Professional Documents
Culture Documents
OF GEOMETRY
by ROBERT POTTS
Language: English
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The School Edition.
'EU CLID'S
ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY,
THE FIRST SIX BOOKS,
~~
~~
1'1LlV.A.TB 8OBOO1.8.
/,~.
.. c~.:.v BY
'(~4 '.
LONDON:
JOHN W. P.ARKER AND SON, 445, WEST STRAND.
1I.DCCC.LlX. Digitized by Google
CAMBRIDGE:
PI-IX.,. aT W. JlETC.A.LPB, GllaRK lTaRIM'.
Digitized by Coogle
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION
.
Soo time after the publication of an Octavo Edition of Euclid's
Elements with Geometrical Exercises, &c., designed for the use of
Academical Students; at the request of Bome Ichoolmaatere of emi-
nence, a .duodecimo Edition of the Six Books was put forth on the
same plan for the use of Schools. Soon after ita appearance, Pro-
fessor Christie, the Secretary of the Royal Society, in the Preface to
his Treatise on Descriptive Geometry for the use of the Royal Military
Academy, was pleased to notice these works in the following terms :-
" When the greater Portion of this Part of the Course was printed,
and had for some time been in use in the Academy, a new Edition of
Euclid's Elements, by Mr. Robert Potts, M.A., of Trinity College,
I Cambridge, which is likely to supersede most others, to the extent, at
least, of the Six Books, was published. From the manner or arrang-
ing the Demonstrations, this edition has the advantages of the
symbolical form, and it is at the same time free from the manifold
objections to which that form is open. The duodecimo edition of this
Work, comprising only the first Six Books of Euclid, with Deductions
from them, having been introduced at this Institution as a text-book,
now renders any other Treatise on Plane Geometry UDneces8ary in
our course of Mathematics."
For the ",ery favourable reception whieh both Editions have met
with, the Editor's grateful acknowledgements are due. It has been his
desire in putting forth a revised Edition of the School Euclid, to render
the work in some degree more worthy of the favour which the former
editions have received. In the present Edition several errors and
oversights have been corrected and some additions made to the notes:
the questions on each book have been considerably augmented and a
better arrangement of the Geometrical Exercises has been attempted:
and lastly, some hints and remarks on them have been given to assist
the learner. The additions made to the' present Edition amount to
more than fifty pages, and, it is hoped, that they will render the work
! more useful to the learner.
And here an occasion may be taken to quote the opinions of some
able men respecting the use and importance of the Mathematical
Sciences. .
On the subject of Education in its most extensive sense, an ancient
writer "direets the aspirant after excellence to commence with th~
Science of Moral Culttire; to proceed next to Logic; next to Mathe-
matics; next to Physics; and lastly, to Theology.H Another writer
on Education would place Mathematics' before Logic, which (he'
I remarks) "seems the preferable course :. f.. by ~tising itself in th9
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i.v PBJPACE.
vi PBEPACE.
VI ........... 346
!ada to the Geometrical Ex.ercises ................. ........ . 364
Digitized by Coogle
Dem!jSI1O. pp. 4:82, 'Witl the Appmdu:, pp. 100; Price 10
"
, EUCLID'S
ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY.
BOOK I.
DBPlNITIONB.
L
A POIn is that which has no parts, or which has no magnitude.
n.
A line ia length without breadth.
m
The extremities 01 a line are points.
IV.
A straight line .is that which lies evenly between its extreme points.
v.
A superficies is that which has only length and breadth.
VI.
The extremities or a Buperficies are lines.
VII.
A plane 8uper1icies is that in which any two pomts being taken, the
Itraight line between ~em lies wholly in that sup3rfi.cies.
vm.
A plane angle is the inclination of two lines to each other in a
.
)lane; which meet together, but are not in the same straight line
IX.
A plane rectilineal angle is the inclination of two straight lines to
another, which meet together, but are not in ~e same straight line.
D
c
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BUeLID's ELEMENTS.
x.
When & straight line standing Gn another s~ht line, makes the
adjacent ~les equal to one another, each of these angles is called a
right angie; and the straight line which stands on the other is called
a perpendicular to i t . . . _ - , ~ ,... . .\
..
-XI.
An obtuse angle "is that which is greater than a -right angle. .
_/
xu.
An acute angle is ,that which is less than a right qle.
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r
DD'I1I1TJOK8. 8
XV..
A cirme ;. a ~ ftpre contained bl one line, which ill called the
circumference, and is such that all straight linea drawn from a certain
point within the figure to the circumference, are equal to one another.
XVI.
And this point is called the center of the circle.
r
I
Xvn.'
I A diameter of a circle is a ~ht line drawn through the center,
termiDatAId boCh -Ja bJ the cUeumrereoee. . .
I
I
I
I
I XVIII..
L A semicircle is the ilaure contained by a diameter and the part of
lIle circmnference cut 01 by the diameter.
I
XIX.
The center of a semicircle is the same with that of the circle.
xx.
Bectitiaea1 figures are those which are contained by straight linea.
XXL
Trilateral figures, or triangles, b)' three straight lines.
XXU~
Qudrllatera1, by four straight lines.
I
I
xxm
Multilateral figures, or polygons, by more than fOUl" straight linea.
B2
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BUCLm'. BLBKBlITI.
XXIV.
D .
Of three-aided figures, an equilateral triangle ia that which' has
tJuee equal aidel.
xxv.
An iaoacelea triangle is that which has two aides equal.
D
XXVL
A acaleDe triangle is that which has three ~equal aidea.
XXVll.
A right-angled triangle is that which haa a right angle.
~XXVIIL
An obtuse-a.ngled triangle is that which has an obtuse qle.
XXIX.
An acut&-angled triangle is, that which has three acu~ angles.
~
xxx.
D .
Of quadrilateral or four-eided figures, a square has all its aidea eqUId
and all ita angles right anglea.
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DBPtNITIOJfI.
XXXI.
. An oblong is that which has all ita angles right anglea, but baa Dot
Iall ita sides eq~.
D XXXII.
A rhombus has all ita sides equal, but ita angles are Dot right angles.
oXXXIII.
: A rhomboid has ita opposi,te sides equal to each other, but all its
iaides are not equal, Dor ita angles right angles.
oXXXIV.
AU other Cour-aided ftgures besides these, are called Trapeduma.
XXXV.
. Parallel straight lines are such as are in the same plane, and which
being produced ever so far. both ways, do not meet.
-------- ..
A.
A parallelo~ is a four-sided figure, of which the opposite aides
Ire J&l8l1el: and the diameter, or the diagonal is the straight line
joinIng two of its opposite .angles.
POSTUJAATBS.
I.
1ft it be granted that a straight line may be drawn from anyone
point to any other point.
n.
That a terminated straight line may be produced. tD any length in
astraight line.
m.
And that a circle may be described from any center, at any distance
&om that center.
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,~--~.
s'
AXIOMS.
I.
Tmxoa which are equal to the same thing are equal to one another.
IT.
It equals be added to equals, the wholes are equal.
ill.
II equals be taken from equals, the remainders are equal.
IV.
It equals be added to unequals, the wholes are unequal.
v~
It equals be taken from unequals, the remainders are unequal.
VI.
Things which are double of the same, are equal to one another
. .VII.
Tbings which are halves of t'he same, are equal to one &IlOfJler.
VIII.
Magnitudes which coincide with one anothe:\", that is, which exactly
fill the same space, are equal to one another. !
IX.
The whole is greater than' its part.
x.
Two straight lines cannot enclose a space.
XI.
All right angles are equal to one anoth~
XU.
If a. straight Une meets two' 8trai~ht lines, 80 as to make the two
interior angles on the same side of It taken together less than two
right angles; these straight lines being continually produced, shall at
length meet upon that side on which are the anglea which are less than
two right angles.
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BOOK I. PROP. I, 11. 7
PROPOSITION I. PROBLE}I.
To deacri1J, Gn eguilaterCll triangltl tqJtm G ,i"171 JlnU4 ,eroigAllinl.
Let AB be the given straight line.
It is required to deacribe an equilateral triangle upon ..4B.
.. ..
'
\
c
. .
,
From the center ..4, at the distance AB, describe the 'circle BCD;
(post. 3.) .
from, the center B, at the distance B.A., descnoo the circle ..4 CR ;
and from 0, one of the points in which the circa cut one another,
draw the straight lines OA, OB to the points A, B. (pOlL 1.)
Then .A.B 0 shall be an equilateral triangle.
lIecause the point .A. is the center of the circle BOD,
therefore .A. 0 is equal to AB; (def.16.)
and because the point B is the center ot the circle .4. CB,
therefore BOis equal to AB;
'but it has been proved that A C is equal to .A.B;
therefore .A. 0, BO are each of them equal to AB;
but things which are ~ual to the same thing are equal to one another;
therefore A 0 is' equal to B (] ; (ax. 1.)
wherefore .A.B, BO, (JA are equal to one another:
.and the triangle AB Cis thelefore equilateral,
and it is described upon the given straight line .AB.
~ch was required to be done.
PROPOSITION II. PROBLEM.
Fro. tJ gifJtIft point, to amID G 8trGiglat line tqtUJl to G giwm ItmigAt liM.
Let A be the given point, and B (J the given straight line.
It is required to dniw from the point A, a straight line toqual to Be.
, ,
B
..
From the point .d to B draw the straie-ht line AB; (posL 1.)
upon .ABdescribe the equilateral triangle ~BD, (I. 1.)
and j)roduce the straight lines DA, DB to Band P; {post. 2.)
from the center B, at the distance Be, describe the circle CGE,
(post. 3.) cutting DFin the point G:
and tfom the center D, at the distance DG, describe the circle GEL,
cutting .A.B in the point L.
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8 EUCLID':5' lLEM.K!'fTS.
ED
p
From the point .A. draw the straight line AD eCJ.ual to (]; . (t. 2.)
and from the center .A, at the distance .AD, descrIbe the circle DEli
(post. 3.) cutting .AB in the point E .
. Then A.E shall be equal to (J.
Because .A is the center of the circle DEl!,
therefore AE is equal to AD; (dJ!f. 15.)
but the straight line Ois equal to .AD; (constr~)
whence .AE and a are each of them equal to AD;
wherefore the straight line AE is equal,to O. (ax. I.)
And therefore from .AB the greater of two straight lines, a part .A.B
has been cut off equal to 0, the less. Which 'Was to be done.
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........,.- --"--"
E
~ P
For, Hthe triangle .A.BObe applied to the ~le DBF,
80 that the point A Dl&y be on D, and the straight lirie AB on DB;
then the po~t B sh8ll ~oincide with the point B, .
because.J..B 18 equal to DB;
and.A.B coincidiDg with DB,
the straight line .A. 0 shan fall on DF,
because the angle BACia equal to the angle BDF;
therefore also the point 0 shall coincide with the point 11,
because .J..Ois equal to DF;
but the point 1J was shewn to coincide with the point B;
wherefore the base BO shan coincide with the base BF;
because the point B coinciding with B, and 0 with F,
if the base B (1 do not coincide with the base BF, the two straight lines
BO and BF would enclose a space, which is impossible. (ax. 10.)
Therefore the base B 0 does coincide with BF, and is equal to it;
and the whole ~le .J..BO coincides with the whole triangle
DBF, andis ~ual to it;
also the remaming angles of one triangle coincide with the remain-
ing angles of the other, and are equ8I to them,
viz. the angle ABOto the angle DBF,
and tile angle .A. VB to DFB.
Thermore, it two triangles have two sides of the one equal to two
sides, &c. Which was to be demonstrated.
PROPOSITION V. THEOREM.
TAe anglu til fM lItH" oj an UtnCBle, triangle arB ttgutJI to .acA otlNr;
tnUl if tA" Bpal ride, btl produced, tl&tl angw on tl&tl otl&tlr ride oj tAB bale
,AaU be epal. .
Let ~B (1 be an isosceles triangle of which the side AB is equal to A 0,
and let the equal sides .A.B, A.Obe produced to D and B.
Then the angle .A.BC shan be equal to the angle .J.. OB,
and the angle DBOto the angle BOB.
In BD take any point F;
from .A..Bthe greater, cut oft'.A.G equal to AFthe less, (1.3.)
and join FO, GB. .
Because .AFia equal to .A.G, (constr.) and.AB to AO; (hyp.)
the two sides F.A., .A. 0 are equal to the two G.A., .A.B, each to each;
and they contain the angle FA. G eommon to the two triangles
~Fa, AGB;
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----- "--- ............
10
D B
therefore the base PO is equal to the baae (}11, (t. 4.)
and the triangle .A.PO is equal to the triangle A GB,
also the remajning angles ot the one are equal to the remaining angles
of the other. each to each, to ...hich the eaual aides are opposite;
viz. the angle ACFto the angfe ABO,
and the angle .A.Pcw the angle A(}B.
And because the whole AF is equal to the whole ~ G,
of which the parts .A.B, .A. C, are e'lual;
therefore the remainder BPis equal to the remamder OG; (aL 3.)
and FO has been proved to be equal to (JB ;
hence, because the two sides BF, FC are equ8J. to the two iJG, &-B,
each to each ,
and the angle BFC has been proved to be ~ual to the angle CGB,
also the base BC is common to the two ~les .BFa, CGB J
wherefore these triangles are equal, {I. 4.}
and their remaining angles, each to each, to which the equal sides
are opposite; ,
therefore the angle FBC is equal to the angle SOB,
and the angle BCPto the angle CBG.
And, since it has been aemonstrated,
that the whole angle .A.BG is equal to the whole AOP,
the parts of which, the angles CBG, BOF are also equal;
therefore the remaining angle.4.B Cis equal to the remaining angle.A. CB,
which are the angles at the base of the triangle .ABC;
and it has also been proved,
that the angle FBCis equal to the angle GCB,
which are the angles upon the other side of the base.
, Therefore the angles at the base, &c. Q.E.D.
CoR. Hence an equilateral triangle is &lao equiangular.
PROPOSITION VI. THEOREM.
If tw _,~, 01 a tritmgz, 6. ~l 10 MeA tit"""; 1M .iM.
tJlItJ tDAia\
n6UtuJ, or are opposite to, tM IgtUII 4ftgle" IAaU tJ. .pal to Ofte anotAw.
Let ~BCbe a triangle having the angle ABC equal to the ~le.A CB.
Then the side AB shall be equal to the aide .A. C. I
A.
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- ~- . '-"-"--P- _.. -.
A 'B
loin CD.
First. When the vertex of each of the triangles is without the
other triangle.
Because A C is equal to AD in the triangle A CD,
therefore the angle ADCis equal to the angle ACD; (t.6.)
but the angle AUD is greater than the angle BCD; (aX. 9.) .
therefore also the angle AD C is greater than BCD;
much more therefore is the angle BDC greater than BCD.
Apin, because the side BCis equal to BD in the triangle BCD~yp.)
therefore the angle BDC is equal to the angle BOD; (I. 6.
but the angle BDCwas proved greater than the angle Be. ,
Ilatce the angle BDCis both equal to, and greater than the angle BCD;
. which is impossible.
Secondly. Let the vertex D ot the triangle .dDB fall Wlthin the
triangle .A aB.
E
p
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12 . EUCLID'S ELEMENTS. .
G~
BeE
Then the angle B A. C shall be equal to the angle BDF.
P
do not coincide with the sides ED, DF, but have a dift'erent situation
as EO, OP:
then, upon the same base, and uJ>!n the same side of it, there can
be two triangles which have their SIdes which are terminated in one
extremity of the base, equal to one another, and likewise those sides
which are terminated in the other extremity; but this is impossible. (Ie 7.)
Therefore, if the base B C coincide with the base EF,
the sides BA,..dC cannot but coincide with the sides BD, DF;
wherefore likewise the angle B..d 0 coincides with the angle EDF, and I
is eq!!al to it. (ax. 8.) .
--rrherefore if two triangles have two sides, &0. Q.E.D.
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BOOlt 1. PROP. IX, X. 18
~
B 0
PROPOSITION X. PROBLEM.
To hila II ,i"". finite mtJigAt au, tAt.rt ii, to eli""" it Wo lIDO ,pal
,.".
Let ..J. B be the given straight line.
i It is required to divide AB into two equal parts.
Upon AB describe the equilateral triangle ABC; (1.1.)
c
~
A. D B
and bisect the angle .A CB by the straight line OD meeting .A.B in the
point ~. (I. 9.)
Then AB shall be cut into two equal parts in the point D.
Because .A. (J is equal to CB, (CODstr.)
and CD is common to the two triangles A. OD, BOD;
the two sides A C, CD are equal to the two B C, OD, each to each;
and the angle ACD is equal to BCD; (constr.)
therefore the base AD is equal. to the base BD. (1.4.).
Wherefore the straight line 4B is divided into two equal parts In the
point D. Q.E.!'. .
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PROPOSmON' XI. PltOBLBM:.
To . . . II draigAt liM at rigAl ..,,., 10 II
,...."., .. 1M .....
"wm
IIralg'" liu,.fro-
.
Let .AB be the given straight line, and 0 a given point in it.
It is required to draw a Itraight line &om the point C at righ&
angles to .dB.
p
__*--!:-_~B
D C oK
In .A. C take any point D, and make OB equal to OD; (I. 3.)
U~D DB describe tlie equilateral tna:~\e DBF (I. 1), and join OF.
Then OF drawn from the point 0 s be at right angles to .A.B.
Because DO is ~ual to Bo, and FOis common to the two triangles
DOF,BOF;
the two sides De, OF are ~ual to the two sides Be, OF, each fA) each;
and the base DFlI ~ual to the base BF; (constr.)
therefore the angle DOFu equal to the angle BOF: (1.8.)
and these two angles are adjacent angles.
But when the two adjacent angles which one straight line maltee
with another straight line, are equ8l to one another, each of them is
called a right angle: (del. 10.)
therefore each of the angles DOD, BOF is a right angle.
Wherefore from the ~ven point 0, in the given straight line .A.B,
PO has been drawn at ~ht angles to .dB. Q.E.F.
CoB. By help of this problem, it may be demonstrated that two
atnight lin. cannot have a common sepento
Ifit be J)oss!ble, let the segment.dB be common to the two straight
lines .ABe, .dBD.
B
D
B C
Prom the point B, draw BB at right angles to .AB; (1.11.)
then because ..4.BC is a straight line,
therefore the angle .ABBis equal to the angle BBC; (del. 10.)
Similarly, because .ABD is a straight line, .
therefore the ~le A.BB is equal to tlie 8.!l8le BBD;
but the angle ..4.BB is equal to the angle BBO,
wherefore the angle BBD is eqUal to the angle BBC, (ax. 1.)
the less equal to the greater angle, which is impossible.
Therefore two straight lines cannot have a common segment.
PROPOSITION XlI. PROBI,'RM.
To ",.., ,. ~ I. . JH1fJMrtdicNlar 10
"iW 1MgeA,"'" CI " " ' " point tDitAout U
CI,_""'''' IUw of ....
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BOOK t. PROP. xn, XUI. 11
Let .4B be the given straight line, ...hich ma1 be produced an,
1eDath both wap, and let C be a point without it.
It is required to draw a atraiglit line perpendicular to All from the
pi~a 0
A~BB
D
Let the atraight line AB make with CD, upon one side of it. the
anglee CBA, ABD.
Then these shall be either two right angles,
01', shall be together, equal to two right angles.
E
A A
~
1) BCD B 0
Pot if the ~le CB-A. be ~ual to the angle ABD,
each or them is a right angle. (def. 10.)
13ttt ilthe angle OB.A. be not egual to the anp:le A.BD,
from the poin, B draw BE at riglit angles to OD. (I. 11.)
Then the &ng1es eBB, BBD are two right angles. (del. 10.)
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16 BUOLW'S BL'BJlBKTS.
And becaue the angle OBB is equal to the angles OBA, ~BB,
add the angle BBD to each of these e c ;
therefore the angles eBB, BBD are equal to the angles CB.4,
ABB, BBD. (ax. 2.)
Again, because the angle DBA is equal to the two angles DBB, BB4.,
add to each of these eqUals the angle ABO;
therefore the angles DB..4, ABC are equal to the three angles DBB,
'BBA, .ABC.
But the angles eBB, BBD have been proved equal to the same
three ~les;
and ~ which are equal to the same thing are equal to one another;
therefore the ~les CBB, BBD are equal to the angles DBA., ABe;
but the angles eBB, BBD are two right angles; .
therefore the angles DBA, .ABOare together equ8l to two light angles.
(ax. 1.)
.
Wherefore, "When a straight line, &c. Q.B.D.
\
C
_,-=====-B
B D
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_ ITZ-
18 EdeLID's BLHMBNTS..
LL
BCD
Produce any side B 0 to D.
Then because A. OD is the exterior angle of the triangle AB 0;
therefore the angle A OD is greater than the interior and opposite angle
A.BO; (I. 16.) I
to each of these unequals add the ant:n.A OB ; i
therefore the angles -40D, .A.. VB are greater the angles dB C, 'I'
.A.OB;
but the angles .4. OD, .A.OB are equal to two right angles; (I. 13.)
therefore the 8J!gles ABa, .A. CB are less than two right angles.
In like manner it may be demonstrated,
that the angles BA. 0, A OB are less than two right angles,
as also the angles OAB, A.BO.
Therefore any two angles of a triangle, &0. Q. E. D.
~
Since the aide dOis greater than the side All, (hyp.)
make AD equal to AB, (I. 3.) and join BD.
Then, because AD is equal to ..4.B, m the triangle ABD,
therefore the angle .A.BD is equal to the angle ADB, (I. 6.)
but because the siae CD of the triangle BDCis producoo to.A.,
therefore the exterior angle .t:4.DB is greater thaD. the interior and
opposite angle DOB; (I. 16.)
but the angle ..4.DB has been proved equal to the &!lIle .A.BD,
therefore the ~le ABD is greater than the angle DaB.
wherefore much more IS the angle ABC ~ater than the angle ..4. OB.
