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Procedia CIRP 29 (2015) 162 167

The 22nd CIRP conference on Life Cycle Engineering

Module-based renewal planning of energy using products for reducing

environmental load and life cycle cost
Hiroki Iijimaa, Saya Yoshidaa, Shozo Takataa*
a
Department of Business Design and Management, Waseda University,Okubo 3-4-1, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 169-8555, Japan

* Corresponding author. Tel.: 81-3-5286-3299; fax: +81-3-3202-2543. E-mail address: takata@waseda.jp

Abstract

For products whose environmental load during operation is significant, frequent product renewal could be a better option over the life cycle than
longer use with intensive maintenance. However, such frequent renewal could result in an excess consumption of resources. To address such a
problem, we propose the concept of module-based renewal in which only the modules that mainly contribute to the energy consumption are
replaced. The concept is applied to the air-conditioning system of a commercial building to illustrate the effectiveness of such an approach. The
results of a life cycle simulation show that module-based renewal is superior to whole renewal in terms of environmental load, resource
consumption, and life cycle cost.

2015
2015 The
The Authors.
Authors. Published
Published byby Elsevier
Elsevier B.V.
B.V.This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
Peer-review under responsibility of the International Scientific Committee of the Conference 22nd CIRP conference on Life Cycle
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Engineering.
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of The 22nd CIRP conference on Life Cycle Engineering
Keywords: renewal, maintenance, LC-CO2, material consumption, life cycle cost (LCC), energy using products (EuP), air-conditioning system

1. Introduction In regards to the distinction between maintenance and

Our daily lives are supported by various artifacts. We are
able to perform day-to-day tasks through the use of various
products and facilities such as household appliances, cars,
manufacturing facilities, and infrastructure. We have been
accumulating such artifacts in our society to the extent that
maintenance and renewal of existing artifacts require more
financial resources than creating new ones. As such, we
urgently need to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of
their maintenance and renewal [1].
The purpose of the maintenance on an artifact is to keep its
realized level of functionality higher than the required level
throughout its life cycle. There are two reasons why such a
condition may not be satisfied: one is degradation of artifacts
and the other is an increased required level of functionality. To
cope with such situation, we need to restore the realized level
of functionality of artifacts above the required level (here,
restore includes not only recover but also upgrade).
However, if there is no way to restore the artifact by means of
maintenance, or maintenance is more costly than renewal, it is
renewed.
renewal, we often differentiate them depending on measures of
restoration. When items (the collective term of systems,
products, modules, parts, etc.) are repaired, the term used is
maintenance. When items are replaced, the term used is
renewal. However, when we replace a part or module of a
system because of excess degradation or insufficient
functionality, it is regarded as maintenance from the viewpoint
of the system, but as renewal from the viewpoint of the part or
module. In this way, there is no clear distinction between
maintenance and renewal, although we often think of them as
separate issues. Therefore, we need to plan for maintenance and
renewal while taking their relationships into account for the
purpose of keeping the realized level of functionality of artifacts
above the required level.
In this paper, we discuss an integrated way of planning for
maintenance and renewal from the perspective of life cycle
management and use an air-condition system as the
representative example of Energy-using Product (EuP). In
regards to renewal of EuPs from the perspective of life cycle
management, the concept of rapid life cycle has been proposed
[2, 3]. Because EuPs have large environmental impacts during

