Mineral Processing Overview

Mineral Processing Terminology, Economics

Comminution and Classification
Physical processing methods
Chemical processing methods
Waste products treatment and disposal
Process plant flow sheets: uranium and potash

Bronze Age- Bronze is in use in Sumer, at Ur, in around 2800 BC

Iron Age - from the 11th century BC onwards, steel replaces bronze weapons. It
becomes essential, from now on, to have a good steel blade rather than a soft and
indifferent one.
Mineral Processing Overview:

Geology-Mining-Processing Relationship
Mineral Processing Terms
Definitions
Mineral Economics review
Project Stages

Miners send their products to their customer the mill.

Ore : Rock that contains a mineral or minerals in sufficient quantities
as to make commercial extraction (mining milling) profitable.
Grade : A measure of concentration of a mineral/metal contained in rock (or
ore). Gold and other precious metals g/t or oz/t, base metals - %, uranium
kg/tonne, rare earth elements ppm
Cut off Grade : The minimum concentration or grade of mineral that
is required for rock to be considered ore.
Waste : Not Ore.

Ore Body: A mineralized deposit (resource) whose characteristics

have been examined and found to be commercially viable. The
extents of the ore body are determined by the cut-off grade.
Host Rock: The rock containing an ore deposit. Typically composed
of 2 or more minerals.
Gangue: Minerals in the ore body that are not of economic interest
 Hydrometallurgy

Leaching - the process of extracting a soluble constituent from a solid by

means of a (water based) solvent
Water changes solubility, by making it acidic or basic, oxidizing or
reducing
Solvent Extraction transfer between immiscible fluids
Ion Exchange solid resins that adsorb/desorb dissolved chemical species
Precipitation convert dissolved into solid
Crystallization via evaporation
Ionic precipitation - addition of a reagent to a solution creates a metal
compound whose solubility is so low that precipitation takes place
immediately
Hydrometallurgy Equipment

Tank leach circuit

Solvent extraction mixer-settlers
Ion Exchange
Vacuum crystallizer

Pyrometallurgy use of heat to induce a chemical transformation

Roasting convert to oxide form. Example: 2 CuS2 + 5 O2 2 CuO + 4 SO2

Smelting - uses reducing substances that will combine with those oxidized
elements to free the metal. Example:
o 2 Fe2O3 + 3 C 4 Fe + 3 CO2

Pyrometallurgy Equipment

Smelter

Electrometallurgy - penggunaan energi listrik untuk mendorong transformasi kimia

O Electrowinning - untuk mengendapkan logam dari larutan menggunakan
potensial listrik
o electrorefining - untuk memurnikan logam dengan melarutkannya,
kemudian mempercepat
 itu

