Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) Actuator for a Prosthetic Leg Application

By:

Jose Calderon-Garcia

Advisor

The M. Nguyen

A project

Submitted in partial

fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Science in Engineering (Mechanical Option)

in the Lyles College of Engineering

California State University, Fresno

May 2014

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
List of figures and tables 4
Abstract 6
Chapter
1. Introduction
7
1.1 Shape Memory Alloys 7
1.2 Phase Transformation in Shape Memory Alloys 8
1.3 Shape Memory Effect of NiTi Wire 11

1.4 Pseudoelasticity 12

1.5 Shape Memory Alloy Actuators 13

1.6 Biomechanics 14
1.7 Shape Memory Alloy Muscle Wire 16
1.8 Modeling of the SMA Wire Behavior 18
2. Design Approach 21
2.1 Design Parameters 22
2.2 Overall Design 23
2.3 Design of the SMA Actuator 24
2.4 FEA Analysis of Actuator parts 28
2.5 Manufacturing of the SMA Actuator 33
3. Experimental Results 35
3.1 Initial testing 35
3.2 Failure Analysis 36
3.3 Redesign Recommendations and Actions Taken 37
3.4 Final Testing 38
4. Conclusions and Future Work 40
References 41

List of figures and tables

2
Figure Page

1. (a) Shape memory effect and (b) pseudo-elastic effect 7

2. Temperature induced phase transformation with zero loads applied 9
3. Detwinning with an applied stress 9

4. Phase transformation with applied load 10

5. Loading transformation path 10

6. Stress-strain-temperature shape memory effect for a typical NiTi SMA 11

7. Pseudoelastic loading paths 12

8. Pseudoelastic loading cycle 12

9. SMA actuation setup types 13

10. Range of motion of the shin in degrees 14

11. Location of the single center of mass of linked segments 15

12. Line of gravity and moment arm of leg 15

13. SMA wire physical properties 17

14. Typical temperature vs. strain characteristics 17

15. Phase transformation in SMAs 19

16. Brainstorming ideas on paper 22

17. Overall design of the entire leg 23

18. Actuator type chosen 24

3
 19. Basic operation of SMA actuator 24

20. Final SMA actuator design cut view 25

21. Final SMA actuator design exploded view 26

22. Wires attached to moving plate and moving system 27

23. Static analysis of the sidepiece 29

24. Shafts used in the actuator 30

25. Static analysis of the end shaft 31

26. Static analysis of the moving plate 31

27. Redesign of the moving plate 32

28. Static analysis of the moving shaft: Von-Mises stress; displacement 33

29. SMA actuator set up and ready to be tested 34

30. Testing SMA wire 35

31. Testing of the SMA actuator 38

32. Center of mass locations of link segments 39

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

4
 1 SMA wire characteristics 16

Abstract

5
 In this research a shape memory alloy (SMA) actuator for a prosthetic leg application is

presented. The actuator incorporates NiTinol, a popular shape memory alloy wire. The

incorporation of the shape memory alloy wire gives the leg a more realistic weight distribution

with the propose arrangement of the parts. The SMA wire network was design so that the knee

joint was actively rotated in both directions. The SMA wires were arranged and played a very

similar role as the legs muscles. The study started with the overall solid design of the leg

including both knee and SMA actuator. Theoretical models were researched and presented for the

SMA wires and the biomechanics of the human leg were studied. Subsequently, the design was

prototyped and tested to validate the predicted torque and displacement values. The torque

obtained from testing the prototype matched the predicted torque values as well as the known

publish data for this type of SMA wire. The actuator was able to provide equivalent torque and

force as the muscles generate when walking. The center of mass was kept relatively close to the

actual center of mass of a human leg.

6
1. Introduction

1.1 Shape Memory Alloys

Shape memory alloys (SMA) are alloys that have the ability to recover to a memorized

shape when the temperature is increased. The temperature is increased by the addition of heat,

which is done by Joule heating. These alloys have the ability to recover large amounts of strain

thus making them suitable for many actuation applications. The alloys have the ability to recover

their shape even when subjected to high loads and therefore have a high actuation energy density.