2212-8271 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of The 22nd CIRP conference on Life Cycle Engineering
doi:10.1016/j.procir.2015.02.172
 Hiroki Iijima et al. / Procedia CIRP 29 (2015) 162 167
the usage phase of their life cycles, replacing old products with
new ones before their lifetime is sometimes a better strategy for
reducing energy consumption, when the energy saving
technologies progress rapidly. However, such strategy causes
increase of material consumption. Therefore, we should
consider upgrading the performance by maintenance as well.
Although there are discussions on the comparison between
replacement and upgrade taking examples of
electrical/electronic products [4], there is few systematic study
on integrated planning of renewal and maintenance. In this
paper, we address this issue in the following way.
In Section 2, we discuss maintenance and renewal based on
the types of functional and physical degradation as well as the
scheme of integrated planning of maintenance and renewal. In
Section 3, we propose a procedure for integrated planning of
maintenance and renewal of EuPs. We apply the proposed
procedure to the air-conditioning system of a commercial
building in Section 4.
2. Relationships between maintenance and renewal
In this section, we discuss the relationships between
maintenance and renewal from the perspective of the
degradation modes and the extent of treatments.
Whether in regards to maintenance or renewal, both of their
purposes are to address the degradation of items. When the state
of an item is represented by functional levels and physical
conditions, the degradation characteristics are divided into three
types (as shown in Figure 1). Type 1 is the case where physical
degradation leads to functional degradation (e.g., as in the case
of cutting tools). Type 2 is the case where only physical
degradation occurs without functional degradation (e.g., as in
the case of toner cartridges). Type 3 is the case where relative
functional degradation is induced by the appearance of new
models or new technology, but there is little physical
deterioration (e.g., as in the case of microprocessors).
The relationship between maintenance and renewal can be
discussed in terms of restoration measures needed for each
degradation type. In the case of Type 1 degradation, when the
restoration measures are repair or adjustment (collectively
called recovery treatment hereafter), the measures taken are
regarded as maintenance. On the other hand, when the measures
taken are replacements, they are regarded as renewal. It often
becomes a trade-off issue between cost and the functional
initial state initial state of the
of the item new model
type1: physical type3: relative
physical state
degradation with functional
functional degradation owing
degradation to a new model
type2: physical
degradation
functional level
Figure 1. Categorization of degradation characteristics
163
restoration level when deciding whether the item should be
recovered or renewed. If the item is replaced entirely, we can
enjoy full functional restoration, although it usually requires a
higher cost in comparison with recovery treatments. In the case
of Type 2 degradation, the decision as to whether it should be
recovered or renewed can be determined from the cost and the
level of physical restoration because we do not need to consider
the functional degradation in this case. In the case of Type 3
degradation, the only restoration measure is renewal. Whether
the item should be renewed or not is a trade-off issue between
the cost and the benefit obtained by improving the functionality
with renewal.
Another aspect of the relationship between maintenance and
renewal is the extent of the treatment. As stated already, when
an entire system is replaced, the treatment is usually regarded
as renewal, whereas it is regarded as maintenance when only a
part of the system is replaced. In this study, however, we call
the treatment renewal when an item is replaced with the latest
model regardless of the extent of the replacement. When the
item is replaced with one of the same model, we call it
maintenance. In regards to the extent of the replacement, we
call the treatment whole renewal when the entire product is
replaced with the newest model. We call the treatment partial
renewal when only part of the product is replaced. In
determining the extent of renewal, the following factors should
be considered:
x Physical restoration: the extent of the renewal affects the
level of physical restoration. This relates to the life span of
the system, maintenance cost, and, eventually, the life
cycle cost.
x Functional restoration: the extent of the renewal affects the
level of functional recovery or functional improvement,
which, in turn, determines the benefits obtained from the
renewal.
x Efficiency of restoration works: partial renewal is
sometimes inefficient in terms of restoration works and
may lead to higher cost.
In the above discussion, the term cost is used as negative
factors. The cost could relate to not only monetary cost but also
environmental load and resource consumption. These aspects
are very important, especially for EuPs that consume a lot of
energy during operation.
3. Procedure of integrated planning for maintenance and
renewal of EuPs
Based on the discussion in the previous section, we propose
the execution of maintenance and renewal planning with the
procedure shown in Figure 2. First, the maintenance policy for
each part is determined in terms of the criteria for treatment,
timing and interval, and the treatment method based on the
degradation characteristics of parts and the effects of events
such as failures and preventive maintenance works [5]. Then,
the extent and interval of renewal are determined. The possible
combinations of the extent and interval of renewal are generated,
164 Hiroki Iijima et al. / Procedia CIRP 29 (2015) 162 167