Therefore the greater aide, &c. Q. Be D.
PROPOSITION XIX. THEOREM.
rAe greater angle of tJHf"!I triangle u IUlMtadftJ 6g 1M "..",. ridI, or,
haa the greater side opposite to it.
Let AB (J be a triangle of which the angle AB 0 is greater than the
angole BOA.
Then the aide A 0 ,hall be greater than the side .A.B.
A
B
~ C
For, if A 0 be not greater than AB,
A amust either be equal to, or less than .A.B;
. if A a were equal to .A.B,
then the angle ABC would be equal to the angle .A.OB; (1.6.)
but it is not ~ual; (hyp.)
therefore the aide ..4. a II not eqUal to .A.B.
Again, if ..4. 0 were less than .A.B,
then the angle ..4.BOwould be less than the angle AOB; (I. 18.)
but it is not less, (hyp.)
therefore the lide A 0 is not less than ..4.B;
and A. 0 has been shewn to be D:ot equal to .dB;
. therefore AOis greater than ..4.B.
Wherefore the greater angle, &0. Q. E. D.
PROPOSITION:xx. THEOREM.
An, ItDD .u.. of II trilmg~ arB togBtllM greater tAM 1M lAirdwu.
Let .ABC be a triangle.
Then any two sides of it together shall be greater than the third side,
viz. the aides B.A., .A. 0 greater than the side BO;
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10 BUcLID'S ELEMENTS.
B
/:SJ C
Produce the aide B.4.. to the point D,
make A.D equal to .4.. 0, (I. 3.) and join De.
Then because .dD is eqUal to .4.. e, (conatr.)
therefore the angle .J..OD is equal to the angle ADO; (I.
but the ~le BOD is ~eater than the angle .d OD; (ax. 9.
therefore aJ80 the angle BOD is greater than the angle.AD
'1
And because in the triangle DBO,
the angle BOD is greater than the angle BDC,
and that the greater angle is aubtended bI the greater aide; (I. 19.)
.. therefore the aide DB is greater than the aide BC';
but DB ia equar to BA and .A e,
therefore the sides BA and .d 0 are greater than Be.
In the same manner it may be demonstrated,
that the aides AB, B 0 are greater than OA;
also that Be, OA are greater than AB.
Therefore any two sides, &c. Q. B. D.
B C
Produce BD to meet the side A a in E.
Because two sides of a triangle are greater than the third side, (I. 20.)
therefore the two sides B.A., AB of the triangle .J..BB are greater
than BB;
to each of these unequals add BO;
therefore the sides BA., AO are greater than BB, BO. (aL 4..)
Again, because the two sides OE, ED of the triangle OBD are
greater than DO; (I. 20.)
add DB to each of these unequals;
Digitized ~ Coogle
It
..\-
~~
.\'"
, "1Ii:
BpOlt J. PBOP. XXI. XXII. 11
therefore the aides CB, BB are greater thaD. CD, DB. (u.4.)
But it baa been shewn that BA, .dC are ~ter than B:B, BCf
much more then are BA, ..4.Cgreater thaD. BD, DC.
Again, because the exterior angle of a triangle it greater than the
interior and opposite ~le; (I. Uf.)
therefore the e&rior ~le BDOofthe triangle ODB it great.
than the interior and opposite an,le CED.
for the aame reason, the exterior ~le CBD 01 the ~le ..4.BB
is ~ter than the interior and opposite angle B~ Cj
and it hal been demonstrated,
that the ~le BDC is ~ter than the ~le CBB;
much more therefore is the ~18 BDC greater tlwi the angle B..4. C.
Therefore, it from the enda of the side, &0. Q. B.D.
'PROPOSmON XXlL PROBLBH.
To . . . tJ tritMgk oj ",AieA tIN ,ida ,1UJll N IptJI 10 'ArH ,.....
VGigAt . . ., hut .., two "'~ 01 fAa. ""'" N gnaw lAM 'A. ,_".
Let .At B, 0 be the three given straight linea,
ofwhich any two whatever are greater than the third, (L 20.)
namely, .4. and B greater than 0;
.d and 0 greater than B J
and B and V greater than A-
It is required to make a triangle of which the aides shall be equal
to ..d., B, 0, each to each.
~
A_ __
B
C-
~ (post 3.)
I from the center G, at the distance GH, describe the circle ELK;
I from K where the circles cut each other draw KF, XG to the pointa
P, G;
I Then the ~le XFG ahall have .ita sides equal to the three
atraight lines A, B, a.
Because the point F is the center of the circle DEL,
therefore FD is equal to FX; (de. 16.)
but FD is ~ua1 to the straight line A ;
therefore FE is equal to ..4..
Again, because G is the center of the circle EEL;
therefore (}H is equal to GX, (def. 16.)
but GHis equal to 0;
therefore also GX is equal to OJ (ax. 1.)
and PG is eqUal to B;
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---. ~--,--- .- .~ ---
II BUCLln's ELBMRJlT8.
therefore the three straight lines KF, FO, (JK, are respectively
equal to the three, .d, B, 0:
and tllerefore the triangle KFO has ita three aides KF, FG, GK,
equal to the three given straight lines A, B, C. Q.B.P
Let .A.B be the given straight line, aDd .A. the gkren point in it, II
Dj)~ B
G
. ~ AB, make the triangle AFO, the sides of wllich shall be equal
to the three straight lines CD, DB, Be, 80 that AP be equal to
CD,.4.G to CB, and FO to DE.. (1.22.) I
Then the angle F.A. 0 shall be equ8J. to the angle DOB.
Because F..A.,..A.O are ~ual to DO, CB, each to each,
and the base FO 18 equal to the base DB;
therefore the angle FA 0 is equal to the angle DCB. (L 8.)
Wherefore, at the given point .A. in the ~v.en straight line .A.11, the
aro.gle F.&G is made equal to the given reetUinea1 angle DCB. Q.U.
~ B C G
Digitized by Coogle
BOOK
. I. PBOP, XXIV, XXV. .
ot the two aides DB, DF, let DB be not greater than DF,
at the ~int D, in the line DB, and on the aame aide of it as D7,
make the angle BDO equal to the ande B4. C; (I. 23.)
:make DO eqUal to DFor AC, (I. 3.) 8Ildjoin BfJ, oF.
Then, b8Cge DB is equal to .4.B, alit DO to .4. a
. the two sides DE, DO are eqwil to the two ..dB, .4.0, each to each,
I and the angle BDO is equal to the angle BAa;
therefore the tiase EO is ~Ual to the base BOo (1.4.)
And because DO is equal to DF in the triangle hFG,
I therefore the angle DFG is equal to the angle DGF; (I. 3~
but the angle DGFis greater than the angle BGF; (ax. 9.
therefore the angle DFG is also greater than the angle BO ;
much more therefore is ~e angle BFO greater than the angle BOP.
~d because in the triangle BFO, the angle BFO is greater than
the angle BGF,
and -that the greater angle is subtended bI the greater aide; (L 19.)
. therefore the side BO is ~ter than the side BFI
but BO was proved equal to Ba;
therefore BO is ~ter than BF.
Wherefore, if two triangles, &0. Q. E. D.
PROPOSITION XXV. THEOREH.
If. trltmgluMt1., tflX) ,idu oj tAs one eptJl to tflX) ,idu oj a. oIAIr,
tacA to tJGCA, bl" tAs 6au oj otIB greater tJum ,AB haM of tAB of_; ",.
engl, COIItGined'by tAB.ide, of tAB tmI tDhicA 1&Gt tAB gNtJUr 6cuB, .MII 6.
".tater elaan tAB Mgle ccmttJinstl br tAs ,ida, 6fU'Il to 'AIm,
of tAB 01_.
i.Let .ABO, DBFbe two triangles which have the two sides .dB, .4.e,
equal to the two sides DB, DP, each to each, namely, AB equal to
DB, and ACto DF; but the base BO greater than the base EP.
Then the angle B.4. 0 shall be greater than the angle BDF.
A
D
~
:IS C ~
For, if the angle B.4. (J be not greater than the angle EDJ!,
it :Knust either be equal to it, or less than it.
If the angle BA. C were equal to the angle BDF,
then the base BOwould be equal to the base BF; (1.4.)
but it is Dot equal, ~yp.)
a
ther'efore the angle B.4. is not equal to the angle BDF.
~ if the angle BA (] were less than the angle EDF,
then the base B (J would be less than the base EF; (I. 24.)
but it is not les8, (hyp.)
therefore the an~: B.AOis not less th8.n the angle BDF;
t.ndithas been shewBt t thean~leB~ Cis not equal to the angle BDF;
therefore the angle BA. 0 IS IJ1'8&ter than the angle EDF.
Wherefore, iftwo triangles, &0. Q.E.D.
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PROPOSITION XXVI. TBBORBK.
If ,., '"-lie. Aaw tWJO ..,,., of tIN DIN eptJIlo tWJO . , , . 01
otluw. each to each. au OM rid-1fUI.Il to DIN litle, flU. eitAw 1M _ida .
cMl to
tAl,.",..,,.
tIN ~l a,."z. in each. or tIN rid" opporit_ to tIaM; tlaM IAtJll
otJwr.Ulu 1M 1tJfMI1. tltJl)h to tJtJCh, tII&tl tJlIo u...
to tIN tAI"d IIIIgN 0/ tIN ollwr.
of tIN 0rN
Let ABO, DEF be two triangles which have the angles .J.B
BO~, equal to the angles DEF, BFD, each to each, namely, A
to DEY, and BCA to BFDj also one side e:qual to one side.
First, let those sides be equal which are adJacent to the angles
are equal in the two triangles, namely, B C to BF.
TIlen the other sides s1iall be equ8.l, each to each, namely, AB
DB, and A Oto DP, and the third angle BA Oto the third angle BD.
A.
o~
B a
.
For, if AB be not equal to DB,
one of them must be greater than the other.
H possible, let AB be [Ster than DB,
make BG equal to ED, I. 3.) and join Go.
Then in the two triang es OBO, DEP,
because GB is equal to DB, and BO to BP, (hyp.)
the two sides GB, BOare equal to the two DB, EF, each to each;
and the angle GBCis equal to the angle DBF;
therefore the base GO is egUal to the base DF, (I. 4.)
and the triangle GBOto the triangle DJ1p,
and the other angles to the other angles, each to each, to which
the equal sides are opposite ;
therefore the angle GOB is equal to the angle DFB;
but the angle A CB is, by the h~thesis, equal to the angle DFB;
wherefore 8ls0 the angle GOB 18 equal to the angle A CB; (ax. 1.)
the less angle equal to the greater, which is impossible;
therefore .AB is not unequal to DB, .
that is, AB is equal to DB.
Hence, in the triangles A.Bo, DBF;
bE-cause .AB is equal to DE, and BOto EP, (hyp.)
and the angle ABCis equal to the angle DBF; {liyp.)
therefore the base A 0 is equal to the base DP, (i. 4.)
. and the third angle BA C to the third angle BDF.
Secondly, let the sides which are opposite to one of the equal angle!
in each triangle be eqll8l to one another, namely, AB equaf to DB.
Then in tliis case likewise the other sides shall be equ8l, A C to DP,
and B C to 'R F. and also the third angle BA C to the tliird angle BDF.
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-
BOOK 1. PllOP. XXVI, XXVII. 25
A D
~~ B He l:.
Fot if Babe not equal to BF,
,
A--+---......
G
,
For, if.AB be not parallel to CD,
..4.B and OD being produced will meet, either towards A and 0,
or towards B and D.
Let ~B, OD. be produced and meet, if possible, towards B and D,
In the pomt OJ
then GBF is a triangle.
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. ~.~-~-
EUCLID'S EL1UIBNT!.
A-~---D
C---\'---D
p
Because the angle BGB is equal to the angle GHD, (hyp.)
and the angle BGB is equal to the angle .4GH, (I. 15.)
therefore the angle .A. GH is equal to the angle GHD; (ax. 1.)
and they are alternate an~les, .
therefore .AB 1S parallel to OD. (I. 27.) I
Digitized by Coogle
BOOK L PROP. XXIX.
C--....Jor---D
p
First. For, if the angle A G H be not equal to the alternate angle
GIID, one of'them must be greater than the other;
if possible, let A 0 H be greater than G HD,
then because the angle A 0 H is greater than the angle GHD,
add to each of these unequals the an~BOH;
therefore the angles AGH, BOH are greater the angles BOH,
GHD; (ax. 4.)
but the angles AOE, BOHare equal to two right angles; (1.13.)
therefore t~e angles BGH, GHD are less than two right angles;
but those straight lines, which with another straight line falling upon
them, make the two interior angles on the same side less than two
right angles, will meet together if continually produced; (ax. 12.)
therefore the straight lines A.B, CD, if produced far enough, will
meet towards B, D;
but they never meet, since they are parallel by the hypothesis;
therefore the angle A. GH is not unequal to the angle 0 HD,
I that is, the angle A 0 H is equal to the alternate angle GHD.
Secondly, because the angleAGHis e'lual to the angle BOB, (I. If;')
and the angle A GH is equal to the angle GHD,
therefore the exterior angle BOB is equal to the interior and opposite
angle OED, on the same side of the line.
Thirdly. :Because the angle BOB is equal to the angle OED,
add to each of them the angle BOH;
therefore the angles BOB, BOE are equal to the angles BGH, OED;
, (~. ~.)
but EGB, BGH are equal to two right angles; (I. 13.)
therefore also the two interior angles BOH, OED on the same side
of the line are equal to two right angles. (ax. 1.)
Wherefore, if a straight liite, &c. Q. E. D.
c2
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:lUCLlD'S ELEMENTS.
E=jF/G
A
c
l(
H
/ B
p
D
B A. F
~~
B D C
In the line B 0 take any point D, and join .AD,
at the point .A. in the straight line .AD,
make the angle DAE equal to the angle .ADO, (I. 23.) on the oppo-
site side of AD ;
and produce the straight line EA. to F.
Then EF shall be parallel to B O. _
Because the straight line .AD meets the two straight lines EF, Be,
and makes the alternate angles E.A.D, .ADO, equal to one another,
therefore EFis parallel to BO. (I. 27.)
Wherefore, through the given point .A, has been drawn a straight
Ime E.A.Fparallel to the given straight line .BO. Q.E.F.
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BOOK. 1. PROP. XXXlI. 29
PROPOSITION XXxu. THEOREM
.If II lids 01 an, tritmgls b, protllllJ., 1M aIwior aregls u ftJUIJI to tM
fIIIointerior "m' DppOlite "',gla; tJfIIl u.. tAr. ifItIrior angla 01 ffJef'Y
triGngk Gre together etpMll to two ,;gAt angle
: Let.dBCbeatriangle,andletone of its aidesBObeproducedtoD.
! Then ~e exterior angle A OD shall be equal to tlie two interior
: and OppOSIte angles CAB, ABC:
; and the three interior angles .4BO, BOA, O..,4B shall be equal to
, two right angles.
A :I
~/
Be. D
Through the point 0 draw OB parallel to the side BA. (I. 31.)
Then because OB is parallel to B.d, and A. C meets them,
.' therefore the angle A CE is equal to the alternate angle BA. C. (I. 29.)
i ~, because OB is parallel to .A.B, and BD falls upon them,
, therefore the exterior ~le BCD is equal to the interior and op-
. posite angle .A.BO; (I. 29.)
but the angle A C'B was shewn to be equal to the angle BA C;
therefore ilie whole exterior angle .A. OD is equal to the two interior
. and opposite angles CAB, ABO: (ax. 2.)
Again, because the angle..d CD is equal to the two angles ..dB 0, BA 0,
to each of these equals add the angle ..dCB,
therefore the angles A. CD and A. OB are equal to the three angles
A.BO, BA. 0, and A. OB; (ax. 2.)
but the angles A. CD, ..d CB are equaf to two right angles, (I. 13.)
therefore also the angles A.BC, B.A.o, .J..OB are equal to two right
angles. (ax. 1.)
Wherefore, if a side of. any triangle be produced, &c. Q. B D.
O>R. "I. All the interior angles of any rectilineal figure together
with four ri~ht angles, are equal to twice as many right angles as the
figure has Bld~
D
E~
.A. B
For any rectilineal figure ABODE can be divided into 88 many
triangles as the figure has sides, by drawing straight linea rom a point
Pwithin the figure to each of its angles.
TheJ;l, because the three interior an~le8 oi a ~iangle are equ~l to
two right angles, and there are as many tr18.ngles as the figure haS SIdes,
therefore all the angles of these triangles are equal to twice as many
right angles as the figure has sides ;
but the same angles of these triangles are equal to the interior angles
of the figure together with the angles at the point!:
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80 EUCLID'S RLEM ENTS.
and the angles at the point F, which is the Common vertex of all
the triangles, are equal to four right angles, (I. 16. Cor. 2.)
therefore the same angres of these triangles are equal to the angles
of the figure together with four right angles;
but it has been proved that the angles of the triangles are equal to
twice as Dlany right angles as the figure has sides; I
therefore all the an~les of the figure togeth~r with four right ang:les,
are equal to tWIce as many right angles as the figure has sldes.
COR. 2. All the exterior angles of any rectilineal figure, made by
producing the sides successively in the same direction, are together
equal to four right angles.
D B
Since every interior angle ABO with its adjacent exterior angle
'&BD, is equal to two right angles, (I. 13.)
therefore all the interior angles, together with all the exterior angles,
are equal to twice as many right angles as the figure has sides ;
but it has been proved by the foregoing corollary, that all the in-
terior angles together with four right angles are equal to twice as'Dlany
right angles as the figure has sides;
therefore all the interior angles together with all the exterior angles,
are equal to all the interior angles and four right angles, (ax. 1.)
take from these equals all the interior angles,
therefore all the exterior angles of the figure are equal to four right
angles. (ax. 3.)
\Z~C D
loin BOo
Then because.A..B is parallel to aD, and BOmeeta them,
therefore the angle ABO is equal to the alternate angle BOD; (L 29.)
and because.dB is equal to OD, andB a common to the two triangles
.A.BC, DaB; the two sides .A.B, BO, are equal to the two DO, OB, each
to each, and the angle .A.BOwas proved to be equal to the angle BOn
therefore the base .A.Oisequal to the base BD, (L 4.)
and the triangle .A.BOto the triangle BOD,
Digitized by Coogle
BOOK 1. PROP. XXXIV. 81
and the other angles to the other angles, each to each, to which the
equal sides are opposite;
therefore the an~le .A CB is equal to the angle CBD.
And because the straIght line BC meets the two straight lines A 0,
BD, and makes the alternate angles A CB, CBD equal to one another;
therefore .A C is parallel to BD; (I. 27.)
and .ACWU shewn to be equal to BD.
Therefore, straight lines which, &c. Q.E.D.
\Z\ C D
Because AB is parallel to CD, and BC meets them,
therefore the angle AB C is equal to the alternate angle BOD. (L 29).
And because ACis parallel to BD, and BOmeets them,
therefore the angle A OB is equal to the alternate angle CBD. (I. 29.)
; Hence in the two triangles ABC, OBD,
because the two angles .AB 0, BOA in the one, are equal to the two
angles BCD, CBD in the other, each to each;
I and one side BC, which is adjacent to their equal angles, common to
I the two triangles;
I therefore their other sides are egual, each to each, and the third angle
of the one to the third angle of the other, (I. 26.)
namely, the side .AB to the side CD, and A C to BD, and the angle
BA 0 to the angle BDa.
And because the angle ABCis equal to the angle BOD,
and the angle OBD to the angle A OB,
therefore the whole angle .A.BD is equal to the whole angle .A. CD ;
(ax. 2.)
I and the angle BAChas been shewn to be equal to BDC;
therefore the opposite sides and angles of a parallelogram are equal to
one another,
Also the diameter BCbisects it.
For since .AB is ~ual to CD, and BC common, the two sides AB,
BO, are equal to the two DC, OB, each to each,
lid the angle ABO has been proved to be ~ual to the ~le BCD;
therefore the trian~le .ABO is equal to the triangle BOD; (I, 4.) and
the diameter BCdivldesthe parallelogram.dODB into two equal pam.
Q.E.D.
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-" --.-- . - I
PUOPOSITION xxxv.
THEORE\f.
ParalklogrGWY "PO" tM ,tJm8 ba", cuuI "t."",. tM 10".. PtJmllell. are
IItJIUII to OM Gnotiutr.
Let the ~llelogram8~BCD, BBOFbeuponthe samebaseBO.
and between the same parallels ~F, B O.
Then the parallelogram.4.B CD shall be equal to the parallelogram
BBCl!~
A D .p A DB P A B D P
07 \2V V-V
BOB.O B 0
If the sides AD, DFofthe parallelograms ~BOD, DBOF, opposite
to the base B 0, be terminated in the same point D;
then it is plain that each of the parallelograms is double of the triangle
BDO; (I. 34.)
and therefore the parallelogram .A.BCD i8 equal to the parallelogram I
DBOF. {ax. 6.)
But if the sides .AD, BF, opposite to the base B~ be not termi-
nated in the same point;
Then, b~U8e .ABOD is a parallelogram,
therefore A.D is equal to BC; (I. 34.)
and for a similar reasop. BFis e'lual to BO;
wherefore ~D is. equal to BF; (ax. 1.)
and DE is common;
therefore the whole, or the remainder .dB, is equal to the whole, or
the remainder DF; ~ax. 2 or 3.)
and.dB IS equal to DO; (I. 24.)
hence in the triangles B.A.B, FDa,
because FD is equal to EA., and DO to ..4.B,
and the exterior angle FDC is equal to the interior and opposite angle
E.A. B ; (I. 29.)
therefore the base FO is equal to the base EB, (I. 4.)
and the trianglo FDCis equal to the triangle B.A.B.
