CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

PART- A: QUESTION AND ANSWERS

Question1. Explain in detail different stages of data processing?

Answer - Much of data management is essentially about extracting useful information from
data. To do this, data must go through a data mining process to be able to get meaning out of it.

What is Data Processing?

Data processing is simply the conversion of raw data to meaningful information through a
process. Data is manipulated to produce results that lead to a resolution of a problem or
improvement of an existing situation. Similar to a production process, it follows a cycle where
inputs (raw data) are fed to a process (computer systems, software, etc.) to produce output
(information and insights).

Various stages of the Data Processing Cycle

These deal with collection of data, choosing the processing methods, practicing data
management best practices, making use of processed data for the desired purpose. The steps
include:
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a. Data Collection: This is the first step which will provide the data for the input.
Collecting data is a hard work in its own but is most essential on which the results depend.
The quality of input will determine the quality of output. This data collection can be done in
various ways by primary or secondary sources. This data may include census data, GDP or
other monetary figures, data about number of industries, profit of a company etc. Depending
upon the data requirement its source must be identified from which data will be collected.
b. Preparation/ Sieving: Some people consider this as a part of processing but does not
involve any processing. Preparation includes sorting and filtering of data which will finally
be used as input. This stage required you to remove the extra or unusable data to make
processing faster and better. This is a broad step in reducing the quantity of data to yield
better result.
c. Input: This is feeding of raw and sieved data for purpose of processing. If input is not
done properly or done wrong then the result will be adversely effected as software follow the
rule of Garbage in garbage out. Utmost care should be taken to provide right data.
d. Processing: This is the step where data is processed by mechanical or automated means.
The processed data is one which gives information to the user and can be put to use. The raw
data cannot be understood and thus needs processing which is done in this step. Processing of
data may take time depending on the complexity of the data and the volume of data which is
provided as input. The step of preparation mentioned above helps in making this process
faster.
e. Output/ Result This is the last step of data processing cycle as the processed data is
delivered in form of information/results in this step. Once the result or output is received it
may further be processed or interpreted by the user or software for further value addition.
This output can also be used directly in presentations or the records. This output may even be
saved as be used as a input for further data processing which then becomes a part of cycle
which is being discussed. If this data is not used as input then this complete process cannot be
considered as cycle and will remain to be a onetime activity of data processing. For using this
data as input it must be stored or simultaneously be available for further processing.

All these steps or stages have a particular sequence which must be followed if processing is
done manually as the automatic processing have inbuilt algorithms with pre-defined steps. In

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automatic processing the chances of error are drastically reduced but this happens only when
the input is a correct data or data set.

Question 2: Explain in brief the measures of Central tendency?

Answer: A measure of central tendency is a single value that attempts to describe a set of data
by identifying the central position within that set of data. As such, measures of central tendency
are sometimes called measures of central location. They are also classed as summary statistics.
The mean (often called the average) is most likely the measure of central tendency that you are
most familiar with, but there are others, such as the median and the mode.

The mean, median and mode are all valid measures of central tendency, but under different
conditions, some measures of central tendency become more appropriate to use than others. In
the following sections, we will look at the mean, mode and median, and learn how to calculate
them and under what conditions they are most appropriate to be used.

Mean (Arithmetic):

The mean (or average) is the most popular and well known measure of
central tendency. It can be used with both discrete and continuous data,
although its use is most often with continuous data (see our Types of
Variable guide for data types). The mean is equal to the sum of all the
values in the data set divided by the number of values in the data set. So, if
we have n values in a data set and they have values x 1, x2, ..., xn, the
sample mean, usually denoted by (pronounced x bar), is:

This formula is usually written in a slightly different manner using the Greek capitol letter, ,
pronounced "sigma", which means "sum of...":

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You may have noticed that the above formula refers to the sample mean. So, why have we
called it a sample mean? This is because, in statistics, samples and populations have very
different meanings and these differences are very important, even if, in the case of the mean,
they are calculated in the same way. To acknowledge that we are calculating the population
mean and not the sample mean, we use the Greek lower case letter "mu", denoted as :

The mean is essentially a model of your data set. It is the value that is most common. You will
notice, however, that the mean is not often one of the actual values that you have observed in
your data set. However, one of its important properties is that it minimizes error in the
prediction of any one value in your data set. That is, it is the value that produces the lowest
amount of error from all other values in the data set.

An important property of the mean is that it includes every value in your data set as part of the
calculation. In addition, the mean is the only measure of central tendency where the sum of the
deviations of each value from the mean is always zero.

Median

The median is the middle score for a set of data that has been arranged in order of magnitude.
The median is less affected by outliers and skewed data. In order to calculate the median,
suppose we have the data below:

65 55 89 56 35 14 56 55 87 45 92

We first need to rearrange that data into order of magnitude (smallest first):

14 35 45 55 55 56 56 65 87 89 92

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Our median mark is the middle mark - in this case, 56 (highlighted in bold). It is the middle
mark because there are 5 scores before it and 5 scores after it. This works fine when you have
an odd number of scores, but what happens when you have an even number of scores? What if
you had only 10 scores? Well, you simply have to take the middle two scores and average the
result. So, if we look at the example below:

65 55 89 56 35 14 56 55 87 45

We again rearrange that data into order of magnitude (smallest first):

14 35 45 55 55 56 56 65 87 89

Only now we have to take the 5th and 6th score in our data set and average them to get a
median of 55.5.

Mode

The mode is the most frequent score in our data set. On a histogram it represents the highest bar
in a bar chart or histogram. You can, therefore, sometimes consider the mode as being the most
popular option. An example of a mode is presented below:

Question 3: Explain different methods of determining correlation?

Answer: We shall consider the following most commonly used methods. (1) Scatter Plot (2)
Karl Pearsons coefficient of correlation (3) Spearmans Rank-correlation coefficient.

