided
pilasters along the buildings
length and the gabled roofs
emphasize the remnants of late
Gothic and French styles that
long remained popular in
Dutch and Belgian architecture.
Northern Renaissance
 Iberian Renaissance
15191598
I Gothic architecture remained the preferred building style longer in Spain
and Portugal I Elements of Moorish architecture were revived I The
Italian Renaissance had relatively little influence I In the late Renaissance,
intricate ornamentation styles were replaced by simpler, stronger forms

1519 King Charles V Renaissance architecture of the Iberian Peninsula was a

avoids Moorish styles dur- mix of various styles. Early Renaissance architecture com-
ing his reign; instead, Ital-
ian architectural models bined Moorish and Gothic styles. It was only with the
210

are preferred
155698 During Spanish
absolutism under King
211
onset of the 16th century that an original style called Plat-
eresque emerged. The word comes from the silversmith
trade and characterizes the rich, ornate, filigree decora-

Renaissance in Spain and Portugal

Renaissance in Spain and Portugal

Philip II, the unadorned

Desornamentado style do-
minates
1567 Juan de Herrera,
Spains most important
Renaissance architect,
takes over the building of
el Escorial after the death
of Juan Bautista de Toledo
1598 The Plateresque
style evolves into Baroque
El Escorial, 156181,
near Madrid
The largest castle in Spain
was a monastery, church,
Renaissance 14201620
tive elements of Spanish and Portuguese architecture.
Sumptuously modeled medallions, animal heads, es-
cutcheons, and small finials decorate the often simple
monumental buildings. Another direction in architecture,
the Desornamentado style, developed concurrently with
the Plateresque style. Demure yet ornately adorned com-
positions are representative of this latter, unique form of
Spanish architecture.
Other Works
Tower of Belm, 151521, Lisbon,
Portugal
Granada Cathedral, ca. 1523,
Spain
Alczar of Toledo, 1537, Spain
La Giralda (Bell Tower), 1568,
Seville, Spain
Castle Aranjuez, facade, 1571,
Aranjuez, Spain
So Vicente de Fora, begun 1582,
Lisbon, Portugal
library, palace, and tomb for constructed in a realistic, chaste
Spanish kings and was situated in style and is considered the chief
the geographic center of Spain. example of Desornamentado
The gray granite composition was architecture.
Palace of Charles V, from the Moors. For this reason, Spanish Renaissance architec-
152768, Granada any Moorish influences were ture. The two-level circular inte-
avoided in the design. Elements rior is reminiscent of ancient
The palace of Charles V, situ-
ated in the Alhambra of Gran- from antiquity, repopularized villas, and the floor plan of
ada, was intended to be a mon- by the Italian Renaissance, be- Hadrians Villa in Tivoli. The
came the chief architectural palace contained an arena for
ument for the Reconquista, or
the seven-and-a-half-century- features. The large center tower bullfights, modeled on the
long process by which Catholics in the middle of the square- Colosseum, in which the audi-
reclaimed the Iberian Peninsula shaped palace was unique to ence sat in the upper gallery.
Jernimos Monastery,
16th century, Lisbon
Jernimos Monastery is fash-
ioned in the Manueline style.
King Manuel I, influenced by
discoveries overseas, commis-
sioned buildings decorated
with nautical imagery. The style
bridges the Portuguese Gothic
and Renaissance styles. Typical
sculptural motifs include cruci-
fixes, royal emblems, and col-
umns featuring depictions of
aquatic plants, anchors, knots,
and shells.
Iberian Renaissance

145890 Hungarys king, In eastern Europe local princes and kings commissioned
Matthias Corvinus, com-
missions buildings in the
Italian Renaissance style
212
1518 King Sigismund I
marries Bona Sforza, who
brings Italian architects
Renaissance in Eastern Europe
and artists to the Polish-
Bohemian court
1526 The Hapsburgs in-
herit the kingdoms of
Bohemia and Hungary; art
and architecture flourishes
at all the Hapsburg courts
1541 The Ottoman army
invades eastern Europe
and destroys many
Renaissance buildings,
particularly in Budapest
1618 The Thirty Years War
begins
Other Works
Vladislav Hall in
Hradschin, by Benedikt
Ried, 14931502, Prague
Bakcz Chapel, begun
1507, Esztergom, Hungary
Villa Hvezda, 155558,
near Prague
Large Ball Court in Royal
Gardens, by Boniface
Wolmut, 156769, Prague high point of European Renais-
Armory, 15931612,
Gdansk, Poland
Renaissance 14201620
Giovanni Battista di
Quadro: Poznan Town Hall,
Eastern Europe 153660
After a fire in 1536, a new fa-
14581618 cade in the Italian style was
I Cultural exchange arose between the courts of Italy and eastern Europe erected in front of the remains
I Slavic princes had cities built in a pure Italian style I East European Ren- of the Poznan Town Hall. The
aissance grew under the Jagillonian royal dynasty I Matthias Corvinus, citizens of Poznan hired Gio-
king of Hungary in the 15th century, was an important patron of the arts vanni Battista di Quadro, a
Polish-Italian Renaissance archi-
tect, to build the project. He ap-
plied the basic form of the
castles, palace chapels, and churches. Educated and well- northern Italian loggia, such as
those that are found at Piazza
travelled, they were aware of the developments of the
213
St. Marco in Venice and at An-
Italian Renaissance and the architectural theories of antiq- drea Palladios Palazzo della Ra-
uity and comissioned work from Italian architects. Italian gione in Vincenzaa porticoed
arches, slender pilasters, the Classical orders, and floor- colonnade, open only on one
Renaissance in Eastern Europe
plans overtook local building traditions. Imperial connec- sideto the Polish town hall.
tions with western Europe brought further influences Three consecutive loggias, sur-
rounded by archways, decorate
from Germany, the Netherlands, and France. the monumental facade. The
top story forms a slightly set-
back, windowless half-story,
renowned for its unusual
heightbecause of this, the
town hall is known as the
Polish attic. This attic level is
highly ornamented with images
of kings, a clock, and doors from
which two mechanical goats
come out to battle at noon.
Belvedere (Royal Summer
Palace), 153863, Prague
With the building of the
pleasure castle of Ferdinand I,
the Belvedere was built as part
of the complex, in the model of
Francesco Fiorentino: Wawel Italian noble castles and the a summer residence. The build-
Royal Castle, 150448, Krakw Roman Vatican Palace as a model. ing is in the center of flower
The five-cornered inner courtyard The head architect, Francesco gardens. Elegant rows of arch-
of the Polish royal palace marks a Fiorentino, came from Florence. ways open onto the gardens
At around the same time, the from the ground floor, in a style
sance architecture. A multiple- Sigismund Chapel in the choir of similar to the architecture of
story courtyard surrounded by Krakws Wawel Cathedral was Brunelleschis Spedale degli In-
columned arcades was built using built in full Italian style. nocenti hospital in Florence.
Eastern Europe

1530 Humayun becomes
Great Mughal of India and
invites Persian artists to his
palace; three-sided
214
vaulted niches, called
iwan, become character-
istic elements of almost all
Mughal architecture
Around the World: India
1540 Under Sher Shah,
local building styles be-
come more prominent
1556 During Akbars reign,
the court workshops in
Agra, Delhi, and Fatehpur
Sikri are centers of activity
for artists and architects
1638 Shah Jahan moves
the capital from Agra to
Delhi
1707 End of the reign of
Aurangzeh, the last Great
Mughal to commission
large-scale
architectural
works
Renaissance
Mughal Empire
15301707
I Architecture of the Mughal period combined Hindu and Islamic building
styles I The tolerant mind-set of the Mughal emperor led to architectural
diversity I Technical building innovations from Persia were adopted
I Luxury and wealth were displayed through decorative splendor
The influence of Islamic and Persian architecture became
even stronger in India under the sovereignty of the first
Mughal rulers. The Persian-Islamic-influenced culture of
215
these foreign rulers first started to combine itself with ele-
ments of Indian architecture after 1526. Mosques, tombs,
and palaces of the early Mughal period merged Hindu ar-
Around the World: India
chitectural tradition with Islamic ornamentation and in-
novations. Elements of Islamic architecture, such as the
pointed arch, the onion-shaped dome, minarets, and mo-
saic decorations started to supersede the plentiful num-
bers of intricately detailed figures of older Hindu temples.
Technological advances accompanied the new style of
architecture, and it became possible to build even larger
Mausoleum of Sher Shah, plan, the dome and its lotus- Mausoleum of Humayun,
structures, such as the construction of high-walled ca. 1540, Sasaram shaped tip, inner arcade, and 156472, Delhi
domes, throughout India. The usage of Indian red sand-
The mausoleum is located on corner pavilions on the defense The monument mixes Persian
stone inlaid with white marble and semiprecious stones top of a two-tiered quadratic wall are all characteristic of In- elements, like the double-
imparted a distinctively Indian colorfulness to Mughal terrace in the center of an artifi- dian tombs constructed in the shelled dome and layered dcor,
architecture. cial sea. The octagonal floor Mughal Empire. with Indian red sandstone.
Panch Mahal Palace in gardens, a marketplace, a water- Other Works
Fatehpur Sikri, 156974 works and innumerable roofed
Grave of Isa Khan, ca. 1548,
Following the model of streets, staircases, and terraces
Delhi
Islamic urban planning, were assembled into one complex
Red Fort, after 1565, Agra
multi-level palaces, in the city of Fatehpur Sikri. The
five-story palace of Panch Mahal is Akbars Palace in Ajmer,
157072
situated directly in the middle of
the entire ensemble. The palace Jama Masjid, 157174,
Fatehpur Sikri
bears witness to the two oppo-
sing styles of architecture in India Akbars Mausoleum, 1613,
Sikandra
during this periodthe figurative
architecture of Hinduism and the Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daula,
1628, Agra
geometric style of Islam.
Mughal Empire
 Baroque
15501770 16501770 16501770
Italian Baroque Baroque in Iberian Baroque
Baroque architecture Central and Baroque architecture
develops in Italy; oval
floor plans and convex Eastern Europe is popular in Spain and
Portugal and is exported
and concave surfaces In Germany, Austria, and to the colonies in the
create dynamic Bohemia, Baroque is
220

221
Americas
buildings developed by wealthy
families Joo Frederico
Pietro Berrettini da
Cortona p. 234 Johann Bernhard Ludovice
Giacomo Barozzi da Fischer von Erlach p. 248 Niccolo Nasoni
p. 242

p. 267
Vignola p. 228 Jakob Prandtauer p. 252 Eufrasio Lpez de Rojas
1550 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800
Gian Lorenzo 15501770 Johann Dientzenhofer 17151790 Around the World:
Bernini p. 230 p. 250
Francesco Borromini Baroque in Jan Santini Aichel Rococo Islamic, Ottoman, Japanese,
p. 232 France and Johann Balthasar Rococo architecture and and Latin American
Neumann p. 254 interior decoration is
the UK Kilian Ignaz flamboyantly decorative Architecture
The French king Louis XIV Dientzenhofer Johann Lukas von Islamic and Ottoman architecture
adopts Flamboyant Giovanni Alliprandi develops intricate domes;
Hildebrandt
Baroque styles, and the Japanese architecture
Filippo Juvarra develops the Shoin and
mansard roof is popula-
rized; in the UK, the style Johann Michael Fischer Sukiya styles;
slowly gains popularity Franois de Cuvillis Latin American
Francesco Bartolomeo churches adopt
Francois Mansart p. 236 Rastrelli p. 270 Baroque
Louis Le Vau p. 240 Philippe de La Gupire styles
Jules Hardouin Mansart
p. 238
Nicholas Hawksmoor
p. 249