The typical form of SMA alloys is in the wire form. The strain is usually recovered in a quasi-

elastic behavior, which looks much like a rubber band stretching and contracting, this for the

case of straight SMA wires. The force and movement produced by the actuator come from the

shape memory effect and the pseudo-elastic effect. During the shape memory effect (Figure 1a)

the material demonstrates large residual strain after loading and unloading. This residual strain

can be recovered in full by raising the temperature of the material. During the pseudo-elastic

effect (Figure 3b) the material attains large strain upon loading and then fully recovers when

unloaded in a hysteresis loop (Brinson [6]).

Figure 1 (a) Shape memory effect and (b) pseudo-elastic effect (Williams [8]).

7
1.2 Phase Transformation in Shape Memory Alloys
Shape memory alloys have two distinct phases. Each phase has a different crystal

structure and thus exhibits different properties. The first phase is the high temperature phase,

which is called the austenite phase. The other phase occurs at the low temperature and is called

the martensite phase. The austenite phase generally exhibits a cubic crystal structure and the

martensite can be tetragonal, orthorhombic, or monoclinic [2 pp. 5]. The transformation from

one structure to the other does not occur by diffusion of atoms, but rather by shear lattice

distortion [2 pp.5]. The transformation from austenite to martensite and vice versa is a

reversible one, and it is the foundation for the particular behavior of the shape memory alloys.

The phase transformations occur because of changes in the temperature of the wire,

changes in the stress on the wire, or a combination of both factors. At high temperature, the

material exists in the austenite phase. The temperature at which the material is fully austenite is

called the austenitic finish temperature (Af). As the temperature of the wire is decreased the

material transforms into martensite. The temperature at which the material starts to transform

into martensite is called the martensitic start temperature (Ms). The temperature at which the

material is fully transformed to martensite is called the martensitic finish temperature (Mf).

When the temperature of the wire is increased the transformation occurs in the other direction.

The temperature at which the material starts to transform into austenite is called the austenitic

start temperature (As).

In a temperature driven phase transformation the material changes from an austenite

crystal structure to a martensite one upon cooling. This results in the formation of twinned

martensite. If the material is reheated, then the phase changes back to the austenite crystal

structure. This occurs with no association to shape changes as illustrated in figure 2.

8
 Figure 2-Temperature induced phase transformation with zero loads applied [2 pp. 6]

When a load is applied to the material, which is at low temperature, it can be possible to

start the detwinning process of the martensite. This results in a change in shape that is retained

when the load is released. If the material is then heated a phase transformation occurs back to

austenite. This leads to a complete shape recovery. If the material is then allowed to cool a

transformation to twinned martensite occurs and without any load, there are no shape change

associations. This behavior can be observed in figure 3. [2 pp. 6-7].

Figure 3- Detwinning with an applied stress, unloading and heating to austenite under no
load condition [2 pp. 7]

9
 In the case when the material is cooled with a load attached to it, the results are different.

This results in the direct formation of the detwinned martensite that produces changes in shape.

The material is then reheated to produce the shape recovery effect with the load still being

applied. This process is illustrated I figure 4.

Figure 4- Phase transformation with applied load [2 pp. 8]

Apart from inducing phase transformation via the addition of heat, this can also be done

by applying high mechanical loads to the material. This results I the creation of fully detwinned

martensite from the austenite. This behavior is illustrated on figure 5.

Figure 5- Loading transformation path [2 pp. 9]

10
On figure 5 the s is the called the detwinning start stress and the f is the detwinning finish

Ms Mf
stress. The martensitic stress start is denoted as and the finish as . The austenitic stress

level start is denoted as As and Af respectively.

1.3 Shape Memory Effect of NiTi Wire

Figure 6- Stress-strain-temperature shape memory effect for a typical NiTi SMA [2 pp. 11]

A good illustration of the shape memory effect can be found in figure 6. Starting at the

point A, as the austenite cools in a stress free setting it converts into twinned martensite at point

B. When the twinned martensite is subjected to a load the detwinning process begins up to the

point C. If the load is then removed the detwinned martensite state is retained at point D. As the

temperature is then increased the transformation to austenite begins and it ends at point F. The

original shape of the SMA is regained at point A. The strain is recovered during the

transformation from detwinned martensite to austenite. The above-described cycle can be

repeated and it is called the one-way shape memory effect. It is a one-way effect as the shape can

11
only be recovered by heating the material after it has been detwinned by an applied load [2 pp.