and each of them is evaluated in terms of LC-CO2 and resource START

consumption by means of life cycle simulation. In the life cycle
identify failure characteristic
simulation, the effects of failures, preventive maintenance
works, and renewal works are evaluated by means of Monte decide maintenance policy
Carlo simulation on the condition of the predetermined
operation mode and maintenance policy. During the simulation, select extent of renewal and renewal cycle
when there is a failure in the case of breakdown maintenance or
evaluate LC-CO2, material consumption, and
exceedance of a threshold in the case of condition-based LCC by Life Cycle Simulation taking the following
maintenance, it is necessary to decide whether the item should events into account
be maintained or renewed. failures
preventive maintenance works
Let us consider a module consisting of two parts, D and E renewal works
as indicated in Figure 3. We assume that for renewal, the whole
module needs to be replaced to obtain performance integrate LC-CO2 and material consumption
improvement, whereas for recovery, each part of the module No
can be replaced when one of the parts has failed. Let us consider evaluate all patterns?
that D1 fails at tF. There are two choices in terms of maintenance Yes
or renewal. One choice is to recover the module by replacing determine the optimum renewal extent and cycle
the failed part D1 to D1, as indicated in Figure 3 (a). The other providing the minimum integrated index
choice is to renew the whole module to the latest model, as END
indicated in Figure 3 (b). In the case of the former choice, the Figure 2. Procedure for optimizing extent and interval of renewal
life of part E1 can be exhausted until the next renewal time t1.
In the case of the latter choice, the benefit of performance renewal
failure
next renewal
interval timing
improvement of the new model can be enjoyed from tF instead
of t1, while the life of part E1 from tF to t1 is wasted. Therefore, tF
t0 t1
the loss and the benefit of these two cases are evaluated and the D
balance point tB is determined. If tF < tB, the module is (a) maintenance E
maintained. If tFttB, the module is renewed. (replace the failed
part with one of D
After evaluating all possible combinations of the extent and the same model)
D
interval of renewal, the best combination should be selected in E E
terms of LC-CO2 and resource consumption. In order to renewal
failure
next renewal
integrate LC-CO2 and resource consumption into one index, we interval timing
use the integration coefficients proposed in LIME2 (i.e., Life- tF
t0 t1 t1
cycle Impact Assessment Method based on Endpoint D
Modeling) [6]. (b) renewal E
(replace the whole
module with one
4. Application of the proposed planning procedure to the of the latest D
air-conditioning system of a commercial building model) E
Figure 3. Maintenance and renewal upon failure
4.1. Air-conditioning system of a commercial building
4.2. Operating conditions
We applied the proposed procedure to the air-conditioning
system of a commercial building. This building was constructed This building is open 11 h per day for the whole year with
in 2005. It rises six stories above the ground and has one level the exception of January 1. We use the field data from June
underground. It is equipped with an air-conditioning system 2006 to May 2007 to estimate the electricity consumption of the
that consists of 29 subsystems. Each subsystem consists of two system. On average, the air-conditioning system operates in its
or three outdoor machines and several indoor machines. The cooling mode 8.92 h/day and operates in its heating mode 1.30
total number of indoor machines is 202. h/day.
With partial renewal, the components that have significant In regards to the maintenance policy, breakdown
impact on energy efficiency should be replaced for effective maintenance is adopted but excludes cleaning of heat
improvement in energy saving performance. In the case of air- exchangers of outdoor machines and filters and drain pans of
conditioning systems, compressors consume about 89% of indoor machines.
energy used by the system. In addition, the performance of the Since the failure record of the system shows that a majority
compressor improves significantly year by year. Since the of failures occurred in compressors and their controllers, we
replacement of a compressor requires the replacement of a consider only these failures in this study. We estimate Weibull
control unit as well, the combination of a compressor and a distributions of these failures based on the failure records of the
control unit is regarded as the module to be replaced via partial past 8 years in order to estimate the number of breakdown
renewal in this case study.
 Hiroki Iijima et al. / Procedia CIRP 29 (2015) 162 167 165