p. 277
Sir John Vanbrugh
p. 264
p. 235

1599 Born at Lake Lugano
in Bissone, Switzerland
1619 Goes to Rome,
where he works with his
232
relative Carlo Maderno
162932 Works with
Bernini on St. Peters and
Baroque in Italy
Palazzo Berberini, which
contributes to his lifelong
jealousy
1634 First independent
commission at St. Carlo,
which exhibits his unique
style
1642 Begins Palazzo di
Propaganda, which indi-
cates Gothic influences
164455 Reign of Pope In-
nocent X, who was favor-
able to Borromini
1655 Innocent X dies; Bor-
romini loses commissions
1667 Commits suicide and
is buried in his last project,
St. Giovanni dei Fiorentini
Palazzo Sapienza and
St. Ivo alla Sapienza,
dome and facade,
164060, Rome
Baroque 15501790
Other Works by Borromini
Francesco Borromini Cappella del St. Sacramento,
1627, Rome
1599, Bissone1667, Rome Palazzo Spada, 1632, Rome
Oratory of St. Phillip Neri, 1637,
I Fascinated by geometry and Galileo I Began his career by assisting Rome
Carlo Maderno I Used interlocking oval and triangular floor plans in the
Maria dei Sette Dolori,
designs of his churches I Extravagant, individual style and technique 164248, Rome
I Played with decorative features on domes I Lifelong rival of Bernini
Palazzo Pamphili, 164550,
Rome
Francesco Borromini was born at Lake Lugano in Switzer- St. Giovani in Laterano,
164649, Rome
land and was the son of a mason. He moved to Rome at
Villa Falconieri, 1648, Frascati
the age of 15 and initially worked with his relative Carlo
233
Maderno on St. Peters Basilica. After Madernos death he St. Carlo alle Quattro
worked with Bernini (p. 230), but they developed a fa- Fontane, 163468, Rome
mously fierce rivalry that persisted throughout Borro- The corner church is an early
Baroque in Italy
minis life. His architecture was derived from idiosyncratic example of Borrominis extrava-
gant style. The floor plan is
methods and imaginative planning, and his buildings
based on interlocking ovals,
came to represent the extravagant and dramatic mood of with walls that seem to snake
the Baroque. His unconventional genius can be seen in his
around the alter and chapels.
use of complex spatial compositions, where he used a The concave-convex facade un-
system of interlocking triangles and ovals to create a dulates, despite the four
sense of movement where surfaces were clearly static. straight columns on each floor.
Both the interiors and the exteriors of his many projects Niches and statues are inte-
grated into surfaces, and the
for Pope Innocent X combine geometric rationalism dome is coffered with designs
with imaginative dramatics. of stars and crosses.
With the death of the Pope,
he lost many if his commis-
sions and fell out of favor.
St. Ivo was built for the university, St. Agnese in Agone, 1653, duce a long axis parallel to the
and so many of the elements, Rome facade. This precedes the pop-
such as the spire and layout, ular oval dome that came to
symbolize wisdom. Built at the St. Agnese in Agone was built
signify the Baroque style. The
end of the courtyard, the concave to commemorate St. Agatha.
concave facade supports a
facade merges with the sur- Borromini worked on the
high drum, and the dome is
rounding buildings but reflects church after the death of Giro- framed by two towers that are
the extra complexity of drum and loma Rainaldi, changing the
dome. The churchs layout is of northern Italian influence. It
entry points and incorporating is one of the more restrained of
based on two triangles that form
parts of the Pamphili Palace. Borrominis designs. As with
a hexagonal center and six-
pointed star, and the dome com- While still a circle, the ground several of his other works, Bor-
bines rational geometry with plan takes the form of a Greek romini lost the commission
Baroque dynamism. cross, as the deep chapels pro- when Innocent X died.
Francesco Borromini
 Jules Hardouin Mansart
1646, Paris1708, Marly
I Great-nephew of Franois Mansart and developed his ideas about space
and light I Official architect to Louis XIV I Was chief architect at Versailles
after Louis Le Vau I His buildings symbolized the power of the monarchy
I Was adaptable to the tastes of his clients

1646 Born in Paris
1675 Appointed the royal
architect to Louis XIV
238
Jules Hardouin Mansart inherited the legacy, name, and
architectural plans of his great-uncle Franois Mansart
(p. 236). He studied with Libral Bruant and worked in the

1678 In charge of the
extensions at Versailles,
continuing from Le Vau
1685 Appointed to the
239
French Baroque style. As director general of the Maison du
Roi, he oversaw the construction of the royal palaces and
town planning projects. Following Louis Le Vaus

Baroque in France
Baroque in France

position of premier archi- (p. 240) initial extensions, he built grandiose facades at Ver-
tect for the king
1699 Appointed superin- sailles to suit the monarchys taste for power and prestige.
tendant of buildings Adaptable, he could also build with elegant simplicity. His
1690s Works on the inte- dome at Les Invalides is one of the largest in the world.
rior decoration at Ver-
sailles, Trianon, and Marly
1698 Designs Place
Vendme
1708 Dies in Marly, near
Paris

Other Works
Pavillion de Manse,
165989, Auvergne
Chteau de Saint-
Germain-en-Laye,
166382, near Paris
Chteau de Dampierre-
en-Yvelines, 167583,
Dampierre-en-Yvelines
Place des Victories,
168486, Paris
Pont Royal, 168589,
Paris
Chteau de Meudon,
1695, Meudon
Place Vendme, 1698,
Paris
Baroque 15501790
Grand Trianon, 168788,
Versailles
At the Grand Trianon, an elegant
open colonnade known as a peri-
style connects the royal apart-
ments. The windows reach down
to ground level, becoming the
first French windows. These win-
dows opened the structure out
into the garden. Hardouin Man-
sart also designed the fountains
linking the interior and exterior.
Chteau de Marly, 16791686, Marly-le-Roi
The Marly Chteau was designed to be a
retreat for Louis XIV away from the pressures
of court life. Hardouin Mansart built a
small palace to house the king and his
family, but it soon grew to include
elaborate gardens, cascades, and 12
separate pavilions for guests. The
chteau had frescoes painted by
Charles Le Brun, a decorative
balustrade, and over 200 sta-
tues that depicted ancient
gods and goddesses. A so-
phisticated hydraulic
system supplied water to
the garden fountains.
Dome of Les Invalides,167991, Paris
Hardoin Mansart worked with Libral Bruant
at the veterans hospital and continued the
project after Bruants death. Les Invalidess
large ribbed dome dominates the build-
ings structure. He raised the columned
drum area of the dome by adding an
extra attic level above the cor-
nice, creating one of the
greatest examples of
Baroque architecture.
Within, the dome
dominates the
interior as the cen-
terpiece of the
chapel.
Jules Hardouin Mansart

1656 Born near Graz
1672 Travels to Italy, where
he meets Bernini and stud-
ies sculpting and archi-
248
tecture
1687 Returns to Austria
and is appointed court ar-
Baroque in Germany and Austria
chitect
1696 Knighted
1704 Travels to Germany,
the Netherlands, the UK,
and Venice
1707 Builds Palais Clam
Gallas in Prague
1721 Publishes Entwurf
einer historischen Archi-
tektur
1723 Begins Vienna Hofbi-
bliothek, which is com-
pleted by his son
1723 Dies in Vienna
Other Works
Schloss Frain, 169094,
Moravia
Dreifaltigkeitskirche,
16941707, Salzburg
Stadtpalais, 169598,
Vienna
Ursulinenkirche,
16991705, Salzburg
Batthyany Palais, ca. 1700,
Vienna
Palais Trautson, 171016,
Vienna
Baroque 15501790
Johann Bernhard Fischer
von Erlach
1656, Graz1723, Vienna
I Leading architect during the Hapsburg era I Brought Italian Baroque styles
to central Europe I Combined influences from antiquity, Europe, and the Orient
One of the most prominent Austrian architects, Fischer
von Erlach came from an artisan family, and his son, Jo-
seph, completed his final buildings after his death. At a
249
young age he moved to Italy, where he trained as a
sculptor. There he was also exposed to the architecture of
Borromini (p. 232), Bernini (p. 230), and Palladianism, and
Baroque in Germany and Austria
this was to affect his building style. Following the defeat
of the Turks at the Battle of Vienna, the Hapsburg impe-
rial family wanted an architecture that would display their
power. Fischer von Erlachs grand facades and Baroque
splendor encapsulated their aspirations. As court archi-
tect for three emperors he built many triumphal palaces
and churches. He also built spectacular secular buildings,
such as the Vienna Hofbibliothek, or Central
Library, with its grand main room. He also
published an influential book recording
world architecture.
Kollegienkirche,
16941707, Salzburg
The College Church
was one of the three
churches built for the
prince-bishop of Salz-
burg, along with the
Church of the Trinity
and Ursulinen. It has a
pitched dome and
high cupola with a Church of St. Charles, Erlach referenced other two Trojan pillars, with spiral re-
convex facade, and is 171630, Vienna structures, such as the the liefs, creating a dramatic en-
a combination of a
longitudinal and a St. Charles is one of the grand- dome from St. Peters and the trance. The low, wide front and
portico from the Parthenon. huge dome also create vertical
centrally planned est churches of the Baroque pe-
church. riod. In his design, Fischer von The central bulk is framed by and horizontal movement.
Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach
 Baroque Dynamism
Much of the Baroque style was about creating spec-
tacle and illusion with new methods of design and
construction. The straight, rigid lines of the Renais-
sance were replaced by flowing curves, projections,
and recesses. Domes and roofs were enlarged, and
frescoes used complicated trompe loeil techniques
to create the illusion of height and depth on flat sur-
faces. Light and shadow were used to create dramatic
260
effects on virtually every type of surface. Buildings
were full of dark niches, narrow enclaves, and corners.
Contrastingly, well-lit protruding pilasters, high win-
Baroque Aesthetics
dows, and hidden
sources of illu-
mination produced
light, shadow, and
undulating sur-
faces, which cre-
ated the Baroque
aesthetic.
Roehampton Great House,
1625, London
English architects who learned
Baroque styles and techniques
while in Italy on a grand tour
tended to apply them less ex-
travagantly once they returned
home. The curved facades of
Borromini and Bernini are used
here for secular architecture,
creating a complex floor plan.
Baroque 15501790
Borromini: St. Carlo alle
Quattro Fontane, 163841
The innovative use of compli-
cated interlinking ovals, rather
than circles or lines, in ground
plans was reflected in the un-
dulating walls. Simple cruci-
form layouts were also treated
anewlengthening naves and
261
placing ellipses or triangles
over the crossings. This resul-
ted in a combination of con-
Baroque Aesthetics
cave and convex surfaces and
created dynamism in static
walls. These bulges appeared
both on the interior and exte-
rior facades. At St. Carlo, the
placement of columns, sta-
tues, and decorations empha-
sizes the movement of the
curves.
Bernini: Cornaro Chapel in Cornaro Chapel, with his re- reflect the gilded rays penetrat-
St. Maria della Vittoria, Rome, markable sculpture depicting ing the statue, so that they ap-
164752 St. Theresa of Avila in a state of pear to glow. The colored
Berninis talents as an artist en- religious ecstasy. The mood and marble contrasts with the an-
abled him to work with sculp- exhalation of the work is em- gelic white of the sculpture. The
ture and color in a remarkable phasized by different sources of chapel is set up like a stage,
manner. Inside the St. Maria light. Bernini placed hidden with figures of the Cornaro fam-
della Vittoria lies Bernini's windows with yellow glass to ily watching from the sides.
Baroque Dynamism
 Bartolomeo Rastrelli
1700, Paris1771, St. Petersburg
I Prominent architect in Russia I Worked in High Baroque and Rococo
styles I Court architect during the reign of Peter the Great I Favorite archi-
tect of the empresses Anne and Elizabeth I Designed facades with bright
colors and lavish decoration I Fell out of favor with Catherine the Great

1700 Born in Paris Of Italian origin, Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli was

1715 Moves to Russia chiefly responsible for the style that came to be known as
172230 Travels to Italy Russian Baroque. Son of the architect and sculptor Carlo
270

271
and France to study archi-
tecture Bartolomeo Rastrelli, he arrived in Russia from France at
1730 Appointed senior the age of 15. He was appointed senior court architect
court architect and was popular with Empresses Anne and Elizabeth. His