From the trapezium A.BOF take the triangle FDO.
and from the same trapezium take the triangle B.4.B,
and the remainders are equal, (ax. g.)
therefore the parallelogram.dBCD is equal to the paraJlelogramBBCF.
Therefore, parallelograms upon the same, &0. Q. E. D.
Digitized by Coogle
BOOK I. PROP. XXX':"I, XXXVII. as
DB 1I
'.
L2tXJ
Be,.
loin BB, ON.
G
Then because BOis equal to FO, (hyp.) and FG to BN, (I. 84.)
therefore .BO is equal to 'EH; (ax. 1.)
and these lines are parallels, and joined towardi the same parte by the
straight lines BE, OH;
but straight lines which join the extremities of equal and parallel
straight lines towards the same parts, are themselves eqUal and parallel j
(1.33.)
therefore BE, ON are both equal and5e1;
wherefore EB OH is a parallelogram. del. A.}
And- because the parallelograms ABOD, B. ON, are upon the
same base B (J, and between the same parallel. B 0, 4 H ;
therefore. the parallelogram .A.B OD is equal to the parallelogram
EBeN. (I. 36.J
For the same reason, the parallelogram BFOH is equal to the
parallelogram EBOH;
therefore the J?arallelogram .ABOD is equal to the parallelogram
BFGH. {ax. 1.)
\ Therefore, para1lelograms upon equal, &c. Q. B. D.
PROPOSITION XXXVII. THEOREM.
Triattg" fIJ'JOf' tAs ItmN 6aI, and bettDem tAs .ra"" pa,.GlIlr., til, egtUJI to
one ""ntw.
. Let the triangles ABC, DBObe upon the same base BfJ,
and 1:ietween the same parallels AD, BO. .
Then the triangle .A.B (} shall be equal to the triangle DB O.
BAD P
\JlJ7
B C
Produce AD both ways to the points B, F;
through B dra. BE parallel to O.A., (I. 31.)
and through 0 draw OF parallel to BD.
Then each of the figures EBO.A., DBOFis a parallelogram;
and EBC..A. is equal to DBOF, (I. 35.) because, they. are upon the
same base B 0, and between the same parallels BO, EF.
And because the diameter .A.B bisects the parallelogram BB OA,
therefore the triangle.A.B 0 is half of the parallelopm EB VA; (I. 34.)
also because the diameter, D V bisects the parallelogram DB eF,
therefore the triangle DBOis half of the parallelogram DBep,
but the halves of equal things are equal; (ax. 7.)
therefore the triangle .A.BO is equal to the triangle 1JBC.
, Wherefore, ~ngles, &0. Q. E.l>.
Digitized by Go~ R:
34 EUCLID'S BLEMBNTS.
to 0ftI GAOtlaw.
Let the triangles A.BC, DEF be upon equal bases Be, BF, and
between the same parallels BF, .AD. I
Then the triangle ..4B 0 shall be equal to the triangle DBP. '
GAD H
\Z\ /'\J
B OR P
Produce A.D both ways to the points G, H,
thro!J.gh B draw BG parallel to 0.4., (I. 31.)
and through Fdraw FHparallel to BD.
Then each of the figures GBO..4, DEFHis a parallelogram;
and theI are equal to one another, (I. 36.)
because they are upon equal bases B 0, EF,
and between the same parallels BF, GN. I
~ B 0
10m A.D; then A.D shall be parallel to BD.
For if.4.D be not ~aral1eI to BO,
if'poBsible, through the point.A, Ciraw oAB parallel to BO, (I. 31.)
meeting BD, or BD produced, in E, and join Bo.
Then the triangle ..4.BOis equal to the triangle EBo, (I.- 37.)
because they are upon the same base Be,
and between the same parallels B 0, .4.E:
but the triangle A.BCis equal to the ~le DBa; (hyp.)
therefore the triangle DBOis equal to the triangle BBC,
Digitized by Coogle
BOOK. J. PROP. XL, XLI.
~BeE P
loin ..4.D; then.AD shall be parallel to BF.
For if AD be not parallel to BF,
it poselole, through .A draw :.A 0 P.8l'&!lel to BF, (I. 31.)
mee~ ED, or BD produced in 0, and join GF.
a
Then the triangle AB is equal to t't...e triangle 0 EF, (L 38.)
because they are upon equal bases BO, EF,
and between the same ~els BF, .A 0;
but the ~le ABO is equal to the triangle DBF; (hyp.)
therefore the triangle DBFis equal to the trian~le OBF, (ax. 1.)
the greater triangle equal to the leas, which 18 impossible:
therefOre .A 0 is not ~el to BF.
And in the same manner it can be demonstrated,
that"there is DO other line drawn from A ~el1:D it but AD;
AD is therefore parallel to BF.
Wherefore, equal triangles upon, &c. Q. Be D.
PROPosmON XLI. THEOREM.
If. fIII"IIlklDgraM CII&d G tritmgi4J N tpm tAs ".".. 6aH, tm4 ~
,. .... pIJf'Glkll; ,IN parallBlogrGm ,Aall N doulllB oftAe triangle.
Let the parallelogram .A.BOD, and the triangle BBO be upon the
lalne base1Ja and between the same parallels B 0, AB.
Then the parallelogram AB aD shall be double olthe triangle BB C.
~loin .AO.
Then the triangle .A.Bela equal to the triangle BBC, (1.37.)
Digitized by Coogle
86
because they are upon the same base BC, and between the l&Dle
parallelS B 0, AB.
But the parallelogram ABOD is double 01 the triangle ABC,
o
because the diameter A bisects it; (1.34.)
wherefore ABOD is also double of the triangle BBa.
Therefore, if' a parallelogram and a triangle, &c. Q. B. D.
IJJ~
B B C
Bisect BOin B, (1.10.) and join JfB;
at the point B in the straight line BO,
make the angle CBFequal to the angle D; (1.23.)
through 0 draw OG parallel to BF, and through A draw .dFG
parallel to BO, (I. 31.) meeting BFin F, and OG in G.
Then the figure ORFG is a parallelogram. {def. A.}
And because the triangles ABE, AEO are on the equal bases BB,
Ba, and between the same parallels BO, A G;
they are therefore eq,ual to one another; (I. 38.)' .
and the triangle ABOlS double of the trian~le ABC;
but the parallelogram FROG is double of the triangle ABO, (I. 41.)
because they are upon the same base Bo, and between the same
parallels B 0, A G ; - ..
therefore the parallelo~am FBOG is equal to the triangle AB a, (ax. 6.)
and it has one of Its angles OEF equal to the given angle D.
Wherefore, a parallelogram FBOG has been described equal to the
given triangle ABa, and having one of its angles OEF eqUal to the
given angle D. Q. E. P.
B G 0
Because .ABCD is a parallelopm, and .A C ita diameter,
therefore the triangle AlJC is equal to the triangle .A.DC. (I. 34.)
Again, because EEHA is a Jlarallelogram, ana AK ita diameter,
therefore the triangle .A. EE IS equal to the triangle .ABK; (I. 34.)
and for the same reason, the triangle K 00 is equal to the triangle KPo.
Wherefore the two triangles AEK, KOO are equal to the two
triangles AHE, KFO, (ax. 2.)
but tlle whole tri~le ABC is equal to the whole triangle .ADC;
therefore the remaining complement BK is equal to the remaining
I
I complement ED. (ax. 3.)
Wherefore the complements, &0. Q. E. DO'
I
i PROPOSITION XLIV. PROBLEM.
I To a gi"en "raigAt line to appl, a pGrGUewgram, VJAicA lAaU N .".,1
I to II giNA tritmgl8, and haw ORB oj its atlglu epal to G gi". ndilineGl
tmg18.
I Let .A.B be the given straight line, and (J the given triangle, and D
the given rectilineal angle.
It is required to apply to the straight line A.B, a ~elogram
equal to the triangle C, and having an angle equal to the angle D.
I F E K
j Gi---,I&----t II
HAL
Make the parallelogram BEFG equal to the triaD~e (J,
and having the ,angle EB G equal to the angle D, I. 42.)
, 80 that BE be in the same straight line with A J
produce FG to H,
thro~h A. draw AHparallel to BG or EF, '!. 31.) and join HB.
Then because the straight line HF falls upon the parallels A.H, EF,
therefore the angles AHF, HFE are together equal to two right
angles; (I. 29.)
wherefore the angles BHF, HFE are less than two right angles:
. bu~ straight lines :which with another straight .line, make tlie two
!Uterior angles upon the same side less than two nght angles, do tneet
if Pl'Oduced far enough: (ax. 12.)
therefore :JiB, FE shall meet if produced;
let them be produced and meet in K,
through K draw EL parallel to EA. or FH,
andlroduce HA., 0 B to meet KL in the ~0!!t8 L, M.
Th~ H KF is a parallelogram, of which th~ . . eta is HE; ,
Digitized by Coogle
as EUCLll>'S ELEMENTS.
Ito..,
To . " " . . G ,.f'tIlr.logrGIA equal to
"ft..,18 ep4I to G giNfl rectilVlMIl anule
G gifJm rBCtililNGl jIgwe, -.tl
Let :A.B OD be the given rectilineal figure, and B the given recti-
lineal angle. .
It is r~uired to describe a ~elopm. that shall be equal to the
figure ABUD, and having an angle eqUal to the given angle B.
D 'f G L
c
l[fl J[ B 11[
loin DB.
Describe the ~elogram FH equal to the triangle ~DB, and
having the angle FKH equal to the angle B; (I. 42.)
to the straight line GH, apply the ~allelogram GAt equal to the
triangle DBO, having the angle OHM equal to ilie angle B.
(1.44.)
Then the figure FKML shall be the parallelogram required.
Because each of the angles FEH, GHlf, is equ81 to the angle B,
therefore the angle FEH is equal to the angle OHM;
add to each of these equals the ~le EHG;
therefore the angles FEB, KEG are equal to ilie angles KHG, OHM;
but FEH, ERO are equal to two rjght angles; (I. 29.)
therefore also EHO, GHMare equal to two right angles;
and because at the point H, in the straight lliie 0 H, the two
straight lines EN, HM, upon the opposite Bides of it, make the ad-
jacent angles KEG, GHM equal to two right angles, :
. therefore:{IE is in the same straight line witli HM. (I. 14.)
And because the line HG meets the parallels KM, PO,
therefore the angle MHO'is equal to the altemate angle HOF; (I. 29.)
add to each of these equals the angle NUL; I
therefore the angles MHO, HGL are equal to the angles HGP, BOL; .
but the angles MHO, EGL are equal to two rjght angles; (1.29.)
therefore also the anJles HOp, HGL are ~ual to two !'ight angles,
and therefore FG 18 in the same straight Ime with Gz,. (L 14.)
Digitized by Coogle
BOOK I. PROP. XLV, XLVI. 19
And because KF is ~arallel to HG, and HG to ML.
therefore KF18 parallel to XL; (I. 30.)
and FL has been proved :parallel to KM, .
wherefore the figure FKML 18 a para1lel~;
and since the parallelogram HF is equal to the triangle .il.BD,
and the parallelo~ GAtto the ~le BDO,
therefore the whole parallelogram KFLM is equal to the whole
rectilineal figure AB ODe
Therefore the ~elo~ KFLAl has been described equal to
the given rectilineaI figure ABOD, having the angle FKAl equal to
the ~given angle B. Q.E.F.
CoR. From this it is manifest how, to a given straight line, to a'p~
a parallelog':!'am, which shall have an an~le equal to a given rectiliii
I angle, and shall be equal to a given rectilineal figure; "iz. by ap:pl~g
to the given straight line a paraIlelo~ equal to the firit tl'iaDgle
.J.BD, (1.44.) ana having an angle equal to the-given angle.
A B
It is required to describe a square upon .A.B.
From the point.d draw .d 0 at right angles to AB; (I. 11.)
make AD equal to AB; (I. 3.)
through the point D draw DB parallel to .il.B; (I. 31.)
and through B, draw BB parallel to A D, meeting hE in B;
therefore .il.BlID is a ~elogram;
whence AB is equal to DE, and AD to BB; (1.34.)
but AD is equal to .dB,
therefore the four lines AB, BE, BD, DA are :h~ to ODe another
and the para]lelo~ ABBD is eq teral.
It has likewise an its angles right anglee ;
since AD meets the paiallels .A.B, DE, .
therefore the angles BAD, ADEare'equal totworightanglea; (1.29.)
but BAD is a right angle; (cons~.)
therefore also ADE is a right angle. .
But the opposite angles of panL11elograms are eq.ual J (I. 34.)
therefore eacli-of the opposite angles .A.BE, BBD 11 a right angle;
wherefore the figure ABED is rectangu!ar,
and it has been proved to be equilateral;
therefore the figure .ABED is a square, (det. 30.)
and it is deac,ribed upon the given straight line.4B. Q.E.JP.
Digitized by Coogle
40 BUeLl D'S ELEMENTS.
CoL Hence, f1'If!r1 ~1lelogram that has ODe olita angles a right
angle, hal all ita angles right angles.
.. .
D L B
On BOdescribe the square BDBo, (1.46.)
a
and on B.A., .4.. the squares GB, lIO;
through.4. draw AL farallel to. BD or OB; {I. 31.)
and Join AD, Fa.
Then because the angle B.4..0is a right angle, (hypo)
and that the angle BJf. G is a 'right an~le, (del. 30.) ~
the two straight lines .4. C, A G upon the oppomte sides of ..4.B, make i
with it at the point A, the adjacent angles equal to two ri~ht angles; I
therefore CA is in the same straight line with AG. \10 14.) I
For the same reason, BA and .d are in the same stralgh~ Une.
And because the angle DBa IS equal to the angle FHA,
each of them being a right angle,
add to each of these equals tlie angle ABO,
therefore the whole angle ABD is equal to the whole angle FB O. (ax.2.)
And because the two sides .dB, BD, are equal to thetwosideaFB,
BO, each to each, and the included angle .4.BD is equal to the included
angle FBo,
therefore the base AD is equal to the base FO, (I. 4.)
and the trianEle .4..BD to the triangle FBO.
Now the parallelogram BL is double 01 the triangle ABD, {I. 41.) I
because they are upon the 88IDe base BD, and between the same !
parallels BD, AL; I
also the square GB is double of the triangle FBo,
because these al80 are upon the same base FB, and between the
same parallels FB, Ga.
But the doubles of equals are equal to one another; (ax. 6.)
therefore the p8!&llelo~ BL is equal to the s~ GB.
SimiJarly, by joinmg AB, BK, it can be proved,
that the parallelogram CL is equal to the square He.
Digitized by Coogle
BUOK 1. PROP. XLVl1l. 41
Therefore the whole square BDBO is equal to the two squares GB,
HO; (ax. 2.)
anil the square BDBOis described upon the straight line Be,
and the squares GB, Ho, u~n A.B, A. 0:
therefore the square upon the side Bo, is equal to the squares upon
the sides A.B, A. O.
Therefore, in any right-angled triangle, &0. Q. E. D.
I
I. \
I
&
B C
From the point A. draw AD at right angles to A 0, (I. 11.)
make .A 1) equal to .AB, and join DO.
Then, because.AD is equal to A.B,
the square on AD is equal to the square on AB;
to each of these equals add the square on A 0;
therefore the squares on AD, A aare equal to the squares on A.B, A C:
but the squares on AD, A a are equal to the square on DO, (1.47.)
because the angle DA. (J is a right angle;
:and the squat& 9~:BO, by hypothesis, is equal to the sCIPares ~ BA,..J. a;
[ . tPef~f9re the -square o~ 1) Qis equ8.l to the sq,'Iilre on B 0;
, . _ -and'therefore the side D'O is equal to the ~de B 0.
:' And because the side AD is equal to the side A.B,
: and .4. a is common to the two triangles DA. a, BA (J;
a,
itile two sides DA, .A. 0, are equal to the two BA, A each to each;
I and the base -DO has been :proved to be equal to the base BO;
! therefore the angle D.ACIS equal to the angle BAC; (1.8.)
I but DACia a right angle;
therefore also BA (J is a right angle.
Therefore, if the square clesoribed upon, &0. Q. B. D.
Digitized by Coogle
NOTES TO BOOK I.
ON THE DEFINITIONS.
GBOKBTBY is one of the most perfect of the deductive Sciences, and
aeems to reat on the simplest inductions from experience and observation.
The first principles of Geometry are therefore in this view consistent
hypotheses founded on facts cognizable by the senses, and it is a subject
of primary importance to draw a distinction between the conception of
things and the things themselves. These hypotheses do not involve any
property contrary to the real nature of the things, and consequently cannot
be regarded as arbitrary, but in certain respects, agree with the concep-
tions which the things themselves suggest to the mind through the
medium of the senses. The essential definitions of Geometry therefore
being inductions from observation and experience, rest ultimately on the
evidence of the senses.
It is by experience we become acquainted with the existence of indi- I
vidual forms of magnitudes; but by the mental process of abstn\CtioDt I
which begins with a particular instance, and proceeds to the general
idea of all objects of the same kind, we attain to the general conception:
of those forms which come under tlle same general idea. ,
The essential definitions of Geometry express generalized conceptioDl !
of real existences in their most perfect ideal forms: the laws ~d appear..
ances of nature, and the operations of the human intellect being sup-
posed uniform and consistent.
But in cases where the subject falls under the class of simple ideas, I
- the terms of the definitions so called, are no more than merely equivalent:
expre88ions. The simple idea described by a proper term or terms, does ,
not in fact admit of definition proJlerly so called. The definitions ill I
Euclid's Elements may be divided mto two classes, those which merel) ,
explain the meaning of the terms employed, and those, which, besidea :
explaining the meaning of the terms, suppose the existence of the things t
described in the d e f i n i t i o n s . :
Definitions in Geometry cannot be of such a form as to explain the ,
nature and properties of the figures defined: it is sufficient that they give '
marks whereby the thing defined may be distinguished from every other
of the same kind. It will at once be obvious, that the definitions of,
Geometry, one of the pure sciences, being abstractions of space, are not "
like the definitions in anyone of the physical sciences. The disco~erJ '
of any new physical facts may render necessary some alteration or modi-:
ftcation in the definitions of the latter. :
Del. I. Simson has adopted Theon's definition of a point. Euclid', ~
definition is, O"fJp.aioll itM"u, oJ p.ipo'll OVa.II, "A point is that, ofwhich the1'6I
Digitized by Coogle
NOTES TO BOOX I.
Ii'
. . .loc, .iTII', wherein he states it to lie ,",mlg, or 6fUtJl1" or upon _
(if ttrOlI) between its extremities, and which Proclus explains as
. stretched between its extremities, ti i'W' d"pfIJI1 -r.".III""".
the line be conceived to be drawn on a plane surface, the words
~ wou may mean, that DO part of the line which is called a 8tr~t line
. tea either from one side or the other of the direction which 18 hed
the extremities of the line; and thus it may be distinguished from a
eel line, which does not lie, in this sense, evenly between its extreme
" . If the line be conceived to be drawn in space, the words iE to-ou,
be understood to apply to every direction on every side of the line
_IN@D. its extremities.
~ 8~ht line situated in a plane, is considered to have two sides ;
. . "hen the direction of a line is known, the line is said to be .pven in
. n; also. when the length is known or can be found, it is 8&1d to be
. _ in magnitude.
From the definition of a straight line, it follows, that two points h a
llraight line in position, which is the foundation of the first and second
IIItuJates. Hence straight lines which are proved to coincide in two or more
1I'Dta, are callE>d, "one and the same straight line," Prop. 14, Book I,
.. which is the same thing, that u two straight lines cannot have a
~n segment," as Simson shews in his Corollary to Prop. 11, Book I.
The following definition of straight lines has also been Fposed.
~ht lines are those which, if they coincide in any two pomts, coin-
. . . far as they are produced." But this is rather a criterion of straight
. . . and analogous to the eleventh axiom, which states that, U all right
IIIIles are equal to one another:' and suggests that all straight lines may
lIJ1ade to coincide wholly, if the lines be equal; or partially, if the lines
_ unequal lengths. A definition should properly be restricted to the
r-eri"iption of the thing defined, as it exists, independently of any com-
JIIfaoit of its properties or of tacitly assuming the existence of axioms
. ])ef. VII. Euclid's definition of a elane surface is 'ElI'l....8ov l ... ,.t1.
. . irr", ;;.rtf: iE %0-011 'Tt.H9 icp' ~Clerrii9 '116alll'9 I('.'".CI'. "A plane surface is
which lies evenly or equally with the straight lines in it;n instead
......;.ch Simson has given the definition which was originally proposed
Hero the Elder. A plane superficies may be supposed to be situated
~ position, and to be continued in every direction to any extent.
Det. VIIl. Simson remarks that this definition seems to include the
_ta formed by two curved lines, or a curve and a straight line, aa well
laatformed by two straight lines.
Angles made by straight lines only, are treated of in mementaTy
8emnetry.
Digitized by Coogle
44 EUCLlD'S KLEM BN'IS.
Digitized by Coogle
KOTES TO BOOK I. 45
An oblong, in the same manner, may be defined 81 a plane flgure of
four aides. having only its opposite aidea equal, and one -of its angles a
right angle. .
.A. rhomboid is a four-sided plane figure having only its opposite sides
~al to one another and ita angles not right angles.
. Sometimes an irregular four-aided figure which hilS two sides parallel,
is ea11ed a trapezoid.
Def. xxxv. It is possible for two right lines never to meet when pro-
duced, and not be parallel.
Del. A. 'I'he term parallelogram literally implies a fiure formed by
parallel straight linea, and may consist of four, six, eignt, or any even
lumber of sides, where every two of the opposite sides arelarallel to one
another. In the Elements, however, the term is restricte to four-sided
&gures, and includes the four species of figures named in the Definitions
lXX-XXXIII.
The synthetic method is followed by Euclid not only in the demon-
Itrationa of the propositions, but also in laying down the definitions. He
=:.