1. Scatter Plot (Scatter diagram or dot diagram): In this method the values of the
two variables are plotted on a graph paper. One is taken along the horizontal (x-axis) and the
other along the vertical (y-axis). By plotting the data, we get points (dots) on the graph which
are generally scattered and hence the name Scatter Plot.

i) If all points lie on a rising straight line the correlation is perfectly positive and r = +1 (see
fig.1)

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 ii) If all points lie on a falling straight line the correlation is
perfectly negative and r = -1 (see fig.2)

iii) If the points lie in narrow strip, rising upwards, the correlation is
high degree of positive (see fig.3)

iv) If the points lie in a narrow strip, falling downwards, the

correlation is high degree of negative (see fig.4)

v) If the points are spread widely over a broad strip, rising upwards,
the correlation is low degree positive (see fig.5)

vi)If the points are spread widely over a broad strip, falling
downward, the correlation is low degree negative (see fig.6)

vii) If the points are spread (scattered) without any specific

pattern, the correlation is absent. I.e. r = 0. (See fig.7)

Though this method is simple and is a rough idea about the

existence and the degree of correlation, it is not reliable. As it is not
a mathematical method, it cannot measure the degree of correlation.

2.
Karl Pearsons coefficient of correlation: Karl Pearsons Coefficient of
Correlation is widely used mathematical method wherein the numerical expression is used to
calculate the degree and direction of the relationship between linear related variables.

Pearsons method, popularly known as a Pearsonian Coefficient of Correlation, is the most

extensively used quantitative methods in practice. The coefficient of correlation is denoted
by r.

If the relationship between two variables X and Y is to be ascertained, then the following
formula is used:

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 Properties of Coefficient of Correlation

The value of the coefficient of correlation (r) always lies between 1. Such as:
r=+1, perfect positive correlation
r=-1, perfect negative correlation
r=0, no correlation

The coefficient of correlation is independent of the origin and scale. By origin, it means
subtracting any non-zero constant from the given value of X and Y the value of r remains
unchanged. By scale it means, there is no effect on the value of r if the value of X and Y is
divided or multiplied by any constant.

The coefficient of correlation is a geometric mean of two regression

coefficient. Symbolically it is represented as:

The coefficient of correlation is zero when the variables X and Y are independent.
But, however, the converse is not true.

3. Spearmans Rank Correlation Coefficient is the non-parametric statistical measure

used to study the strength of association between the two ranked variables. This method is
applied to the ordinal set of numbers, which can be arranged in order, i.e. one after the other so
that ranks can be given to each.

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In the rank correlation coefficient method, the ranks are given to each individual on the basis of
its quality or quantity, such as ranking starts from position 1st and goes till Nth position for the
one ranked last in the group.

The formula to calculate the rank correlation coefficient is:

Where, R = Rank coefficient of correlation

D = Difference of ranks

N = Number of Observations

The value of R lies between 1 such as:

R =+1, there is a complete agreement in the order of ranks and move in the same direction.
R=-1, there is a complete agreement in the order of ranks, but are in opposite directions.
R =0, there is no association in the ranks.

Question 4: Distinguish between Regression & Correlation tools of analysis?

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Answer: Correlation and Regression are the two analysis based on multivariate distribution. A
multivariate distribution is described as a distribution of multiple variables. Correlation is
described as the analysis which lets us know the association or the absence of the relationship
between two variables x and y. On the other end, Regression analysis, predicts the value of
the dependent variable based on the known value of the independent variable, assuming that
average mathematical relationship between two or more variables.

Key Differences between Correlation and Regression

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The points given below, explains the difference between correlation and regression in detail:

1. A statistical measure which determines the co-relationship or association of two

quantities is known as Correlation. Regression describes how an independent variable is
numerically related to the dependent variable.

2. Correlation is used to represent the linear relationship between two variables. On the
contrary, regression is used to fit the best line and estimate one variable on the basis of
another variable.

3. In correlation, there is no difference between dependent and independent variables i.e.

correlation between x and y is similar to y and x. Conversely, the regression of y on x is
different from x on y.

4. Correlation indicates the strength of association between variables. As opposed to,

regression reflects the impact of the unit change in the independent variable on the
dependent variable.

5. Correlation aims at finding a numerical value that expresses the relationship between
variables. Unlike regression whose goal is to predict values of the random variable on
the basis of the values of fixed variable.

Question 5: Discuss the steps in testing Hypothesis?

Answer: The word hypothesis was originated from a Greek word hyposthenia whose actual
meaning is to suppose, a proposal. Thus hypothesis is defined as a supposition, assumption or
recognition that is made for the sake of dispute. It is an uncertain clarification/explanation for
the observation, phenomenon and any scientific research that are to be checked and experienced
for more information or a message or an opinion for the certain partial verification (Browein,
2008).

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PURPOSE

The purpose of conducting hypothesis is to give an opportunity to different industries,

universities, public laboratories as well as government agencies etc. to have a debate,
presentations and the recent advances made on various researches made by them.

EXPLANATION

As the hypothesis is the prediction of some scientific research and to know about some further
descriptions. Hypothesis doesnt means that it must be right because hypothesis result may be
right or wrong depending upon the research and wrong results are completely acceptable in
hypothesis. Good hypothesis depends upon the elements and testing of the research with
complete tools. It is a very important part of scientific method and is important component in
every discipline. Basically the hypothesis is done on known data and information.

ELEMENTS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS

A better hypothesis depends upon some factors which are;

Whether the hypothesis is based on the selective researched topics or not.

The hypothesis is well tested.

Does the hypothesis include dependent and independent variables?

STEPS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING

As the hypothesis is conducted to know whether the research is right or wrong and for that
testing step are conducted for approval or disapproval.

Stating the research question.

It is the first step in research problem in which the researcher recognizes the population interest,
related variables and defining the parameters.

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 Specify null and alternative hypothesis

The second step is specifying the type of hypothesis. The null hypothesis is used for the
population and alternative hypothesis is use in terms of direction in case of greater or less.

Calculate test statistics

Another step is to calculate the statistic view in analogous pattern by using the parameters of
null hypothesis.

Compute probability and rejection region

In the fourth step, the probability value is calculated which is examined as if the significant
value is more than the null hypothesis is not rejected and vice versa.
State conclusions

The final step is the conclusion in which descriptions are made. This step consists of two
statements; first statement is about the null and alternative hypothesis and second statement is
about the proposed research questions while determining the first statement.

Question 6: Explain different parametric tests in during hypothesis testing?

Answer: A parametric hypothesis test make assumptions about the underlying distribution of
the population from which the sample is being drawn, and which is being investigated. This is
typically that the population conforms to a normal distribution.