11-12].

1.4 Pseudoelasticity

Figure 7-Pseudoelastic loading paths [2 pp. 13]

The pseudoelastic behavior shown in figure 7 is associated with the induced

transformation caused by stress. This path starts with the stable austenite at high temperature.

Under loading the phase transformation begins and it converts the austenite into the detwinned

martensite. When the material is free from the stress created by the loading conditions it is

returned to the austenitic phase [2 pp. 13].

Figure 8- Pseudoelastic loading cycle [2 pp. 14]

12
1.5 Shape Memory Alloy Actuators

Shape memory alloys used in actuators operate under two main categories. The first

category is uses the one-way effect and the second one uses the two-way effect. The second one

is used to produce cycles. The first effect is used when the material is not expected to deform

again after the actuation occurs. In the second case the behavior is reversible and thus the

actuator can be return to its original position creating cycles. In this project the cycling system is

consider.

SMA actuators have been used so far mainly on an on-off control basis due to the

difficulty of modeling and controlling the phase transitions involved [3]. The SMA actuators are

lightweight, simple, and compact with high power density. This offers the option to make

actuators that are smaller and simpler [4]. SMA wires use the one-way shape memory effect and

can only contract in a single direction. For this it is necessary to have another force to return the

wire to its neutral position. Actuators typically required a cycling behavior and thus this SMA

actuator requires a cycling behavior. An effective way to create the cycling behavior on SMA

actuators is to store the energy produce by the wire or use another active SMA wire a bias force.

Figure 9- SMA actuation setup types [5]

13
 The cycling behavior can be generated using three types of setups illustrated in Figure 9.

The first one consists of a dead mass hanging attached to the SMA wire actuator. The mass

generates strain in the wire at a constant stress. The second case consists of a spring type

actuator. This setup strains the wire with a varying stress, which depends on how much the

spring is elongated from its rest position and the spring stiffness. In the last setup two separate

SMA wires are attached opposite from each other. The actuation of one of the wires produces

stress on the oppositely attached wire [5].

1.6 Biomechanics

The actuator in this research was design to produce an actuation force similar to the

muscle force created by the leg muscles. The actuator needs to provide sufficient torque to create

rotation at the knee joint. For this the biomechanics of human walking were researched and are

presented. The rotation of the leg system for which the actuator was designed occurs at the knee

joint.

Figure 10- Range of motion of the shin in degrees [6]

The shin has a range of motion from the stretch horizontal position at zero degrees to a

flex position of 155 degrees. The actuator must provide enough actuation stroke distance to

achieve this range of rotation. Apart from providing the rotational range needed it must be able to

14
provide enough torque to be able to move the weight of a person as it attempts to walk.

Maintaining the weight distribution of the leg is important and it must be taken into account in

the design. From literature we can see that the center of mass of the link segments of the leg in

the flexed position lies just behind the knee as shown in figure 11 [7 pp.82].

Figure 11- Location of the single center of mass of linked segments [7 pp.82]

In the upright position the line of gravity on a person lies through the knee joint axis as

shown in figure 12. When the knee is flexed, as in walking, the line of gravity falls behind the

knee joint axis as shown also in figure 12. This creates a moment arm from which the torque at

the knee joint can be calculated [7 pp. 106].

Figure 12- Line of gravity and moment arm of leg [7 pp. 106]

15
 The biomechanics of normal walking at natural pace are explored on [8]. In that paper the

kinetic values associated with each joint are presented. For this research the values for the knee

joint are of importance. The value given for the torque at the knee joint was of 0.46 (Nm/Kg).

The torque at the knee can be calculated by knowing the total weight of the person. The power

generated at he knee was given as 0.6 (W/Kg) [8 pp. 20].

1.7 Shape Memory Alloy Muscle Wire

The SMA wires used during this research were the FLexinol nickel-titanium wires. The

manufacturer of the wire provides most of the information needed to understand the behavior of

the wire. Table 1 provides a comparison of the characteristics of various diameter wires available

through the manufacturer of Flexinol. From the table information such as the amount of force a

wire can produce is obtained. It also provides guidelines as to the amount of electrical power

needed to heat up the wire and produce contraction.