~mm.ences with the simplest abstractions, defining a point, a line, an
~le, a superficies, and their different varieties. This mode of proceed-
~ involves the difficulty, almost insurmountable, of defining satisfac-
y the elementary abstractions of Geometry. It haa been observed,
it is necessary to consider a solil, that is, a magnitude which has
breadth, and thickness, in order to understand aright the defini-
tiona of a point, a line, and a superficies. A eolid or volume considered
lIPaR from its physical properties, suggests the idea of the surfaces by
which it is bounded: a surface, the idea of the line or lines which form
~s boundaries: and a finite line, the points which form its extremities.
~ solid is therefore bounded by surfaces; a surface is bounded by lines;
ON THE POSTULA.TES.
TBB definitions assume the possible existence of straight lines and
drcJea, and the postulates predicate the possibilitr of drawing and 01
~cin, straight lines, and of describing circle.. The postulates form
.be]trinClples of construction assumed in the Elements; ahd are, in fact,
;t'Oblems, the possibility of which is admitted to be self-evident, and to
require DO proof.
It must, however, be carefullr remarked, that the third postulate only
.mm.ta that when any line is IJ1ven in position and magnitude, a circle
Diy be described from either extremitr of the line as a center, and with
L radius equal to the length of the line, as in Euc. I, 1. It does not
~mit the description of a circle with any other point aa a center than
lIle of the extremities of the given line.
Hue. J. 2, shews how, from any given point, to draw a straight line
qual to another straight line which is given in magnitude and position.
Digitized by Coogle
46 EUCLID'S ELEMENTS.
I
I
ON THE AXIOMS. I
AxIOIiS are usually defined to be self-evident truths, which cannot .
rendered more evident by demonstration; in other words, the axioms
Geometry are theorems, the truth of which is admitted without pr
It is by experience we first become acquainted with the di1ferent fa
of geometrical magnitudes, and the axioms, or the fundamental ideas
their equality or inequality appear to rest on the same basis. The c
ception of the truth of the axioms does not appear to be more remo
from experience than the conception of the definitions.
These axioms, or first principles of demonstration, are such theor
as cannot be resolved into ~impler theorems, and no theorem ought to
admitted as a first principle of reasoning which is capable of being
monstrated. An axiom, and (when it is convertible) its converse, aha
both be of such a nature as that neither of them should require a ~
demonstration.
The first and most simple idea, derived from experience is, that ev
magnitude ftlls a certain space, and that several magnitudes may sue
sively fill the same space.
All the knowledge we have of magnitude is purely relative, and
most simple relations are those of equality and inequality. In the co
parison of magnitudes, some are considered as given or known, and
unknown are compared with the known, and conclusions are synth
cally deduced with respect to the equality or inequality of the magnit
under consideration. In this manner we form our idea of equali
which is thus formally stated in the eighth axiom: "Magnitudes w
coincide with one another, that is, which exactly fill the same space,
equal to one another."
Every speciiic definition is referred to this universal principle. Wi
regard to a few more general definitions which do not furnish an equali
it will be found that some hypothesis is always made reducing them
that principle, before any theorr is built upon them. As for exam .
the definition of a straight line 18 to be referred to the tenth axiom;
definition of a ri$ht angle to the eleventh axiom; and the definitiOll
parallel straight lines to the twelfth axiom.
The eighth axiom is called the principle of superposition, OJ"{
mental process by which one Geometrical magnitude may be concei
to be placed on another, so as exactl1 to coincide with it, in the p
which are made the subject of companson. Thus, if one straight line
conceived to be placed upon another, so that their extremities are c
cident, the two straight lines are equal. If the directioIl$ of two ..
which include one angle, coincide with the directions of the two
which contain another angle, where the points, from which the an
diverge, coincicle, then the two angles are equal: the leng~hs of the .
not aft'ecting in any way the magnitudes of the angles. When one p
figure is conceived to be placed upon another, so that the boundari
one exactly coincide with the boundaries of the other, then. the
plane figures are equal. It may also be remarked, that the conv
this proposition is not universally true, namely, that when two m
tudes are equal, they coincide with one another: since two magni
may be equal in area, as two parallelograms or two triangles, Ene. 1.
37; but their boundaries may not be equal: and, consequently,
superposition, the figures could not exactly coincide: all such fi
however, having equal areas, by a different arrangement of their p
may. be made to coincide exttctly.
Digitized by Coogle
lfOTES TO BOOK I. 4:''1
This axiom is the criterion of Geometrical equality, and II euentlallr
. t from the criterion of Arithmetical eqUality. Two geometrical
. . .ltudes are equal, when they coincide or may tie made to coincide :
abstract numbers are equal, when they contain the lame aggregate
IDita; and two concrete numbers are equal, when they contain the
number of units of the same kind of magnitude. It is at once ob-
that Arithmetical representations of Geometrical magnitudel are
admiuible in Euclid' 8 criterion of Geometrical Equality, as he has not
the unit of magnitude of either the straight lille, the angle, or the
cies. Perhaps Euclid intended that the first seven axioms Ihould
plicable to numbers as well a8 to Geometrical magnitudes, and this
accordance with the words of Proclus, who calls the axioms, common
, not peculiar to the subject of Geometry.
BeTeral of the axioms may be generally ex~mplliled thus:
Axiom 1. If the straight line AB be equal A B
the straight line CD; and if the straight O
____ D
BF be also equal to the straight line CD; E P
the straight line AB is equal to the
. htline BF.
momu. Ifthe line ABbeequal to the line A _ _ _ _B O_ _ _ _ D
; and if the line EF be also equal to the
OB: the~ the sum of the lines AB and EF E p o B
ua1 to the sum of the lines CD and G H.
I . m DI. If the line AB be equal to theA _____B _O_ _ _ _ D
CD; and if the line BFbe also equal to the
OB; then the difFerence of AB and EF, E F o B
ual to the difference of OD and G H.
'Axiom IV. admits of being exemplliied under the two following forms :
!L If the line AB be equal to the line OD; A B O D
ifthe line EF be greate,. than the line G H;
the sum of the lines ABand EFis great6r E P G H
the sum of the lines CD and G H.
If the line AB be equal to the line OD; A B C D
if the line EF be le88 than the line (j 11; - - - - - - - -
the sum of the lines AB and BF iB Ius E P G H
the Bum of the lines CD and GH.
tbiom v. also admits of two forms of exempli1lcation.
1. If the line AB be equal to the line CD; A B D
if the line EF be greater than the line GB ;
the difference of the lines AB and EF is E P G
H
than the difference of CD and GH. ---- ----
2. If the line AB be equal to the line CD ; A B C D
itthe line EF be leBB than the line GH;
the difference of the lines AB and EF is E_ _ _ _ F _0_ _ _ _ 11
tAanthe difference of the lines CD and GH.
The a~iom, "If unequals be taken from equals, the remainders are
ual," may be exemplified in the same manner.
Axiom VI. If the line AB be double of the A B
CD; and if the line EF be also double of C D
line CD; E p
then the line AB is equal to the line EF.
Axiom VII. If the line AB be the half of A B
line CD; and if the line EF be, also the C D
of the line CD; E F
then the line AB is equal to the line EF.
'Digitized by Coogle
48 Bl:CLID'S ELBMBNTS.
Digitized by Coogle
EUCLID'S BLBIIBNTL
I
:J
150 that the conclusion follow, from the premisses in order of .
as far as reference is m,ad,e to the mind'8 apprehension of the who
a:r:gument.
Every proposition, when oomplete, may be divided into six parts,
Proc1us has pointed out in his oommentary.
1. The propD8itioa, or geft8f'al enunciation, whioh states in general
the oonditions of the problem or theorem. ~
. 2. Ths a:porition, or ptWticulGr enwu:iatcnt, which exhibitB the .
of the propositi~n in particular terms as a fact, and refers it to 10
diagram described. . J
3. 71&e d6Urmination contains the prBtliciJU in particulaz terms, 88 ~
is pointed out in the diagram, and direets attention to the demonstrati~
by pronouncing the thing sought.
Digitized by Coogle
liOTBS TO lOOK J. 61
4. TAe ~ appU. the' poltulatee to prepare the diagram for
. the demonstration.
I. 77&t demottItrGtiMa is the connexion of Iylloglame, which prove the
tndh or falaehood of the theorem, the pouibility or impoasibllity of the
p!Oblem. in that particular cue exhibited in the diagram.
. .6. TAl mclusitm is merely the repetition of the general enunciation,
1rhareia the predicate is 8IIerted as a demonstrated truth.
Prop. I. In the ftrat two Books, the circle is employed as a me-
tMai.c81 instrument, in the Bame manner as the s~iBht line, and the use
. . . of it restS entirely on the third postulate. No properties of the
. . are discussed in these books beyond the definition and the third
JCIIRIate. When two cireles are described, one of which haa its center in
circumference of the other, the two circles being each of them partly
. and partly without the other, their circumferences must intenect
other in two points; and it is obvious from the two circles cutting
Gther. in two points, one on each lide of the given line, that two
trianJdes may be formed on the given Une.
Prop. n. Wnen the given point is neither in the line, nor in theline
aced, this problem admits of eight di1l'erent lines being drawn from
giTen point in dil'erent directions, every one of which is a solution
problem. For, 1. The given line haa two extremities, to each of
a line may be drawn frOm the given point. 2. The equllat era!
may be described on either side of this line. S. And the side
I 1) of the equilateral triangle ABD may be produced either way.
. But when the given point lies either in the line or in the line pro-
oed, the distinction which arises from joining the two ends of the line
. the given point, no longer exists, and there are only four cases of
t1W~. .
The eonstruction of this problem &Blumes a neater form, by 1lr8t de-
g the circle CGRwith center B and radius Be, and producing DB
aide of the equilateral.triangle DBA to meet the circumference in G :
1rith center D and radius DO, describing the circle GEL, and then
1IUfl1UCl'1Dtf D..A to meet the circumference in L.
~ a similar construction the less of two given straight linea may be
uced, 10 that the less together with the part produced may be equal
the greater.
~. DI. This problem admits of two lolutions, and it is left unde-
from which end of the greater line the part is to be cut off.
By means of this problem, a straight line may be found equal to the
I
that in which the hypotheses are true. In all cases therefore, whether
noted by Euclid or not, the words if poaBi6le have been introduced,
or some such qualifying expression, as in Euc. J. 6, 80 as not to leave
upon the mind of the learner, the impression that the hypothesil
which contradicts the proposition, is really true.
Prop. VIII. When the three sides of one triangle are shewn to
coincide with the three sides of any other, the equality of the triangles
is at once obvious. This, however, is not stated at the conclusion of
Prop. VIll. or of Prop. XXVI. For the equality of the areas of two
coincident triangles, reference is always made by Euclid to Prop. IV.
A direct demonstration may be given of this proposition, and Prop.
YII. ruay be dispensed with altogether.
Let the triangles ABO, DEF be so placed that the base BC mar
eoincide with the baseEF, and the vertices A, D may be on opposite
.ides of EF. loin AD. Then because EAD is an isosceles triangle.
the angle BAD is equal to the angle EDA; and because (JDA is an
isosceles triangle, the angle CAD is equal to the angle CDA. l;Ience
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63
KOTES TO BOOK J.
the angle EAF is equal to the angle BDP, (u. t or I): or the ucJe
BDC is equal to the angle EDP.
I Prop. IX. If BA. AO be in the same straight line. ThlI problem
tha. becomes the same as Probe XI, which may be regarded as drawing
I Bae which bisects an angle equal to two right angles.
If FA be produced in the Rg. Prop. 9, it bieecta the angle which
I iathe defect of the angle BAOjromfotW rigAt angle
By means of this problem, any angle may be divided into four,
~t, sixteen, &c. e<).ual an~le...
Prop. X. A. finite Itraight line may, by this problem, be divided
into four, eight, sixteen, &:c. equal parts.
Prop. XI. When the point ie at the extremity of the line; by
the second postulate the line may be produced, and then the CODitructioD
applies. See note on Euc. Ill. 31
.-be distance between two pointe is the straight line which job
the points; but the distance between a point and a straight line, it
.. dtwtut liM which can be drawn from the point to the line.
!rom this Prop. it fonowa that only one ~ndicular can be drawn
from a given pomt to a given line; and thie perpendicular may be
shewn to be less than any other line whioh can be drawn from the
..... point to the given line: and of the rest, the line which is nearer
to the perpendicular is less than one more remote from it: alIo only
two equal straight linea can be drawn from the same point to the line,
!'II on each side of the perpendicular or the least. This property
II analogous to Euc. m. 7, 8.
The corollary to this proposition is not in the Greek text, but
".. added by Simson, who states that it .. is necessary to Prop. 1,
Book XI., and otherwia !'
~. xu. The third postulate requires that the line OD should
be draWn before the circle can be described with the center 0, and
zac1ius CD.
~. XIV. is the converse of Prop. XUt. II Upon the opposite sides
ofit." If these words were omitted. it is possible for two lines to malte
with a third, two angles, which together are equal to two right angles, in
II1Cb. a manner that the two lines shall not be in the same straight line.
The line BE may be supposed to fall above, as in Euclid's 1igure,
CRbelow the line BD, and the demonstration is the same in form.
~. xv. is the development of the debition of an angle. If the lines
at the angular point be produced, the produced lines have the same incli-
llltion to one another as the original lines, but in a different position.
The converse of this Proporition is not proved by Euclid, namely:-
If the vertical angles made by four straight lines at the same point
be respectively equal to each other, each pair of opposite lines shall
be in the same straight line.
Prop. XVII. appears to be .only a corollary to the preceding pro-
POiIition, and it seems to be introduced to explain Axiom XII, of which
it it the converse. The exact truth respecting the angles of a triangle
.. J!OVed in Pro~. XXXlT.
Prop. XVIII. It may here be remarked, for the purpose of guarding
tbe student against a very common mistake, that in this proposition
IUd in the converse of it, the "'gpotAen. is stated before the predictJt
Prop. XIX. is the converse of Prop. XVIII. It may be remarked,
t1Iat Prop. XIX. bean the same relation to Prop. XVIII., as Prop. 'n.
cloea to Prop. v.
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ECOLU)'S BLBKJ&JfTS.
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NOTES TO BOOK I.
. exterior and two interior and oppoeite angles. The exterior angle EG B
haa the angle GHD for its corresponding interior and opposite angle:
also the exterior angle FHD has the angle HGB for its interior and
~iteangle .
~. XXIX is the COD"fWSe of Prop. XX'Vlt and Pro-p. XZTIlI. .
As the de1lnitiou of parallel straight linea simply describes them.
by statement of the negative property, that 1ib.ey never meet; it is
~ that some positive propert,y of parallel lines should be auumed
u an anom, on which reasonings on such lines may be founded.
Buclid has 888umed the statement in the twelfth axiom, which has
bean objected to, as not bein self-evident. A. stronger objection
appears to be, that the converse of it forms Hue. I. 17; for both the
lIIMImed axiom and its con'Verse, should be so obvious aa not to require
fannal demonstration.
8iJnson has attempted to overcome the objeetion, not by any improved
dellnitiOR and axiom respecting parallallines; but, by considering Euc1i4's
twelfth wom to be a theorem, and for its proof, asiummjJ two definitions
and one axiom, and then demonAtrating five subsidiary Propositions.
&etead of Euclid's twelfth axiom, the following has been proposed.
II , more simple property for the foundation of reasonings on parallel
. . ; namely, .. If a straight line fall on two parallel straight lines,
the Ilternate angles are equal to one another." In whatever thie may
exceed Euclid's definition in simplicity, it is liable to a umjJar objection,
beiJ.!g the converse of Eue. I. 2 7 . , ' . .
Professor Playfair has adopted in ;hia Elements of Geometry; that
II Two straight lhies which intersect one another cannot be both parallel
to the same straight line." This apparently mo~e simple axiom follows
II a direct inference from Euc. I. 30. .
But one of the least objectionable of all the definitions 'Which haye
been proposed on this subject, appears to be that which simply expresaes
the conception of equidistance. It may be form~l stateci thus:
"PRallel lines are such as lie in the same plane, which aeither
recede from, DOl" approach to. each other." This include. the ~QIl-
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66 Bt7CLID'a BLIDIENTS.
be a right angle, then each of the equal angles is half a right angle, u
in Bue. II. 9.
The three angles of a triangle may be shewn to be equal. to two
right andes witho!1t produ~ a aide of the triangle, .by ~awing throughl
any angre ot the triangle a line parallel to the OPPOSite 81de, as Proclua
hal reDwked in his Commentary on this proposition. It is manifeat
from tbia proposition, that the third angle of a triangle is not ind.
pendent of the 8um of the other two; but is known if the 8um of any
two iI known. Cor. 1 may be also proved by drawing lines from any
ODe of the angles of the figure to the other angles. If any ot the,
lidee of the figure bend inwards and form what are called re-entering
angles. the enunciation ot these two corollarieR will require some
mOdification. .As Euclid gives no definition of re-entering angles. it
may fairly be concluded, he did not intend to enter into the proofs
of the propertiea of figures which contain such angles.
prop. xxxm. The words "towards the lame parts" are a necessary
restriction: for if they were omitted, it would be doubtful whether
the extremities A, C, and B, D were to be joined by ~ lin.ee .AC and
BD; or the extremities A, D, and B, C, by the lines .AD and Wl.
Prop. XXXIV. If the other diameter be drawn, it may" aheW'll
that the diameters of a parallelogram bisect each other, 88 well as bisect
the area of the parallelogram. If the parallelogram be right angled,
the diagonals are equal; if the parallelogram be-a square or a rhombus,
the diagonals bisect each other at right angles. The converse of this
Prop namely, "If the opposite sides or opposite angles of a quadrilateral
Igule be equal, the opposite sides shall also be parallel; that is, the
flPre lhall be a parallelogram," is not proved by Euclid.
Prop. xxxv. The latter part of the demonstration is not expreased
very intelligibly. Simson, who altered the demonstration, seems in fact
to con8ider two trapeziums of the same form and magnitude, and from
one of them, to take the triangle .ABE; and from the other, the tri-
angle DClI; and then the remainders are equal by the third axiom:
that ii, the parallelogram ABeD is equal to the parallelogram EBC'.
Otherwile, the triangle, whOle base is DB, (Ig. 2.) is taken twioe from
the trapezium, which would appear to be impossible. if the .eue in
which Euclid applies the third axiom, is to be retained here.
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BOTES TO BOCJK. I. 61
It may be oblervec1, that the two paralle10pma exhibited In k. I
partially lie on one another, and that the triangle whOle hue Ia BCla a
common part of them, but that the triangle whoM bale ia DB fa entire1J
lrithout both the parallelograma. After having proved the ~e ABE
eq1l81 to the ~le DeF, if we take from tlieae equala (Ig. 2.) . .
iriaDgle whOle bue is DR, and to each of the remainden add the
~le whoae baae is BC. then the parallelogram .ABCD fa ~ual to
. , parallelogram EBCF. In fig. 3, the efluality of the parallelOgrama
I ABeD, EBCF, it shewn by adding the UgUre EBeD to each Of the
, triangles .ABEt DC'.
I In: this proposition, the word 'fUIJl auumel a neW' meanin" and la no
1eDaer restricted to mean coincidence in all the parts of two tigUrea.
! Prop. XXXVIII. In this proposition, it is to be underatoo4l that the
I hues of the two trian~les are in the same straight line. If in the
! ~ the point E cOIncide with C, and D with .A, then the aDJle
~ one triangle ia supplemental to the other. Hence the followuag
property :-If two triangles have two aides of the one reapectively equal
to two sides of the other, and the contained &Uglea supplemental, the
two triangles are equal.
A distinction ought to be made between .,..,..z triangles and epi...,
tdan,lea, the former including those whose aides and angles mutually
IDiDclde. the latter those whose areas only are equivalent.
Prop. XXXIX. If the vertices of all the equal triangles which C&D. be
tt.cribed upon the same base, or upon the equal bases u in Prop. fO,
"joined. the line thus formed will be a straight line, and is called the
- - of the vertices of equal triangles upon the same bue, or upon
""f :in plane Geometry is a straight line plane cune, every
or a
paint of which and none else aatisiies a certain condition. With the
..,tion of the straight line and the circle, the two most simple loci;
allother loci, perhaps includin~ also the Conic Sections, may be more
1tIdily and e1fectually investigated algebraically by means of their
I8Ct11ngular or polar equations.
Prop. XLI. The converse of this proposition is not proved by Euclid;
. . If a parallelogram is double of a triangle, and they have the laDle baae,
equal baaes upon the same straight line, and towards the same parte,
~ shall be between the same parallels. .Also, it may easily be shewn
, tlaaiif two equal triangles are between the same parallels; they are either
I ~ the same base, or upon equal bases.
i Prop. XLIV. A JNII'&lleJ.ogram described on a straight line it said te
: .. Wlil to that. line.
: ,PlOp. XLV. The problem is solved only for a rectilineal figure of four
II Iides. If the given rectilineal figure have more than four aides, it mat
1Je divided into triangles by drawing straight lines from any angle ot thO
1\ ~ to the opposite ~les, and then a \arallelogram equal to the thiId
triangle C&J1 be applied to LJt, and havmg an angle equal to B: aDd
10 OIl for all the tnangles of which the rectiliueal ftgure ia composed.
Prop. XLVI. The square being considered aa an equilateral rec~e.
ia area or surface may be expressed numerically if the number of lineal
- - in a aide of the square be given, aa is shewn in the note on Prop.I.,
look n.
The student will not tan to remark the analogy which exilta between
. . . . . of G . . . . , and lAe protlucl of ADo MJUGl ,,!IIIIIMr.; and betweelt
.. lieN of G "fUCII" IDd ,AI IfUCII" root OJ G nunalw. '!'here is, howeY",
Do
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68 .VOLID'S BLBMOTS.
:.
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Q'UB8TlONI OM JIOOlE I.