Parametric hypothesis tests include:

Chi Square Test

The Chi-Square 'Goodness of Fit' test is used to test whether a sample is drawn from a
population that conforms to a specified distribution.

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The hypothesis is:

H0 the sample conforms to the specified distribution

H1 the sample does not conform to the distribution

The test is illustrated by example. An organization has three categories of employees, 'A', 'B'
and 'C'. It collects the following data:

Category # Employees Days Sick

A 100 10
B 60 12
C 40 14
Total 200 36

The organization wants to test the hypothesis:

H0 the proportion of sickness is the same for each category of employees

H1 the proportion of sickness differs between categories

The first step is to form the table. The 'expected' column shows the results that would be
expected if the proportions were equal between categories ie. if the null hypothesis were true:

#
Days Expecte Chi-Square Days Expecte Chi-Square
Category Employee
Well d Contribution Sick d Contribution
s
A 100 90 82.0 0.78 10 18.0 3.56
B 60 48 49.2 0.03 12 10.8 0.13
C 40 26 32.8 1.41 14 7.2 6.42
Total 200 164 164 2.22 36 36 10.11
F Test

The F Test is used to compare the variances of two samples to test the hypothesis that the
samples are drawn from populations with different variances:

H0 the samples are drawn from populations with equal variances

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H1 the samples are drawn from populations with different variances

The F test is based on the ratio of the variances of the two samples:

1 2 3 4 5 Variance

Sample 8.7 9.8 12.2 12.9 9.5 3.327

A

Sample 23.8 21.5 18.3 24.3 22.9 5.788

B

This gives an F statistic:

One Sample t-Test

The One Sample t-Test is a hypothesis test used to test the mean of a small sample taken from
a population with a normal distribution against a specified value. The hypothesis is:

H0 the population mean equals a specified value

H1 the popular mean is [equal to/less than/greater than] a specified value

sample mean

0 specified value

S sample standard deviation

N sample size

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The critical value of the t statistic t0 can be found in t distribution tables, or the p-value can

be found using the Excel function:

z-Test

The z-test is a hypothesis test used to test the mean against a specified value. The z-test is
used where the standard deviation is known or the sample is large (greater than about 30). The
population must also conform to a normal distribution. The hypothesis is:

H0 the population mean equals a specified value

H1 the popular mean is [equal to/less than/greater than] a specified value

The test is:

where:

sample mean

0 specified value

S sample standard deviation

N sample size
The p-value can be obtained from Excel using the function:

one-tail test: = 1 - NORMSDIST(Z0)

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Question 7: Write short note on Chi-Square?

Answer: Chi-Square Test

The Chi-Square test is used to determine if there is a significant relationship between two
nominal (categorical) variables. The frequency of one nominal variable is compared with
different values of the second nominal variable. The data can be displayed in an R*C
contingency table, where R is the row and C is the column. For example, a researcher wants to
examine the relationship between gender (male vs. female) and empathy (high vs. low). The
chi-square test of independence can be used to examine this relationship. If the null hypothesis
is accepted there would be no relationship between gender and empathy. If the null hypotheses
is rejected the implication would be that there is a relationship between gender and empathy
(e.g. females tend to score higher on empathy and males tend to score lower on empathy).

How to calculate the chi-square statistic by hand. First we have to calculate the expected
value of the two nominal variables. We can calculate the expected value of the two nominal
variables by using this formula:

Where

= expected value

= Sum of the ith column

= Sum of the kth column

N = total number

c = number of columns

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Hypothesis:

Null hypothesis: Assumes that there is no association between the two variables.

Alternative hypothesis: Assumes that there is an association between the two varieties, t-test,
etc. If the calculated value of the Chi-Square test is greater than the table value, we will reject
the null hypothesis.

Question 8: Bring out the essentials of good project report?

Answer: Essential Characteristics or Features of a Good Report

Report provides factual information depending on which decisions are made. So everyone
should be taken to ensure that a report has all the essential qualities which turn it into a good
report. A good report must have the following qualities:

1. Precision

In a good report, the report writer is very clear about the exact and definite purpose of writing
the report. His investigation, analysis, recommendations and others are directed by this central
purpose. Precision of a report provides the unity to the report and makes it a valuable document
for best usage.

2. Accuracy of Facts

Information contained in a report must be based on accurate fact. Since decisions are taken on
the basis of report information, any inaccurate information or statistics will lead to wrong
decision. It will hamper to achieve the organizational goal.

3. Relevancy

The facts presented in a report should not be only accurate but also be relevant. Irrelevant facts
make a report confusing and likely to be misleading to make proper decision.

4. Reader-Orientation

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While drafting any report, it is necessary to keep in mind about the person who is going to read
it. That's why a good report is always reader oriented. Readers knowledge and level of
understanding should be considered by the writer of report. Well reader-oriented information
qualify a report to be a good one.

5. Simple Language

This is just another essential features of a good report. A good report is written in a simple
language avoiding vague and unclear words. The language of the report should not be
influenced by the writer's emotion or goal. The message of a good report should be self-
explanatory.

6. Conciseness

A good report should be concise but it does not mean that a report can never be long. Rather it
means that a good report or a business report is one that transmits maximum information with
minimum words. It avoids unnecessary detail and includes everything which are significant and
necessary to present proper information.

7. Grammatical Accuracy

A good report is free from errors. Any faulty construction of a sentence may make its meaning
different to the reader's mind. And sometimes it may become confusing or ambiguous.

8. Unbiased Recommendation

Recommendation on report usually makes effect on the reader mind. So if recommendations are
made at the end of a report, they must be impartial and objective. They should come as logical
conclusion for investigation and analysis.

9. Clarity

Clarity depends on proper arrangement of facts. A good report is absolutely clear. Reporter
should make his purpose clear, define his sources, state his findings and finally make necessary
recommendation. To be an effective communication through report, A report must be clear to
understand for making communication success.

10. Attractive Presentation

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Presentation of a report is also a factor which should be consider for a good report. A good
report provides a catchy and smart look and creates attention of the reader. Structure, content,
language, typing and presentation style of a good report should be attractive to make a clear
impression in the mind of its reader.

The inclusion of above factors, features or characteristics, make a good report to be effective
and fruitful. It also helps to achieve the report goal. A reporter, who is making the report, always
should be careful about those factors to make his report a good one.