Table 1. Estimated Weibull parameters Table 4. CO2 emission in the material production and recycling process
Weibull parameter compressor control unit kg-CO2/kg production recycle
m 1.29 1.08 iron 0.89 0.80
K 34,053 72,793 copper 1.75 1.10
aluminum 9.22 1.53
Table 2. LIME2 integration coefficients
plastic 2.25 2.65
preconditions electric consumption
functional degradation +2.6% per year Table 5. LIME2 integration coefficients
integrated index
decrease of power consumption due to - 3% per every 5 years and - material category
( yen / kg )
improvement 15% per every 15 years
CO2 greenhouse gas 0.5480
energy saving effect of partial renewal 75% of that achieved with iron resource consumption 0.2330
whole renewal
copper resource consumption 43.0000
Table 3. The amount of materials used in parts aluminum resource consumption 0.0033
total plastic resource consumption 31.4000
kg iron copper aluminum plastic others
weight
compressor 37.00 24.67 12.23 0.00 0.00 0.00
Table 6. Renewal and maintenance cost
control unit 14.60 0.34 0.01 7.67 0.00 0.00
whole renewal 2,000,000
fan motor 0.57 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.57 0.00 renewal cost
partial renewal 394,000
heat
56.00 0.00 34.50 7.00 0.00 14.50 compressor 350,000
exchanger
face flame 100.00 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 control unit 44,000
others 21.72 3.21 1.00 0.05 22.43 1.60 maintenance cost fan motor 1,800
sum 230.00 128.34 48.84 14.72 23.00 16.10 heat exchanger 95,000
face flame 100,000
maintenance routines during operation. Table 1 gives the
estimated Weibull parameters for these items. 2) Product production: The amount of CO2 emitted from the
Regarding the age-related functional degradation, we part production and product assembly of an outdoor machine
assume that electric power consumption increases by 2.6% is estimated at 350 kg according to [11]. The CO2 emission
every year due to deterioration of products. This figure is in the production of each part is estimated on the assumption
estimated from the actual power consumption of the system. In that it is proportional to the weight of each part.
regards to the improvement of energy saving performance of 3) Use: The CO2 emission from the use process is calculated
the new models, we assume that the electric power consumption by converting the input electricity to the CO2 emission at the
decreases by 3% every 5 years and 9% every 15 years with the rate of 1 kWh = 0.43 kg-CO2 [10].
advancement of technologies. These figures are estimated 4) Collection: Because refrigerant recovery has a major
based on the performance improvement achieved by Japanese impact on the environmental load in the collection process
air-conditioner manufacturers in the past 30 years. For partial of air-conditioners, we consider the CO2 emission only for
renewal, we assume that improvement of the compressor refrigerant recovery from outdoor machines. It is estimated
contributes to a reduction in energy consumption by 75% of that at 43.46 kg-CO2 according to [10].
achieved with whole renewal [7]. These preconditions are
5) Shredding: The electricity for shredding and sorting of
summarized in Table 2.
air-conditioners is estimated at 0.06 kWh/kg according to
Regarding the evaluation period for optimizing renewal
[10]. It is converted to CO2 emission as in the case of the
planning, it is set to 50 years based on the fact that many
use phase.
buildings are rebuilt after about 50 years.
6) Recycling: The CO2 emission from the recycling
4.3. Evaluation of LC-CO2 and resource consumption processes of materials used in air-conditioners is given in
Table 4 according to [10].
With regard to environmental load, we evaluate the LC-CO2 In regards to the amount of material consumed for whole
as an alternative indicator. We estimate the amount of CO2 renewal, we count the number of the products for renewal and
emission in the processes of raw material production, product the failed parts during the evaluation period. In the case of
production, use, collection, shredding, and recycling of air- partial renewal, we count the number of modules for renewal
conditioners in the following ways: and the failed parts during the evaluation period.
1) Low-material production: The materials and their average As mentioned previously, we use the integration coefficients
weights used in the parts of air-conditioners are summarized proposed in LIME2 for integrating environmental load and
in Table 3 [8, 9], and the CO2 emissions from the production resource consumption. Table 5 shows the weighting factors
of each material are listed in Table 4 [10]. used for calculating the integrated index in this study. These
166 Hiroki Iijima et al. / Procedia CIRP 29 (2015) 162 167