Tllis Bookmar be divided into three puta. The ftJIt part treatI of
the origin and properties of trianglel, both with reapect to their IideI and
I 8DIles; and the compariaon oftheae mutuall!, both with regarda!:ll:tuality
uaa inequality. The second part treat. of the :F.opertiea of p lines
IDd of parallelograms. The third part exhiblts the connection of the
properties of triangles and parallelograms, and the equality of the Iquarel
on the base and perpendiCular of a right-angled viangle to the square
OIl the hypotenuse.
When the propositions of the Firat Book have been read with tlle
notes, the student is recommended to use di.ft'erent letters in the diagrams,
and where it is p088ible, diagrams of a form somewhat dift'erent from thole
exhibited in the text, for the purpose of testing the accuracy ofbia know-
ledge of the demonstrations. And further, WRen he haa 1)ecom.e ,Iuftlci-
entIy familiar 1dth the method of geometrical reasoning, he may c:Jie-
peoae with the aid of letters altogether, and acquire the power of expreu-
ing in r.neral terms the process of reasoning in the demonstration of BDJ
proposItion. Also, he 18 advised to answer the following queetiona
before he attempts to apply the principle. of the First Book to the so-
or
lution of Problems and the demonstration Theorema.
QUESTIONS ON BOOK L
t. What is the name of the Science of which Euclid gives the Ele-
ments ? What is meant by Solid Geometry 1 Is there any distinction
between Pltme GfJO'IMtry, and the Geomstf'1/ of Pla,.s., _
2. Define the term magnitude, and specify the dift'erent kinds of
magnitude considered in Geometry. What dilnensiona of apace belong
to ~es treated of in the first six Books of Euclid?
. 8. Give Euclid's definition of a "straight line." What does he
Jta1ly U8e .., his test of rectilinearity, and where does he 1irat employ it?
What objections have been made to it, and what substitute haa been
proposed as an available definition? How m.&Uypointa are necess&l]' to
IJ! the position of a straight line in a plane? When is one strafght
line said to cut, and when to f'Met another ?
4, What positive P!operty has a Geometrieal point? Prom the
c1eInition of a straight u.ne, shew that the intersection of two lines is a
pRnL .
6. Give Euclid'i deftnition 01 a plane rectninea1 angle. What are
the limits of the angles considered in Geometry? Does Euclid considel
mg1es _J!eater than two right a~~les ?
6~ When is a straight line saJ.d to be drawn at rigAt tmgla, and when
ptWptmdicvla.r, to a given stzaight line?
7. Define a triangle j ahew how many kinds of triangles there are ac-
~ to the variation both of the magi", and of the lUlu. '
8. "What is Euclid's definition of a circle? Point out the assumption
involved in your definition. Is any axiom implied in it? Shew that
in this as in all other deilnitions; 80me gemnetrical fact is assumed as
, lOmehow previously known. '
9. -Debe the quadrilateral figures mentioned by EllClid.
10. Describe brie1ly the use and foundation of definitions, axioms,
1Ild- postulates: give illustrations by an instance of each.
11. What objection may be made to the method and
order in which
Euclid has laid down the elementary abstractions of the Science,of Ge(t--
metry t What other method has been suggested?
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60 EUCLID'S tLDlB'NTS.
18. Enumerate Euclid'. twelve axioms and point out those which
have special reference to Geometry. State the converse of those whi~
admit of being so expressed. . .
19. What two tests of equality are assumed by Euclid? I. th~
assumption of the principle of superposition (ax. 8.), essential to aU
Geometrical reasonmg? Is it correct to say, that it is .. an appea1~
though of the most fainiliar sort, to external observation" ? .
20. Could any, and if any, which of the axioms of Euclid be turned
into definitions; and with what advantages or disadvantages? '
21. Define the tenns, Problem, Postulate, Axiom and Theorem.'
Are an,. of Euclid's axioms improperly so called? :
22; Of what two parts does the enunciation of a Problem, and of
Theorem consist? Distinguish them in Euc. I. 4,6, 18, 19. !
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QUBSTIOKI ON BOOK I. 61
tanC81 DG, DB may be taken .. the !Mi1ll of the HCOnd olrclea and
give the proof in each case.
16. Explain how the propositions Euc. I. 2. 8, are rendered neceuary
~ the restriction im~d by the third ~stulate. Is it Deceu~ for
~ proof, that the tr1&l1g1e described in Bnc. I. 2, .howd be equilateral?
~d we, at this stage of the subject, describe an i80ecelea ViangJe OIl a
pvenbase?
37. State how Ene. I. 2, may be extended to the following problem:
"From a given point to draw a straight line ira ,iNtI dirlCtitm equal w
I given straight line."
38. How would you cut off from a straight line unlimited in bolh
c1irections, a length equal to a given straight line?
39. In the proof of Enclid I , how much dependa upon DeJlnition,
how much upon Axiom ~
40. Draw the figure fOJ' the third cue of Eue. L 7. and state why it
. . flO tltmacnutration
1. In the construction Euclid I. 9, is it indifferent in all cases on
which side of the joining line the equilateral triangle is described?
42. Shew how a given strai~ht line may be bisected by Ene. I. 1
3. In what cases do the lines which bisect the interior angles ot
plane triangles, also bisect one, or more than one of the col'I'e8ponding
. opposite aides of the triangles ?
. U. I I Two straight lines cannot ha~e a common eegment." Hu this
bOilary been tacitly auumed in any preceding proJ?OlitioD ?
.5.
length" ?
In Eue. I. 12, must the gben line neceuarily be "of unlimited
46. Shew that (tlg. Euc. I. 11) every point without the perpendi-
eu1ar drawn from the middle point of every straight line DE, is at unequal
diatances from the extremities D, B of that line..
47. From what proposition may it be inferred that a straight line iI
the shortest distance between two points ?
48. Enunciate the propositions you employ in the proot ot Euc. r. 16
9. Is it essential to the truth of Euc. I. 21, that the two straight
- be drawn from the extremities of the base?
60. In the diagram, Eue. I. 21, by how much does the greater angle
'DC exceed the Ieaa BodC r .
II. To form a triangle with three straight lines, any two ot them
. . be greater than the third: is a similar limitation Jlecessary with
IIIpect to the three angles?
)2. Is it possible to form a triangle with three lines whose lengths are
1, I. 3 units: or one with three lines whose lengths are 1, V2, V 3, ?
63. Is it possible to construct a triangle whose angles shan be 88 the
IUmbera 1, 2, 3? Prove or disprove your answer.
M. What is the reason of the liniitation in the construction of Eue.
I. 24. viz. "that DB is that side which is not greater than the other P"
16. Quote the ilrst proposition in which the equality of two areu
wbich. cannot be superposed on each other is considered.
M. Is the following proposition univeraa1ly true f "If two plane
~ have three elements of the one respectively equal to three
tieaients of the other, the triangles are equal in eve'f"[ res~t." Enu..
Jlerate aU the cases in which this equality is proved in the First Book.
What case is omitted? .
.
&'I. What parts of a triangle mUit be given in order that the t.riaDlle
~"~~f
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62 ~CLID'S BLDlBNTS.
as. State the convene fA the aeeond cue of Buc. t. 28? Under
what limitatiODl is it true f Prove the propoeition 80 limited ?
69. SheW' that the angle contained between the perpendiculara dmwn
to two given straight lines which meet each other, is equal to the angle
oontained by the lines themselves. "
60. Are two triangles neceuarily equal in all reepecta, where a side and
two angles of the one are equal to a 8lde and two angles of the other to
each.
61. muatrate fully the dift"erenee between analytical and ~thetical
proofs. What propositions in Buclid are demonstrated analytically?
62. Can it be properly predicated of any two straight lines that they
never meet if inde1lnitely produ~i either way. antecedently to om know-
ledge of 80me other propert7 of such lines, which makes the property
first predicated of them a ne~ conclusion from it ?
63. Enunciate Euclid's deftnition and axiom relating to parallel
straight lines; and state in what Prope. of Book I. they. are used.
M. What 'proposition is the convene to the twelfth axiom. of the
Pirat Book? What other two propositions are complementary to these?
66. If lines being produced ever so far do not meet; can they be
otherwise than parallel? If 80. wtder what circumstances ~
66. Deftne Gdjtletml-angla, OJIPOIiU tlngla, wrlical MIg""
and tJlttwfUltl
Mlgls.; and give examples nom the Pirat Book of Euclid.
67. Can you suggest anything to justify the assumption in the
twelfth axiom upon which the proof of Euo. t. 27, depends?
88. What objections have tieen ~ed aplnat the definition and the
doctrine of parallel straight lines as laid down by Euclid? Where does
the diftlculty originate? What other uaumptiona have been suggested
and for what reasons?
69. Assuming as an axiom that two straight linea which cut one
another cannot both be parallel to the same straight line; deduce Euclid's
twelfth axiom as a corollary of Eue. I. 29.
70. Prom Euc. I. 27, shew that the distance between two parallel'
straight lines is constant f
71. If two straight lines be not paraDel, shew that a11straight linea
falling on them. make alternate angles, which di1Fer bI the same angle.
72. Taking as the definition of parallel straight lines that they ~
equally inclined to the same straight line towards the same parts ;
that u bein~ produced ever so far both ways they do not meet i,t
J:V8w
also Euclid s axiom 12,. by means of the same definition.
73. What is meant by tIZlwior and iflUrior angles? Point out examp1e81
74. Can the three angles of a triangle be prom equal to two right
angles without producing a side of the triangle?
76. Shew how the comers of a triangular piece of paper may be
turned down, so as to exhibit to the eYI that the three angles of 8
uiangle are equal to two right angles. .
76. Explain the meaning of the term corollary. Enunciate the we:
corollaries appended to Eue. I. 32, and give another proof of the first,
What other corollaries may be deduced ftom this proposition?
77. Shew that the two lines which bisect the exterior and interi~
angles of a triangle, as well 88 those which bisect &Dy two interiOJ
angles of a parallelogram, contain a right angle.
78 The opposite sides and angles of a parallelogram are equal tc
one another. and the diameters bisect it. State "and prove the CODver141
of this proposition. Also shew that a quadrilateral- figure, is a paral.
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QUB6TlOYS ON BOOK T. 63
lelopm, when its diagonals bisect each other: and when itt diaaonals
ditide it into four triangles, which are equal, two ad two, vii. thoae
which have the same vertical angles.
79. If two straight lines join the extremities of two ~arallel straight
I linea, but fIOt towards the same parts, when are the joirung linea eqUal.
and when, are ther unequal ~
SO. If either diameter ()f a four-sided !Pre di'Yide it into two equal
trUmglea, is the figure necessarily a parallelogram? Prove yout answer.
81. Shew how to divide one of the parallelograma in Eue. I. 36,
by straight lines 80 that the parts when properly arranged ehall make
up the other parallelogram.
82. Distinguish between }tUJ1 triangles and
give eumples from the Fint Book of Euclid.
,pi'" trianglett. ad
.
83. What is meant bl the locus of a point? Adduce instances of
loci from the "first Book 0 Euclid.
84. How is it shewn that equal triangles upon the same base or
equal bases have equal altitudes, whether the,. are situated on the same
or opposite sides of the same straight line?
8S. In Enc. I. 37, 38, if the triangles are Dot towards the same parte,
ahew that the straight line joining the Te1"tices of the triangles is
1iaeetecl bY' the line containing the basel.
86. It' the complements (fig. Euc. I. 48) be squares, determine their
. ftlation to the whole paralleJ.Ggram.
87. What is meant by a parallelogram being applied to a straight J.ine.?
88. II the proof of Ruc. I. 46, perfectly general ?
89. Denne a square without including superduous conditions, and
~ the mode of constructing a square upon a given straight line
in conformity with such a definition.
90. The sum of the angles of a square is equal to four right angles.
la the converse true ? If not, why ~
91. Conceiving a square to be a figure bounded by four equal straight
linea not necessarily in the same plane, what condition respecting the
aglea is necessary to oomplete the definition ~
92. In Euclid I. 47, why is it necessary to prove that one side or
. . square described upon each of the sidet containing thft right angle,
80vJd be in the same Itraight line with the other aide of the triangle?
13. On what assumption is an analogy shewn to exist between the
product of two equal numbers and the surface of a square ?
94. Is the triangle whose sides are 3, 4, 6 right~angled, or not?
9S. Can the side and diagonal of a square be represented simul.
tIbeoualy by any finite numbers ?
H. By means of Euc. I. 47, the square roots of the natural numbers,
I, 2. 3, 4, &c. may be represented by straight lines
. 17. If the equare on the hypotenuse in the fig. Eue. I. 47, be
Iaeoribed on the other sid' of it: shew from the diagr~ how the
':I(aares on the two sides of the triangle may be made to cover exactly
Ie square on the hypotenuse.
I N. If Euclid u. 2, be assumed, enunciate the form in which Eue. 1 .4l]
. .., be expressed.
tI. Claa~ all the properties of triangls. and ptWaZl8lograml, proved
fa the" First Book of Euclid.
!PO. Mention anr propositions in Book I. which are included in more
CiII*ral ones which follow. ,
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BUCLID'. BLBJIB!fTI.
ON 1.'BE ANCIENT GEOMETRICAL ANALYSIS.
81'lCTBB8I8, or the method of composition, is a mode ofreaao~ which
beaina with lomething given, and enda with lomethin~ required, either ;
to be done or.to .be proved. This may be termed a d.rect prOClU, as it I
leads from pnnclplea to consequences. i
Anal~, or the method of resolution, it the reverse of synthesis, i
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ANCIENT GEOMETBICAL ANALYSIS.
PRoposmON I. PROBLEM.
To Willd ,. gi"", "igAt Iw.
~A~Y8I8. Let A.B be ~e given. straight liDe, ancl IUppoee ;&
mto three equal parte m the pomta D, B-
e
A D B B
OIl DB deacnDe an equilateral triangle DBF,
then DF is ~ual to A.D, and FE to BB.
On .A.B describe an equilateral triangle ~BC,
and join ~P, FB.
Then because AD is equal to DF,
therefore the angle ~FD is equal to the angle DAP,
the two angles DAP, DF.A. are double of one of them D.AF.
But the angle FDB is equal to the angles D.AF, DFA,
and the angle FDE is equal to D~ 0, each being an angle of ..
equilatelal triangle;
therefore the angle D~Ois double the ~le DAF;
wherefore the angle D.A C is bisected by AF.
Also because the angle FA 0 is equal to the angle F~D,
and the angle F~D to DF.A ;
therefore the angle OAF is equal to the alternate ~le .4.FD:
and cOl18equently FD is parallel to .4. 0.
Synthesis. Upon AB describe an ~uilateral triangle .4.Bo,
the angles at A and B by the straight lines A.F, BY, meeting in F;
through F draw FD paranel to .A. q and FB parallel to BO.
Then AB is trisected in the points h, B.
For since A 0 is parallel to FD and FA meets them,
therefore the alternate angles FA 0, ~FD are equal;
but the angle FAD is equal to the angle F.4 0,
hence the angle DAF is e'}ual to the angle A.FD,
and therefore DF18 equal to D~.
But the angle FDB is equal to the angle (MB,
and FBD to (JB.A.; (I. 29.)
~ifOl'e the remaining angle DFB is equal to the remainjng angle
.J.eB.
the three sides of the triangle DFE are equal to one another,
and DFhas been shewn to be equal to DA,
__ therefore A.D, DB, BB are equal to one another.
aeuce the following theorem.
-the angles at the base of an ect.uilateral triangle be bisected by
- . 9Jiich meet at a point 'WIthin the trian~le; the two liD
. from this peint parallel to the sides of the triangle, divide tbe
lUto three equal parts. . .
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72 GEOIlETRICAL BXBRClSP..8
allO the right . .Ie AFG is equal to the right angle BFG,
and the side FG is common to the two triangles .AFO, BFG,
therefore ~ 0 is equal to BO, and .4.F to FB.
Hence the point E being bown, the point 0 is determined by the
intersection of CD and BE.
SY!J.theais. From.A draw ~F lM',r.pendicular to CD, and produce
it to B, making FE equal to AF, and Join BE cutting CD in O.
Join also .4. o.
Then .4. G and BG make equal angles 1rith CD.
For since ~F is equal to FB, and FO is common to the two
triangles .A OF, EGF, and the included angles .AFG, EPO are equal;
therefore the base.4.0 is equal to the base BO,
and the angle ~ OF to the angle BOp,
but the angle EOFis equal to the vertical angle BOD, I
B4 Join DO.
Then since the two sides BA., A 0 are equal to BD, by: taking BA.
from these equals, the remainder A 0 is equal to the remainder .AD.
Hence the triangle A OD is isosceles, and therefore the angle .ADO,
ill equal to the angle .4.. OD. '
But the exterior an~le B.4.. (J of the triangle .4..DO is equal to the
two interior and OppOSite ang]es .4..0D and ADO:
Wherefore the angle B.4.. (] is double the angle BDo, and BDC iI
the half of the angle BA. O.
Hence the syntbesia.
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OX BOOK t. 73
At the point D in BD, make the angle BDC equal to hall the
given angle,
and from B the other extremity of BD, draw BC equal to the
given side, and meeting DV m C,
at 0 in OD make the angle DOA equal to the angle CDA, 10
that OA may lDeet BD in the pointA.
Then the triangle AB 0 shall have the required conditions.
PROPOSmON VI. PROBLE}['
,ta
To 1Ii&_ G tritJngu btl a line tlmum from a giNn point 0fII 0/ tAl .idt
Analpia. Let .ABC be the given triangle, and D the given point
in the side AB.
A.
~
B B P C
Suppose DFthe line drawn from D which bisects the triangle;
therefore the triangle DBF is half of the triangle ABa.
Bisect 1J 0 in H, and join AB, DB, AF,
then the trianJrle ABE is half of the triangle ABO:
hence the trian(l:le ABE is equal to the triangle DBF;
take away from these eqUals th~ triangle "DBB.
therefore the remainder ADB is equal to the remainder DEF.
But ADE, DEF are equal triangles upon the same base DB, and
on the same side of it,
they are therefore between the same parallels, (I. 39.)
that is, AF is ~llel to DB,
therefore the point F is determined.
Synthesis. Bisect tlie base BO in E, join DB,
from A, draw AF JMI.!'8!lel to DE, and join DF.
Then because DB is parallel to AF,
therefore the triangle .A.DB is equal to the triangle DEF;
to each of these equals,. add the triangle BDB,"
therefore the whole triangle ABB is e,\ual to the whole DBF,
but ABE is half of the whole triangle ABO;
therefore DBFis also half of the triangle ABO.
PROPOSITION VII. THEOREM.
If.froM G point fDitiwut a parallelogram line. be draum to 1M .,.emili"
of,., adjacent .Uk., and of tM di4g(mal fDnien they itu:lude; of t/18 tri..
".,la tAw fONMtl, thot, tDlwIe lKue .. t/18 diagonal, if epal to eM . . . 0/
de lit"'" ttDD.
Let ABOD be a parallelogram of which A 0 is one of the diagonals,
and let P be any point without it: and let AP, po, BP, PD be
joined. "
. Then the triangles .4.PD, A.PB are together equivalent to the trioo
angle A.PC.
B
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14 OBOKB'fBIOAL UBaClSBS
I. ,
8. Describe an isosceles triangle upon a given base and having I
each of the sides double of the base, without using any proposition of'
the Elements subsequent to the first three. If the base and sides be I
~ven, what condition must be ful:6lled with regard to the magnitude
of each of the equal sides in order that an isosceles triangle may be I
constructed P I
9. In the fig. Euc. I. 6. If FO and BOomeet in H,.then prove
that AH bisects the angle BA o. I
10. In the fig. Euc. I. 6. If the angle FBG be !'{ual to the anile
ABO, and BG, OF, intersect in 0; the angle BOF 18 equal to tWIce J
the angle BA Co :
11. From the extremities ofthe base of an isosceles triangle straight.
linea are drawn ~ndicular to the sides, the angles made by them I
12. A line drawn bisee~ the angle containe(i bf the two. equal I
aides of an isosceles triangle, bISects the third side at nght angles. I
DiQilizedbyGoogle I
" ON BOOK 1. 75
14. Given two points one on each side of a given straight line;
find a point in the line such that the angle contained by two lineR
drawn to the given points may be bisected by the given line.
16. In the fig. Euc. I. 6, let F and G be the pointe in the sides
.A..B and .A. C produced, and let lines FH and GK be drawn perpen~
dicular and equal to FO and GB res~ctively: also if BH, OK, or
these lines produced meet in 0; prove that BH is equal to OK, and
BOto 00.
16. From every point of a given straight line, the straight lines
drawn to each of two ~iven 'points on opposite sides of the line are
~ual: ~rove that the line joming the given points will cut the given
llile at nght angles. .
17. If A. be the vertex of an isosceles triangle ABO, and B.A. be
produced so that.AD is equal to B.d, and DO be drawn; shew that
BCD is a right angle.
18. The s~ht line EDF, drawn at~htan~les to BOthe base
of an isosceles triangle .AB 0, cuts the side .AB m D, and CA. pr0-
duced in B; shew that AED is an isosceles Qiangle.
. :We In the fig. Euc. I. 1, if AB be produced both waft! to meet
the circles in D and H, and from 0, OD and OE be drawn; the figure
CDB is an isosceles triangle having each of the an~les at the base,
equal to one fourth of the angle at the vertex of the triangle.
20. From a ~ven point, draw two straight linea making equal
angles with two gIven straight lines intersecting one another.
21. From a given point to draw a straight line to a given straight
line, that shall be bisected by another given straight line.
: 22. Place a straight liD.e of given length between two given
~~ht lines which meet, so that it shall be equally inclined to each
bfthem.
I 23. To determine that point in a strai~ht line from which the
~ght lines drawn to two other given pomts shall be equal, pro-
rided the line joining the two given points is not perpendicular to the
given line.