Electrometallurgy Equipment
Alternating anodes and cathodes in a tankhouse for electrowinning
Untuk tanur besi membuat fungsi yang paling penting dari kokas adalah:
- Untuk memberikan struktur melalui mana gas bisa naik dan didistribusikan melalui
beban. Coke adalah bahan padat dan permeabel sampai suhu yang sangat tinggi (>
2000 C), yang sangat penting terutama di perapian dan mencair dan zona
pelunakan. Di bawah coke zona leleh adalah satu-satunya bahan padat, sehingga
berat total isi blast furnace didukung oleh struktur kokas. Tempat tidur kokas harus
permeabel, sehingga terak dan besi dapat mengalir ke bawah menumpuk di
perapian dan mengalir ke lubang tap.
- Untuk menghasilkan panas untuk melelehkan beban
- Untuk menghasilkan mengurangi gas
- Untuk memberikan karbon untuk karburisasi dari logam panas
- Untuk bertindak sebagai filter untuk jelaga dan debu.
Coke adalah bahan baku yang paling penting dimasukkan ke dalam blast
furnace dalam hal efeknya pada operasi blast furnace dan kualitas logam panas.
Sebuah kokas berkualitas tinggi harus mampu mendukung keturunan kelancaran
beban blast furnace dengan sedikit degradasi mungkin sambil memberikan jumlah
terendah kotoran, energi tertinggi termal, pengurangan logam tertinggi, dan
permeabilitas optimal untuk aliran produk gas dan cair . Pengenalan kokas
berkualitas tinggi untuk blast furnace akan menghasilkan tingkat kokas yang lebih
rendah, produktivitas yang lebih tinggi dan biaya logam panas yang lebih rendah.
(Coal)Batubara yang dipilih untuk membuat kokas adalah variabel yang
paling penting yang mengontrol sifat kokas. Pangkat dan jenis dampak batubara
yang dipilih pada kekuatan kokas sementara kimia batubara sangat menentukan
kokas kimia. Secara umum, batubara bituminous yang dipilih untuk pencampuran
untuk membuat blast furnace kokas dari kekuatan tinggi dengan reaktivitas
diterima dan biaya yang kompetitif. Untuk proses pemulihan coking konvensional
campuran harus berkontraksi cukup untuk mudah dihapus dari oven dan tekanan
harus diterima. Untuk proses panas-recovery ketik ini
kendala tidak valid, yang mengarah ke peningkatan dari jenis batubara dapat
digunakan dalam jenis proses. Tabel menunjukkan komposisi kimia yang khas dari
kokas yang dapat dianggap berkualitas baik.
- tungku ledakan dipadamkan menunjukkan dengan jelas struktur
lapisan kokas dan bijih. Analisis lebih lanjut mengungkapkan informasi
tentang pemanasan dan peleburan bijih serta kemajuan reaksi kimia.
Seperti yang ditunjukkan pada Gambar 1.3, setiap saat, ledakan tungku
operasi mengandung, dari bawah top::
- Lapisan bijih dan kokas.
- Sebuah area di mana bijih mulai melunak dan mencair, yang dikenal
sebagai zona pelunakan-lebur.
- Sebuah area di mana hanya ada coke dan besi cair dan terak, yang
disebut "activecoke" atau zona menetes.
- Orang mati, yang merupakan tumpukan stabil kokas di perapian tungku.
A blast furnace memiliki bentuk kerucut khas. Bagian dari atas ke bawah
adalah:
- Tenggorokan, di mana permukaan beban adalah.
- Tumpukan, di mana bijih dipanaskan dan pengurangan dimulai.
- The omong kosong paralel atau perut dan
- The kosong, di mana pengurangan selesai dan bijih yang dilebur.
- The perapian, di mana bahan cair dikumpulkan dan dibuang melalui
taphole tersebut.
- Sebuah ledakan tungku diisi dengan bolak lapisan kokas dan besi beban bijih yang
mengandung.
- Ledakan Hot ditiupkan ke dalam blast furnace melalui tuyeres. Sebuah tuyere
adalah tembaga didinginkan
pipa kerucut berjumlah hingga 12 di tungku kecil, dan sampai 42 di tungku besar di
mana pra-dipanaskan udara (sampai lebih dari 1.200 C) ditiupkan ke
tungku.
- Ledakan panas gasifies komponen reduktor dalam tungku, mereka menjadi
kokas serta bahan pembantu disuntikkan melalui tuyeres. Dalam proses ini,
oksigen dalam ledakan itu berubah menjadi karbon monoksida gas. yang dihasilkan
gas memiliki suhu nyala yang tinggi antara 2100 dan 2300 C. Coke di depan
dari tuyeres yang dikonsumsi sehingga menciptakan voidage Kekuatan pendorong
dalam ledakan itu
tungku diilustrasikan pada Gambar 1.5.
- Gas sangat panas naik melalui tungku, melaksanakan sejumlah penting
fungsi.
- Panaskan up coke di daerah omong kosong / perut.
- Melting bijih besi di beban, menciptakan voidage.
- Panaskan up bahan di zona poros tungku.
- Menghapus oksigen dari beban bijih dengan reaksi kimia.
- Setelah leleh, bijih besi menghasilkan logam panas dan terak, yang
menetes ke bawah melalui zona kokas untuk perapian, dari yang dihapus
oleh pengecoran melalui taphole tersebut. Di zona menetes logam panas
dan terak mengkonsumsi coke, menciptakan voidage. kokas tambahan
dikonsumsi untuk reduksi akhir dari oksida besi dan karbon larut dalam
logam panas, yang disebut carburisation.
Blast furnace dapat dianggap sebagai panas saat kontra dan massa
penukar, sebagai panas ditransfer dari gas ke beban dan oksigen dari
beban ke gas. Gas naik sampai tungku sementara beban dan coke turun ke
bawah melalui tungku. Sifat saat counter reaksi membuat proses
keseluruhan salah satu yang sangat efisien.
Sekilas peralatan
Gambaran dari peralatan utama ditunjukkan pada Gambar 1.7. Ini termasuk:
- Hot Ledakan Kompor. Air dipanaskan sampai suhu antara 1000 dan 1250 C
adalah
diproduksi di kompor ledakan panas dan dikirim ke tungku melalui ledakan panas
utama, pipa hiruk pikuk, tuyere saham dan akhirnya melalui tuyeres. Panas ledakan
bereaksi dengan coke dan injectants. Kecepatan gas yang tinggi merupakan daerah
yang dikenal sebagai
Raceway di depan tuyeres.
- Stock rumah. Bahan beban dan coke dikirim ke rumah saham. Bahan-bahan
tersebut disaring dan kemudian ditimbang sebelum pengiriman akhir ke dalam
tungku.
Rumah saham dioperasikan secara otomatis. Koreksi untuk coke kelembaban yang
umumnya dibuat otomatis. Bahan beban dan coke dibawa ke
atas tungku melalui melompat atau melalui ban berjalan, di mana mereka dibuang
ke dalam tungku di lapisan terpisah dari bijih dan kokas.
- Gas pembersihan. Gas atas meninggalkan tungku melalui uptakes dan down-
comer.
Gas atas akan berisi banyak partikel halus dan untuk menghapus sebanyak ini
mungkin gas atas adalah memimpin melalui penangkap debu dan sistem
pembersihan basah.
- Casthouse. Besi cair dan terak mengumpulkan di perapian tungku, dari
di mana mereka disadap melalui taphole ke casthouse dan untuk
mengangkut ladle.
- Slag granulasi. slag yang dapat dipadamkan dengan air untuk
membentuk terak butiran,
yang digunakan untuk pembuatan semen.
The top of the blast furnace is closed, as modern blast furnaces tend to
operate with high top pressure. There are two different systems:
The double bell system, often equipped with a movable throat armour.
The bell less top, which allows easier burden distribution.
Examples of both types are schematically shown in Figure 1.8.
Pyrometallurgy of copper
Reminder: Pyrometallurgy is the use of heat to reduce the mineral to the
free metal, and usually
 Calcination: thermal decomposition of the ore with associated elimination of a
volatile product.
Roasting: a metallurgical treatment involving gas-solids reactions at elevated
temperatures.
Smelting: a melting process which separates the chemical reaction products
into 2 or more layers.
Refining: treatment of a crude metal product to improve its purity.