material consumption (t) LC-CO2 (t-CO2) material consumption (t) LC-CO2 (t-CO2)
17,500 100 17,500 100

material consumption (t)

material consumption
15,000
LC-CO2 (t-CO2)
80 15,000

LC-CO2 (t-CO2)
80
12,500 12,500
10,000 60 10,000 60
7,500

(t)
7,500 40 40
5,000 5,000
20 2,500 20
2,500
0 0 0 0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011121314151617181920
renewal interval renewal interval
Figure 4. LC-CO2 and material consumption with respect to renewal Figure 5. LC-CO2 and material consumption with respect to renewal
intervals in the case of whole renewal intervals in the case of partial renewal
10,000 10,000
9,500 9,500
9,000 9,000

k-yen
k-yen

8,500 8,500

8,000 8,000
7,500
7,500
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
renewal interval renewal interval
Figure 6. Integrated indices with respect to renewal intervals Figure 7. Integrated indices with respect to renewal intervals
in the case of whole renewal in the case of partial renewal
factors show the price, in Japanese Yen, per one kg of LC-CO2 (t-CO2) material consumption (t)
greenhouse gas or resources. 13,800 50
LC-CO2(t-CO2)

consumption(t)
40
4.4. Evaluation of LCC 13,600

material
30
20
LCC is calculated as a sum of acquisition cost, operation and 13,400
maintenance cost, and end of life cost. In this case study, we 10
count only electricity expense (18.89 Yen/kWh) for operation 13,200 0
cost. Maintenance cost includes the cost for the replacement of whole (10 years) partial (5 years)
Figure 8. Comparison of LC-CO2 and material consumption between whole
failed parts that consists of the cost of repair on parts and
renewal with 10 years interval and partial renewal with 5 years interval
personnel cost. The renewal cost consists of the acquisition cost
whole (10 years) partial (5 years)
of the new item and the end of life cost of the replaced item in 800,000
addition to personnel cost. In the case of whole renewal, the old 700,000
600,000
product is replaced with a new one with the latest energy saving 500,000
k-yen