Question 9: Explain different types of research report?

Answer: Research reports vary greatly in length and type. In each individual case, both the
length and the form are largely dictated by the problems at hand. For instance, business firms
prefer reports in the letter form, just one or two pages in length. Banks, insurance organizations
and financial institutions are generally fond of the short balance-sheet type of tabulation for
their annual reports to their customers and shareholders. Mathematicians prefer to write the
results of their investigations in the form of algebraic notations. Chemists report their results in
symbols and formulae. Students of literature usually write long reports presenting the critical
analysis of some writer or period or the like with a liberal use of quotations from the works of
the author under discussion. In the field of education and psychology, the favorite form is the
report on the results of experimentation accompanied by the detailed statistical tabulations.
Clinical psychologists and social pathologists frequently find it necessary to make use of the
case-history form.

Technical Report

In the technical report the main emphasis is onthhe methods employed, assumptions made in the
course of the study, the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations and
supporting data.

A general outline of a technical report can be as follows:

Summary of results: A brief review of the main findings just in two or three pages. Nature of the
study: Description of the general objectives of study, formulation of the problem in operational
terms, the working hypothesis, the type of analysis and data required, etc. Methods employed:

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Specific methods used in the study and their limitations. For instance, in sampling studies we
should give details of sample design viz., sample size, sample selection, etc. Data: Discussion of
data collected their sources, characteristics and limitations. If secondary data are used, their
suitability to the problem at hand be fully assessed. In case of a survey, the manner in which
data were collected should be fully described. Analysis of data and presentation of findings: The
analysis of data and presentation of the findings of the study with supporting data in the form of
tables and charts be fully narrated. This, in fact, happens to be the main body of the report
usually extending over several chapters. Conclusions: A detailed summary of the findings and
the policy implications drawn from the results be explained. Bibliography: Bibliography of
various sources consulted be prepared and attached. Technical appendices: Appendices be given
for all technical matters relating to questionnaire, mathematical derivations, elaboration on
particular technique of analysis and the like ones. Index: Index must be prepared and be given
invariably in the report at the end.

Popular Report

The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and attractiveness. The
simplification should be sought through clear writing, minimization of technical, particularly
mathematical, details and liberal use of charts and diagrams. Attractive layout along with large
print, many subheadings, even an occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic
feature of the popular report. Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects
and policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular report.

The findings and their implications: Emphasis in the report is given on the findings of most
practical interest and on the implications of these findings. Recommendations for action:
Recommendations for action on the basis of the findings of the study is made in this section of
the report. Objective of the study: A general review of how the problem arise is presented along
with the specific objectives of the project under study. Methods employed: A brief and non-
technical description of the methods and techniques used, including a short review of the data
on which the study is based, is given in this part of the report. Results:

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Question 10: Write short note on MLA and CMS citation method?

Answer: Citation styles differ mostly in the location, order, and syntax of information about
references. The number and diversity of citation styles reflect different priorities with respect to
concision, readability, dates, authors, publications, and, of course, style.

There are also two major divisions within most citation styles: documentary-note style and
parenthetical style. Documentary-note style is the standard form of documenting sources. It
involves using either footnotes or endnotes, so that information about your sources is readily
available to your readers but does not interfere with their reading of your work. This is
generally considered an abbreviated form of citation, and it does not require footnotes or
endnotes, although it does require the equivalent of a "Works Cited" page at the end of the
paper. It is easier to write, but might interfere with how smoothly your work reads.

APA (American Psychological Association) Style originated in 1929, when a group of

psychologists, anthropologists, and business managers convened and sought to establish a
simple set of procedures, or style rules, that would codify the many components of scientific
writing to increase the ease of reading comprehension.

As with other editorial styles, APA Style consists of rules or guidelines that a publisher observes
to ensure clear and consistent presentation of written material. It concerns uniform use of such
elements as selection of headings, tone, and length, punctuation and abbreviations, presentation
of numbers and statistics, construction of tables and figures, citation of references, and many
other elements that are a part of a manuscript. (Source: Official APA website)

In-text Citation with APA

The APA style calls for three kinds of information to be included in in-text citations.
The author's last name and the work's date of publication must always appear, and these

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items must match exactly the corresponding entry in the references list. The third kind of
information, the page number, appears only in a citation to a direct quotation.

MLA (Modern Language Association)style for documentation is widely used in the

humanities, especially in writing on language and literature. MLA style features brief
parenthetical citations in the text keyed to an alphabetical list of works cited that appears at the
end of the work.

Core Elements

Each entry in the list of works cited is composed of facts common to most worksthe MLA
core elements. They are assembled in a specific order.

Containers

The concept of containers is crucial to MLA style. When the source being documented forms
part of a larger whole, the larger whole can be thought of as a container that holds the source.
For example, a short story may be contained in an anthology. The short story is the source, and
the anthology is the container.

Question 11: Explain different ethical norms in Research?

Answer: Principle 1. NON-HARMFUL PROCEDURES: The investigator should use no

research procedure that may harm the child either physically or psychologically. The
investigator is also obligated at all times to use the least stressful research procedure whenever
possible. Psychological harm in particular instances may be difficult to define; nevertheless, its
definition and means for reducing or eliminating it remain the responsibility of the investigator.
When the investigator is in doubt about the possible harmful effects of the research procedures,
consultation should be sought from others.

Principle2. INFORMED CONSENT: Before seeking consent or assent from the child, the
investigator should inform the child of all features of the research that may affect his or her
willingness to participate and should answer the child's questions in terms appropriate to the

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child's comprehension. The investigator should respect the child's freedom to choose to
participate in the research or not by giving the child the opportunity to give or not give assent to
participation as well as to choose to discontinue participation at any time. Assent means that the
child shows some form of agreement to participate without necessarily comprehending the full
significance of the research necessary to give informed consent.

Principle3. PARENTAL CONSENT: The informed consent of parents, legal guardians or

those who act in loco parentis (e.g., teachers, superintendents of institutions) similarly should be
obtained, preferably in writing. Informed consent requires that parents or other responsible
adults be informed of all the features of the research that may affect their willingness to allow
the child to participate. This information should include the profession and institution affiliation
of the investigator.