Cu ore usually associated with sulphide minerals.

Most common source of Cu ore is the mineral chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), which

accounts for 50% of Cu production.
Other important ores include:
chalcocite [Cu2S],
malachite [CuCO3 Cu(OH)2],
azurite [2CuCO3 Cu(OH)2],
bornite (3Cu2S Fe2S3),
covellite (CuS).

The following steps are involved in Cu extraction:

Concentration
Finely crushed ore concentrated by the froth-flotation process:
Ground ore mixed with xanthates (salts & esters of xanthic acid),
dithiophosphates, or thionocarbamates. These make the ore surface
hydrophobic.
Ore then introduced into a water bath where air is bubbled through the
suspension.
Finely divided hydrophobic ore particles latch on to the air bubbles and travel to
the surface where a froth is formed.

The froth containing the Cu ore is skimmed off and reprocessed.

The remaining material (sand particles & other impurities) sink to the bottom &
is discarded or reprocessed to extract other elements.

Roasting
 Involves partial oxidation of the sulphide mineral with air at between 500 C
and 700C.

For chalcopyrite, the main reactions are:

CuFeS2(s) + 4O2(g) CuSO4(s) + FeSO4(s)
4CuFeS2(s) + 13O2(g) 4CuO(s) + 2Fe2O3(s) + 8SO2(g)

Reactions are exothermic, roasting is an autogenous process requiring little or

no additional fuel.

NB, not all the sulphides are oxidised, only around 1/3. Rest remain as sulphide
minerals.