24. In a given straight line to find a point equally distant from
two given straight lines. In what case is tliis impossible P
25. H a lirie intercepted between the extremIty of the base of an
isosceles triangle, and the opposite side (produced if necessary) be
~ual to a side of the triangle, the angle formed by this line and the
base produced, is equal to three times either of the equal angles of the
triangle.
26. In the base BO of an isosceles triangle ABO, take a point D,
and in C.d take VE equal to CD, let ED produced meet.AB produced
nF, then 3..ABF=2 right angles +.AFE, or=4 rightangles+.AFB.
I!
27. fro~ the base to th':n':Ssosite sides of an if!08celeR triang!e,
mee straIght lines be drawn, ng equal angles WIth the base, VIZ.
me from its extremity, the other two from any other point in it, these
wo shall be together 8CJ.ual to the first.
28. A straight line 18 drawn, terminated by one or the sides of an
aosceles triangle, and by the other side produced, and bisected by
he base; prove that the straight lines, thus intercepted between the
E2
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76 GEOMETRICAL EXERCISES
vertex of the iaoecelea ~le, and this straight line, are together
equal to the two equal aides of the tria~le.
29. In a ~le, it the linea bisecting the angles at the base be
equal, the triangle is iaoacelea, and the angle contained by the biaect-
ing linea is equal to an exterior angle at the base of the triangle.
30. In a triangle, it the two straight linea drawn from the extremi-
tiee of the base, (1) perpendicular to the sides, (2) bisecting the sides,
(3) makina- equal angle. with the aides; the triangle is isosceles:
and then theRe linea which respectively join the intenectioDS or the
aidea, are parallel to the baae.
ll.
31. .ABO is a triang1e right-angled at B, and having the angle A
double the angle 0; shew that the side BO is less than double the
side AB.
32. Hone anlt'le of a triangle be 5ual to the BUm ot the other
two, the greatest side is double ot the diStance of its middle point from
the opposite angle.
33. If from the right anJle of a right-angled triangle, two strai,ht
lines be drawn, one perpendicular to the base, and the other bisecting
it, they will contain an angle equal to the cllirerence ot the two acute
angles of the trian,le.
34. H the vertical angle OAB ot a triangle ABO be bisected by :
.A.D, to which the perpendiculars OB, BF are drawn from the remain- 1
ing angles: bisect the base BO in G, join GB, GF, and prove these
lines equal to each other.
36. The difference of the an~les at the base ot any triangle, is 1
double the angle contained by a hne drawn from the vertex perpen- I
dicular to the base, and another bisecting the angle at the vertex.
36. If one angle at the base of'a triangle be double of the other,
the less side is equal to the sum or difference of the sepents of the 1
Digitized by Google
ON BOOK I. 77
Jines drawn to the point D, and less than twice the same, but greater
than two-thirds of the linea drawn through the point to the opposite
sides.
'44. In a plane triangle an angle is right, acute or obtuse, ac-
cording as the line joining the vertex of the angle with the middle
. point of the opposite side is equal to, greater or le88 than half of
that side.
46. It the straight line .t4.D bisect the angle .t4. of the triangle
ABC, and BDB be drawn perpendicular to .4D and meeting ~ C or
A (J produced in B, shew that BD = DE.
46. The side BO of a triangle .t4.BO is produced to a point D.
The angle .A. CB is bisected by a line CE wfrlch meets .A.B in B.
A line is drawn through B parallel to BO and meeting .dO in F,
i and the line bisecting the exterior angle .t4.CD, in O. Shew that
: RFis equal to FO.
: 47. The sides ..4B, Ao, of a triangle are bisected in D and B
, respectivelI, and BE, CD, are produced until EF= BB, and GD z DC;
I shew that the line OF passes through .d.
i 48. In a triangle .4B(J, .A.D being drawn perpendicular to the
~ ~ht line BD which bisects the angle B, shew that a line drawn
I fmui D parallel to B C will bisect A O.
: 49. If the sides of a triangle be trisected and lines be drawn
'. thro!l8'h the points of section aajacent to each angle so as to form
i another triangle,' this shall be in all respects equal to the first
, ~1e.B
uv. ..
etween two given d to draw a
stralght lines 1t18 reqmre
~ht line which shall be equ8l to one given straight line, and
paraliel to another. .
61. If from the vertical angle of a triangle three straight lines be
: drawn, one bisecting the angle, anf)ther bisecting the base, and the
I third J.lerpendicular to the base, the first is always intermediate in
: magnttude and position to the other two.
&2. In the -base of a triangle, :find the point from which, lines
: drawn ~rallel to the sides of the triangle and llinited by them, are equal.
63. In the base of a triangle, to find a point from which if two
linea be drawn, (1) pe!J>endicular, (2) parallel, to the two sides of the
triangle, their sum shall be equal to a given line. .
m.
64. In the figure of Euc. I. 1, the given line is produced to meet
either of the circles in P; shew that P and the points of intersection
of the circles, are the angular points of an equilateral triangle.
M. If each of the equal angles of an 180sceles triangle be one-
fourth of the third angle, and from one of them a line be drawn
"!ight angles to the base meeting the opposite side produced; then
.m the part produced, the perpendicular, and the remaining side,
form an equilateral tri~le.
16. IIi the ~e Euc. I. 1, if the sides OA., CB of the equilateral
~le .dBC be ~roduced to meet the circles in.F, 0, respectively,
and if 0' be the pomt in which the circles cut one another on the
Digitized by Google
78 GEOMETRIOA.L EXERCIS.
line.
66. Construct an equilateral triangle, having given the length of.
the perpendicular drawn from one of the angles on the opposite side. I
67. Having given the straight lines which bisect th~ angles at the
base of an efJ.uilateral triangle, determine a side of the triangle.
68. HaVInS given two sides and an angle of a trian~le, construct
the triangle, distinguishing the different cases. I
69. Having given the base of a triangle, the difference of the sides.
and. the difference of the angles at the base; to describe the triangle.
70. Given the perimeter and the angles of a triangle, to con-
struct it.
71. Having given the base of a triangle, and half the sum an
half the difference of the an~les at the base; to construct the triangl
72. Having given two lines, which are not paral1~l, and a po'
between them; describe a triangle having two of il$ angles in
~ctive lines, and the third at the given point; and such that
aides shall be equally inclined to the lines which they meet.
73. Construct a triangle, havin~ given the three lines drawn fi:o
the angles to bisect the sides opposite.
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ON BOOK I. 79
'H. Given one of the angles at the hue of a triangle, the hue
i~ and the sum of the two remaining aides, to construct the tri-
angle.
76. Given the base, an angle adjacent to the base, and the dif-
ference of the sides of a triangle, to construct it.
76. Given one angle, a siae opposite to it, and the dif'erenoe of
the other two sides; to construct the triangle.
77. Given the base and the sum of the two other aides of a
~le, construct it 80 that the line which bisecta the vertical
angle shall be parallel to a given line.
v.
78. From a given point without a given sirai~ht line, to draw a line
making an angle with the given line equal to a given rectilineal ~le.
79. Through a given point~, draw a straight line ..4.BCmeeting
two given ~llel straight lines in B and C, such that Be may be
equal to a given straiBb.t line.
SO. If the line joming two parallel lines be bisected, all the linea
I drawn through the point of bisection and terminated by the parallel
lines are alsc:i bisected in that point.
81. Three given straight Imes issue from a point: draw another
straight line cutting them so that the two segments of it intercepted
between them may be equal to one another.
82. .A.B, ~ C are two straight lines, B and 0 given points in the
aame; BD is drawn perpendicUlar to A C, and DB pe!]>endicular to
.A.B; in like manner OF is drawn ~erpendicular to ..4.~ and PO to
AO. Shew that EO is parallel to Be.
83. ABO is a right-angled triangle, and the sides A a AB are
produced to D and F; bisect FBCand BCD by the lines BB, OE,
and from B let fall the perpendiculars EF, ED. Prove (without
I88UJning any properties ofpalallels) that ~DEFis a square.
84. Two pairs of equal straight lines being given, Shew how to
CODStruct witli them the greatest parallelogram.
86. With two given lines as diagonals describe a J)81'8!lelopm
which shall have an angle equal- to a given angle. '"Within what
limits must the given angle lie tr
86. Having given one of the diagonals of a parallelogram, the
1UDl of the two adjacent sides and the angle betwepn them, constl"uct
the parallelogram.
87. One of the diagonals of a parallelogram being given, and the
angle which it makes with one of the sides, complete the parallelo-
gram, 80 that the other diagonal may be ~llel to a given fine.
88. ~BOD, ~'B'O'IY are two p&rallelograms whose corres-
~ sides are el~~ but the angle ~ is greater than the angle
.4,', prove that the . eter" AC is less than A'D', but BD greater
thati HU.
89. If in the diagonalor a paralleloptD any two points equi-
distant from its extremities be joined with the opposite angles, a
Igure will be formed which is also a parallelogram.
90. From :each angle of a parallelogram a line is drawn making
Digitized by Google
80 GBOMETR1CAL EXBRC1SES
the lUIle . .Ie towards the aame par!.! with an adjacent Bide, taken
always in the l8Dle order; shew that these linea form another parallelo-
I1'I.In lI"milar to the ori~ one. I
Digitized by Google
ON BOOK I. 81
to a given parallelogram. and have one of ita angles equal to a given
rectillneal angle. .
106. TraJialorm a given reetilineal figure into ~le whOle
vertex shall be in a given angle of the flgule, and whose hUe Bhall be
in one of the sides.
107. Divide a triang!ha!lr two straight lines into three ~ wbieh
when }roperly ammged form a pUallelogram whose angles are
ofa given magnitude.
108. Shew that a scalene triangle cannot be divided into two
parts which will coincide.
109. If two sides of a triangle be given, the triangle will be
greatest when they contain a right angle.
110. Of all triangles having the same vertical angle, and whOle
bases pass through a given point, the least is that whose base is bisected
in the given ~int.
111. Of all triangles having the same base and the same ~eter,
that is the ~test which has the two undetermined sides equal.
112. Divide a triangle into three equal parts, (1) by Ibies drawn
from a ~int in one of the sides: (2) by lines drawn from the angles
to a pomt within the triangle: (3) by lines drawn from a given point
within the triangle. In how many ways can the third case be done P
113. Divide an equilateral tri~le into nine equal parts.
I 114. Bisect a par8.1lelogram, (1) by a line drawn from a :r.?int in
one of its sides: (2) bl a line drawn from a given ~int Within or
without it: (3) by a line pe~ndicular to one of the sides: (4) by a
~ line drawn p&rallel to a given line.
. 116. From a siven point in one side produced of a parallelogram,
: draw a straight line wliich shall divide the parallelogram into two
equal
: lUrr !ro trisect a parallelogram by lines drawn (1) from a given
point in one of its sides, (2) from one of its angular points.
VII.
117. To describe a rhombus which shall be equal to any given
quadrilateral ftr.re.
118. Descnbe a parallelogram which shall be equal in area and
perimeter to a given triangle.
119. Find a point in the diagonal of a squat'e produced, from which
it a straight line be drawn palallel to any side of the square, and
~other side produced. it will form together willi the pr0-
duced onal and produced side, a triangle eqUal to the square.
120. from any point within a para1lelo~, s~ht lines be
drawn to the angles, the parallelogram shall be divided into four tri-
~le8, of which each two opposite are together equal to one-half of
the parallelogram. .
121. If .ABOD be a parallelogram, and B any point in the dia-
goDal.Ac, or .AOproduced; shew that the triangles BBo, EDa, are
~ual, as also the tri_ngles EB.A and BBD.
122. A.BOD is a parallelogram, draw DFG meeting BO in F,
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8! GEOMETRICAL nBRCISBS
132. Prove that the sides of any four-sided rectilinear figure are I
I that the other two diagonals shall be in the same straight line and equaL i
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ON BOOB: 1. 83
IX.
147. If the greater or the acute anglea or a ~ht-angled t:riaDgle,
be double the other, the square on the greater side is three times the
aqaare on the other.
148. Upon a given straight line CODStruot a right-angled triangle
auch that the square of the other side may be eqUal to seven tUnes
the square on the given line.
149. If from the vertell of plane triangle, a perpendicular fall
tq)On the base or the base ~ produced, the dift'erence of the squares OR
tlie aides is equal to the dift'erence of the squares on the segments of
the base. .
100. If'trom the middle point of one of the sides of a righ t-angled
~le, a perpendicular be .drawn to the hypotenuse, the dift'erenoe
of the squares on the segments into which. it is dinded, it equal to the
&quare on the other side.
161. If a straight line be drawn nom one otthe acute.angles ot a
~gled triangle, bisecting the 0ppolite side, the square uyon that
Jiiie 11 les8 than the square upon the hypotenuse by three time. the
IIq1Iare up!n half the line bisected.
162. If the sum of the squares or the three side. or a ~le be
equal to eight times the square on the line drawn from the vertex
~ the point ot bisection of the base, then the .ertical angle. a
right angle. .
163. If a line be drawn parallel t() the hypotenuse ot a right.
IDJled triangle, and each of the acute angles be joined with the
pGmti where this line intersects the sides respectively opposite to
them, the squares on the joining lines are together ~u81 to the
squares on the hypotenuse and on the line drawn parallel to it.
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84 GEOMETRICAL UnClSD ON BOOK I.
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B 0 I.
DEFINITIONS.
I.
. VEhY ri~ut-ang
ed pa.raLelogram is called a r~ctaftgls, and is said
I to be contained by any two of the "igh lin w h tai 8ne
I th gh ang
t--:;F----i K
----~~...- - --
OP 81 N T'O M
1/ there 6e t1CO "might linelt, one of tDAicla i. di.,idecl into any fttmaber
oJ,.. . t reef]1e ta ell the toO igla im', r.U the
.~ contai,..,J b1J eM unditnaed 11*, and tM lef)wal pam of elH
itnded line
et .A.. and B 0 be two 8trru.~t hnes;
and let BO be divided into y r rts BD, D "EO in he p . ts D E.
Th th ree gl on ned J t stn.. ht es and a, all
'be equal to the rectangle contained by .A.. and BD, to2'ether with that
conta d .d d , th co ine by ani Be'
~n p
86 BueLl', BLBJlENTS.
B D B C
K L H
A
From the point B, draw BF at right angles to Bo, (I. 11.)
and make BG equal to A; -(I. 3.)
through G draw GHParallel to 1JO, (1.31.) .
and through D, B, 0, draw DIl, EL, ON paraDel to BO, meeting
GHin E, L, H.
nen the rectangle BHia~ to the rectangles BK, DL,..BH.
And BE is contained by A and BO,
for it is contained by GB, Be, and GB is equal to A. :
and the rectangle BE is contained by...4., BD,
for it is contained by GB, BD, of which GB is equal to A :
also DL is contained by A, DE,
because DE, that is, BO, (I. 34.) is equal to A;
and in like manner the rectangle BHis contained by A, BO:
therefore the rectangle contained by A, Be, is equal to the several
rectangles contained by A, BD, and by ...4., DE, and by 4., EO.
'\\nerefore, if there be two straight lines, &c. Q. B.D.
Ao 0 B
[[]
J) :r B
Upon .A.B 4.e8Cl'lDe the square .A.DEB, (Ie 46.) and through C draw
OFpamnel to AD or BE, (I. 31.) meeting DB in F.
Then .A.E is equal to the rectangles AF, OB. .
And AE is the square on AB; j
and AFia the rectangle contained by B.A., AO;
for it is contained by DA, dO, of which DA is equal to AB:
and OE is contained by .dB, BO,
for BB is equal to AB: i
Google
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j
BOOK IT. PROP. tU, tV. 81
!
PROPOSITION III. THEOREM.
If a ,trlJigAt line 6e divided i"to any tlDO ptIrl" tA. fWltMgr. mttli"ttI 6r
I
Let the straight line .A.B be divided into any two ~ in the point C.
Then the rectangle .dB, B C, shall be equal to the rectangle
.d 0, OB, together with the square on B a.
A C .. B
LD~~B
Upon B(J describe the square CDBB, (1.46.) and produce BD to.F,
through.A. draw .A.Fparallel to OD or BB, (I. 31.) meeting BPin F.
Tlien the rectangle AB is equal to the rectangles .A.D, OE.
And AB is the rectangle oontained by.4.B, Be,
tor it is contained by .A. B, BE, of which BE is equal to BO:
and AD is contained by A e, CB, for CD is equaI to CB:
and OB is the 8,\uare on B C:
therefore the rectangle .AB, Bo, 18 equal to the rectangle .Ac, OB,
together with the sq.uare on B O.
If therefore a straight line be divided, &0. Q. B. D.
n~E
D F B'
Upon .AB descn"be the square .4.DBB, (I. 46.) join BD,
illrough (J draw (]OF parallel to .dD or BE, (I. 31.) meeting BD
in G and DB in K;
ad through G ~w KG K parallel to .4.B or DE, meeting ~D in
H, andDBm K;
Then, because OF is parallel to AD and BD falls upon them,
therefore the exterior ai~le B G (] is equal to the interior and oppOsite
angle BDA.; (I. 29.
out the angle B A. is equal to the angle D B.A., (I. 6.)
because B.d isoequal to .AD, being sides of a square ;
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88 BUcr"lD'tI ELEMENTS.
therefore the square on ..4B is ~ual to the squares on ..4. 0, OB, and
twice the rec~le A 0, OB.
Wherefore, if a straight line be divided, &c. Q. B. D.
ColL From the demonstration, it is manifest, that the paraJlel~
grams about the diameter of a square, are liltewise squares.
I
PROPOSlTION V. THEOREM.
1/ G *tJigAt Ii", N diNItl into tIl10 ~ part" _Ii also Veto ~
tftN9t'al pam; tM rJttmgu COfIttJifll 1Jy tM tlneglla' ptJrt., t~ toid
fM.,.., on tAB liM 6".". 1M pointI 01 HCtion, .. BpGl to 1M . . . . 011
I4lJ tIN liM.
o Let the straight line .A.B be divided into two equal parts in th~
point C, and into two un~ual parts in the :r?int D. .
Then the rectangle ..4D, DB, together WIth the square on CD, aball
be equal to the square on OB. I
o D B
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BOOK 11. PROP. VI. 69
u~ OB describe the 8Cl!W'8 OBFB, (I. 46.) join BE,
through D draw DNG parallel to CB or 1lF, (1.31.) meeting DB
in H, and BF in G,
and through N dl'aw KLM parallel to OB or BF, meeting CB
in L, and BFin M;
through A draw AX parallel to OL or BM, meeting HLX in K.
, en because the complement OH is equal to the complement HF,
L 43.) to each of these equals add DM;
therefore the whole OM is equal to the whole DF;
. but because the line A 0 is equal to CB,
therefore AL is equal to OM, (I. 36.)
therefore also AL is equal to DF;
to each of these equals add OH,
and therefore the whole AKis equal to DFand ON:
t A.His the rectangle contained by A.D, DB, for DNis equal to DB;
and DF together with OK is the gnomon CHG;
therefore the gnomon OHG is equal to tlie ~le AD, DB:
to each of these ~uals add LG, which is equal to the square on
aD; (lIe 4. Cor.)
therefore the gnomon CHG, together with LG, is equal to the
rectangle A.D, DB, together with the square on OD:
but the ~omon OMG and LG make up the whole figure CBFB,
which 18 the squa-re on OB;
therefore the rectangle AD, DB, together with the square on CD
is equal to the squa-re on CB.
Wherefore, if.a s~ht line, &0. Q. E. D.
CoR. From this proposition It is manifest, that the difFerence of
squares on two unequal lines A C, OD, is equal to the rectangle
....med by their sum AD and their dift'erence DB.
PROPOSITION VI. THEOREM.
If .IIrtJigAt
liM h 6i,ICtI, tmd protlucsrl to G",
point; ,IN rtlt:ttJngI.
by 'M tDlwls liM tA," produced, tmd tA, pGrl of it produced.
......IftI
aeuIW fDitA tlu .pore on MlJ tAe liM bi'ecUd, u eptJl to tM IfUGN on
""'igk liflll IDAicA u __ tip oj tM Aoll tmtl 1M ptJrl pJ'tHltMtl.
the straight line .A.B be bisected in 0, and produced to the point D
Then the rectangle .J.D, DB, together with the square on OB, shall
equal to the square on OD.
A C B D
,
E G P
Upon CD descn'be the square (JEFD, (1.46.) and join DB,
through B draw BHG parallel to CB or DF, (I. 31.) meeting DB
in H, and EFin G; .
through H draw XLM parallel to AD or EF, meeting DF in
M, and (JB in L;
lad through A. draw AX parallel to (JL or DM, meeting MLK in K.
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90 EUCLID'g ELEMEN1S.
u1Zf1x'
D F E
Upon AB describe the sguare ADEB,. (I. 46., .and join :tiD;
through Cdraw CFparallel to AD or BE (1.31.) meeting BD
G, and DB in F;
through G draw HGKparallel to.AB or DB, meeting AD in
ana BE in K.
Then because .A. (J it equal to GE, (I. 43.)
add to each of them OK;
therefore the whale AK is equal to the whole CB'; ~
, and therefore AX, OE, are double of AK: I
but AK, OE, are the gnomon ..dKF'8Jld the square OK;
therefore the pomon AKF and the square OK are double of ~.K~
but tWIce the rectangle AB, BC, is double of.dK, ~
for BK is equal to BO; (II. 4. Cor.) .
therefore the gnomon AKF and the square OK, are equal to twice ~
rectangle AB, BO;
to each of these equals add HF, which is equal to the square on ~ 4
therefore the gnomon A.KF, and the squares OK, HF, are equal t4
_'LJ
twice the rectangle A.B, B 0, and the square on .A. 0;
but the gnomon .dKF, together with the squares OK, HF, m-,
,
D;g;,;,.Jb,Google JJ
BOOK 11. PROP. VIII. 91
up the whole figure ADBB and OK, which are the squares on A.B
and BC;
therefore the squares on AB and B (J are equal to twice the rectangle
.dB, BO, together with the square on AC.