Principle4. ADDITIONAL CONSENT: The informed consent of any persons, such as

schoolteachers for example, whose interaction with the child is the subject of the study should
also be obtained. As with the child and parents or guardians informed consent requires that the
persons interacting with the child during the study be informed of all features of the research
which may affect their willingness to participate. All questions posed by such persons should be
answered and the persons should be free to choose to participate or not, and to discontinue
participation at any time.

Principle5. INCENTIVES: Incentives to participate in a research project must be fair and must
not unduly exceed the range of incentives that the child normally experiences. Whatever
incentives are used, the investigator should always keep in mind that the greater the possible
effects of the investigation on the child, the greater is the obligation to protect the child's
welfare and freedom.

Principle6. DECEPTION: Although full disclosure of information during the procedure of

obtaining consent is the ethical ideal, a particular study may necessitate withholding certain
information or deception. Whenever withholding information or deception is judged to be
essential to the conduct of the study, the investigator should satisfy research colleagues that
such judgment is correct.

Principle7. ANONYMITY: To gain access to institutional records, the investigator should

obtain permission from responsible authorities in charge of records. Anonymity of the

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information should be preserved and no information used other than that for which permission
was obtained.

Principle8. MUTUAL RESPONSIBILITIES: From the beginning of each research

investigation, there should be clear agreement between the investigator and the parents,
guardians or those who act in loco parentis, and the child, when appropriate, that defines the
responsibilities of each. The investigator has the obligation to honor all promises and
commitments of the agreement.

Question 12: Write a note on Plagiarism?

Answer: Plagiarism is the presentation of another person's work as if it were your own. It is a
serious academic offence and, if proved, could result in disqualification. The word "plagiarism"
comes from the Latin plagiaries, a kidnapper. In academic writing, plagiarism is considered
unethical and in academic essays it is penalized. If there is extensive plagiarism, an essay will
be awarded a mark of zero. Plagiarism can take many forms and ranges from the copying of a
short passage from another source, without indicating that it is a quotation from someone else,
to the failure to acknowledge the real source of an idea contained in your work. This includes
altering the order of words or sentences in a passage so that it does not appear to be a word-for-
word copy. Remember that the person who marks your assignment and/or dissertation has
probably read the same publications and journal articles as you have and would normally
recognize copied passages - and even altered passages - in your work. Very often it is easy to
spot copied or re-worked passages as the language and style does not match your own. It is
recognized that you are expected, throughout your course, to deal with other people's ideas and
to justify everything you say by referring to their work. However, you are also expected to use a
proper referencing system to do this and to acknowledge all sources of information. It is your
responsibility to ensure that there is no danger that your writing could be thought to involve a
deliberate attempt to deceive the reader into believing a borrowed or copied idea or passage is
your original work.

1. Copying whole passages, word-for word, with your own linking sentences.

2. Altering the shapes of sentences. Remember that plagiarism is a serious offence. Don't be
tempted. In many academic essays you will be expected to explain ideas, theories, evidence and

24
so on which have been written by other scholars: this will demonstrate that you understand a
body of knowledge.

In such cases you should prcis, paraphrase, or summaries: that is, express 2 the other scholar's
work in your own words, making sure you reference the other scholar's work properly. You can
also use quotations, as described above. Errors you should avoid are: Presenting someone else's
idea but not documenting it, so the idea seems to be yours. Presenting someone else's words
without documenting it, so they seem to be part of your writing. Quoting someone else's words -
perhaps even documenting them - but failing to signal they are a quotation by using quotation
marks or indentation. Self-plagiarism significant reuse of your own work submitted as
assignments in other modules (you cannot accrue marks more than once for the same material).
Note: It is not good enough to simply place the details of the work you are referring to in the
References section, you must acknowledge other people's work as soon as you refer to it in the
main body of your text, for example by the use of footnotes.

You can avoid unintentional plagiarism by following these two rules suggested by Rosen &
Behrens (1992):

1. Whenever you quote the exact words of others, place these words within quotation marks and
properly cite the source.

2. Whenever you paraphrase or summaries the ideas of others, do not use whole phrases, many
of the same words, or sentence structures similar to the original. You must identify the source of
the paraphrased or summarized material: do not assume that you are under no obligation to
credit your source if you simply change the wording of the original statement or alter the
sentence structure. The only exception to this rule is if the information is common knowledge

Question13: State the use of SPSS statistics for Data analysis and Reporting?

Answer: SPSS is a Windows based program that can be used to perform data entry and
analysis and to create tables and graphs. SPSS is capable of handling large amounts of data and
can perform all of the analyses covered in the text and much more. SPSS is commonly used in
the Social Sciences and in the business world, so familiarity with this program should serve you
well in the future. SPSS is updated often. This document was written around an earlier version,
but the differences should not cause any problems
25
Opening SPSS Depending on how the computer you are working on is structured, you can open
SPSS in one of two ways. 1. If there is an SPSS shortcut like this on the desktop, simply put the
cursor on it and double click the left mouse button. 2. Click the left mouse button on the button
on your screen, then put your cursor on Programs or All Programs and left click the mouse.
Select SPSS 17.0 for Windows by clicking the left mouse button. (For a while that started
calling the program PASW Statistics 17, but they seem to have given that up as a dumb idea
when everyone else calls it SPSS. The version number may change by the time you read this.)
Either approach will launch the program.

Data Collection and Organization

SPSS is often used as a data collection tool by researchers. The data entry screen in SPSS looks
much like any other spreadsheet software. You can enter variables and quantitative data and
save the file as a data file. Furthermore, you can organize your data in SPSS by assigning
properties to different variables. For example, you can designate a variable as a nominal
variable, and that information is stored in SPSS. The next time you access the data file, which
could be weeks, months or even years, you'll be able to see exactly how your data is organized.

Data Output

Once data is collected and entered into the data sheet in SPSS, you can create an output file
from the data. For example, you can create frequency distributions of your data to determine
whether your data set is normally distributed. The frequency distribution is displayed in an
output file. You can export items from the output file and place them into a research article
you're writing. Therefore, instead of recreating a table or graph, you can take the table or graph
directly from the data output file from SPSS.