Table 1- SMA wire characteristics [9 pp. 6]

16
 Figure 13- SMA wire physical properties [9 pp. 2]

Figure 14-Typical temperature vs. strain characteristics [9 pp. 2]

17
 The wire characteristics provided by the manufacturer were used in the design of the

actuator. From this it was possible to have an idea of how much force can be extracted from the

wires. The contraction time can be set to be of one second by applying the suggested current. In

the case of the cooling time the use of a cooling device like a fan can aid in the reduction of this.

The cooling time can range from 0.15 seconds to up to 14 seconds, as shown in table 1, and

depends on the diameter of the wire.

1.8 Modeling of the SMA Wire Behavior

The following interconnected sub-models define the SMA actuator operation

Heat transfer model

Constitutive model
Phase transformation model

Heat transfer model

The heat transfer model consists of electrical heating of the wires and convection and is express

as follows.

Where m is mass per unit length, Cp is the specific heat, R is resistance of the wire, h(T) is the

heat convection coefficient, Ac is the circumferential area of the SMA wire, V is the applied

voltage, T is the ambient temperature, H is the latent heat, and dot is the phase transformation

rate [4 pp. 20-30].

Constitutive model

18
The constitutive model equation in its general form

( , , ) ( , , )
Where is the modulus of the SMA material, is the transformation tensor,

( , , )
and is the thermal expansion tensor [4 pp. 24].

Phase transformation model

Figure 15- Phase transformation in SMAs [4 pp. 26]

SMAs operate on the transformation from one of the phases to the other from martensite

to austenite and vise versa. The temperatures shown on the figure 15 are the austenite start,

austenite final, martensite start, and martensite final are shown respectively as As, Af , Ms, and

Mf . These temperatures indicate the temperature at which the wire starts the phase change and

when it is completed. Any states at which the temperature is between the initial and before the

final both phases are present and coexist in the alloy [4 pp. 25].

19
Transformation model [4 pp. 26-29]

The transformation equation that describes the phase transformation from martensite to austenite

for and

where is the martensite fraction, M is the minimum martensite fraction the wire reached

during the cooling.

1
(0 )

is a curve fitting parameter, T is the wire temperature, is wires stress, As is austenite phase

start temperature, Af is austenite phase final temperature. and CA are curve-fitting

parameters.

The transformation from austenite to martensite is express as follows:

20


for and

Where A here is the minimum martensite fraction obtained during heating. is

a curve fitting parameter, Ms is martensite phase start temperature, Mf is martensite phase final

temperature, and is a curve fitting parameter. The constants CA and CM are material

properties. These properties describe the relationship between the temperature and the critical

stress needed to cause transformation. It is assumed to be a linear relation and it can be observed

in figure 15.

With the presented equations and models it can be possible to model the behavior of the

wire as it heats up and moves. The type of wire being used in this study already has published

results that are provided by the manufacturer. These results are presented on table 1 and figure

14. With the results provided the design of the actuated was created. The testing results of the

actuator validate the manufactures results just and are presented at a later part of the paper.

2. Design Approach

The design of the overall system started with brainstorming. During brainstorming

various ideas were generated by just drawing them up on paper and coming up with different

possible arrangements of the components. As it can be seen on figure 16 some of the earlier ideas

21
consisted of pulley and gears. After drawing the ideas on paper some of them were created using

solid works CAD. During this phase of the design the whole leg was consider.

Figure 16- Brainstorming ideas on paper

A typical full artificial leg consists of multiple parts resembling a humans leg. There is

an upper part to be attached to the hosts thigh. This upper part is connected to a lower part,

similar to human shin, via a knee joint. The shin is also connected to the foot via an ankle joint.

Electrical motors have been the typical means of providing power to artificial legs. Hydraulic

cylinders have also been used to actuate artificial legs. In both cases the packaging and weight

are the main issues of the designs. This research focuses on the knee joint, upper part and lower

part, and for the purpose of this paper and project the upper part is only consider.

2.1 Design Parameters

22
 The SMA actuator must be able to provide sufficient force and rotation at the knee joint.

From the research presented in the introduction the following design parameters were

established.