The gases produced contain around 5 15% SO2, which is used for sulphuric
acid production.
Smelting
Objectives of roasting:
1) Remove part of the sulphur.
2) Convert iron sulphides into iron oxide and iron sulphate to facilitate
removal during smelting.
3) To pre-heat the concentrate to reduce amount of energy needed by the
smelter.

Smelting consists of melting the roasted concentrate to form 2 molten phases:

1) a sulphide matte, which contains the iron-copper sulphide
mixture.
2) an oxide slag, which is insoluble in the matte, and contains
iron oxides, silicates, and other impurities.
Smelting is carried out at around 1200C, usually with a silica flux to make the
slag more fluid.

The matte layer sinks to the bottom, and the slag layer floats on top of the matte
& is tapped off & disposed of.
The main reaction is the reduction of copper oxides (formed during roasting)
back into copper sulphide to ensure that they migrate into the matte phase:

FeS(l) + 6CuO(l) 3Cu2O(l) + FeO(l) + SO2(g)

FeS(l) + Cu2O(l) FeO(l) + Cu2S(l)
Cu2S(l) + FeS(l) Cu2SFeS(l) (matte)

Conversion
After smelting, matte contains from between 30 to 80% Cu in the form of copper
sulphide.

The sulphur is removed by selective oxidation of the matte with O2 to produce

SO2 from S, but leave Cu metal.

Converting is carried out in two stages: 1) an iron removal stage, and 2) a

copper-making stage.

Iron removal
A silica flux is added to keep the slag (see below) molten.

Air is blown into the converter to oxidize the iron sulphide according to the
following reaction:

2Cu2SFeS(l) + 3O2(g) + SiO2(l) 2FeOSiO2(l) + 2SO2(g) + Cu2S(l)

The oxidized Fe and Si form a slag (insoluble in matte) that is skimmed off &
disposed off.

Refining
The copper is refined by electrolysis.
The anodes (cast from blister copper) are placed into an aqueous CuSO4/H2SO4
solution.
Thin sheets of highly pure Cu serve as the cathodes.
Application of a suitable voltage causes oxidation of Cu metal at the anode.
Cu2+ ions migrate through the electrolyte to the cathode, where Cu metal plates
out.
Metallic impurities more active then Cu are oxidized at the anode, but dont plate
out at the cathode.

Less active metals are not oxidized at the anode, but collect at the bottom of the
cell as a sludge.

The redox reactions are:

Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) 2e-

Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s) Ered = -0.83V

Environmental impact

-Large amount of gases produced present air pollution problems, in particular

SO2 gas acid rain.

-Dust produced contains heavy metals such as mercury, lead, cadmium, zinc
health problems.

-Waste water contaminated with:

Insoluble substances, mostly waste sludge (finely ground rock).
Soluble substances (heavy metals, sulphates).
Chemicals from flotation process.

Hydrometallurgy of copper
Advantages
Much more environmentally friendly than pyrometallurgy.
Compared to pyrometallurgy, only a fraction of the gases liberated into the
atmosphere.
Emissions of solid particles comparatively non-existent.
Disadvantages
Large amount of water used, greater potential for contamination.
Waste waters contain soluble metal compounds, chelating compounds & organic
solvents.

The following steps are involved:

Ore preparation
o Ore undergoes some degree of comminution (crushing &
pulverisation) to expose the Cu oxides & sulphides to leaching
solution.
Leaching
o The dissolution of a mineral in a solvent, while leaving the gangue
(rock or mineral matter of no value) behind as undissolved solids.
o
o Cu is normally leached by one of three methods:
o
o (a) Dump leaching
o Leaching solution trickled over a dump.
o Runoff solution collected & the Cu recovered from it.
o A slow process that takes months or years to complete.
o Typically only around 60% of the Cu in the dump is recovered.
o (b) Heap leaching
o Similar to dump leaching except ore not simply dumped on a
hillside, but is crushed to gravel size & piled onto an artificial pad.
o After leaching (6 months to 1 year) gangue is removed from pad,
disposed of & replaced with fresh ore.
o
o (c) Bacterial leaching
o Several bacteria, especially Thiobacilli, are able to solubilise metal
minerals by oxidising ferrous to ferric iron, as well as elemental
sulphur, sulphide, and other sulphur compounds to sulphate or
sulphuric acid.
o 20 to 25% of copper produced in the USA, and 5% of the worlds
copper is obtained by bacterial leaching.
o Very slow process; takes years for good recovery
 o But low investment and operating costs.
o Are acidotolerant; some grow at pHs as low as 0.5
o Are tolerant against heavy metal toxicity.
o Are chemolithoautotrophs (C source is CO2 & energy derived from
chemical transformation of inorganic matter).
o Generalised reaction : M(II)S + 2O2 M2+ + SO42-
o Two mechanisms: (a) indirect mechanism involving the ferric-
ferrous cycle, and (b) direct mechanism involving physical contact
of the organism with the sulphide mineral.
o
Solution purification
Leaching reactions not perfectly selective other elements in solution
as well, not just Cu. These need to be removed.