Baroque in Russia
Baroque in Russia

1730s Earliest indepen- style was influenced by French and Italian Baroque, but
dent building in Mitau
(now Jelgava, Latvia) the monumental linearity of his designs and his grand,
1764 Catherine the Great colored facades were fitting for the royal buildings of a
prefers the Neoclassical powerful new nation under Peter the Great. His interiors,
style, and his commissions
decline
as well as his exterior stucco decorations, were in a lavish
1771 Dies in St. Peters- Rococo style. He often used light and mirrors, and he in-
Winter Palace, 175462, By adding a double layer of co- visual effect. Many artisans
burg structed a large school of artisans. St. Petersburg lumns, the height of the three- were employed on this large-
Other Important Works by Rastrelli The grand Winter Palace embo- story palace seems to increase. scale building project. Three
dies the rising greatness of the Stone statues adorning the ba- large arches lead from the pa-
St. Petersburg Voronostrov, 1749, lustrade and decorative vases lace square through to the
Russian court through Rastrel-
Summer Palace, 1741, St. Petersburg
St. Petersburg lis design and spatial planning. on the vertical axis add to the inner ceremonial courtyard.
Stroganov Palace,
Hermitage at Cathe- Catherines Palace, 1756,
1753, St. Petersburg
rines Palace, 174652, near St. Petersburg
near St. Petersburg Grotto at Catherines First built by J. F. Braunstein, Ca-
St. Andrews, 174767, Palace, 175556, therines Palace was given an
Kiev near St. Petersburg elaborate Baroque redesign by
Rastrelli in 1756. The palace was
Smolny Cathedral, 174857, St. Petersburg extended, and stucco decora-
The Smolny Cathedral, on the banks of the Nova tions and gilded columns were
River, is the center of a convent complex and was built onto the exterior facade. It
constructed as a residence for Empress Elizabeth. was said that 220 lbs (100 kg) of
The blue and white color-washed stucco stands gold was used. The interior was
out on the perfectly proportioned structure, given a Rococo finish, and
playing with the senses. It is surrounded by four included grand rooms such as
domed churches, which form a cross. Rastrellis the Mirrored Ballroom and the
plans for a tiered belfry were never executed. famous Amber Room.
Baroque 15501790 Bartolomeo Rastrelli
 Ottoman Empire
15121770
I During the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ottoman Empire included Turkey,
the Middle East, and parts of North Africa I Sleyman the Magnificent
oversaw many new building projects I Sinan was the best-known architect
of the Ottoman era I The mosque complex was an integral part of Islamic life

1512 The architect Mimar
Sinan goes to Istanbul and
learns engineering
1530s Sinans miltary ex-
274
Under Sleyman the Magnificent (15201566), both the
Ottoman Empire and the arts and architecture flourished.
Architecture was a combination of Byzantine influ-

perience exposes him to encessuch as domes and colored glassand European

the architecture of the influencesthe Italian Renaissance. Mosques were built
Middle East, Africa, and
in the Islamic style and were often inside a larger com-
Architecture of the Ottoman Empire

Rhodes
1539 Sinan is appointed
architect of Istanbul by the
grand vizier
1588 Sinan dies
170357 Turkeys Tulip
era, in which public spaces
were built, and the begin-
ning of Baroque mosques
1770 Westernized tastes
change architecture
Other Works
Kse Hsrev Pasa
Mosque, by Mimar Sinan,
153637, Van, Turkey
Sultan Sleyman
Mosque, by Mimar Sinan,
1563, Damascus
Sokollu Mehmed, by
Mimar Sinan, 157074,
Istanbul
Laleli Mosque,
176063, Istanbul
Zeynep Sultan
Mosque, by Mehmet Tahir
Aa, 1769, Istanbul
Baroque 15501790
plex, or camii, consisting of minarets, domes, and the wall
facing Mecca, the kibla. Decoration consisted of intricate
tiling and limestone carvings. Mimar Sinan, the great Ot-
toman architect, built over 300 buildings and helped to
create the dramatic skyline of Istanbul with his slender
minarets and staggered domes. Sinan aimed for a unified
interior space and experimented with supports, vaulting,
and arches. Secular buildings included bazaars and kiosks.
Mimar Sinan: Sleymaniye
Mosque, 155158, Istanbul
Following in the grand style of
the Fatih complex, the Sley-
maniye Mosque is a large com-
plex for prayer, culture, and ed-
ucation. It consists of
symmetrical groups in geo-
metric shapes. Four minarets
stand in the four corners, and a
large main dome is flanked by
two half domes. As in the
Byzantine Hagia Sophia, the S-
leymaniyes dome is separated
from its supports by a row of
windows. The mosque symbol-
izes the grandeur of the empire
and of Istanbul.
Mimar Sinan: Selimiye Mosque, 156975, in that its minarets were the tallest in the Ot-
Edirne, Turkey toman era, and the interior has an innovative
mihrab, a niche in the kibla wall, which can be
The Selimiye Mosque is considered Sinans mas-
terpiece, because its interior is a unified space of observed from everywhere in the prayer hall. The
mihrab is large enough to allow for windows,
clear geometry. The massive dome is supported
by eight pillars, and four semidomes round off which illuminate the glazed tiles on the interior
the buildings corners. The complex was unique with natural light.
Mimar Sinan: ehzade
Mosque, interior, 154448,
Istanbul
The ehzade complex was
one of Sinans earliest works
and an architectural ingenuity.
The mosque exhibits his work-
manship and advanced con-
struction skills. Created on a
square plan, four half domes
flank the large central domed
building. Four tall piers round
into arches and assist in the
domes support. The asymmet-
rical central plan is repeated in
the courtyard.
Ottoman Empire

1568 During the Azuchi-
Momoyama period, forti-
fied architectural elements
are prominent due to the
276
political climate
1603 The Edo period
begins, under which struc-
Around the World: Japan
tural and stylistic innova-
tions appear in traditional
architecture
1614 Christianity is for-
bidden, and the construc-
tion of Christian
churches ends
1641 All foreigners are
banned from Japan until
1853, ending cultural
exchange between the
East and West
1642 Toshitada renovates
the Katsura Imperial Villa
1657 Great Fire of Meireki
destroys most of Edo
(today Tokyo)
Baroque
Hikone Castle, 160322, Shiga
Japanese Architecture The original five-floor tenshu, or tower,
of the Hikone Castle was removed,
leaving only three floors. The
15681657 building has three moats,
I Predominant Japanese architectural styles are Shoin and Sukiya I The rela- remarkable roof gables,
tionship between exterior and interior spaces was an important stylistic and lotus-shaped
element that influenced structural elements I Gardens and water were im- upper windows.
portant I Sliding doors and screens were often incorporated into residences
In 17th-century Japan, the Shoin and Sukiya styles devel-
oped in the defensive designs of castles, temples for
prayer, and private residences. Sukiya architecture con-
277
sists of simple materials and proportions creating a har-
monious relationship between interior and exterior
spaces, and was heavily influenced by the designs of tea-
Around the World: Japan
houses. During Japans Edo period, a series of fires in the
capital required massive rebuilding campaigns. In order
to construct easily rebuilt houses, the government spon-
sored the building of simple wooden houses. In the reli-
gious sector, Shoin architecture was employed in Bud-
dhist monasteries, which had functional requirements
such as contemplative areas with water and gardens. The
structures often had sliding decorated screens and
wooden floors. In 1868 castles were destroyed, but
Hikone Castle is one of the few remaining examples of
fortified architecture.
Katsura Imperial Villa, interior and
exterior, 1620, Kyoto Other Works
This villa was first built by Prince
Toshihito as a moon-watching re- Toshogu (Mausoleum of
treat, and its construction Tokugawa Ieyasu),
was continued by his early 17th century, Nikko
sons. The building is Nijo Castle, 160103,
composed of untreated Kyoto
wood and tree trunks.
Sukiya-style elements Sento Imperial Palace
such as the balanced Gardens, begun 1629,
proportions of the wall Kyoto
panels were added to Shugakuin Imperial Villa,
give the building a har- begun 1655, Kyoto
monious aesthetic.
Japanese Architecture

165060s Spiral pilasters
are introduced to Peru
from Spain
165773 Monastery of St.
278
Francisco precedes a new
wave of the Mudjar style
1664 Jesuit shrine on
Around the World: Latin America
Plaza des Armas is the first
in the late Baroque style
1698 First example of an
independent Peruvian-
Bolivian mestizo in La
Compaa Church leading Brazilian architect, sculptor, and painter who
1730s Architect Aleija-
dinho, or Little Cripple, Baroque architecture was especially influenced by the
born in Brazil
1749 Metropolitan Sac-
risty has tapering pilasters
ca. 1770 Most Baroque
projects are completed
Catedral Metropoli-
tana, 1667, Mexico City,
Mexico
The Catedral Metropoli-
tana is one of the largest in
the Western Hemisphere.
The lower levels of the fa-
cade, with their twisted
columns, volutes, and stat-
ues, are High Baroque,
while the Classical towers
were added later. The side
chapel is in Churrigue-
resque style. There are five
naves, and the church
forms a cross.
Baroque
St. Domingo, 1731,
Oaxaca, Mexico
Baroque in Latin America The St. Domingo de Guzmn
church consists of a complex of
1650ca. 1770 buildings and was founded in
I The Baroque style was brought to Latin America with European colonia- the 1570s by the Dominican
lism I In Mexico, the Spanish introduced the Churrigueresque style, which order. The sober Baroque
was adapted and used widely I Mining towns like Ouro Preto had many facade conceals an elaborate
Baroque churches I Style retained its popularity until Neoclassicism interior, which is one of the
best examples of Mexican High
Baroque. The many chapels sit
Baroque architecture was brought to Latin America by alongside gilded plaster orna-
the colonizing powers of Spain and Portugal. Francis- ments and towering columns.
The ceiling decoration shows
cans, Dominicans, and Jesuits were all to leave their mark
279
the lineage of St. Dominic.
on the ecclesiastical architecture and religious art of the
St. Francisco Church at built in nearby Acatepec in local materials to an art form.
region. The discovery of gold and silver played a large
Acatepec, 1730, Cholula, Puebla, a region famous for its Yellow, blue, and green tiles
role in bringing European architectural styles to what
Around the World: Latin America
Mexico local ceramics. Made from the adorn the red-brick facade of
were previously remote villages. The Brazilian school of In the 16th century, nearly 400 local azulejos, or hand-painted this Churrigueresque church.
Baroque was heavily influenced by Portuguese styles. churches were built to replace tiles, the talevera ceramics can Even the large doorway is cov-
Antonio Francisco Lisboa, known as Aleijadinho, was a the Aztec temples destroyed by be seen on many of the remark- ered in tiles and carvings.
the exploratory party of Hernn able facades and domes of the The interior is excessively or-
built many churches in the Ouro Preto region. Mexican Corts in the town of Cholula. buildings in the area. St. Francis, nate, with gilded and plaster
in particular, elevates the use of decoration.
The St. Francisco Church was
adaptation of the Spanish Churrigueresque style, which
resulted in highly decorative facades. Late Baroque spiral
columns (salomnica) were imported from Spain, and ta-
pering pilasters (estpite) were widely used. In Puebla,
Baroque in Latin America
 Neoclassical Styles
Although Neoclassicism was influ-
enced by the Classical styles of
Greece and Rome, these were
adapted and developed in Neo-
classical architecture. During the
17th century, discoveries in sci-
ence, mathematics, and astronomy
influenced building techniques. It is no wonder that
290
Karl Friedrich Schinkel:
Altes Museum, 182330, Berlin
Schinkel learnt to draw detailed
perspective drawings as a result
of his study trips to Italy. His
drawings of the Altes Museum
had great influence on the ar-
chitecture of the time.

291
one of the first great Neoclassical architects, Christo-
pher Wren (p. 292), was a renowned scientist and
physicist. Wrens St. Pauls Cathedral in London used

Neoclassicism
Neoclassicism

an innovative three-layered construction to support

the weight of the dome. Experiments in perspective
and optics also resulted in new ways of planning.
Light and color were used with mirrors and skylights.