Range of motion at the knee joint

o 0 at the stretch horizontal position to 155 at the flex position

Torque at the knee joint

o 0.46 (Nm/Kg) for a 75 kg person, torque must be 35 Nm

Force at the knee joint

o 0.6 (W/Kg) for a 75 kg person, force must be 45 W

Weight distribution must be kept similar to actual human leg

Walking purposes

o Low speed (natural speed)

o Low loading conditions

2.2 Overall Design

23
 Figure 17- Overall design of the entire leg

The leg design presented consists of three different components as exhibited in Figure 17.

The first one is the SMA actuator located at the thigh. This actuator provides the necessary

torque to produce movement. The movement occurs at the knee, with the knee being able to

rotate in both directions. The second component is the knee, which is composed of a

magnetorheological fluid (MRF) brake. The MRF brake at the knee provides stopping power,

which controls the amount of rotation of the knee. The last part of the leg is the calf. The calf is

used as storage with batteries and the controlling hardware being housed there.

2.3 Design of the SMA Actuator

The actuator in this design has to be able to provide a force equivalent to the muscle force

created by the body during walking. The pulling force of the SMA wire is directly related to the

diameter of the wire. The SMA wire considered in the design was the Dynalloy Inc. FLexinol

24
 Figure 18- Actuator type chosen

The actuator setup used for this design is shown in Figure 18, where two separate wires are

attached so that they pull opposite from each other. The diameter of the SMA wire is determined

by the amount of force the wire is going to pull. The length of the wire is determined by the

required displacement of the actuator.

Figure 19- Basic operation of SMA actuator

The basic operation of the actuator is illustrated in figure 19. As mention before the SMA

wires only contract and need an external force to stretch them back. In the design shown the

contraction of each wires provides the necessary force not only to produce torque to rotate the

pulley but also to stretch the other wire. In the design, the motion of the prosthetic leg is

generated by torque that can be expressed as:

25
 Figure 20- Final SMA actuator design cut view

Figure 21- Final SMA actuator design exploded view

26
 The SMA actuator design in figure 20 was designed to provide the necessary torque

needed to move the prosthetic leg. The actuator operates on an on-off basis with the top and

bottom sections of the actuator operating separately. The actuator consists of an arrangement of

SMA wires that can provide a varying force depending on the diameter of the wire used in the

system. The rods inside the actuator provide a guiding mechanism to keep the wires in place as

they run from the back of the actuator to the front. The wires are attached to the back plate of the

actuator and run to a plate in the front of the actuator. The front plate is free to move front and

back as it rolls on wheels. A channel carved into the side plate of the actuator guides the wheels.

The forces from each individual wire all act on the moving plate located on the front of the

actuator (see figure 22). This plate receives the added forces from the wires and converts it into a

single force on a single non-SMA wire (see figure 22). This wire then runs to a pulley and the

force is then use to provide movement to the knee. The fans located on the top and bottom of the

actuator provide cooling air when needed. As the SMA wires get thicker then can required

extended amounts of time to cool. The fans provide a quick way to cool the wires thus allowing

for rapid actuation. The cooling time characteristics of different diameter wires are provided on

table 1. The amount of force the actuator can generate can be varied by the diameter of the wire

used in the system. The wires also produce reaction forces on the shafts that hold them. The

shafts then produce reaction forces on the side plate that holds them. For these reasons, all

components were studied and modeled in solid works FEA to see how the reaction forces affect

each component. Apart from the FEA analysis the components were also tested after they were

manufactured.

27
 Figure 22- Wires attached to moving plate and moving system

SMA actuator parts shown in figure 21

Main structure

o Side pieces

o Front and back support

Shafts

o End shafts

o Inner shafts

Covers

o Top and bottom covers

28
 o Middle dividers

Moving plates

Cooling fans

Cover

2.4 FEA Analysis of Actuator parts

For testing purposes the actuator was design to pull a total of 72 kg of weight. By using

the wire diameter of 0.012 inches (0.25 mm) a total of 60 wires are required to pull 72 kg. For

the wire diameter of 0.010 inches a total of 80 wires are required to pull 72 kg. The static

analysis was performed to see if the components are able to withstand the amount of force being

generated by the wires.