After leaching, Cu in solution can be very dilute. need a way to

concentrate it.

Both of these are generally done using ion exchange processes, the
two most common being ion exchange chromatography, and solvent
extraction.
Ion exchange chromatography
DEFINITION: a solution containing a mixture of metal ions is contacted
with a resin that is insoluble in the metal-ion solution.

Ion-exchange resin consists of an inert solid phase to which labile

functional groups are chemically bonded.

Functional groups can either be acidic (H+) or basic (OH) groups that
exchange with cations (M+) or anions (M), respectively.

The ion-exchange process is reversible.

Solvent extraction
DEFINITION: a method to separate compounds based on their relative
solubilities in 2 different immiscible liquids.
In industry, this is usually set up as a continuous process
- Organic + aqueous stream pumped into a mixer.
Organic (containing an extractant) and aqueous components mix, and
ion transfer occurs between them.
Once ion transfer is complete (equilibrium), mixture is allowed to
separate.
Aqueous solution is removed & the organic phase (containing the
Cu2+) is mixed with an aqueous stripping solution.
Cu2+ moves back into the aqueous phase, and the two phases are
again allowed to separate.
The aqueous phase (containing the Cu2+) is removed & the organic
phase is recycled back into the first mixer.

Metal recovery
At this point, the metal needs to be recovered from solution in the solid
form.
This is either achieved chemically, or electrochemically.
Electrowinning
-An electrochemical process for precipitating metals from solution.
- A current is passed from an inert anode through a liquid leach solution
containing the metal so that the metal is extracted as it is deposited onto
the cathode.
-The anode is made out of a material that will not easily oxidise or
dissolve, such as lead or titanium.
Electrorefining
The anodes consist of unrefined impure metal.

-Current passes through the acidic electrolyte corroding the anode into
the solution.
-Refined pure metal deposited onto the cathodes.
-Metals with a greater Ered than Cu (such as Zn and Fe) remain in
solution.
-Metals with a lower Ered than Cu (Au, Ag) accumulate as an anode
sludge collected & sold for further refining.

EXTRACTION OF ALUMINUM

PROPERTIES
the lightest of the common metals (except with Mg) with density = 2.7
g/cc (1/3 the density of Cu).
soft and malleable at ordinary temperature (becomes brittle when heated
to above 150oC).
silvery white in color
an amphoteric metal
good conductor of heat and electricity
an active metal but it does not corrode

OCCURENCE
Aluminum is the most abundant and the 3rd plentiful element on the
earths crust. The elemental form does not occur in nature, its principal
ore is bauxite. The major sources of aluminum are:
bauxite, Al2O3.H2O
cryolite, Na3AlF6
corundum, Al2O3
orthoclase, KalSi3O8
beryl, Be3Al2Si6O18