performance. In the case of partial renewal, only a new module 400,000

with the latest functionality is applied. Table 6 lists the 300,000
estimated renewal and maintenance costs based on the actual 200,000
100,000
maintenance record. 0
operation cost renewal cost maintenance cost
4.5. Results of the comparison between partial renewal and Figure 9 Comparison of LCC between whole renewal with 10 years interval
whole renewal and partial renewal with 5 years interval
renewal with a 10 year interval and partial renewal with a 5 year
For identifying the best renewal interval for both whole interval in terms of LC-CO2, material consumption, and LCC.
renewal and partial renewal, we calculated the LC-CO2 and the The results are shown in Figures 8 and 9. The figures show that
material consumption by changing the renewal intervals from 4 partial renewal can reduce 340 ton of LC-CO2 and 14 ton of
years to 20 years. The results are shown in Figures 4 and 5. In material consumption for 50 years in comparison with whole
both cases, longer renewal intervals lead to less material renewal. Regarding LCC, partial renewal can also reduce 84.1
consumption while the LC-CO2 becomes larger. However, the million Yen in comparison with whole renewal.
rate of reduction of material consumption with the extension of
renewal interval in the case of partial renewal is smaller than 4.6. Discussion
that of whole renewal. For finding the optimal renewal interval,
we calculate the integrated indices using the LIM2 weighting Because material consumption and environmental load of
factors. The results are presented in Figures 6 and 7. As each partial renewal are smaller than those of whole renewal,
displayed in these figures, the optimum renewal intervals are 10 partial renewal can be carried out more frequently than whole
years for whole renewal and 5 years for partial renewal. After renewal. This results in more frequent application of
calculating the integrated indices, we compared the whole improvement in energy saving performance by introducing a
 Hiroki Iijima et al. / Procedia CIRP 29 (2015) 162 167
1,600,000
whole renewal patial renewal
1,400,000
1,200,000
1,000,000
k-yen
800,000
600,000
400,000
200,000
0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
renewal interval
Figure 10 LCC with respect to renewal intervals in the case of
whole renewal and partial renewal
new module of the latest model. This is the reason why partial
renewal is superior to whole renewal in terms of both resource
consumption and LC-CO2.
Such results, however, have been obtained based on the
several assumptions, such as assumptions on the improvement
rates of the energy saving performance of the new model and
the contribution rate of the compressor module to the reduction
of electric power consumption. Therefore, we investigated the
effects of changes in these parameters on the results. With
regards to the improvement rate of the energy saving
performance, the original assumption is that the rate of
reduction is 3%, 9%, and 3% at the 5th year, 10th year, and 15th
year, respectively. The same sequence repeats after the 15th year.
This means that energy consumption reduces by 14% for 15
years in total. If this assumption is changed to 5% reduction
every 5th year (14% reduction for 15 years in total as in the case
of the original setting), the difference of LC-CO2 between
partial renewal and whole renewal becomes 400 ton instead of
340 ton. In regards to the integrated index, the difference
becomes 535k Japanese Yen instead of 502k Japanese Yen. The
results show that partial renewal is more effective when the
energy saving performance improves uniformly rather than
unevenly.
In regards to the contribution rate of the compressors to the
energy saving performance, if the rate decreases from 0.75 to
0.65, then whole renewal becomes better than partial renewal
in terms of LC-CO2. If the rate decreases to 0.46, whole
renewal becomes better in terms of the integrated index as well.
These results show that smaller contribution rates of the
replaced module lead to less effective partial renewal.
When we determine the renewal timing, we should
consider the trends in technological progress because
technological development is not continuous. The renewal
could be effective if we could select the renewal timing just
after the occurrence of significant technological progress.
In our case study, we optimize the renewal intervals in
terms of the integrated index of LC-CO2 and resource
consumption. However, it can be determined in terms of LCC.
Figure 10 shows changes in LCCs for whole renewal and partial
renewal when the renewal intervals are changed from 4 years to
20 years. The figure shows the optimum renewal intervals as 15
years and 10 years for whole renewal and partial renewal,
respectively. These intervals are longer than the optimal
intervals from the viewpoint of environmental load and
resource consumption. This is because the ratio of cost increase
for the introduction of the new module to the reduction of
167
operation cost is larger than that in the case of integrated index.
From a practical perspective, renewal interval could be
determined as a value between the values obtained from the
integrated index and LCC.
To make the concept of partial renewal more effective, we
need to enhance the serviceability of modules to be renewed as
well as the durability of parts that are to remain in use.
5. Conclusion
In this study, we discussed the relationships between
maintenance and renewal and proposed a procedure for
integrated maintenance and renewal planning. We define
renewal as replacement of items with new ones of the latest
model regardless of the extent of the replacement. In the case
of EuPs, it is often recommended to renew products frequently
to enjoy improved energy saving performance from the
perspective of reduction in environmental load. However, such
whole renewal induces excess resource consumption. To
address such a problem, we propose partial renewal in which
only modules that mainly contribute to energy consumption are
replaced. The concept is applied to the air-conditioning system
of a commercial building to illustrate its effectiveness. The
results of life cycle simulation show that partial renewal is
superior to whole renewal in terms of environmental load and
resource consumption as well as LCC.
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