35 N-m of torque
o Radius of pulley 0.05 m
o Force of 700 N
71.36 Kgf

Main structure
The main structure of the actuator is composed of two side plates, a back support plate,

and a front support plate. Apart from providing the structural support for the actuator these

components also play other roles in the actuator mechanism. The side plates contain holes to

hold all the shafts shown in the figure, as well as channels to guide the moving plates. This side

plate was made out of aluminum as is lightweight and is easier to machine and mill. The

29
sidepieces experience all the reaction forces from the shafts and the static analysis of this was

performed.

Figure 23- Static analysis of the sidepiece

The reaction forces from the shafts act on the sidepieces as bearing loads. The maximum

stress experienced by the piece does not exceed the yield strength of the material, which gives a

factor of safety of 31. The maximum displacement is of 1.409e-003 mm. The stress and

displacement experienced by the piece can be seen on figure 23.

Shafts

Figure 24- Shafts used in the actuator

30
 Two types of shafts were design and manufactured for the actuator. The first type consists

of a steel tube covered with a nylon sleeve. The nylon sleeve has groves carved on it for the

wires to run through. This shaft is illustrated on figure 24a. The second type consists of a nylon

rod with groves carved into it also. This shaft is illustrated on figure 24b. The first types of shafts

are the rods located at the back and at the front of the actuator and are made of two materials.

The inside material is steel and the outside material is nylon. The steel is used to give the holder

added strength as these holders can experience high loads when the wires are actuated. The

sleeve and the second type of shaft were made out of nylon. This material was chosen because of

its high strength and high melting point.

Figure 25- Static analysis of the end shaft: (a) Von-Mises stress; (b) displacement

The end shafts experience the force exerted by each level of wires. Each level produces

18 kgf of pulling power. Calculated from the Von-Mises stress indicated in Figure 25a, the factor

of safety for the shaft, which is made of steel, is of 4.6. From Figure 25b, the maximum

deformation of the shaft is of 2.253e-002 mm, very negligible. The nylon sleeve was left out of

the analysis as it provides only insulation between the wire and the steel shaft. The sleeve is

needed to prevent the wire from touching the steel shaft and short circuit.

31
 The front support can be either made out of nylon or aluminum as it provides support for

the pulley system used to direct the wire that goes to the knee joint (see figure 20).

Moving plate

Figure 26- Static analysis of the moving plate: (a) Von-Mises stress; (b) displacement
The moving plate experiences the forces from each of the wires. As it can be seen in

Figure 26a, the Von-Mises stress does not exceed the yield strength of the material. This gives a

factor of safety of 1.3 (factor of safety defined as the max Von-Mises stress divided by the yield

strength of the material). Another important aspect to look at is the deformation the material

experiences, this is shown in Figure 26b. The maximum deflection of the moving plate is about

2.2mm.

After testing, the moving plate was redesigned as testing proved that the high

concentration of wires created a problem. The problem was that the high concentration of holes

left very little material between the wires. The wires reached high temperatures as they heat up to

begin actuation. This heat started to melt the plastic material and the wires became embedded on

the moving plate. This problem was preventing the wires from contracting and the movement of

the moving plate was neither even nor straight.

32
 Figure 27- Redesign of the moving plate

The moving plate was replaced to a moving shaft as seen on figure 27. The moving shaft

is similar to the holding shafts in the middle of the actuator. The shaft has wheels that run on a

channel carved into the side plate. The moving shaft served the same purpose as the moving

plate; the wires go around the shaft and move it as they contract.

Figure 28- Static analysis of the moving shaft: Von-Mises stress; displacement

The new design for the moving mechanist was also analyzed using the FEA method. The

maximum stress experienced by the part did not exceed the yield stress for the material.

Deflection occurred at the value of 1.7 mm. After testing, the moving shaft did not produce any
33
problems, as it was able to slide smoothly on the actuator. The temperature of the wires did not

cause any melting of the material.

2.5 Manufacturing of the SMA Actuator

One of the most difficult parts of the research was the manufacturing of the actuator.

Most of the parts were machined in house. The materials used to manufacture the parts were

mainly aluminum and nylon. As mention before these materials were chosen because they

provided the necessary strength needed and they are easier to machine and work with. Most of

the work was done using the engine lathe and the mill. The parts were manufactured as close to

the designed part as possible and to the best of the abilities of the machinist.

Figure 29. SMA actuator set up and ready to be tested

As it can be seen on figure 29 the main working parts of the actuator were manufactured.