USES
its chief use is in automobile and aircraft construction.
kitchen utensils, aluminum foil and beverage cans
high voltage transmission line
used as solid propellant for rockets
in the welding of iron and steel.
PRODUCTION PROCESS
Aluminium can be produced via two different routes: primary aluminium
production from ore and recycling aluminium from process scrap and used
aluminium products.
The production of primary aluminium consists of three steps: bauxite
mining, alumina production and electrolysis. The last two mentioned will
be described hereafter, bauxite mining is covered in the section
Environment, Ecology & Recycling.
ALUMINA PRODUCTION
Bauksit harus diolah menjadi murni aluminium oksida (alumina) sebelum
dapat dikonversi ke aluminium dengan elektrolisis. Hal ini dicapai melalui
penggunaan proses kimia Bayer di kilang alumina. Aluminium oksida
dilepaskan dari zat lain dalam bauksit dalam larutan soda kaustik, yang
disaring untuk menghapus semua partikel larut. Aluminium hidroksida
kemudian diendapkan dari larutan soda, dicuci dan dikeringkan
sedangkan larutan soda didaur ulang. Setelah kalsinasi, akhir-produk,
aluminium oksida (Al2O3), adalah bubuk putih berbutir halus. Empat ton
bauksit yang diperlukan untuk menghasilkan dua ton alumina yang pada
gilirannya menghasilkan satu ton aluminium di smelter utama. Pada
tahun 1998, 45 juta ton alumina diproduksi di seluruh dunia. Daerah
produksi utama adalah:
kilang alumina sering terletak dekat tambang bauksit untuk alasan
logistik. peleburan primer Aluminium dan casting
aluminium primer diproduksi di pabrik reduksi (atau "smelter"), di mana
aluminium murni diekstrak dari alumina dengan proses Hall-Hroult.
Penurunan alumina menjadi aluminium cair dioperasikan pada sekitar 950
derajat Celsius dalam sebuah bak fluorinated bawah intensitas tinggi arus
listrik. Proses ini berlangsung di sel elektrolit (atau "pot"), di mana katoda
karbon membentuk bagian bawah panci dan bertindak sebagai elektroda
negatif. Anoda (elektroda positif) yang diadakan di atas panci dan
dikonsumsi selama proses ketika mereka bereaksi dengan oksigen yang
berasal dari alumina. Ada dua jenis anoda sedang digunakan. Semua
potlines dibangun sejak awal 1970-an menggunakan teknologi prebake
anoda, dimana anoda, dibuat dari campuran kokas minyak bumi dan ter
batubara (bertindak sebagai pengikat), adalah 'pra-panggang' pada
tanaman anoda terpisah. Dalam teknologi Soederberg, campuran karbon
diumpankan langsung ke bagian atas panci, di mana 'self-kue' anoda
diproduksi menggunakan panas yang dilepaskan oleh proses elektrolisis.
Secara berkala, aluminium cair disadap dari pot diangkut ke rumah cor di
mana ia paduan dalam memegang tungku dengan penambahan logam
lainnya (sesuai dengan kebutuhan pengguna), dibersihkan dari oksida
dan gas, dan kemudian dilemparkan ke ingot. Ini dapat mengambil
bentuk billet ekstrusi, untuk produk diekstrusi, atau ingot bergulir, untuk
produk digulung, tergantung pada cara itu untuk diproses lebih lanjut.
Aluminium cetakan coran yang diproduksi oleh pengecoran yang
menggunakan teknik ini untuk memproduksi komponen berbentuk.
tren di seluruh dunia dalam produksi ditunjukkan pada grafik berikut.
Output Aluminium telah meningkat dengan faktor 13 sejak tahun 1950,
membuat aluminium yang paling banyak digunakan logam non-ferrous.
Pada tahun 1998, produksi di seluruh dunia dari aluminium primer adalah
sekitar 22,7 juta ton per tahun untuk dan kapasitas terpasang 24,8 juta
ton.

PREPARATION
Aluminum is usually prepared from bauxite.
Hall Process reduces bauxite to aluminum.
The cell contains a series of carbon (graphite) anodes.
The cathode is also made of carbon and constitutes the lining inside the
cell.
The aluminum oxide from bauxite is melted with cryolite to form 5%
solution. The oxide dissociates as follows:
Al2O3 2Al+3 + 3O-2

The mixture is electrolyzed to produce aluminum and oxygen gas:

Anode : 3 [2O-2 - 4e- O2]
Cathode : 4 [Al+3 + 3e- Al]

The overall reaction is:

2Al2O3 4Al + 3O2

Oxygen gas reacts with the carbon anodes to form monoxide, which
escapes as a gas. The liquid aluminum metal (m.p. 660.2oC) sinks to the
bottom of the vessel from which it can be drawn from time to time.