Statistical Tests

The most obvious use for SPSS is to use the software to run statistical tests. SPSS has all of the
most widely used statistical tests built-in to the software. Therefore, you won't have to do any
mathematical equations by hand. Once you run a statistical test, all associated outputs are
displayed in the data output file. You can also transform your data by performing advanced
statistical transformations. This is especially useful for data that is not normally distributed.
26
 Part B. Introduction to Core Topic

Issues of Coaching Classes

Coaching, is a teaching, training or development process via which an individual is supported

while achieving a specific personal or professional result or goal. The individual receiving
coaching may be referred to as the client or coaches. Occasionally, the term coaching may be
applied to an informal relationship between two individuals where one has greater experience
and expertise than the other and offers advice and guidance as the other goes through a
learning process. This form of coaching is similar to mentoring.

The structures, models and methodologies of coaching are numerous, and may be designed to
facilitate thinking or learning new behavior for personal growth or professional advancement.
There are also forms of coaching that help the coaches improve a physical skill, like in a sport
or performing art form. Some coaches use a style in which they ask questions and offer
opportunities that will challenge the coaches to find answers from within him/herself. This
facilitates the learner to discover answers and new ways of being based on their values,
preferences and unique perspective.

When coaching is aimed at facilitating psychological or emotional growth it should be

differentiated from therapeutic and counseling disciplines, since clients of coaching, in most
cases, are considered healthy (i.e. not sick). The purpose of the coaching is to help them move
forward in whatever way they want to move, not to 'cure' them. In addition the therapist or
counselor may work from a position of authoritative doubt, but cannot claim the position of
ignorance so vital for coaching, because of the assessment knowledge that underpins their
word.

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Origins
The first use of the term coaching to mean an instructor or trainer arose around 1830 in Oxford
University slang for a tutor who "carries" a student through an exam. Coaching thus has been
used in language to describe the process used to transport people from where they are, to
where they want to be. The first use of the term in relation to sports came in 1831.
Historically the evolution of coaching has been influenced by many other fields of study
including those of personal development, adult education, psychology (sports, clinical,
developmental, organizational, social and industrial) and other organizational or leadership
theories and practices. Since the mid-1990s, coaching has developed into a more independent
discipline and professional associations such as the Association for Coaching, The
International Coach Federation, and the European Coaching and Mentoring Council have
helped develop a set of training standards. Janet Harvey, president of the International Coach
Federation, was quoted in a New York Times article about the growing practice of Life
Coaching, in which she traces the development of coaching to the early 1970s Human Potential
Movement and credited the teachings of Werner Erhard's "EST Training," the popular self-
motivation workshops he designed and led in the '70s and early '80s.
The facilitative approach to coaching in sport was pioneered by Timothy Galway; before this,
sports coaching was (and often remains) solely a skills-based learning experience from a
master in the sport. Other contexts for coaching include executive coaching, life coaching,
emotional intelligence coaching and wealth coaching.

Applications
There are many definitions of coaching, mentoring and various styles of management and
training.
What follows are more succinct definitions of the various forms of helping. However, there
may be overlap between many of these types of coaching activities
Managing is making sure people do what they know how to do. Training is teaching people to
do what they dont know how to do. Mentoring is showing people how the people who are
really good at doing something do it. Counseling is helping people come to terms with issues
they are facing. Coaching is none of these it is helping to identify the skills and capabilities
that are within the person, and enabling them to use them to the best of their ability.
Professional coaching uses a range of communication skills (such as targeted restatements,
listening, questioning, clarifying etc.) to help clients shift their perspectives and thereby
discover different solutions to achieve their goals. These skills are used when coaching clients
in any field. In this sense, coaching is a form of 'meta-profession' that can apply to supporting
clients in any human endeavor, ranging from their concerns in personal, professional, sport,
social.

28
REGULATIONS
Critics see life coaching as akin to psychotherapy but without restrictions, oversight,
regulation, or established ethical policies. Regulators have addressed some of these
concerns on a state- by-state basis. In 2009, the State of Tennessee issued a memorandum
emphasizing that life coaches may be subject to discipline if they perform activities
construable as personal, marital, or family counseling. Some other states have made no
formal statement but have legal statutes that broadly define mental-health practice.
Hawaii, for example, defines the practice of psychology as any effort aimed at behavior
change or to improve "interpersonal relationships, work and life adjustment, personal
effectiveness, behavioral health, [or] mental health. Although such states usually provide
some exclusions to licensure requirements (such as for ordained clergy), life coaches
usually fall under such statutes. More favorably to life coaches, in 2004 the Colorado
General Assembly specifically exempted trained life-coaches from licensure requirements
that apply to other mental and behavioral health professionals in that state.

Executive coaching
Executive coaches work their clients towards specific professional goals. These include
career transition, interpersonal and professional communication, performance management,
organizational effectiveness, managing career and personal changes, developing executive
presence, enhancing strategic thinking, dealing effectively with conflict, and building an
effective team within an organization. An industrial organizational psychologist is one
example of executive coaching.

Business coaching
Business coaching is a type of personal or human resource development. It provides
positive support, feedback & advice to an individual or group basis to improve their
personal effectiveness in the business setting. Business coaching includes executive
coaching, corporate coaching and leadership coaching.

The Professional Business Coach Alliance, The International Coach Federation, the
International Coaching Council and the Worldwide Association of Business Coaches
provide a membership-based association for business coaching professionals. These and
other organizations train professionals to offer business coaching to business owners.
According to a Market Data Report in 2007, an estimated 40,000 people in the US, work as
business or life coaches, and the $2.4 billion industry is growing at rate of 18% per year.

29
According to the National Post, business coaching is one of the fastest growing industries
in the world.

There are almost as many different ways of delivering business coaching as there are
business coaches. Some offer personal support and feedback, others combine a coaching
approach with practical and structured business planning and bring a disciplined
accountability to the relationship. Particularly in the small business market, business
coaching is as much about driving profit as it is about developing the person.

Personal coaching
Personal coaching is a process which is designed and defined in a relationship agreement
between a client and a coach. It is based on the client's expressed interests, goals and
objectives.

A professional coach may use inquiry, reflection, requests and discussion to help clients
identify personal and/or business and/or relationship goals, and develop action plans
intended to achieve those goals. The client takes action, and the coach may assist, but never
leads or does more than the client. Professional coaching is not counseling, therapy or
consulting. These different skill sets and approaches to change may be adjunct skills and
professions.