Giovanni Paolo Pannini: and the return to Classicism Karl Friedrich Schinkel: Karl Friedrich Schinkel: than solely ecclesiastical ones. temple, are instead used as a
Gallery Displaying Views of was a reaction against the ex- Friedrichswerder Church, Altes Museum, 182330, Berlin The rotunda and dome of place to venerate art and cul-
Ancient Rome, 1758 cesses of Baroque and Rococo 182430, Berlin The dome and rotunda were Schinkels Altes Museum in turethe museum. Inside the
Giovanni Paolo Panninis paint- styles. Columns and domes Schinkels perspective drawings prevalent features in Neoclas- Berlin is directly influenced by, rotunda, pillars and Greek
ings show the public fascina- were often used, and there was only assisted in the planning of sical architecture, but unlike the and refers to, the Pantheon in sculptures are displayed among
tion with the ruins and temples a renewed focus on remaining the church, but give the viewer styles popular during the Rome. However, in this instance the art, and the square cof-
of ancient Rome. Antiquity was Classical buildings, such as the an impression of its size from a Baroque and Rococo eras, they the drum, rotunda, and dome, fering lightens the weight of
seen as an age bound to reason, Pantheon and Colosseum. human-scaled point of view. were used for buildings other although painted like a Roman the dome.
Neoclassicism 16401850 Neoclassical Styles
 Sir Christopher Wren
1632, Wiltshire1723, London
 Renowned British architect  Respected scientist, mathematician, and as-
tronomer  Influenced by Bernini and Vitruvius  Oversaw the construc-
tion of 51 new churches following the Great Fire of London  Built under
four British sovereigns  Designed academic, royal, and church buildings

1632 Born in East Knoyle, Christopher Wren was born in Wiltshire and studied at
Wiltshire
Oxford. Most renowned as an architect, he also success-
1661 Appointed Savilian
Professor of Astronomy at fully engaged in mechanics, biology, optics, and astron-
292

293
Oxford omy and was a founder of the Royal Society. Having read
1665 Travels to Paris and Vitruvius, he developed an interest in architecture and
sees Berninis designs for
visited Bernini in Paris. Shortly after his redesign for St.

Neoclassicism in the UK
Neoclassicism in the UK

the new Louvre

1665 Builds College Pauls Cathedral was accepted, the Great Fire destroyed
Chapel at Cambridge, his both the church and much of London. Wren was selected
first commission to rebuild not just the church, but also the city. For 50
1666 Great Fire of London
years he was the kings surveyor and approved 51 new
1669 Appointed kings
surveyor of works churches. Although not all were built to his designs, they St. Pauls Cathedral, crowned by a spire. Crowning Old Royal Naval College,
1670 Appointed surveyor were all Classical in form. Wren built Kensington Palace 16741710, London the intersection of the churchs 16961712, Greenwich
for building the city and Hampton Court Palace for William of Orange. He was transepts, the dome includes
churches Wren had to modify his plans The Old Royal Naval College at
able to combine constructive ingenuity and reason for St. Pauls Cathedral many three layers. The external aes- Greenwich was originally built
1685 Enters Parliament
and House of Commons with aesthetics. He was knighted and is buried in times to satisfy the medieval thetic wooden dome, which as a navy hospital. It is in the
tastes of the church. The final stands 365 feet (111 meters) English Baroque style, with four
1723 Dies in London St. Pauls, under his own spectacular dome.
result differed from his original high, is supported by an inner blocks centered around a court-
Sheldonian Theater, design and is constructed on a brick core that separates it from yard and views of the Queens
1663, Oxford Latin cross with a large dome the interior cupola. House.
The Sheldonian Theater
was only Wrens second Other Works by Wren
completed building, but War Memorial, 167177,
nevertheless typifies his London
style. Designed in the form St. James, 167487, London
of a classic Roman temple,
Royal Observatory, 1675,
the theater is based on the Greenwich
theater at Marcelles.
Trinity College Library,
Wrens ingenuity and 167695, Cambridge
draftsmanship can be seen
in the roofing, where he St. Clement Danes, 1680,
London
developed a new kind of
timber truss with a span of Royal Chelsea Hospital, 1681,
London
72 feet (22 meters).
Neoclassicism 16401850 Sir Christopher Wren

1781 Born in Neuruppin
1794 Moves to Berlin
1803 Tours Italy, France,
308
Konzerthaus on Gendar-
menmarkt,181921, Berlin
Karl Friedrich Schinkel Built on the foundation of the
1781, Neuruppin1841, Berlin Langhans Theater after it burnt
down, Schinkels Schauspiel-
I Architect, painter, and set designer I Helped to define the look of the haus, or theater, (now a con-
German capital I Used Gothic Revival and Classical influences to create a cert house) was based on the
Neoclassical style I Held Romantic perceptions of nature and existence designs of the Parthenon and
I Designed and directed at the esteemed Building Academy in Berlin heavily influenced by Hel-
lenistic architecture. By refer-
Karl Friedrich Schinkel designed churches, theaters, and
academies in a Neoclassical style, symbolically elevating
not just religious buildings but also places of culture,
encing these styles, he there-
fore elevated a cultural building
to a position of historic impor-
tance. It is situated between
two churches and accessed by
grand stairs leading up to a por-
tico of the Ionic order. The inte-
rior was a simplification of ear-
lier extravagant Baroque
elements and
uses multiple
perspectives and illusions to
enliven the Classical design.
Whereas earlier theaters were
laid out in a hierarchical
manner, with attention focused
on the perspective from the
kings seating area, at the Kon-
zerthaus on Gendarmenmarkt
the seating was arranged in
a circular shape, providing
great views.

and Austria
1816 Builds royal guard-
house in military style with
Doric portico
309
learning, and public life. He lived and studied architec-
ture with David Gilly and his son Friedrich, who had a
large influence on his work and ideas. A remarkable

Neoclassicism in Germany
Neoclassicism in Germany

1821 Publishes Erste Vor-

bilder fr Fabrikanten und
Handwerker with Peter
Beuth
1826 Goes to England and
is impressed by industrial
technology
1836 Building Academy
opens in Berlin
1840 Reign of Friedrich
Wilhelm IV, the architect
king
1841 Dies in Berlin
Altes Museum,
182330, Berlin
Built between the Prussian
Palace and the cathedral,
the New (now referred to
as Old) Museum has a
colonnade of 18 Ionic
columns sheltering its
staircase. The second-floor
rotunda is connected to a
cubic attic and a monu-
mental hall. The Altes Mu-
seum takes the form of a
loggia, from which one
can look out over the Lust-
garten (pleasure garden).
19th Century
painter, he depicted idyllic landscapes based on his Euro-
pean travels. These images were published and greatly
influential for later generations of artists and architects.
During Napolons occupation, Schinkel painted theater
sets, including for the acclaimed Magic Flute by Mozart,
and spectacular dioramas and panoramas for the Gropius
family. His theater experiences would later inform his
plans and buildings. He came to the attention of the
Prussian court and Friedrich Wilhelm IV, and received
commissions for royal furnishings as well as for Queen
Tegel Palace, 182124,
Berlin
Schinkel remodeled the original
palace of 1550 for the wealthy
Humboldt family. Not only did
he add Classical elements to the
building itself, but he also
worked on the landscaping,
changing the original Baroque
gardens to Neoclassical ones.
The Neoclassical style was
better suited to the buildings
purposeshowcasing the
familys extensive collection of
sculptures and objects from
antiquity.
Karl Friedrich Schinkel
 Industrial
Architecture
With 19th-century advancements in coal and steam Gustav Eiffel and Stephen
energy, new materials such as cast iron, glass, and Sauvestre: Eiffel Tower,
steel were being produced at an accelerated rate. This 188589, Paris
signaled the birth of industrial architecture, as archi- The Eiffel Tower was originally
tects and engineers had easier access to materials. built as a temporary attraction
The Galerie des Machines of
328

Utilitarian, public venues became more important,
and needed to be durable. The popularity of Worlds
Fairs resulted in spectacular temporary exhibition
329
for the Worlds Fair of 1889, yet
the 1889 Paris Worlds Fair
it has come to be the most rec-
showcased the new methods of
ognized landmark in Paris. Engi-
construction. Ferdinand Dutert

Building Techniques
Building Techniques

and Victor Contamin built a neer Gustav Eiffel collaborated

halls in Paris and London. Art Nouveau and Neo- with the architect Stephen
374-foot (114-meter) hall of
Gothic styles adorned these new temples of the metal and glass. The tall roof Sauvestre. The tower is a cele- Construction techniques for
future, as cities spread outward and upward, sup- had no central supports, but bration of iron as a building tool the Eiffel Tower came from ex-
ported by new and robust materials. Architects and was created using a three- and set a precedent in demon- pertise learned from the rail-
engineers collaborated, paving the way for modern hinged arch structure. strating the durability and ele- road industry. The tower is a
gance of the material. The large replica of a viaduct pylon
high-rises and skyscrapers. tower is 1,010 feet (308 meters) and consists of a system of
An icon of industrialization, Joseph Paxtons tall and weighs 7,000 tons. The girders. It was prefabricated
Crystal Palace was constructed to house the weight is evenly distributed to and riveted together on-site
first Great Exhibition in London. A testa- its four supports. using cranes.
ment to industrial materials, it was
composed of nearly 300,000 panes
of glass on wrought iron fra-
ming, and was assembled on-
site from prefabricated ele-
ments.

19th Century Industrial Architecture


1855 The Great Exhibition
in Paris showcases the
Second Empire style and
spreads it internationally,
356
inspiring designs in the
United States
1857 Additions to the
19th-Century Architecture in the United States
Louvre by Le Vau draw the
attention of American ar-
chitects
1859 Corcoron Gallery, a
very early Second Empire
style building in America,
is built by J. Renwick Jr.
1867 Second Great Exhibi-
tion in Paris
186977 General Ulysses Because the styles popularity coincided with the adminis-
S. Grants administration
1880 Economic depres-
sion brings an end to the
Second Empire style
Alfred B. Mullet: Old
Executive Office Building,
begun 1871, Washington,
DC
The Old Executive Office
Building in Washington is
the masterpiece of archi-
tect Alfred B. Mullet. Con-
structed from cast iron,
granite, and slate, it took
17 years to complete.
There are decorative
motifs on the dormer
windows, chimneys, and
balconies.
19th Century
John McArthur Jr.: granite and brick and is
Philadelphia City the tallest occupied
Second Empire in the USA Hall, begun 1871, masonry building in
Philadelphia the United States. The
18551880 steep tower was an in-
The Philadelphia City novative architectural
I The Second Empire in France during the reign of Napolon III spread French
Hall is made from feat for its time.
styles to the United States I Used in mansions, hospitals, government build-
ings, and cottages I The mansard roof gained popularity and was adapted to
American tastes I The style ended with the economic depression
Second Empire was an architectural style that coincided
with the reign of Napolon III in France and was enthusi-
astically applied in America. It was implemented in gov-
357
ernment buildings, stately homes, asylums, hospitals, and
private houses. The most recognizable feature of the Sec-
ond Empire style is the mansard roofa steeply pitched,
slated roof developed by Franois Mansard (p. 236) and
19th-Century Architecture in the United States
popular in the time of Louis XIVwhich had come back
Gridley James Fox Town Hall has a steep
into fashion in Napolon IIIs Paris. Other prominent fea-
Bryant and Arthur mansard roof and a
tures of the style include square towers, dormer windows, Gilman: Old City Hall, projecting stepped
decorative brackets, and the use of paired columns, to 186265, Boston central bay. The three
give the impression of height. Protruding central facades One of the first gov- levels have paired col-
and pavilions were also common in larger buildings. ernment buildings to umns, which, with their
be built in the Second tall windows, create an
Empire style, the Old imposing facade.
tration of General Ulysses S. Grant, it was also sometimes
referred to as the General Grant style, or simply the Man- Other Important Works
sard style.
Alexander Ramsey Old Post Office,
House, by Monroe by Alfred B. Mullet,
Sheire, 1868, St. Paul,
187384, St. Louis,
Minnesota Missouri
New York City Court-
South Hall, by David
house and Post Office,
Farquharson, 1873,
by Alfred B. Mullet,
University of California,
186975
Berkeley
Hotel Vendome,
by William G. Preston, Harker Hall, William Boyington, residence is a splendid
1871, Boston by Nathan Clifford Jacob Weidenmann, example of American
J. T. Elletson: Terrace Second Empire, with its
Hamilton Mansion, Ricker, 1878, University
Hill, 186669, Des central tower, arched
by J. D. Hall, 1873, of Illinois at Urbana- Moines, Iowa
entrance, and attic
Savannah Champaign
The large governors dormer windows.
Second Empire in the USA
 Steel Frames
Iron and, later, steel had been used for bridges and in Daniel Burnham: Flatiron Build-
larger public buildings throughout the 19th century, ing (Fuller Building), 190103,
but it was not until the 1880s in Chicago that the New York
structural steel frame was invented. After the fire of Although Louis Sullivan had
1871, investors needed to increase their usable floor already addressed questions of
composition in tall buildings, the
area in order to remain competitive. Conventional
prevalent Beaux-Arts movement
masonry allowed for tall buildings, but at 16 stories was ill prepared to deal with a
the wall thickness at ground level exceeded five feet. new building type. Historical
380