Wherefore, if a Itraight line, &c. Q.:& D.
E HLP
Produce AB to D, so that BD be JUal to CB, (I. 8.)
upon.AD describe the square ABFD, 1.46.) and join DB,
through B, 0, draw BL, OH parallel to A or DF, and cutting DB
in the points E, P respectively, and meeting BF in L, H;
through. K, P, draw MGEN, XPRO parallel to AD or BF.
Then because OB is equal to BD, CB to GX, and BD to KN;
therefore GX is equal to KN;
for the same reason, PR is equal to ROj
and because CB is equal to BD, and GK to KN,
ieref"ore the rectangle CKis equal to BN, and OR to RN; (1036.)
but CK is eqUal to RN, (I. 43.)
because they are the complements of the parallelogram CO I
therefore alsO BN is equal to OIl;
and the four rectangles BN, OK, OR, RN, are equal to one another,
and so are quadruJ?le of one of them CK.
Again, beca~se OB 18 equal to BD, and BDto BE, that is, to CO;
and because (JB is equal to GX, that is, to GP ;
therefore CO is equal to OP.
And because CO is equal to OP, and PR to RO,
theJefore the rectangle A.O is equal to HP, and PL to BF;
but the rectangle MP is equal to P L, (I. 43.)
beca1188 they are the complements of the parallelogram ML:
wherefore alSo A. G is equal to BF:
tIIeIetere the four rectangles .A G, MP, PL, RF, are equal to one
another, and 80 are quadruple of one of them .AG.
And it was demonstrated, that the four CK, BN, GR, and RN, are
quadruple of CK:
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92 EUCLID 8 ELEMENTS.
theretore the eight rectangles which contain the gnomon A ON, are I
quadruple of AK. !
And liecauae AXia the rectangle contained by .dB, Be, I
for BKia equ81 to BC;
theretore tour times the rectangle AB, BC is quadruple of AX :
but the gnomon .dOHw&8 demonstrated to be quadrUple of ..dE;
therefore four times therectaItgle .t4.B, B Cia equal to the gnomon.A O.H;
to each of these equals add XH, which is eqUal to the square on .A 0;
therefore four times the rectangle AB, BC, together with the sq
on A C, ia equal to the ~omon A OH and the square XH;
but the gnomon A. OH and XH make up the figure ABFD, which is
the square on AD;
therefore four times the rectangle .dB, Be together with the square
on A 0, is equal to the square on .dD, that is, on AB and B C aCId
together in one straight line.
Wherefore, if a straight line, &0, Q. B. D.
PROPOSITION IX. THEOREM.
q II .woigAt Ii".
N divided ineo tfDO epal, and az.o into ,."" UII6fUII
pare.; tAB "pare, on tM two unequal part, af'. togetAer double of tM 1tJ'M'''
Oft IuIlI eM U,.., and of eluJ .par. un tluJ line 6.tfDeBn the poi,," of "ectioA.
oLet the straight line .dB be divided into two equal parts in the point
CJ and into two unequal parts in the point D.
Then the squares on AD, DB together, shall be double of the
aqaarea on A CJ CD.
B
~
A C D B
From the point C draw OE at ri~ht angles to A.B, (I. 11.)
make CE equal to.dC or CB, 1.3.) and join BA, BB;
through D draw DFparallel to 0. ,meeting EB in F, (1.31.)
through F draw FG parallel to BA, and join ...4F.
Then, because A C is equal to CE,
therefore the angle A.BOis equal to the angle BAC; (I. 6.)
and because A CE is a right angle,
therefore the two other angles .dEC, EA. C of the triangle are fDgether
equal to a right angle; (I. 32.)
and since they are equal fD one another; .
therefore each of them is half a right angle.
For the same reason, each of the angles CBB,EBCislialfarightangle;,
and therefore the whole ..dEB is a right angle.
And because the angle GBF is half a right angle,
and BGFa right angle,
for it is equal to the ~~rior and opposi~ angle ~OB, (I. 29.) li
therefore the remammg angle BFG 18 half a ng~ angle; 0
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BOOK. 11. PROP. X. 93
AgaiB, because the angle at B is halt a right angle,
and FDB a ~ht angle,
for it is equal to the interior and opposite an,le EOB, (I. 29.)
therefore the remaining angle BFD is hali a riBht angle J
wherefore the angle at B is equal to the angle BFlJ,
and the side DF equal to the side DB. (I. 6.)
And because .A. 0 is equal to OR,
the square on .A. 0 is equal to the ~uare on CB;
therefore the squares on .4. 0, OB are double of the square on .A. 0;
but the square on .A.B is equal to the squares on A 0, CB, (I. 47.)
because .4. OB is a right angle;
therefore the square on.A.B is double of the square on.4.e.
Again, because BO is equal to OF,
the square on EO is equal to the square on OF;
theref'ore the squares on EO, GF are double of the square on GF;
but the square on BFis equal to the squares on BO, OF; (1.47.)
therefore the square on BF is double of the s'luare on GF;
and OF is equal to OD; (L 34.)
. therefore the square on BF is double of the square on CD;
~
but the square on .A. B is doubl~ of the square on .A. 0;
fore t1).e squares on A.B, BF are double of the squares on .A. 0, OD;
. but the square on A.F is equal to the squares on A.B, BF,
i because .A.BF is a right angle: (I. 47.)
!therefore the square on .A.Fis double of the squares on .4. C, OD:
: but the squares on .A.D, DFare equal to the square on .A.F;
~ because the angle .A.DFis a right angle; (1.47.)
rreforethe squares on AD, DFare double of the squares on~a, CD;
1 and DF is equal to DB;
~fore the squares on .A.D, DB are double of the squares on.4. CD. a,
I If therefore a straight line be divided, &0. Q. E. D.
PROPOSITION X. THEOREM.
If GIf,r(JigAt liM be bileeted, and produced to on, point, 1M IfUCIre tm
..w, line til.,. produced, and tlul 8guore Oft tAe pari t?lit produced, Q,.e
. doohle of tIM 'quare on Aalf the liM bi8ect,cl, tJI&d 01 tAe 8gu.are 0,.
late Made tip 01 tke half and the part produced.
~the straight line .tI.B be bisected in C, and produced to the
l Then'the squares on .4.D, DB, shall be double of the squares on
re, CD.
E P
A 'B-D
G
From the point 0 draw CE at right angles to A.B, (I. 11.)
make CE equal to A 0 or CB, (I. 3.) and join .A.B, BB;
through B draw EFparallel to .A.B, (1.31.)
and through D draw DFporaliel to G'E, meeting BFin Fe
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BUCLID'S ELBMBNTS.
Then because the straight line BP meets the parallels OB, FD.
therefore the angles OBF, BFD are ~ua1 to two right angles; (I. 29
and therefore the angles BBF, BFD are less than two right angles
But straight lines, which with another straight line make the iI
terior angles upC)n the same side of a line, less than two right angle
will meet if prOduced far enough; (I. ax. 12.)
therefore BB, FD will meet, if produced towards B, D;
let them be produced and meet in 0, and join AG.
Then, because A 0 is equal to OR,
therefore the angle OB.A. is equal to the angle B.A. C; (I. 6.)
and the angle .A. OR is a right angle;
therefore each of the angles OBA, B.A. 0 is half a right angle. (I. 32
For the same reason,
t'.ach of the angles CBB, BBC is half a right angle;
therefore the whole .A.BB is a right angle.
And because BBCis haifa right angle,
therefore DBO is also half a right angle, (I. 16.)
. for theI are vertically opposite ;
but BDO is a right angle,
because it is equal to the altemate angle DOB; (I. 29.)
therefore the remaining angle DOBis half a right angle;
and is therefore equal to the angle DBO;
wherefore also the side BD is equal to the side DO. (I. 6.) .
Again, because BOF is half a right angle, and the angle at F is j
right angle, being equal to the opposite an~le ECD, (I. 34.)
therefore the remaining angle FEO IS half a right angle,
and therefore equal to the angle BOF;
wherefore also the side OF is equal to the side FB. (I. 6.)
And because EO is equal to O.A. ;
the square on EO is equal to the square on CA; I
therefore the squares on EO, O.A. are double of the square on CA;:
but the square on'BA is equal to the squares on EO, Cd; (I. 47.)l
therefore the Bquare on BA is double of the square on .A. a. '
Again, because GFis equal to FB, I
the square on OF is equal to the square on FB;
therefore the squares on OF, FE are double of the square on FE;
but the square on BO is equal to the ~uares on OF, FE; (1.47.
therefore the square on EO is double of the sCJ.uare on FE;
and FE is equal to OD; (I. 34.)
wherefore the square on EO is double 01 the square on aD;
but it was demonstrated,
that the square on E.A. is double of the square OD A 0;
therefore the squares on B.A., EO are double of the squares on A a, CD
but the square on ..J..O is equal to the squares on EA, BO; (I. 47.)
therefore the square on .A. 0 is double of the squares on .A. C, CD:
but the squares on .A.D, DO are equal to the square on.A.G;
therefore the squares on .A.D, DO are double of the squares on.A C, CD
but DO is equal to DB;
therefore the s~,!are8 on .A.D, DB are double of the squares on 4. C, OL
Wherefore, if a straight line, &c. Q. E. D.
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BOOK 11. PROP. XI. 95
PROPOSITION XI. PROBLEM.
, To difJitl" tJ giwn ,traigAt liM into ttDO part" 10 tluJt tlu r*ngk oott-
ifttd by til" tDMl" and one oj tM partl, ,lulU H ,pal to tM ....." ....
, otlaw part.
I Let AB be the given straight line.
It is required to divide AB into two parts, so that the rectangle'
~tained by the whole line and one of the parts, shall be eqUal
the square on the other part.
F G
H
A:---t--"n
C K D
Upon AB describe the square A ODB; (I. 46.)
bisect A 0 in E, (I. 10.) and join BE,
produce CA. to F, and make EF equ8J. to BB, (1.3.)
~ upon AF describe the square FG EA.. (I. 46.)
:Then AB shall be divided in H, so that the rectangle A.B, BE is
~ to the square on AN.
, Produce GH to meet OD in K.
en because the straight line A 0 is bisected in B, and produced to F,
Uterefore the rectangle OF, FA together with the square on AB,
equal to the square on EF; (II. 6.)
I but BF is equal to BB;
~erefore the rectangle OF, FA together with the square on .4.B, is
. equal to the square on EB ';
It the squares on BA, A.B are equal to the square on BB, (I. 47.)
becaue the angle BAB is a right angle;
Iherefore the rectangle OF, FA, together with the square on A.B,
is equal to the squares on BA, AB;
take away the square on AB, which is common to both;
therefore the rectangle contained by OF, ~'.4. is equal to the square
onBA.
But the figure FE is the reetangle contained by OF; F.4.,
for FA is equal to FG;
and A.D is the square on AB;
therefore the figure FK is equal to AD;
take away the common part A.K,
therefore the remainder FH is equal to the remainder HD;
but HD is the rectangle contained by .dB, BH,
for AB is equal to BD;
and FH is the square on AH;
therefore the recta~le .A.B, BH, is equal to the square on .A.N.
Wherefore the straight line AB is divided in H, 80 that the
rectangle AB, BHis equal to the square on AE. Q.E.F.
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96 EUCLID'~ l.LTUlRNT!l.
H C D
Because the straight line BD is divided into two parts in the point
therefore the square on BD is equal to the squares on Be, C.
a,
and twice the rectangle B OD; (n. 4.) I
to each" of these equals add the square on DA; .
therefore the squares on BD, DA are equal to the squares on B~
OD, DA, and twice the rectangle B (J, OD;
but the square on B4. is equal to tne squares on BD, DA, (1.47.)
because the angle at D is a right angle; .
and the square on OA is equal to the squares on OD, D~ ;
therefore the square on BA is equal to the squares on Be, 04",.
twice the rectangle Be, CD;
that is, the square on B.J4. is greater than the squares on Be, CA,
twice the rectangle B C, OD.
Therefore in obtuse-angled triangles, &0. Q. E. D.
PROPOSITION XIII. THEOREH.
1,. ewry t,ria,,,gk, tM 'guo", ora tM ,ide IUbtlJtUling ritA. of 1M ~
t1IIgla, i, lu, tAa" tM 'pare, ora tM Bide, contGin.ing t1aot angle. by t1D~
1M rlJCtang16 containecl by eitAsr 01 tAe'B ,ida, cmtl tM stmig/at lin' inter
CIple4 betwem 1M aoutB angk Mel 1M ptJf'ptmIlicular ltJt faU upcm ., jt-
u.. oppo.itB angle. .
Let .A.B 0 be any triangle, and the angle at B one or its acutf
angles, and upon B a,one of the sides contain~ it, let fall tht
~ndicular AD from the opposite angle. (I. 12.)
Then the square on .J4. 0 opposite to the angle B, shall be less thai!
the squares on CR, BA., by twice the rectangle OB, BD.
" A.
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BOOl[ lJ. 'PROP. XIII. 97
Firat, let ~D Iall within the triangle ~B C.
Then because the straight line OB is divided into two parts in D,
JlJe squares on OB, BD are equal to twice the rectangle contained by
. (lB, BD, and tM square on DO; (II. 1.)
I to each of tnese equals add the squa.re on ~D;
i therefore the sguares on CB, BD, D.4., are equal to twice the
BCD
Then, because the angle at D is a right angle,
the angle ..4. OB is greater than a right angle; (I. 16.)
therefore the square on A B is equal to the squares on A. 0, OB,
and twice the rectangle BOJ.,OD; (II. 12.)
to each of these equals add the square on BO;
ore the squares on A.B, BO are equal to the square on AC,
, twice the square on BO~W~he rectangle BO, OD;
but because B D divi to two parts in 0-
tore the rectangle DB, ~ 's equal to the rectangle BO, OD,
and the square on BO; (II. 3.)
and the doubles of these are equal;
is, twice the rectangle DB, BO is equal to twice the rectangle
Be, OD and twice the square on .BO:
therefore the squares on .A.B, BO are equal to the sguare on ..4. (J,
and twice the rectangle DB, BO: ",
. .lOre the square on' A 0 alone is less than the squares on .A.B, BC;
~ twice the rectangle DB, B C-
" let the side .4.. 0 be perpendicular to B 0.
A.
.1len BO is the
LJ
B C
straight line between the pe~ndicular and the
. .Ie at B;
it is manifest, that the squares on .A.B, BO, are equal to the
aquare on .Ll 0, and twice the s~ on BO. (I. 4:7.)
Therefore in any triangle, &c. Q. B. D.
F
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98
,
B17CLm 8 BLBMBBTS.
6 BQ~P C
Deaoribe the rectangular parallelogram BCDB equal to the
lineal ~ .d. (I. ~O.)
Then, if the aides of it, BB, BD, are equal to one another,.
it is a square, and what was requirid is now done.
But if BB, BD, are not equal,
produce one of them BB to F, and make EF equal to ED,
bisect BFin 0; (I. 10.)
from the center 0, at the distance 0 B,. or OF, deattribe the aemic'
BHF,
and produce DE to meet the circumference in He
The square described upon BE shall be equal to the given rec
lineal figure A.
loin ON.
Then because the straight line BF is di\'ided into two equal
in the point 0, and into two unequal ~ in the point B;
therefore the rectangle BB, BF, together with the square OD B
is equal to the square on 0 P; (II. 6.)
but GPia equal to GH; (def.16.)
therefore the rectangle BE, BF, together with the square on BG,
equal to the Bql1are on GH;
but the squares on HR, EO are equal to the sq.uare on G H; (I. 4
therefore the rectangle BB, BP, together WIth the square on
is:1ual to the squares'on HB, BO;
e away the square on BO, which is' common to both;
therefore the rectangle BB, EF is equal to the square on HB.
:But the rectangle contained by BB, BP is the pilrallelogram B
beca~ BF is eqUal. to ED;
therefore BD is equal to the sgUaN on BN; .
but BD ia equal to the rectilineal figure A; (constr.)
therefore the square on BN is equal to tlie rectilineal figUre A.
Wherefore a square has been made equal to the given rectilin
ftlure.d, namely, the square described. upon BE. Q.B.P. I
I
I
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NOTES TO BOOK II.
I
: Ix Book I, Geometrical magnitudee of the lame kind, lin., augl.
and Burfaces, more particularly triangles and parallelogram., are com-
pared, either as being absolutell equal. or uneqUal to one another.
. In Book II, the properties 0 right-angled parallelograma, but withoat
Iteference to their magnitudes, are demonatrated, and an important
extension is made of Euc. I 7. to acute-angled and obtuse-angled
triangles. Euclid has given no definition of tJ rlCttJltflf'lM' pGraU.logr. .
or rectanglB: probabl" because the Greek exprea~ion 'rapaU"AlJyp.",,,o.
";"'011, or op8O'1",II&OII simply, is a definition of the fipre. In Engliah,
!he term ~18, formed from twN8 tmgUlw, ought toDe defined before
proPerties are demonskated. A rectangle may be defined to be a
ogram having one angle a right-angle, or a right angled pual-
IlelOfn'8,Jm; and a square is a rectangle having all its sidet equal.
As'the squares in Euclid's demonstrations are squares described or
pposed to be described on straight lines, the exprenion u eM '9'U1r.
AB," is a more appropriate abbreviation for .. the ,quar, Utct'ibed ""
liM AB," than u the 'qua"6 o/AB." The latter expr8lsion. more
yexpresses the arithmetical or algebraica1 equivalent for the square
the line AB.
In Ene. I. 36, it may be seen that there may be an indefb1ite number
parallelogrsms on the same base and between the same parallels whose
are always equal to one another; but that one of them has all ita
right angles, and the length ofits boundary less than the boundary
au dther parallelogram upon the same base and between the same
.......-.. 'Ina area of this rectangular parallelogram is therefore de-
, . ed by Che two lines which contain one of its right angles. Hence
1B stated itt Def. 1, that every right-angled parallelogram i8 ,aid to 6ft
"....rei by ~y two of the straight linea which contain one of the right
ea. No distinction is made in Book t1, between equality and ident;tv,
the,rectangle may be said to be contained b, two lines which are
respectively to the two which contain one nght angle of the figure.
may be remarked that the rectangle itself i, boundBtl by four straigh'
ea.
It is of primary importance to discriminate the Geometrical conception
rectangle from the Arithmetical or Algebraical representation of it.
subject of Geometry is magnitude not number, and therefore it woQid
a departure from strict reasoning on space, to substitute in Geometrical
oDStrations, the Arithmetical or Algebraical representation of a rect-
e for the rectangle itself. It is however, absolutely necesaary that
connexion of number and magnitu.d6 be clearly understood, 88 far
, regards the representation of lines and areas.
All lines are measured by lines, and all surfaces by surfaces. Some
Ie line of deftnite length is arbitrarily assumed as the linear unit, and
18 length of every other line is represented by the number of linear
lita, contained in it. 'the square is the figure assumed for the measure
Illrf'aces. 1be square unit or the unit of area is assumed to be that
~, the side of which is one unit in length, and the magnitude of
8!1 surface is represented by the number of square units contained
it. But here it may be remarked, that the properties of rectangles
d squares in the Second Book of Euclid are proved independently
1'2
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100 JreOL1D'S 'BLBMB!fTl.
And.AC is equal to the sum of the rectangles AL, EM, FN, GC; (II. I,
also these rectangles are equal to one another, (1.36.) I
but the whole rectangle ..Ie ia equal to 4: times the rectangle AL,
therefore the rectangle AC ia 4: x 3 times the square on aB, or ~
square units: I
that ia, the product of the two numbers which express the number ~
linear units in the two sides, will give the number of square anits in t~
rectangle, and therefore will be an arithmetical representation of its are~
And generally, if AB, AD, instead of 4 and 3, consisted of (J and I
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!lOTKS TO BOUK 11. 101
pc. is also a~, u well .. the pan.1le1ogram BO together with the
aame complements.
Prop. I For the sake ofbrmty of esprcuion, u the rectangle con-
i taiDed by the straight lines A Bf RC," is called If the rectangle A lJ, Be;"
i and sometimes" the rectangle ABC."
To this proposition may be added the corollary: If two straight lin.
be divided into any nLDlber of parts, the rectangle contained by the two
straight lines, ie equal to the rectangles containeCl by the several parts of
one line and the several parts of the other respectively.
The method of reasoning on the properties of rectangles by meau of
the products which indicate the number of equare unitt contained in their
areas is foreign to Euclids ideas ofrectanglest as discussed in bis Second
I Book, which have no reference to any particular unit of length or meuure
of Burface.
Prop. T. The figures BH, BK. DL,- BH are rectangles, as ma,
readily be shewn. For, by the parallels, the angle eEL ia equal to EVE;
and the angle BDK i. equal to BDG (Euc. I. 29.). But bDG ia a right
angle. Hence one of the angles in each of the figures BR, BK, DL. BII
is right angle. and therefore (Euc. 1. 46, Cor.) these figures, are
JeCtangular
Prop. I. Algebraically. (fig. Prop. I.)
Let the line Be contain a linear umts, and the line .A, " linear unite of
tle l8Dle length. '
. Also suppose the parts BD, DE, EC to contain "', tI, P linear unite
reapectively.
Then == '" + ft + p,
multiply these equals by-",
therefore M == lim + bra + bp.
That is, the product of two numbers, one of which is divided iDto any
Ilumber of parts, is equal to the sum of the products 01' the undivided
namber, and the several parts of the other ;
or, if the Geometrical interpretation of the products be restored,
The number of square units expressed by the product ah, is equal
to the number of square units expressed by the sum of the products 6m,
6a,6p.
Prop. II. Algebraically. (fig. Prop. II.)