Conflict coaching
Conflict coaching may be used in an organizational context or in matrimonial and other
relationship matters. Like many other techniques of this nature, it is premised on the view
that conflict provides an opportunity to improve relationships, to create mutually
satisfactory solutions and attain other positive outcomes when differences arise between
and among people.

CHARTER 2
30
A) RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The process used to collect information and data for the purpose of making
business decisions. The methodology may include publication research,
interviews, surveys and other research techniques, and could include both present
and historical information.
Researchers also need to understand the assumptions underlying various techniques and
they need to know the criteria by which they can decide that certain techniques and
procedures will be applicable to certain problems and others will not. All this means that it
is necessary for the researcher to design his methodology for his problem as the same may
differ from problem to problem. For example, an architect, who designs a building, has to
consciously evaluate the basis of his decisions, i.e., he has to evaluate why and on what
basis he selects particular size, number and location of doors, windows and ventilators,
uses particular materials and not others and the like. Similarly, in research the scientist has
to expose the research decisions to evaluation before they are implemented. He has to
specify very clearly and precisely what decisions he selects and why he selects them so
that they can be evaluated by others also. From what has been stated above, we can say
that research methodology has many dimensions and research methods do constitute a part
of the research methodology. The scope of research methodology is wider than that of
research methods. Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the
research methods but also consider the logic behind the methods we use in the context of
our research study and explain why we are using a particular method or technique and why
we are not using others so that research results are capable of being evaluated either by the
researcher himself or by others. Why a research study has been undertaken, how the
research problem has been defined, in what way and why the hypothesis has been
formulated, what data have been collected and what particular method has been adopted,
why particular technique of analyzing data has been used and a host of similar other
questions are usually answered when we talk of research methodology concerning a
research problem or study.

B) TYPE OF RESEARCH:

Research can be classified in many different ways on the basis of the methodology of
research, the knowledge it creates, the user group, the research problem it investigates
etc.

31
Basic Research:
The research which is done for knowledge enhancement and does not have immediate
commercial potential. The research which is done for human welfare, animal welfare and plant
kingdom welfare. It is called basic, pure or fundamental research.

Applied Research:
Applied research is designed to solve practical problem of the modern world, rather than to
acquire knowledge for knowledge sake. The goal of applied research is to improve the human
condition. It focuses on analysis and solving social and real life problems.

Descriptive Research:
It explains the state of affairs which involves non controllable variables through survey and
fact finding. e.g.: frequency of shopping.

Case Study
Is an in-depth contextual analysis which helps to solve problems? The type
of research which I have undertaken is case study.

C) OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH:

a. To explore the scope of coaching classes

b. To explore issues of coaching classes faced by students
c. The negative effect on schools due to coaching classes

Hypothesis

a. Coaching classes is a mode of business.

b. Coaching classes have become a necessity.
c. Due to lack of proper attention in school coaching classes are gaining importance.

d. Due to competition parents are forcing childrens to enroll in coaching classes.

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DATA SOURCE

PRIMARY DATA

It refers to firsthand information which is collected to solve a specific problem. Primary data
is collected by interviewing respondents by building a questionnaire and getting required
response.

SECONDARY DATA

It refers to readily information available data from published or printed sources. It is normally
used in the case of academic research and to a certain extent in case of social research.

SAMPLE SIZE

Sample size determination is the act of choosing the number of observations or replicates to
include in a statistical sample. The sample size is an important feature of any empirical study
in which the goal is to make inferences about a population from a sample. The sample size of
my research is 50.

CHAPTER 3: ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

The data were collected through questionnaire. The collected data were not easily
understandable, so we like to analyze the collected data in a systematic manner and interpreted
with simple method.

The analysis and interpretation of the data involves the analyzing of the collected data and
interpretation it with pictorial representation such as bar charts, pie charts and others.

33
QUESTIONAIRE

What is your Occupation?

1. Based on the Responses 40.7% are students.

2. Others then that there are working Professionals & Doctors.

GENDER

Gender play vital role in purchase decisions. Gender classified on sex basis i.e. male and
female.

Majority of the Responses are Female with the average of 53.8%

AGE
34
Age is classified data collected from respondent who ages from 14 year to above 30years old &
above.

1. It is the age Group of the Responders.

2. The majority of the Age group have Responders are from the age 21-26 yrs with consists of
80% & remaining 19.2% consists of age group of 15-20yrs.

Q Which is your School Board?

The Survey Conducted was asked about their school boards so the Majority of the Responders
are from STATE board with along with close enough result ICSE board & remaining
Responders are from CBSE & other boards.

Q. Do you prefer going to a Coaching Class?

35
When asked to the Responders about going to the Coaching Classes about 88.5%
needed coaching classes and other 11.5% never needed coaching classes.

Q. You took Coaching For?

When asked the Responders for what they went for Coaching, the result is shown in the graph
as above.
Most of the people prefer going to coaching for studding it includes school, college,
professional courses etc.
Other than that people also prefer taking coaching for Sports % fitness activities, this trend is
booming.
Q. On what Basis, Do you select your Coaching classes?

36
The Responders were asked about their way of selecting their coaching classes in
96.2% prefer on teacher as majority of the responders prefer taking coaching for
studies.
People also prefer selecting the class by their location best the area.
Infrastructure preference is seen in going to gym & cooking classes.

Q. Do you agree that Coaching is a Business now?

This is a major debt question when asked the responders but mostly all of the
responders agreed to the it.
There were only few people who still believe that coaching is not the business.

Q. Do you think Coaching Classes are becoming a Necessity in One's Life?

37
This is the trickiest question, when asked and 73.1 % think it is a necessity of
todays world.

Q. How much would you rate your Coaching Classes on the Scale of 1 to 10?

While scaling them on the average of 1 to 10 and on the experience of the

responders they have given the rate about the coaching classes.
46.2 % people think their coaching is great while the least rating given was of no
Four.
Q. What are the issues you face in your Coaching classes?