381
The answer was to replace load-bearing masonry with models had to be reinter-
a uniform and flexible steel skeleton. preted to accommodate the
proportions of the office
Cass Gilbert: Woolworth Daniel Burnham and

Building Techniques
Building Techniques

tower.
Building, under construction, Charles Atwood: Reliance
1912, New York Building, 189095, Chicago
Steel frame construction and el- One of the earliest and most el-
evators meant that height was egant incarnations of the sky-
no longer a limiting factor. Al- scraper, a wall of glass and
though by 1910 steel had been white terra cotta hangs from
in use for two decades, a the riveted, wind-braced steel
50-story building posed new frame. Thin vertical members
challengeswind loads, foun- rest on continuous spandrel
dation stability, and fire safety panels, emphasizing the
were all factors needing thor- stacked horizontality of skeletal
ough research. construction.
William Le Baron Jenney:
Second Leiter Building,
188991, Chicago
The second incarnation of the
Leiter Building was a mature
example of steel frame con-
struction. A self-supporting,
fireproof metal frame was
draped in a comparatively light
masonry curtain wall. With no
load-bearing masonry left, all
the loads had to be carried by
the steel skeleton. It was
erected before cladding and
partition walls were added, de-
termining the buildings layout.
20th Century before 1945
 Unity Temple, interior view,
190508, Oak Park, Illinois
Frank Lloyd Wright Inside the temple, two levels of
balconies hover over the cen-
1867, Richland Center1959, Phoenix
tral square seating area on the
I Iconic figure of American architecture I Spanned generations and styles main level, enabling the entire
I Developed the Prairie style I Used local materials and adapted his plans congregation to sit in close
to the surrounding landscape I Published utopian urban planning proximity to one another. Pro-
projects I Influenced the development of American suburbs tected from the noisy street be-
hind the building, the space is
discreetly entered from below
1867 Born in Richland In the late 1890s Frank Lloyd Wright was building ab- and lit only from the top with
Center, Wisconsin stract, geometric forms while the Beaux-Arts movement a combination of clerestory
188688 Studies
engineering at the Univer- dominated Europe and North America. In Europe, Wrights windows and stained glass sky-
382

383
sity of Wisconsin Art Nouveau contemporaries were grappling with the re- lights. The interior is not orna-
188892 Apprentices lationships between ornament and structure, but were mented, but rather unified with
with Adler and Sullivan sets of intersecting volumes,
much less interested in the complex spaces and inter-

Early Modernism in the United States

Early Modernism in the United States

1893 Establishes architec- planes, and lines.

ture practice in Oak Park, secting volumes that Wright began to explore at the
Illinois outset of his career. Influenced by the Shingle style, with Other Important Works by F. L. Wright
191011 Publishes work its sprawling porches and sheltering roofs, as well as by Wright House and Hollyhock House,
in Europe Louis Sullivans (p. 378) clarity of volume and unique or- Studio, begun 1889, 191921, Los Angeles
1911 Moves his practice Oak Park, Illinois
to Taliesin East namentation, Wright developed his own manner, known Ennis House, 1923,
as the Prairie style. Prairie proved only a symbolic name, Winslow House, 1894, Los Angeles
1914 Arsonist burns
River Forest, Illinois
Taliesin and murders for Wrights houses were almost exclusively suburban, Rosenbaum House,
Wrights family built on relatively small and regular plots. The all-encom- Larkin Building, 1939, Florence,
1938 Begins apprentice- 190206, Buffalo, Alabama
ship program at Taliesin
passing horizon of the true prairies led Wright to an exag- New York Price Tower, 195455,
West gerated horizontality that creates an illusion of space, Taliesin East, 1911, Bartlesville, Oklahoma
1959 Dies in Phoenix which otherwise is unavailable within the Spring Green, Annunciation Greek
Wisconsin Orthodox Church,
Robie House, 190810,
Chicago Imperial Hotel, 1915, 195961, Milwaukee,
Tokyo Wisconsin
In the center of the Robie
House, the hearthan area Fallingwater, over each other and
consisting of the fireplace and 1935, Mill Run, the waterfall below. In
staircasestands out amid an
Pennsylvania elevation, the entire
open floor plan. Dramatic can-
tilevered roofs shelter the Fallingwater stirred the composition appears
rooms, large courts, and imagination of a so- flat. The volumes are
porches. Low walls, a buried ciety yearning for a se- arranged so master-
garden, and views in all direc- cluded, utopian life. fully that the walls
tions give a feeling of both From pillars rising out seem to slide past each
freedom and protection by in- of the rock, ocher- other in an abstract
corporating open-air spaces colored reinforced manner, like a de Stijl
into the shelter of the home. concrete trays hover graphic.
20th Century before 1945 Frank Lloyd Wright

1852 Born in Reus, near
Barcelona
187377 Studies at the
newly opened Faculty of
390
Architecture at the Univer-
sity of Barcelona
1877 Opens his first office
Art Nouveau
in Barcelona
1883 Appointed chief ar-
chitect of Sagrada Famlia tors, like John Ruskin and Eugne Viollet-le-Duc (p. 348),
1887 Studies traditional
ceramics with Domnech i forms. In the end Gauds architecture was a product of his
Montaner
1888 Contributes to the
Exposicin Universal in and his obsession with natures structural logic.
Barcelona
1906 Moves into the
showhouse in Park Gell
1914 Declines all commis-
sions, to focus on the
Sagrada Famlia
1926 Dies in Barcelona
Casa Mil, 190610,
Barcelona
At the Casa Mil, simple
roof vents are transformed
into groups of masked
guardians keeping watch
over the hills of Barcelona.
Inside, complex apart-
ments with polygonal
rooms resembling a hon-
eycomb change from floor
to floor, responding to the
undulating shape of the
facade.
20th Century before 1945
Sagrada Famlia, 1883,
Barcelona
Antoni Gaud At Sagrada Famlia Gaud rein-
terpreted the structural princi-
1852, Reus1926, Barcelona
ples of Gothic architecture. He
I Greatly influenced by Eugne Viollet-le-Duc I Interested in botany as eliminated buttresses and sub-
well as biomorphic and geomorphic forms I Built with stone, concrete, stituted them with slanted col-
steel, and ceramics I Used symbolic sculpture as a didactic tool I Drew umns that could take the
upon Catalan styles and Islamic architecture from the Iberian Peninsula lateral loads created by his
parabolic vaults. He tested the
system with brilliant hanging
Antoni Gaud synthesized a multitude of influences into models made of wire, sandbags,
a magnificent style that is so personal it defies categori- and canvas that when inverted
gave the proper distribution of
zation. Parallel to Art Nouveau and incorporating the
391
organic forms of the style, his work is part of the Catalan forces. Gaud projected that it
would take 200 years to build
Modernisme movement, developed in the context of his
the Sagrada Famlia. No other
Gothic Revivalist training and love for medieval Mediter-
Art Nouveau
architect since the Middle Ages
ranean architecture. Reinterpreting early Modernist men- had attempted a building of
that magnitude. Gaud under-
Gaud studied structure as a way to convey imaginative stood that to build a church
surpassing the achievements of
Gothic masters was to respect
intense Catholic faith, his dedication to Catalan culture,
the medieval process. Paradoxi-
cally, as construction on the
church continues, the institu-
tion devoted to funding this
medieval undertaking posts
progress reports on their foun-
dation Web site.
Park Gell, 190014, Other Works by Gaud
Barcelona
Finca Gell, 188385, Barcelona
Eager to replicate the English
garden style in the city of Bar- Casa Vicens, 188388,
Barcelona
celona, Count Gell commis-
sioned a large park and a Palau Gell, 188690,
Barcelona
development of villas for the
Catalan bourgeoisie. The resi- Palacio Episcopal, 188993,
Len, Spain
dential district was never com-
pleted, but the park attests to Casa Calvet, 18981900,
Barcelona
Gauds romantic imagination.
Mosaic dragons guard a carica- Colnia Gell Chapel, crypt,
18981915, Barcelona
tural Doric colonnade, as via-
ducts of piled stone weave Villa Bellesguard, 190005,
Barcelona
through the landscape.
Antoni Gaud

1883 Born in Berlin
190307 Studies at the
Technische Hochschule in
Munich, then in Berlin
406
1908 Employed by Peter
Behrens on AEG Turbine
Hall
Modernism Neue Sachlichkeit
1910 Opens an office near
Berlin with Adolf Meyer
191928 Director of the
Bauhaus in Weimar, and in
Dessau from 1925
1938 Director of the De-
partment of Architecture
at Harvard University
1969 Dies in Boston,
Massachusetts
Fagus Factory,
191125, Alfeld an der Leine
This factory building is cle-
arly an inversion of the
monumental industrial
logic of Peter Behrenss
AEG Turbine Hall in Berlin-
Moabit. Instead of glazing
the center of the building,
Gropius hung the corners
of the structure with large
sheets of glass from a pro-
jecting steel frame. In con-
trast, the center was a
solid, windowless volume
containing only the en-
trance and a small clock.
In a factory, time is of the
essence.
20th Century before 1945
Other Works by Gropius
Walter Gropius Deutscher Werkbund Exhibi-
tion, Office and Factory Build-
1883, Berlin1969, Boston ings, 1914, Cologne
Sommerfeld Residence,
I Director and designer of the Bauhaus I Believed in the unity of visual 192021, Berlin
arts and architecture I Defined the course of Modern design I Worked in Bauhaus Building and Masters
academies in both Europe and North America I Profoundly influenced the Houses, 192526, Dessau
curricula of art and architecture schools I Used color in his buildings Siemensstadt Housing Estate,
192930, Berlin
Walter Gropius followed one simple principle: insert crea- Gropius Residence, 1938,
Lincoln, Massachusetts
tive elements at key points in an otherwise repetitive ele-
Graduate Center, Harvard Uni-
vation. Entrances, staircases, and junctions between buil- versity, 194850, Cambridge,
407
ding functions all provided opportunities to introduce Massachusetts
moments of craft into an industrial framework. According Housing Block, 195557,
to Gropiuss philosophy, facade treatment only needed to Hansaviertel, Berlin
Modernism Neue Sachlichkeit
be consistent around a specific function. One building
Chicago Tribune Tower
could have multiple, even contradictory, elevations if they Competition, 1922
served their respective functions appropriately. At the The simple guidelines and the
Fagus Factory, the structural logic was also completely goal of building the most
new. The staircase was placed behind a precarious glass beautiful office building in the
corner that did not hide its floating white landings. The ef- world generated hundreds of
fect was an architecture of paradoxmonumental and entries and much discussion
fragile at the same time. about the future of high-rises.
Unlike Mies van der Rohes rev-
olutionary 1921 skyscraper de-
sign, Gropius proposed a fea-
sible building with a structural
grid based on the
famous Chicago
window. With
staggered verti-
cals, definite hor-
izontals, and large
cantilevers, the
building was a
synthesis of
trends in Modern-
ism. The winning
entry was a Neo-
Gothic tower typ-
ical of American
architecture of
the era.
Walter Gropius
 Bauhaus
In 1919 Walter Gropius (p. 406) fused the Weimar Academy of Fine Arts and the
Weimar School of Arts and Crafts to establish the Bauhaus in Weimar, Germany. The
school, supported by leading artists, was a success, and a new Bauhaus opened at
Dessau in 1925. Based on the Deutscher Werkbund
concept of reconciling craft and industry, the Bauhaus
trained professionals to be equally comfortable with
design, craft, and methods of mass production. The-
ater, metalwork, woodwork, ceramics, architecture,
408

409
furniture, and object design were included in the cur-
riculum. The Bauhaus was closed by the Nazis in 1933.