The sidepieces, the front and back support, the end shafts, the middle shafts, and the moving

shafts were all made to design specifications. The parts not manufactured were the cover, the

34
dividing plates, and the cooling fans. For testing purposes it was determined that it was not

crucial to manufacture all parts at the moment. The purpose of the testing was to determine the

amount of movement the SMA wires can create in the actuator and also the amount of torque that

can be extracted from them. These values are provided by the manufacturer of the SMA wire and

are calculated using the presented theoretical model.

3. Experimental Results

3.1 Initial testing

After the actuator was manufactured, the testing continued. Testing had already been

done to the wire itself. The wire was tested for pulling strength, contraction length, and failure.

The pulling strength can be found in table 1 and it was obtained from the manufacturer of the

wire. The wire used during testing was already available in the lab. This wire was tested on the

three categories mentioned.

35
 Figure 30- Testing SMA wire

The wire was tested using a dead weight setting. The wire is attached from the top and as

it hangs down. A mass is attached to the bottom of the cable as shown in figure 30. This set up

was done because according to the manufacturer this set up allows for a 4 percent stroke and a

0.93 kgf pulling force, this for the 0.25 mm diameter wire. A total of a one-kilogram was used

during testing. The dead weight setting is the setting that better represents the setting of the

actuator (see figure 22). The wire was tested by connecting the wire to a circuit that cycled the

power to the wire from on to off. A microcontroller was used to run the cycling set up. The

computer program written for the microcontroller gave power to the circuit for 1-2 second to

allow the wire to contract completely. Then it turned the power off for enough time to allow the

wire to cool and return to its original length. The average cooling times for the wire are shown in

table 1 and the cooling process can be accelerated by the use of a cooling fan. The stroke was

measured by marking on the paper (see figure 30) how much the weight was lifted up every

36
cycle. From the testing it was observed that the numbers given by the manufacturer were

accurate even when using a mass that was above the one specified by the manufacturer. In order

to determine the reliability of the actuator the testing was left to cycle for many cycles and it was

discovered that after about 200 cycles the wire was failing.

3.2 Failure Analysis

In order to understand why the wire was failing research was done in the topic. According

to the research on [10] Functional fatigue is associated with an increase of residual strain (with

plastic and pseudo plastic components), which corresponds to an incomplete reverse

transformation. Moreover, it is demonstrated that structural fatigue of pseudo-elastic shape

memory alloys is governed by the initiation and growth of surface cracks [10 pp. 32]. During

testing it was observed that the wire was failing at the point of contact with the wire providing

power to the SMA wire. In figure 30 the wire mentioned can be seen at the bottom close to the

hanging mass. This wire was grappling the SMA wire and this was causing failure at the

grappling point.

Another important factor that affects the performance of the SMA wire is the strain to

which the wire is being subjected. According to [11] the stroke of a shape memory element is a

function of the strain the actuator is subject to. The most typical maximum strain that a SMA can

exert is in the vicinity of 8%. However, this value if implemented will lead to less than 100

cycles after which the performance of the element will start to degrade. The lifetime cycles can

be greatly improved if the working strain is to be reduced. Previous work has concluded that for

Nitinol a strain of 5% will yield hundreds of thousands of cycles, and the cost of a higher

lifetime is a reduced actuation stroke [11 pp. 70].

37
 The maximum recommended pulling force for the wire was also being exceeded. In order

to avoid the over loading of the wire a new wire of a greater diameter, thus greater pulling force,

was obtained. The new wired used for the rest of the testing was the 0.31 mm diameter wire. The

maximum pulling force for this wire is recommended as 1.28 kgf.

3.3 Redesign Recommendations and Actions Taken

The actuator is able to accommodate various diameter wires and by changing the wires

to a thicker one the amount of torque the actuator can produce is greatly increased. By increasing

the pulling force of the actuator the wires are not pushed to their pulling limit. This increase in

force also allows for the reduction on stroke needed. The rotation of the pulley can be amplified

by the use of another pulley. By adjusting the gear ratio between the pulleys the desired rotation

can be achieved. The loss in torque due to the gear ratio is compensated by the increase in the

pulling power of the wires.