38
Answer:-While taking the review about the issues these are the answers which responders
gave:-
1. No proper Attention.
2. Sometimes difficult to raise and clear a doubt
3. Infrastructure, small space for classrooms
4. In coaching classes every student is not attended properly.
5. Large batch size and quality coaching
6. Time
7. Biased teaching system. Students from same school forming majority in class are given more
attention and syllabus is designed and taught as per their school curriculum
8. In coaching classes there are too many students in one batch.so it is difficult for the faculty to
attend every students.
9. Less holidays.

Q. What is the reason a student turn towards coaching classes even though they
have School/College education?
Answer: - While taking the review about the issues these are the answers which responders
gave:-
1. Cause everyone goes even the student wants to go
2. not paying attention in school/college
3. For teacher it's very difficult to watch every student they understanding or not that's why
some students need coaching
4. Taking school /college lightly Then pressure of society Pressure of parents
5. Because...you there are no tests which happen in school...directly there is unit test which
has huge syllabus. ..individual chap test help us to actually give the test rather than
giving a direct huge syllabus exam
6. Neck to neck completion of getting higher grades than other, peer pressure and lack of
attention in school.
7. Pressure

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

39
 There are different factors that affect students choice of course in college.

One of this is family related factors. Studies revealed that Filipino immigrants and non-
immigrants rely heavily on their families decision-making. Students cope by following their
parents advice. They also have to cope with an expectation of financially supporting the family
upon completing their education. Studies from other Asian countries also show parents impact
in decision making of students when it comes to students course preference.

Furthermore, it is reported that parents are deeply involved and influential to their high-
achieving childrens college choices. The report also found open houses, dialogue with college
friends, alumni, and admitted-student programs are extremely influential to students. The report
claimed these sources are not well known, but very powerful to students decision making for
their college. The study also found 26% of sampled students paid a specialist or advisor during
the college decision process. The studies presented are important to the present study since the
studies explain the importance of taking parents advice and permission in choosing a college
course.

Respect for family is one of the most influential factors that impact Filipino students
career decision. It is concurred that Out of respect and loyalty, it may not be appropriate to
express personal desires; rather, one may alter ones interests to maintain harmony. As a sign of
respect, Filipino children want to do well for the sake of the family, follow parents advice about
choosing a job or major in college and lastly, make sacrifices for the family.

For practicality reasons, it is also reported that parents usually encourage careers that will not
cost much money, but at the same time, are stable sources of income. Careers in nursing,
accounting, and engineering are highly popular for Filipino families. These writings discuss that
the family decides in what college course students should take is also associated with the
financial status of the family.

40
 Aside from family related factors, economic factors which includes the employability and
availability of job in the future is also considered by students. Employability, i.e., the realistic
feasibility of being employed in a stable job, then becomes an important factor in career
decision-making. Coming from a collective culture, immigrant parents and children seek careers
that will support the whole family. Moreover, it is found that Asian American men and women
tend to be more interested in technical fields, the physical sciences, and non-enterprising
business positions over artistic, social, or socially interactive business careers.

Students are expected to research their future options and investigate the world of work
in relation to self-knowledge and use that information to make informed career decisions. High
school, students are expected to create strategies to achieve future career success and
satisfaction by modifying their educational plans to support their career goals, to evaluate and
update their career-planning portfolios, and to apply academic and employment readiness skills
through programs such as work-based learning.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

www.wikipedia.com
www.scribd.com
www.google.co.in
www.article.sapub.org
www.Livingstrong.com

Conclusion

41
Education is not filling a pail but the lighting of a fire and schools and colleges are the
workshops that act as catalysts to ignite that fire. Pedagogy is not trade and commerce, but an
art and a science.

However, these days the flood of coaching classes in every nook and corner has put a question
mark on the importance of temples of learning. The streets of Udaipur remind me of a stroll I
took in Goaevery second shop was a Liquor Shop; here every second shop is a
Coaching Institute.

The word industry is related to production of goods for sale in the market or a provision of
services. Do we really think that it is viable to use the term Industry with education?
Education aims at physical, intellectual, social, cultural, emotional and moral development of
the students.

Nonetheless, it IS somewhat closer now to the definition of Industry, where in the present times,
numerous Education (Coaching) Centers / Training Institutes are trading students with the help
of their agents. Once the world saw the heinous Slave Trade and now its the new avatar where
students are bought and sold to make money in the name of imparting knowledge.

A few decades ago tuition meant a few more learning hours for the slow learners to bring them
at par with other students but now the connotations have changed totally. Now going to
coaching has become a status symbol and parents feel proud saying, My child goes to xyz
coaching Allow me to explain Tuition Fee makes up the biggest slice of the school fees
that parents pay. Then, how come, another Tuition!!

Parents dont realize that this is all part of a business, which starts with the onset of Basant,
now-a-days known as Admission Season when all the agents gear up to catch the prey even in
some unusual areas. These unusual areas of attraction are the tribal belts where uneducated
parents and innocent students become an easy catch for them.

By means of a plea that their child gets personal attention, learning through latest teaching
methodology using PPTs and projectors, prepared notes, question banks and better preparation
for exam through mock test etc.; the parents are coaxed into agreeing for admissionbut is this
real education?

The collaborations with various schools in the name of good result is also part of commission
business where both school and coaching proprietor look for their bounty without giving a
minutes thought to the future of these budding minds.

Self-study, which used to be very important is now not given a thought as students feel relaxed
that they will get ready notes, so why to consult books. Starting with the Gurukul system, our
education system underwent total transformation with Macaulays policy of English education
which aimed at producing clerks. But now what we are heading towards: Generating a class of
stylish, English speaking Gentry with no jobs and no morality?

42
Choice is yours because each one has the ability and talent to brush up oneself, rather than
relying on anyone else to polish it for you. India had seen talented doctors, engineers, scientists,
CAs, journalists, etc. even when there were no coaching classes HOTMAIL is Indian and it
has come through relentless self-efforts and not through Coaching Institutes; the USB chip,
which we so regularly use for everything related to technology Plug and Play is an Intel
invention done by an Indianthis too came when there was no coaching.

You must understand that one does not need fancy highbrow traditions or money to really learn.
One just needs people with desire to better them. This is real education and we must aspire for
that instead of following the mad race of marks or turning ourselves to money producing
machine. Remember reading a book under the light of a Lantern makes sure that your
ONLY see the Bookand nothing else around it!!!

Rely on your ability do the efforts use your resources and see the whole world come to
you!!

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