Bauhaus in Germany
Bauhaus in Germany

Walter Gropius: Directors Herbert Bayer: Font and

Study, 1927, Weimar Workshop Building, 1927,
Walter Gropiuss study was Weimar
symbolically located at the ab- Graphic design, including typo-
solute center of the Bauhaus graphy, was a key element in
school in Weimar, on a bridge the publicity of the Bauhaus.
overlooking all of the elements The schools books, publica-
of the complex. The simple fur- tions, and posters disseminated
niture, tubular metal fixtures, ideas of Constructivist or de Stijl
and painted colorful rectangles origin to the wider public. The
were influenced by the designs Bauhaus font appears on the
of de Stijl. side of the workshop building.
Walter Gropius: Main
Stairway of the Workshop
Building, 1925, Dessau
In the Bauhaus, color played a
didactic role in identifying
structure, services, and move-
ment patterns. The focus on
essentials aimed not to strip
architecture of aesthetic or
sculptural value, but to increase
the purity of that value by expo-
sing functional elements. In the
stairways, light is used to high- Walter Gropius: Workshop volved new and untested inno- vere heat gain and loss. A cur-
light the structural composi- Building and the Vocational vations. Some experiments tain wall means that the interior
tion, and windows orient the School, 1925, Dessau failed: the glass curtain wall was structure, not the wall, supports
user within the complex. The Bauhaus buildings all in- visually superb, but led to se- the building.
20th Century before 1945 Bauhaus
 Nordic Modernism
19161976
I Nordic Modernism combined Neoclassical and Regional influences I Modi-
fied by Alvar Aalto, the movement was included in International Modernism
I Aalto and his wife, Aino Marsio, were pioneers in furniture and object design
I left: Lighting Fixtures, by Alvar Aalto, 195661, Bazoches-sur-Guyonne, France

191621 Alvar Aalto
studies architecture at
Helsinki University of
Technology
416
The two key figures of Nordic Modernism were Swedish
architect Erik Gunnar Asplund and his Finnish colleague
Alvar Aalto. Asplund was older than Aalto by 13 years,

1924 Aalto marries archi-
tect Aino Marsio and tra-
vels to Italy, developing an
Modernism in Northern Europe
417
and his work provided the young architect with a point of
departure for a wholly alternative aesthetic. Although
Aalto was interested in economical architecture and mass

Modernism in Northern Europe

interest in Italian styles
1930 Erik Gunnar Asplund
has his architectural break-
through at the Stockholm
Exposition
1940 Asplund dies in
Stockholm
1976 Aalto dies in Helsinki
Erik Gunnar Asplund:
Stockholm Public Library,
191827, Stockholm
A U-shaped building surrounds
20th Century
production, his attachment to Finnish architectural de-
sign history tempered his work and gave it a human face
that other functionalist architecture lacked. A precedent
for Aalto, Asplunds Woodland Chapel was a Classical
temple fused with a primitive hut, creating an unex-
pectedly Modern effect.
Other Works
Woodland Cemetery, by Erik
Gunnar Asplund and Sigurd
Lewerentz, 191720, Stock-
holm, Sweden
Lister County Courthouse, by
Erik Gunnar Asplund, 191721,
Slvesborg, Sweden
Tuberculosis Sanatorium,
by Alvar Aalto, 1929, Paimio,
Finland
Villa Mairea, by Alvar Aalto,
1939, Noormarkku, Finland
Finlandia Hall, by Alvar Aalto,
1971, Helsinki, Finland
the main cylindrical reading windows set high in the curved
room. Inside, three tiers of wall. There is little ornamenta-
books encircle the room. Light tion apart from the entrance
enters through vertical portal and facade banding.
Alvar Aalto: Viipuri City their juncture, the library is lit wooden ceiling. Aalto designed
Library, 1935, Vyborg, Russia from above by numerous tu- many of the technical aspects
(formerly Viipuri, Finland) bular skylights, while the of the building, including the
A composition of two offset lecture hall has long windows forced-air ventilation shafts
rectangles, with the entrance at and is lined with a folding within the buildings walls.
Alvar Aalto: Finnish
Church of the Holy Ghost,
196062, Wolfsburg, Germany
The Church of the Holy Ghost is
part of a large community
center. Aaltos unusual church
brings Minimalist architectural
styles to the ecclesiastical
realm. It features an enormous
bell tower which, despite its
Modernist aesthetics, resem-
bles a stepped Italian campa-
nile. The interior is well lit and
the fan-shaped roof provides
excellent acoustics. Aalto also
designed many of the interior
elements, such as collection
boxes and candelabras.
Nordic Modernism

1886 Born Maria Ludwig
Michael Mies in Aachen,
Germany
190711 Works for Peter changed the popular conception of built forms and pro-
434
Behrens in Berlin
1921 Joins the Deutscher
Werkbund
International Style
1929 Designs the German
Pavilion for the Interna-
tional Exhibition in
Barcelona
193033 Serves as the last
director of the Bauhaus
1938 Immigrates to the
USA; becomes director of
architecture at the Armour
Institute in Chicago (later
the Illinois Institute of
Technology)
195458 Designs and
builds the Seagram Build-
ing in New York
1969 Dies in Chicago
Lakeshore Drive
Apartments, 194851,
Chicago
Known as the glass
houses, these two 26-
story towers were Miess
first steel and glass high-
rise buildings. Revolution-
ary in their structure, the
towers introduced Amer-
ica to an elegance based
on order and clarity rather
than opulence.
20th Century before 1945
Mies van der Rohe Glass Skyscraper, designed
1921, Berlin
Maria Ludwig Michael Mies
A truly visionary project, the
1886, Aachen1969, Chicago Glass Skyscraper betrays Miess
 Modernist architect  Author of the phrase less is more  Influenced by early fascination with glass. Its
Karl Friedrich Schinkel and Peter Behrens  Greatly changed the look of com- complex planlike a blown-
mercial city centers  Used predominantly steel and glass in his buildings up snowflakeproduces an
undulating and almost crys-
talline volume. The project
His famous aphorism less is more describes only one as- was designed for a trian-
pect of Mies van der Rohes multifaceted style. Mies
gular site near Friedrich-
strasse in Berlin, but was
435
foundly influenced the evolution of American cities. never built. The emer-
Skeletons of steel and glass replaced the traditional load- gence of new materials
such as reinforced con-
bearing walls. The boundary between interior and exte-
International Style
crete and steel and the
rior space blurred, as the glazed curtain wall became production of glass on
an industrial scale al-
lowed architects to
imagine structures
that would only be-
come technically fea-
sible decades later.
For Mies, this building
was more an exper-
iment in material and
form, reflection, and
transparency than a
structural con-
cept. The de-
sign forecasts
his glass-box
structures.
Mies van der Rohe

1913 Born in Sakai, Japan
1949 Wins commission to
design Hiroshimas Peace
446
Center
1964 Achieves interna-
tional recognition with his
Yoyogi National Gymna-
Late Modernism
sium Complex, his contri-
bution to the 1964 Tokyo
Olympics
1987 Becomes the first
Japanese architect to be
awarded the Pritzker Prize
2005 Dies in Tokyo; his
funeral is held in his own
St. Marys Cathedral
Other Works by Tange
St. Marys Cathedral,
196164, Tokyo
Master Plan for the
Reconstruction of Skopje,
1966, Skopje, Macedonia
Master Plan for Expo 70,
1970, Osaka
American Medical
Association Headquar-
ters Building, 198790,
Chicago, Illinois
Arabian Gulf University,
1988, Manamah, Bahrain
Fuji Television
Building, 199396,
Tokyo
Architecture after 1945
Kenzo Tange
1913, Sakai2005, Tokyo
I Fused traditional Japanese styles with Modernism I Designed buildings on
five continents I Influenced a new generation of architects from his teaching
post at Tokyo University I Aided in the rebuilding of Hiroshima, conceived of
an ambitious urban plan for Tokyo, and redesigned Skopje after an earthquake
Perhaps the central figure in 20th-century Japanese de-
sign, the architect, author, and urban planner Kenzo
Tange combined the International style with High Tech
447
architecture and traditional Japanese forms to create a
visionary synthesis that helped to define the identity of
postwar Japan. Arguing that architecture should reflect or
Late Modernism
be an expression of social structure that always advances
from the past to the future, Tange first achieved promi-
nence with his hugely symbolic Hiroshima Peace Center,
a peacetime fusion of traditional Japanese tomb archi-
Yamanashi Press and Radio gastructurethat Tange was smaller-scale prototype for an
tecture with a concrete hyperbolic parabola, whose shape
Center, 1967, Kofu, Japan experimenting with at the time.
signaled at once an acceptance of history and a coura- ideal city of the future, which he
Regarded by some critics as Based on an innovative space-
geous rebirth. hoped would eliminate the iso-
Tanges most impressive achie- grid frame designed to increase
flexibility by maximizing con- lation between individual
vement, the Yamanashi Press
and Radio Center is an example nections between units, Tange buildings and turn urban space
of the new structurethe me- himself saw the project as a into a single integrated area.
National Gymnasium
Complex, 196164, Yoyogi,
Tokyo
The National Gymnasium Com-
plex was hailed in Tanges cita-
tion for the Pritzker Prize as
being one of the most beautiful
structures of the 20th century.
Tange claimed that his 1964
gymnastics arena represented a
significant break with his earlier
Regionalism. In a radical break
Hiroshima Peace Center, Nara, and the work of Le Corbu- with traditional Japanese styles,
194955, Hiroshima sier, the Hiroshima Peace Center he sought to divorce modern
set the agenda for postwar Japa-
Drawing from both the 8th- Japan from the constraints of its
century Shosoin Storehouse, near nese architecture. historical architecture.
Kenzo Tange

1952 Le Corbusier devises
his Unit dHabitation
principle and builds the
Cit Radieuse in Marseille
450
1954 The term Brutalism is
coined by the British archi-
tects Alison and Peter
Minimalist Modernism
Smithson
1954 Publication of
Reyner Banhams book The
New Brutalism, which be-
comes the movements
manual
1960s Brutalism is popular
in university campus ex-
pansions across the
United States
1975 J. G. Ballard pub-
lishes his novel High-Rise,
which argues that Brutalist
architecture causes mur-
derous chaos
Other Works
Barbican Estate,
by Chamberlin, Powell,
and Bon, 196576, London
Tricorn Center,
by Owen Luder, 196566,
demolished 2004,
Portsmouth, UK
Trellick Tower, by Ern
Goldfinger, 196672,
London
Robin Hood Gardens,
by Alison and Peter
Smithson, 196972,
London
Architecture after 1945
Brutalism
19521975
I Derived its name from French bton brut, meaning raw concrete I Es-
pecially prominent in reconstruction projects in the UK after World War II
I Fell out of favor after the failure of positive communities to form in many
Brutalist structures, possibly due to broader processes of urban decay
The Brutalist movement in architecture stems from the
French bton brutmeaning raw concretea term
used by Le Corbusier to describe his choice of material.
451
Associated with social utopianism, the movement sought
to use architecture to engineer a more rational urban en-
vironment. This was to be accomplished through the con-
Minimalist Modernism
struction of high-density housing blocks based on Le
Corbusiers vision of the Unit dHabitation. The idea was
to engender more collective and functional patterns of
living by reducing ornament and distraction. Highly
controversial, this plan achieved only mixed success, alt-
hough some aspects of Brutalism have managed to be in-
corporated into later Sir Denys Lasdun: National middle of London without buildings in the UK. The com-
styles. Theater, 1967 anyone objecting, Denys plex achieves a structural bal-
Described by Prince Charles as Lasduns National Theater regu- ance, smoothing out the
a clever way of building a nu- larly places among the ten most horizontal spaces to match its
clear power station in the hated and the ten most loved vertical axis.
Moshe Safdie: Habitat 67,
Montreal, Canada
Built as part of Expo 67, Moshe
Safdie designed Habitat 67
when he was just 24, for his
masters thesis at Montreals
McGill University. Composed of
a series of modular, interlocking
forms, Safdie hoped his dy-
namic vision would become
popular among architects
Paul Rudolph: Yale Art and Brutalist architecture in the United around the world. Sadly, his se-
Architecture Building, 195863, States, the Yale Art and Archi- veral attempts to construct sim-
New Haven, Connecticut tecture Building is made of ribbed, ilar structures elsewhere have
all failed due to lack of funding.
The most renowned example of bush-hammered concrete.
Brutalism
 lvaro Siza Vieira
1933, Matosinhos
I Works out of the organic conditions of an existing site, rather than impo-
sing his own designs on them I Renowned for his coherent, understated
designs and absence of rhetoric
I left: Schlesisches Tor Apartments, 1980, Berlin