As mentioned before when the moving plate was tested with multiple wires connected to

it, there were problems. The main issue was that the high concentration of wires was causing the

temperature of the nylon to rise. Along with the temperature, the wire was putting a high force on

the small holes of the moving plate (see figure 26). The combination of these two factors was

causing the wire to be embedded on the plastic and become stuck. With the wire being stuck the

moving plate was not moving correctly. To fix this problem a new moving mechanism was

designed and manufactured (see figure 27). The rest of the testing was done using this new

moving mechanism.

3.4 Final Testing

38
 Figure 31- Testing of the SMA actuator

The actuator shown in figure 31 was tested in the configuration shown. As it can be seen

the wire runs from the back of the actuator to the moving shaft in the front. The new moving

design was tested for pulling force and displacement distance. By using two SMA wires one at

each end of the shaft the actuator was able to produce smooth movement. With only one

kilogram of weight attached to the actuator the stroke was of 1.5 cm. As mention before the

amount of recoverable strain is a function of the amount of preloaded strain on the actuator. The

one-kilogram does not provide enough strain on the wire to be able to obtain more recoverable

contraction length. By adding a greater weight a greater strain recovery can be achieved.

Keeping in mind that taking the wire to its strain limit causes failure, using a thicker wire alloys

the wire not to reach this limit and thus prevent failure.

39
 Figure 32- Center of mass locations of link segments

As it can be seen in figure 32 the aimed was to maintain the center of mass as closely as

possible to the actual human leg. The complete leg design was prototype on solid works. The

center of mass of the solid works model is very similar the actual center of mass of a leg found

on literature. Upon manufacturing the complete leg the aim would be to maintain this weight

distribution.

4. Conclusions and Future Work

The actuator was design to provide the approximate force the leg muscles produce during

walking. The design was done so that it can accommodate a large amount of SMA wires. The

total pulling force of the actuator is directly related to the diameter of the SMA wire being used.

After initial testing failure was encountered and corrected as described in the report. The

corrections greatly reduced the stroke of the actuator. It was shown that it is possible to achieve

40
large motion with small actuator displacement. The versatility of the design alloys it to be

optimized to specific force and motion requirements. The future work for this actuator will

consist of a full scale testing of the prosthetic leg. As well as testing the physical response of the

link segments, the actuator and the knee combined.

References
[1] Brinson L.C. One-Dimensional Constitutive Behavior of Shape Memory Alloys:
Thermomechanical Derivation with Non-Constant Material Functions and Redefined
Martensite Internal Variable
Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures April 1993 4: 229-242
[2] Lagoudas, Dimitris C. Shape Memory Alloys: Modeling and Engineering Applications. New
York: Springer, 2011. Print.
[3] Donmez, B., Ozkan, B. and Kadioglu, S., Precise position control using shape memory alloy
wires, Turkish Journal Of Electrical Engineering & Computer Sciences 18(5), 899-912
(2010).

41
[4] Williams Eric. Development of a Shape Memory Alloy Actuator for Mirror Positioning.
(Master's thesis). The University of Toledo. Toledo, OH. February 2007

[5] Toru Sylvain. Fast and accurate position control of shape memory alloy actuators.
(Research internship report 2008). Research School of Information Science and Engineering
(RSISE) of the Australian National University (ANU) in Canberra, Australia.
http://royfeatherstone.org/SMA/ToruReport.pdf (Jan 2014)

[6] http://drvivekmittal.in/High_Flex_Knee.html

[7] Le, Veau B, Marian Williams, and Herbert R. Lissner. Williams and Lissner: Biomechanics of
Human Motion. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1977. Print.

[8] Harrison P. Crowell III Angela C. Boynton Michael Mungiole. Exoskeleton Power and
Torque Requirements Based on Human Biomechanics. Army research laboratory. November
2002

[9] Dynalloy. Technical characteristics of FLexinol actuator wires.

http://www.dynalloy.com/TCF1140.pdf (January 2014)

[10] G. Eggeler, E. Hornbogen, A. Yawny, A. Heckmann, M. Wagner, Structural and functional

fatigue of NiTi shape memory alloys, Materials Science and Engineering: A, Volume 378,
Issues 12, 25 July 2004, Pages 24-33

[11] J. R. Anadon, Large force shape memory alloy linear actuator, University of Florida,
2002.

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