1933 Born in Matosinhos, The sculptor and architect lvaro Siza Vieira was born in
Portugal 1933 in a coastal town in the mountainous northern
1949 Begins studies at the
University of Porto School region of Portugal. Sizas fresh, lucid buildings take their
454

455
of Architecture inspiration from the long light and quiet of his birthplace,
1954 Finishes first archi- and his work is characterized by a sensitivity to the
tectural projectfour specificities of local contexts. Utilizing a tactile and mate-

Late Modernism
Late Modernism

houses in Matosinhos
rial-focused approach, rather than an overtly visual or
1954 Opens private prac- College of Education, 198694, Setubal,
tice in Porto graphic one, Siza has been called a Minimalist for his em- Other Works
Portugal
1955 Completes his archi- phasis on simplicity, balance, and scale. Nevertheless, Boa Nova Tea House, Faculty of Architec-
tecture studies there is also a strong current of sensuality in his work that Striking a balance between rigor and flexibility, 1963, Lea da Palmeira, ture at the University
1966 Begins teaching at Sizas design for the college tethers a series of Portugal
is revealed by the cool delicacy with which he manipu- of Porto, 1995,
the University of Porto outlying volumes to a central U-shaped founda- Lea Swimming Pool, Portugal
School of Architecture
lates texture. Siza has designed swimming pools, housing tion, like boats moored to a quay. The idea was 1966, Lea da Palmeira Serpentine Gallery
1976 Appointed professor developments, private residences, banks, office buildings, to create a series of freely calibrated, semi-
restaurants, art galleries, shops, and almost every other Duarte House, Pavilion in Hyde Park,
1992 Awarded the Pritzker autonomous spaces that would remain at the
198185, Ovar, Portugal 2005, London
Prize type of structure. same time linked to a central whole.
Banco Borges Centro Gallego de Arte
e Irmo, 197886, Contemporaneo, 198893,
Vila do Conde, Santiago de Compostela,
Portugal Spain
This small bank Unusual among contemporary
branch gave Siza art museums in that it strives to
the chance to re- merge with its surroundings
alize some of the rather then dominate them, the
formal ideas that
Centro Gallego de Arte Con-
he had developed
temporaneo achieves a harmo-
for his unbuilt
works in Berlin. nious relationship with its
Both expansive and urban setting, allowing the
compact, colossal citys traditional and modern
and delicate, heavy- styles to converge. Sizas clear-
set and limpid, lined, granite-clad design re-
Sizas design plays flects his admiration for Ration-
with the paradoxes alism and his sensitivity to local
of space itself. conditions.
Architecture after 1945 lvaro Siza Viera

1936 Louis Skidmore and
Nathaniel Owings found
an architectural firm
460
1937 First office is opened
in New York City
1939 John Merrill be-
comes a member and the
Corporate Modernism
firm becomes Skidmore,
Owings & Merrill (SOM)
1952 The structurally in-
novative design of the
Lever House in the Inter-
national Modernist style
sets a new standard for the
firm
1970s Involved in the re-
designing of Bostons in-
frastructure systems, using
innovative technology
2004 Groundbreaking for
Burj Dubai
Jin Mao Building,
1998, Shanghai
The Jin Mao Building skill-
fully blends traditional
Chinese aesthetics like up-
turned eaves and pagoda
forms with the skyscraper.
SOM designed the
buildings proportions
around the number eight,
which symbolizes pros-
perity in China. Structural
innovations absorb shock
from typhoon winds and
earthquakes.
Architecture after 1945
Vasco da Gama Tower at
Expo 1998, Lisbon
Skidmore, Owings & Merrill Leonor Janeiro and Nick Jacobs
worked with SOM to create this
1936Present steel framework tower for the
I Interested in technological and structural advancements I Concerned with Expo 1998 Worlds Fair. At the
architecture, design, urban planning, and structural engineering I Create a towers base is a three-story
corporate identity in which individual architects come under the general name building, used as the European
of SOM I One of the largest architecture firms in the world
Union Building during the fair.
The tower, shaped to resemble
the sail of a Portuguese ship,
Skidmore, Owings & Merrill is one of the largest architec- leads up to a luxury restaurant
ture firms in the world. Founded in 1936, the company and an observation deck.
has a long tradition of multidisciplinary design and re- John Hancock Center
461
search projects, involving more than 10,000 campaigns in 196770, Chicago
over 50 countries. After World War II, When the John Hancock Center
the firm received worldwide recogni- was completed, it held the
Corporate Modernism
record for being the tallest
tion for its cutting-edge corporate
design of the Lever House in New building in the world outside
New York City. Structural engi-
York. The firms research and com-
neer Fazul
missions span the fields of archi- Kahns 100
tecture, product design, urban stories are
planning, infrastructural planning, made pos-
and structural engineering, sible by an
innovative
stressing teamwork under the
technique
SOM name. Famous for their
of using X-
inventive design and structural shaped
Other Important Works
research, braces to
SOMs archi- Lever House, 1952, Wachovia Financial support
tects and de- New York Center, 1984, Miami the build-
signers are Air Force Academy Time Warner Center, ings
Chapel, 195662, 20002004, New York height.
enowned Colorado Springs
San Francisco Interna-
for Haj Terminal, tional Airport, 2001
1972, Jeddah, Saudi Ben Gurion Airport
Arabia Terminal 3, 2004,
Tel Aviv
First Wisconsin Plaza,
1974, Madison Burj Dubai, 2004,
Dubai
Sears Tower, 197476,
Chicago Pearl River Tower,
Enerplex North 2006, Guangzhou
Building, 1982, Freedom Tower,
Princeton 2006, New York

1935 Born in Manchester
1961 Receives degree
from Manchester Univer-
466
sity; wins Yale scholarship
1967 Founds his own firm,
Foster + Partners
1979 Begins Hongkong
Corporate Modernism
and Shanghai Bank head-
quarters
1983 Wins RIBA Gold
Medal
1994 Wins AIA Gold Medal
1998 Awarded the Stirling
Prize for Imperial War
Museum, Duxford
1999 Wins the Pritzker Prize
2004 Awarded the Stirling
Prize for 30 St. Mary Axe
2007 Wins the Aga Khan
Award
30 St. Mary Axe,
19972004, London
Known as the Gherkin, 30
St. Mary Axe is Londons
first ecological tall building.
Its unique shape and trian-
gulated structural surface is
designed to resist wind,
while double glazing allows
for passive solar heating
and natural cooling. De-
signed to maximize the use
of natural light, the building
is fitted with sensors to min-
imize energy waste.
Architecture after 1945
Hongkong and Shanghai Bank
Headquarters, 197986, Hong Kong
Sir Norman Foster The Hongkong and Shanghai Bank building sig-
nificantly revolutionized the tall building typol-
1935, Manchester ogy. Constructed from five structural modules
 Pioneers new materials, structural and environmental controls, and con- that were prefabricated in Glasgow, UK, the
struction technologies  Projects are often characterized by the extensive building was designed to allow for flexibility in its
use of glass  Emphasizes constructability, materiality, and an adherence internal configuration. With structure and service
to time and budget constraints  Forgoes historical conventions
cores pushed to the periphery, the deep, open
floor plates and a 10-story atrium are naturally lit
by a mirrored central sun-scoop. Although all of
The architecture practice of Sir Norman Foster is renowned the buildings technology fulfills functional
for its pursuit of and Modernist belief in technological inno- requirements, Foster also allowed the structural
elements of the building to be the primary motifs
vation. One of the most famous contemporary architecture
467
of its aesthetics, as well as its organizationpar-
practices in the world, Foster + Partners often works closely ticularly the V-shaped suspension trusses on the
with engineers and has designed a vast number of large- exterior, which are a prominent symbol of the
scale, institutional, and infrastructural buildings around the building and that also form double-height
Corporate Modernism
world that are characterized by their use of glass, stainless spaces inside. This relationship between aes-
thetics and technology makes the Hongkong
steel, and exposed and aestheticized
and Shanghai Bank one of the icons of High
structures, often in iconic and Tech architecture.
metaphoric forms. Since the 1970s,
the firm has been internationally Reichstag Dome, 199299, Berlin
recognized for its environmentally Fosters glass dome on top of the existing Neo-
classical Reichstag building was conceived as a
sustainable designs, which make
visual metaphor for the transparency and open-
use of natural daylight and pas- ness of the newly unified German government. In
sive climate-control strategies, addition to serving as the primary attraction for
thus revolutionizing the ty- visitors to the German parliament, with a spiral
pology of tall ramp providing panoramic views of the city, the
buildings in interior cone of the dome provides reflected day-
light to the chambers below, with an automated
this a em- sunshade to reduce heat gain during the warmer
bracing summer months.
Other Important Works by Foster
Willis Faber & Dumas Chep Lap Kok
Headquarters, Airport, 199297,
197175, Ipswich, UK Hong Kong
Sainsbury Center for The Great Court
Visual Arts, 197478, at the British Museum,
Norwich, UK 19942000, London
Canary Wharf Masdar Initiative
Underground Station, Master Plan, 2007,
199199, London Abu Dhabi
Sir Norman Foster
 Frank Gehry
1929, Toronto
I Rejects both the restraints of Modernism and the historical reference of
Postmodernism I Drew attention to the Los Angeles architecture scene in the
1980s and 90s, which also included Morphosis and Eric Owen Moss I First
architect to use digital technology to fabricate previously unrealizable forms

1929 Born in Toronto With his innovative use of materials and expressive, rec-
1954 Graduates from ognizable forms, Canadian-born Frank Gehry is the most
University of Southern
California School of popularly celebrated contemporary American architect.
486

487
Architecture Gehrys early work was inspired by the fast pace and arti-
1962 Opens Frank O. ficiality of Los Angeles, the city in which he has always
Gehry & Associates in Los been based. He assembled ordinary materials such as ply-

Deconstructivism
Deconstructivism

Angeles
196973 Develops the
Easy Edges cardboard
furniture line
198591 Collaborates
with Claes Oldenburg and
Coosje van Bruggen on
Chiat/Day building in
Venice, California
1989 Awarded the Pritzker
Prize
2001 Exhibition of his
work at the Guggenheim
Museum, New York
Vitra Design Museum,
198789, Weil am Rhein
The white stucco and zinc
cladding of the Vitra De-
sign Museum blurs distinc-
tions between horizontal
and vertical planes, as well
as interior and exterior
spaces. Unlike Gehrys ear-
lier work, this building is
no longer an assemblage
of parts, but instead a uni-
fied, sculptural whole that
bends into and moves out
of itself.
Architecture after 1945
wood, chain-link fence, and corrugated metal to create
Cubist-inspired buildings, including many houses that are
often associated with the Deconstructivist movement. As
he moved on to larger projects, his buildings became
increasingly curvilinear. His later works incorporate De- Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, 199197,
constructivist elements with flowing lines. Gehrys firm Bilbao
pioneered the use of software from the aerospace in- Clad in titanium, the Guggenheim Bilbao is a
dustry for the design and fabrication of his buildings, culmination of Gehrys form-making and techno-
logical pursuits. The building is both a work of
many of which employ high-tech materials. Although his
sculpture and of urbanism. It was carefully de-
works have been associated with a variety of movements,
signed to integrate with the surrounding urban
he has managed to create a distinguished personal fabric, including the neighboring bridge. The
museum supported F. L. Wrights concept of the
first Guggenheim in New York, in which the ar-
chitecture is as dazzling as the art within.
Other Works by Gehry Nationale Neder-
landen Building,
Gehry House, 199296, Prague
197778, Santa
Monica Also known as Fred
and Ginger, a name
Walt Disney Concert
referencing the dance-
Hall, 19882003, Los
Angeles like nature of the two
forms, this building
Weisman Museum, adopts the regularity
199093, Minneapolis
of its historic surround-
Gehry Tower, 2001, ings to Gehrys trade-
Hanover, Germany mark curves.
Frank Gehry

1950 Born in Baghdad
1972 Moves to London
after studying mathemat-
ics at the American Univer-
490
sity in Beirut
1977 Graduates from the
Architectural Association
Deconstructivism
in London
197787 Collaborates with landscapes in the pursuit of a visionary aesthetic. Her
Rem Koolhaas and Elia
Zenghelis at the Office of
Metropolitan Architecture
in London
1980 Establishes her own
firm in London
1988 Participates in De-
constructivist Architecture
Exhibition in New York
2004 Awarded the
Pritzker Prize
Zaha Hadid
1950, Baghdad
I Works in diverse mediums including furniture and interiors I First female
architect to receive the Pritzker Prize I Interested in theory, teaching, and
practice I Associated with the Deconstructivist movement I Unconven-
tional and visionary use of shape and form
Zaha Hadid was the first female recipient of the Pritzker
Prize. She uses strong, arched shapes that appear to
stretch the limits of their materials. Hadids work encom-
491
passes all fields of design, ranging from urban planning to Vitra Fire Station, 1993, from the front, but reveals its in- walls that bend and break in
products, interiors, and furniture. Her work experiments Weil-am-Rhein
teriors from a perpendicular accordance with their structural
with new spatial concepts, intensifying existing urban
Deconstructivism
One of Hadids first infra- viewpoint. Constructed of ex- functions. The building is now
structural projects, the Vitra Fire posed, reinforced concrete, it used as a showcase for designer
buildings designs make use of multiple perspective Station appears impenetrable uses sharp edges and layered chairs.
points that at times seem confusing, but the overall effect
absorbs viewers and the surrounding environment,
uniting both through her Modernist designs. Her early
work makes use of asymmetrical sharp angles; tiered, flat-
planed levels; and seemingly hermetic forms that create
new and unexpected spaces and angles. In designing
her buildings and plans, Hadid combines prelimi-
nary sketches and applies computer design pro-
grams to unite glass and metals,
LFone Pavilion, 1999, Weil-am-Rhein, Phaeno Science Center,
Germany interior, 2005, Wolfsburg,
A fluid yet geometrical extension of a net- Germany
work of surrounding paths, this cement Within the Phaeno Science
structure is an amalgamation of Center a craterlike interior
organic and inorganic solid creates diagonal sectional
planes, blunt edges, and views to the different levels of
Phaeno Science Center, curiosity and discovery in its
tiered levels. the exhibition space, while pro-
exterior, 2005, Wolfsburg, visitors. The bulk of the building truding volumes allow for di-
Germany is elevated on stilts, creating a verse functions. The structural
Allowing for maximum trans- public space for visitors. As with ground supports also provide
parency and porosity at ground her other buildings, Hadid con- space for both cultural func-
level, the science center ap- structed an intricate network of tions associated with the sci-
pears as a mysterious, strange pedestrian and vehicular paths ence center and commercial
object. The design generates throughout the structure. functions.
Zaha Hadid
 Rem Koolhaas
1944, Rotterdam
I Philosopher, writer, and architect I Analytical, intellectual approach to
design and urban experience I Dramatic, innovative use of trajectory
I Interested in the link between urbanity and social practice I His work
gives radical new forms to existing materials

1944 Born in Rotterdam, Born in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, Rem Koolhaas spent
the Netherlands four years of his youth in Indonesia, where his father
1966 Works as a reporter
for the Haagse Post served as a cultural director. He first gained international
496

497
1968 Begins studying at recognition when he published Delirious New York, a book
Architectural Association on architectural theory. Koolhaass work searches for a
School of Architecture in link between technology and humanity. He uses an

New Directions
New Directions

London
1972 Studies at Cornell
University in New York
1975 Cofounds the Office
for Metropolitan Archi-
tecture (OMA) in London
1978 Publishes Delirious
New York
1995 Publishes S, M, L, XL
with Bruce Mau
1997 Cofounds archi-
tectural think tank AMO
2000 Awarded the Pritzker
Prize
Seattle Public Library,
2004
A structural steel and glass
skin unifies eight horizon-
tal platforms that are
connected by a series of
elevators and escalators.
These levels, all of diffe-
rent opacities, densities,
sizes, and shapes, allow for
versatile uses of space. The
sloping glass ceilings and
walls create unusual
lighting and views of the
urban surroundings.
Architecture after 1945
intelligent, analytic approach, and is renowned for his in-
CCTV Headquar- top in a cantilevered Other Works by Koolhaas
novative and radical use of trajectory in his designs. He ters, design, Beijing penthouse. A new icon
utilizes materials in a sculptural way, often elongating or of the Beijing skyline, Netherlands Dance Casa da Msica,
A truly three-dimen-
flattening shapes and making rigid materials appear sional experience, the the structure is a single Theater, 1988, 200105, Porto
The Hague, the
malleable. His designs draw from an eclectic mix of two gigantic towers of interconnected loop, Royal Dutch Embassy,
Netherlands 2003, Berlin
sources, including elements of Classicism and Moder- Koolhaass design for symbolically contai-
the CCTV Headquarters ning all the depart- Second Stage Seoul National
nism, Formalism and Deconstructivism, and transform Theater, 1999, New
rise from a common ments that make University Museum of
these ideas into inventive and new forms. Today he is one York Art, 2005
platform and join at the broadcasting possible.
of the worlds most sought-after architects, known for
both his risk taking and his interest in the social and phi- Educatorium, 1997,
losophical elements of the urban experience. Utrecht University,
the Netherlands
Two dramatic planes
fold and interlock to
create a single tra-
jectory that makes the
concrete curves ap-
pear malleable. Sloped
ceilings and densely
packed I-beams gener-
ate a series of smaller
spaces within large
rooms. Cement and
glass walls are used
side by side to allow
for both privacy and
views.
Rem Koolhaas

1992 Zappi research proj-
ect pioneers glass as a
structural element
500
1995 First use of the term
Blobitecture by architect
Greg Lynn
1997 Construction of
New Directions
Gehrys Guggenheim
Museum Bilbao and the
rise of sculptural architec-
ture
2001 Karel Vollers pub-
lishes Twist & Build
2002 Development of
Liquid Designed Buildings
and complex 3-D design
programs
NIO Architecten: Bus Sta-
tion at Spaarne Hospital, 2003,
Hoofddorp, the Netherlands
The bus station at Spaarne Hos-
Architecture after 1945
Blobs
1992Present
I Digital modeling software creates infinite design possibilities I Archi-
tects are able to fast-track the design process I Designs respond with
greater sensitivity to organic shapes in nature I A new expressive language
for movement and motion that responds to human interaction and scale
First coined in 1995, the term Blobs, or Blobitecture, is used
to refer to amoeboid, fluid designs that are created using
digital modeling software. By manipulating the algo-
rithms of the modeling program, architects are able to
create new, previously unthinkable shapes and forms and
streamline the design-to-production process. The
innovations in technology such as computer programs,
industrial adhesives, and connectors can produce infinite Lars Spuybroek: Fresh H2O terior is equipped with multiple Other Works
free-form and sculptural designs that can be made by Expo Water Pavilion, 1997, motion sensors that detect vis-
spraying mortar over malleable reinforcing mesh. Cor- Neeltje Jans, the Netherlands itor movement and respond Experience Music Project,
by Frank Gehry, 2000, Seattle
ners and angular beams give way to curvaceous shapes A sensual and interactive struc- with light, sound, and visual
that draw their inspiration from nature. Blobs are sculp- ture, the Fresh H2O Expo Water projections that ripple The Sage Gateshead, 2004,
by Foster + Partners, Gateshead
tural, protoplasmic structures that completely redefine Pavilion is regarded as the first throughout the building. This
Philological Library, Free
full Blob building. No horizon-
the language and possibilities of architectural design. creates a truly interactive envi- University, by Foster + Partners,
tals or verticals exist within the
ronment that encourages the 2005, Berlin
fluid, curvaceous form, and the
sculptural geometry is in con- audience to realize their scale Zote Tarasy, by Jerde Partner-
stant variation and flux. The in- and relationship to the design. ship, 2007, Warsaw
Foreign Office Architects
Ltd.: Yokohama Port
Terminal, 2002, Yokohama
A dynamic wavelike structure,
the Yokohama Port Terminal
creates a branch between
urban and aquatic space. The
design challenges previous lin-
ear structures by using looped
and continuous throughways,
sculptural forms, and a reduced
pital is a long, fluid, and styrene foam with a polyester color palate that encourages
graceful design that makes in- skin, the design forms a sculp- fluidity and movement while
novative use of negative space. tural roundabout that allows a maintaining multifunctional
Composed of factory-cut poly- free flow of activity. and differentiated spaces.
Blobs
D e l i u s b o o k pack a g e r s www.delius-books.de

A rchi t ec t u r e

Content Baroque 15501790

Topics include: Bernini, Borromini, Mansart, Louis Le Vau,
Castles, Bohemian, Iberian, Islamic, Ottoman,
Pre- and Early History 10,000 BCE300 BCE Rococo
Topics include: Prehistoric Architecture, Egypt, Spotlight: Versailles
Mesopotamia and Persia, Minoan and Mycenaean Innovations: Concave and Convex facades
Building Techniques: Megaliths Around the World: Japan, Latin America

Antiquity and Early Christianity 600 BCE600 CE Neoclassicism 16401850
Topics include: Greek, Roman, Byzantine Topics include: Wren, Nash, Schinkel, Latrobe, Jefferson
Spotlight: The Parthenon and the Colosseum Spotlight: The US Capitol
Innovations: The Classical Orders Innovations: The Rebirth of the orders
Around the Wold: India, Early Buddhism, China, the Americas
19th Century
Romanesque 7901140 Topics include: Greek Revival, Neo-Renaissance, Gothic
Topics include: Carolingian Renaissance, Ottonian, Revival, Egyptian Revival, Exoticism, the
German, Cluny, Norman, Moorish Haussmannization of Paris, Second Empire...
Spotlight: Monasteries Spotlight: Louvre
Innovations: The Vault Innovations: Industrial Architecture
Around the World: East Asian, Early Mosques, Pueblos
20th Century - before 1945
Gothic 11401520 Topics include: Sullivan, Flank Lloyd Wright, Art Nouveau,
Topics include: French and British styles, German, Modernism, Walter Gropius, Le Courbusier,
Bohemian, Spanish, Italian, Fortifications Social Housing Estates, Totalitarian Architecture
Spotlight: Westminster Abbey Spotlight: Steel Frames
Innovations: Gothic height and divisions
Around the World: Southeast Asia and Ethiopia Architecture after 1945
Topics include: Mies van der Rohe, Louis Kahn, Eero Saarinen,
Renaissance 14201620 Oscar Niemeyer, Siza, SOM, Pei, Norman Foster,
Topics include: Brunelleschi, Alberi, Michelangelo, High Tech Architecture, the New York Five,
Palladio, France, Germany, Elizabethan Theoretical Urban Utopias, Gehry, Hadid,
Spotlight: St. Peters Basilica Koolhaas, Blobitecture...
Innovations: The Dome of Florence Cathedral Spotlight: Sydney Opera House and the Seagram Building
Around the World: India, East Asia Innovations: Complex Curvature