Let LIB contain II linear units, and ..tCt CB, ". and " linear unitl
respectively.
multiply th~e equals by 0,
Then '" + " =.,
therefore .m + ." == 0 1
That is, if a number be divided into any two parts, the sum of the
products of the whole and each of the parts is equal to the square of the
whole number. .
Prop. 111. Algebraically. (fig. Prop. In.)
Let JfB contain. linear units, and let BC contain ., and ..tC, ,. linear
units
Then == + fit
lIUIlupI1 these equals by""
therefore flta == ",I + ....
That is, if a number be divided into any two parts, the product of
I the whole number and one of the parts, is equal to the square of that
I pert, and the product of the two parts.
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101 BUCLID'S BLEMEBTI.
Prop. IV. miaht have been deduced from the two ~ PJqtO- i
.itions; but Euclid haa preferred the method of exhibiting. in the Cle ;
DlOnstrationl of the second book, the equalit1 of the spaces compared. I'
In the corollary to Prop. XLVI. Book I, it 18 stated that a paralleloin'am
which has one right angle. has all ita angles right angles. :Oy appfying
this corollary, the delnonatration of Prop. IV. may be considerably
ahortened.
U the two parte of the line be equal. then the square on the whole
line is equal to four times the square on half the line.
. Alao. if a line be divided into any three parts, the square on the whole
line is equal to the squares on the three parte, and twice the rectaDglea
contained by every two parts.
Prop. tv. Algebraically. (fig. Pro,. tv.)
Let the line A B contain 0 linear units. and the parts of it AC ad Be,
and ,. linear units respectively.
Then 0 :::II + II.
squaring these equals, :.01 = (. + ta)',
or 0' = ml + 2mll + tal.
That is, if a number be divided into any two parts, the square of the
number is equal to the squares of the two parts together with twice. the
~uct of the two parts.
From Euc. II. 4, may be deduced a proof of Euc. I. 47. In the k. j
take DL 0,Il DB, and EM on BB, each equal to BC, and join CH. Hl, !
LM. MC. Then the figure HLMC is a square, and the four triangles
CAH, HDL, LBM, MBC,a,re equal W one another, and together are equal I
to the two rectangles AG, GE.
Now .dG. GE, FR, CKaretogether,equal to the whole figure LJDBB; I
and H LMC, with the four triangles OAR, HDL, LBB, MBO also make
up the whole figure ADEB;
Hence .AO, GR, FH, CK are equal to HLJlC together with the four
triangles :
but AG, G E are equal to the four triangles.
wherefore F H, CK are equal to HLMO, ,
that is, the squares on AC, AH are together equal to the square on CB.
Prop. v. It must be kept in mind, that the sum of two straight lines
in Geometry, means the 8trai~ht line formed by joining the two lines
together, 80 that both may be m the same straight line. I
The following simple properties respecting the equal and UIlequal
division of a line are worthy of being remembered.
= =
I. Since ~B 2BC = 2 (BD + DC) 2BD + 2DC. (Ig. Prop. T.)
and .4B =- AD + DB;
,'. 2CD + 2DB :z AD + DB,
and by aubtraOting 2DB from these equals,
:. 2CD = AD - DB,
and CD = I (AD - DB).
That is, if a line ABbe dbided into two equal parts in 0, and into two
unequal parts in D, the part CD of the lille between the points of .ection
is equal to half the difference of the unequal parts AD and DB.
II. Here AD = AC + CD, the sum of the unequal parts, (fig. Prop. T.)
and DB = AC - OD their di1rerence.
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NO,.. TO BOOK lL lOS
Beace ,by aiding tlleIe equals together,
:. AD + DB == 2AO,
ior the 81&111 and dift'erence of two linea AC, CD, are together equal to
!twioe;dle greater line.
I And the halves of these equa1e are equal,
:. i.AD + i. DB = .AC,
:or, half'the sum of two unequal linea .AC, CDadded to hall their cUffe-
rence is equal to the greater line AC.
m, Again, 8in" .AD II: AC + CD, ad DB - AD - CD,
by subtracting these equals,
:,.AD - DB -= tCD,
.. the ,c1i:I'erence between the sum and cWl'erenee of two 1ID8qullinel ia
qaa118 twice the less line
.b4 the halves of theae equala are equal,
:. i.,AD -i.DB = CD,
, half the di1Ference of two linea subtracted from halt their nmll equal
~ leas of the two linea.
IV. Since AC - CD -= DB the di1ferenoe,
,'. AC= CD + IJB,
"~addiDg CD the lese to each of these equals,
, . .0. 4C + CD == 2CD + DB,
.. ,"11UR t4 two lIDequal lines is equal to twice the I_line together
. . the cWference betweeu the lin
Plbp. T. Algebraically.
Let AB contain !a linear units,
ita half BC will contain G linear UDits.
let CD the line between the points of aectian CODtaia. linear units
.AD the greater of the two UJlequal paru, contaiDs IJ.+ linear unita ;
and DB the less contain8 G - IJI unita.
.u.o is half the cWrerence of G + '" and .. - ""
.'.(G + til) (G- a) == o' -a',
10 each of theae equals add till;
:. (G + m) (G - m) + m' == G',
That is, if a number be divided into two ~ua1 part&, ad:allo into two
~ual parts, the product of the unequal parts together with the square
olhalf their di1ference, is equal to the square ofh&lf the number.
Bearing in mind that AC, CD are respectively half the sum and hall
the dift'erence of the two linea AD, DB; the oo~ollary to this proposition
-y be expressed in the following fonn: "The rectangle contained b,.
two 8tra~h~fnes is equal to the di1ference on the squares of half their
111m and their di1f'erence."
The rectangle contained by AD and DB, and the 8quare on Be are
_ll bounded by the IBIDe extent of line, bll't the spaces enclosed di1fer
lrtha Bqware on CD.
: e n atraightliue is said to is prodWJl wheJl ithas italength iD.o.reaeed.
fa
If a
.. divi
ent
direction, and the increue it receives, is called the pIIrl ~d"
be taken in a line or in a Une produced, the line 18 said to
,~, or ,I1IImIIIlV.,.awl the distances of the pomt from
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104 BUCLID'S ELEMENTS.
the ena of the Une are called the internal or aternal lIt!Penta of the
Une, according as the point of Mction is in the line or the line produced.
Prop. VI. Algebraically. ,
Let AB contain 20 linear unita, then ita half BC COIltaina. UDita; and
let BD contain ". unita.
Then AD contains k + units,
and :. (20 + "1) '" - 2am + ",I;
to each of the.. equat. add o't
:. (20 + a) + 0 1 = 0 1 + 20a + .'.
But o + 24a + nl = (0 + a)l,
:. (20 + a)a + 01 (0 + a)l.=
That iI. If a number be divided into t,,o equal numbers, and anoth :
number be added to the whole alld to one of the parts; the product J
the whole number thus increased and the other number, together with tle i
Iquare of half the given numbert is equal to the square of the numhr i
which is made up of half the given number increased. .'
The algebraic81 results of Prop. v. and Prop. VI. are identical, as i1 is
obvious that the dif'erence of tJ + m and 4 - m in Prop. v. is equal to the I
difFerence of 2a + m and a in Prop. VI, and one algebraical result ex-
presses the truth of both propositions. " !
This arises from the two ways in which the cWFerence between two
unequalUnea may be represented geometrically, when they are ia the
lame direction.
In the diagram (6g. to Prop. v.). the difFerence DB of the two unequal
lines AO and OD is exhibited by producing the less line CD, and making
CB equal to AO the greater.
Then the part produced DB is the dift"erence between AC and CD,
for AC is equal to OB. and taking CD from each,
the difference of" A C and VI) is equal to the difference of CB and Cl).
In the diagram (fig. to Prop. vr.), th9 dif'erence DB of the two un-
equal linea CD and CA is exhibited by cutting oft' from CD the greater, I
a part CB equal to CA the less.
Prop. VII. Either of the two parts AC. CB of the line AB may be
taken": and it is equally true, that the squares on AB and AC are equal
to twice the rectangle AB. AC, together with the square on BO.
Prop. vu. Algebraically.
Let .AB con~n a line~ units, and let the parts AC and CIJ ~~.
and n linear uillta respectively.
. 'l'hen a = m + n ;
squaring these equals,
:. a l = m' + 2m" + ,.1.
add ,~I to each of these equals,
: . 0,' + 161 = m l + 2m,. + 2n.
=
But 2an + 2nl 2 (m + ta) n 2CJft, =
: . (J' + tal = ml + 2mI.
That is, If a number be divided into any two parts, the square of the
whole Dumber and of one of the parts, iaequal to twice the product of the
whole number and that part, together with the square of the other part.
Prop. VlIt. As in PrOp. VUe either part of the line may be taken,
ud it 18 also true in this Proposition, that four times the rectangle con
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~OTES TO BOOK 'II. 105
taiDed"byAB, ACtogetherwith the square on BO, is equal to the aquare
OIl the straight line made up of AB and .A C together "
The truth of this proposition may be deduced from Eue. II. 4 and 7.
For the square on.AD (fig. Prop. 8.) is equal to the squares on AB,
BD, andtwieethereetangleAB, BD; (Eue. 11.4.) or the equares on
AB, BO, and twice the rectangle AS, BO, because BC is equal to BD:
and the squazes on AB. BO are equal to twice the rectangle .AB, BO with
the square on A C: (Eue. 11. 7.) therefore the square on AD is equal to
four times the rectangle A B, Be together with the square on AC.
Prop. VIII. Algebraically.
Let the whole line AB contain a linear units of which the parts AO,
CB contain m, " units respectively.
Then m + " == G,
and subtracting or taking" from each,
..m==a-",
squaring these equals,
:. m l = al - 2aft + ,.1,
and adding 40" to each of these equals,
:. 4t1" + ",I = a l + 2G" + "I.
But al + 2G" + ftl = (a + ,,)',
:. 4aft + m l = (a + tI)'.
That is, It a number be divided into any two parts, four times the pro-
chact of the whole number and one of the farts, together with the square
of dle other part, is equal to the square 0 the number made of the whole
and the part first taken.
Prop. VIn. may be put under the following form: The square on the
sam of two lines exceeds the square on their di1ference, by four tim. the
rectangle contained by the linea.
Pro. IL The demonstration of this proposition may be deduced
from e. u. 4 and 7.
For (Bue. u. 4.) the square on .AD is equal to the squares on AC, CD
and twice the rectangle AO, OD; (fig. Prop. 9.) and adding the square
on DB to each, therefore the squares on 4 D, DB are equal to the squares
on AC, CD and twice the rectangle AO, CD together with the square on
DB; or to the squares on BO, OD and twice the rectangle BO, CD with
the square on DB, because BC is equal to 4C. .
But the squares on BO, CD are equal to twiee the rectangle BC, CD,
with the square on DB. (Eue. 1I. 7.)
Wheiefore the squares on AD, DB are equal to twice the aquares OB
BCand ODe .
Prop. IX. A1~braiea11y.
Let AB .contain 2a linear units, its. half AC or BO will contain a unita,
_let CD the line between the points of section contain m units.
AlIo .AD the greater of the two unequal parts contains a + m unita,
and DB the less contains a - m units.
Then (a + m)1 == a l +2am + m',
and (a - m)' = a' - 2am + mi.
Hence by adding these equal.,
:. (a + m)1 + (a - m)1 = 2AJ + 2m-.
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106 BUC1~ID
t
S ELK)lE~.
That It, It. numbftt be dinded into two equal parts. and al80 into two
unequal parte, the aum of the squares of the two unequal parta it equal
to twice the equare of half the number itself, and twice the square of
half the diiFerence of the unequal parts.
The proof of Prop. z. may be deduced from Euc. II. 4. 7, as Prop. IX,
Prop. z. Algebraically.
Let the line AB oontain 2G linear units, of which ita hill .AO or CB
will contain a unitl ;
and let BD contain .. units.
Then the whole line and the part produced will contain 2a + units.
and half the liDe and the part produced will contain a + til units,
,'. (2a + In)' = 4:0' + 4am + ..',
add ..' to each of these equals,
... (20 + ",)' + ".' = 40' + 4am + 2"".
Again, (a + ..)1 = 0 1 + 2am + ....
add at to each oftheae equals,
:. (0 + .)t + a' = 2a1 + 2am + fAl.
and doubling these equala
.', 1(. + .)' + 2a' = 401 + 4:a", + 2"".
But (2. + ",)' + ".1 = ... + urn + 2"".
Hence ,', (2G + fII)' + ",' = 20' + 2 (a + fII)'.
Th.t is, If a number be divided into two equal. parts. and the whole
number and one of the parts be increased by the addition of another Ilum
ber, the squares of the whole number thus increased, and of the number
by which lt is increased. are equal to double the squares of half the num
ber, and of half the number increased.
The algebraical results of Prop. IX, and Prop. x, are identical, (the
enunciations of the two Props. arising, as in Prop, v, and Prop. VI, from
the two ways of exhibiting the difFerence between two linea); and both
may be included under the following proposition: The square on the
aum of two lines and the square on their difFerence, are together equal to
double the aum of the squares on the two lines,
I Prop. XI. Two series of lines, one aeries decreasing and the other
aeries increasing in magnitude, and each line divided in the same man
ner may be found by means of this proposition.
(1) To and the decreasi~ series.
=
In the fig. Euc. II. 11, AB AH + BH
.and aince.AB. BH =- AB', :, (.AH.+ BH). BH All', =
=
:. BH' = AH' - AH. BH .AH. (AH - BH)-
If now in Hoi, HL be taken equal to BH,
then HL' = AH (.AR - HL), or AB .ttL HLI: =
that is, AH is divided in L. 80 that the rectangle contained by the whole
line AH and 'one part, is equal to the square on the other part ilL, 111 a ,
similar process, HL mar be 80 divided; and so on, by always taking from
the greater part of the aivided line, a part equal to the less.
(2) To nlld the increasing aeries, .
From the fig. it is obvious that CF. FA CA', =
Hence CF is divided 41 At in the same manner 8S AB is divided in 1/,
oy adding JI,[I a line equal' to the greater segment, to the given line C.:l
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lfOTBS TO BOOK tl. lOT
01' AB. And brlJuccesaivelr addiDg to the lut Une thu diYic1ec1, ita
greater segment, a series of Jiaea increaling In magnitude be found mar
aimi1arly divided to AB.
It may also be s}lewn that the equares on the whole line and on the 181.
segment are ~ua1 to three times the square on the greater HglDent.
(Euc. ltW. 4.)
To solve Prop. XI. alJebraically,or to ftnd the point H in .A3 Itlcb
that the rectangle contamed by tlie whole line 4B and the pert H.aUall
be ~ua1 to the square on the other part II H.
. Let AB contain 0 linear units, and A H one of the unknown pW eon-
tain.UDita,
then the other part HB contains 0 - " units.
And :.0 (G -.1:) = zI, by the problem,
or :e' + _ =
at, a quadratic equation.
Whe
ace. +046-G
:l
The tormer of these values of z determines the point II.
80 that
162-1 A B .. .All, one part,
3-46
and G- ... G - AB.. 2 ~B -SB, the other part.
It may be observed, that the parts AB and HB cannot be numerically
expreued by any rational number. Approximation to their true values
in terms of AB. may be made to any required degree of accuracy, byes-
tending the extraction of the square rout of 6 to anr
number of decimals.
To ucertain the meaning of the other result II = _ 46 ,,+ 1 G.
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108 BUOLID'S BLBJlBlft'I
a'+1cMI,
:. II' 61 + 0 1 + ~,
that is, c' is greater than II' + 01 by 2mII.
Prop. XltI. Cue II. may be proved more simply as followa.
Since BD is dirided into two puta in the point D,
therefore the squares on CB, BD are equal to twice the rectaDgle con-
tained by CB. BO and the square on CD; (no 7.)
add the square on A 0 to each of these equals ;
th....ore the squares on CB. B D. DA are equal to twice the rectangle
CB, BD, and the squares on OD and DA,
but the squares on BD, OJ are equal to the square on JIB, (I. '7.)
and the square. on CD. DA are equal to the square on AC,
therefore the squares on CB. BA aTe equal to the square on .AC, and
twice the rectangle 0 B, BD. That is,
Prop. XIII. Algebraically.
.0.
Let Be. C.A, JIB contain reapective1y., 6, c linear units, and let BD
and .AD alao contain '" and n unital
Cue I. Then DC contains 0 - m units.
Therefore II' == nl + m' from the right-angled triangle .ABD.
and 61 == n' + (0 - m)1 from .ADC,
:. t:' - 6' == ",' - (" - m)1
= ml - ,,' + 2"m - . 1
== -~' + 2tJm,
=
:. a l + c' 61 + 2Gm,
=
or 61 + 2"", "I + c',
that is, bt is leas than a l + c' by 2tJ",.
Cue II. DC == m. - 0 units,
:. II' = ",' + ft' from the right-angled triangle JlBD,
and b' = (m - ,,)1 + tal trom JOD,
:. c' - 6' = ",' - (m - a)',
= m' - ",' + 24M - tI'
= 2tJm - at,
=
: ... + c' 6' + 24m,
or 6' + 2am = o + c',
that is, b' is le88 than o' + c' by 2tJ8t.
Oue III. Here m is equal to o.
And 6' + "I = cl , from the right-angled triangle .ABC.
Add to each of these equals ai,
b' +.20' == c' + 01 ,
that is, 6" is less than c' + .. by 2tJ', or !taG.
'l'heee two propositions, Euc. II. 12, 13, with Euc. I. 47, exhibit
retatiODl which subsist between the sides of an obtuse-angled, an aou
aagled, and right-angled triangle respectively.
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( 109.)
NOTE ON THE ABBREVIATIONS AND ALGEBRAICAL
SYMBOLS EMPLOYED IN GEOMETRY.
TEll ancient Geometry of the Greeks admitted no Iymbola beaidet the
diagram. and ordinar,. language. In later times, after symbola olopera-
tion had been devised by writers on A.lgebra, they were very loon ado,ted
and employed on account of their brevity and convenience, in wriunp
purely ~eometrical. Dr. Barrow was one of the first who introduced
algeb1'&1calsymbola into the language of Elementary Geometry, and dis-
tinctly states in the preface to his Euclid, that his object is .. to content
the desires of those w~o are delighted more with symbolical than verbal
demonstrations." As algebraical symbols are employed in almost all
works on the mathematics. whether geometrical or not, it seems proper
in this place to give some brief account of the marks which may be re-
I garded 88 the alphabet of symbolical language.
Themark = was first used by Robert Recorde, in hia treatise on Algebra
.titled, .. The Whetstone of Witte," 16670 He remarks; II And to avoide
the tediouae repetition of these woordes : if equcllk to : I will sette aa I
doe often in woorke use. a paire of paralleles, or Gemowe lines of one
lengthe, thus: =, bicause noe 2 thynges can be more equalle." It was
employed by him 88 simply affirming the equality of two numerical or
algebraical expressions. Geometrical equality is not exactly the same
18 numerical equality, and when this spnbol is used in geometrical reason-
ings. it muat be understood as havmg reference to pure geometrical
Thety8lgIl8
equali : f el ti
0 rave magm
'tude, > meanmg,
o. __ 4
.. gr_w ,Ktn, and <, II
tl._-
,. tAG,., were first introduced" into algebra by Thomas Harriot, in his
-Artis Analyticm Praxis," which was published after his death in 1631.
The signs + and - were first employed by Michael Stilel, in his U Arith-
metica Integra," which was published in 15'4. The sign + was employed
b, him for tne word plUII, and the sign -, for the word mift"" These
I1gIl8 were used by Stilel strictly as the arithmetical or algebraica1 sign-
oraddition and subtraction.
! The sign of multiplication x was ftrst introduced by Oughtred in his
ItClavis Mathematica," which was published in 1631. In algebraical
multiplication he either connects the letters which form the factors of a
product by the sign x t or writes them as words without any sign or mark
between them. as had been done before by Harriot, who first introduced
the small letters to designate known and unknown quantities. However
concise and convenient the notation AB x BC or .AB. BC may be in
practice for" tM rectaftg18 contained by the line' .lB tlnd BC" ; the student
18 cautioned against the use of it, in the early part of his geometrical
atudies, aa its use is likely to occasion a misapprehension of Euclid's
. meaning, by confounding the idea of Geometrical equality with that of
Arithmetic81 equality. Later writers on Geometry who employed the
Latin language. explained the notation .AB x BC, by ".AB tluctum in
Be"; that is, if the line .AB be carried along the line BC in a normal
position to it, until it come to the end C, it will then form with BC, the"
~le contained by AB and BC. Dr. Barrow sometimes expresses
rectang18 contained '66 AB tlnd BO" by U tM rectm'gle .ABC."
Michael Stifel was the first who introduced integral exponents to
denote the powers of algebraicalsymbols of quantity, for which he em-
=:ted capital letters. Vieta afterwards used tne vowels to denote known,
the conaonants, unknown quantities, but used worda to designate the
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110 BUCLID'S BLBMBNTS.
't
dicated the powen within amall circles. Peter Ramus adopted the
initial letters I, 11, 6g of ltItuI, f1ItI4ratw, M,". 6itpMUlrtJt1ll, as the nota-
tion of the flrat four powers. Haniot exhibited the difFerent powers of
alpbraica1aymbo1e 1)1 repeating the .IJIlbol. two, three. four t &c. times,
accorcUng to the order of the power. Descartes restored the numeriCal
uponente of powers. placing them at the right of the numbers, or symbols
of quantity, aa at the present time. Dr. Barrow employed the notation
..4Bt. for" 1M .pcsre Oil tIN Ii,.. ~B." in his edition of Euclid. The
notationa AB', A gat for U 1M 'fUMe and cuh ora tM Ii,.. tDue ezWerAititl
ON ~ ad B," aa well aa AB x BC, for" tM rllCttJflgr. corattJiurl _6, A~
CIfItI BC," are used as abbreviations in almost all worD on the Mathe-
matics, though not wholly conaiatent with the algebraical notations II I
andre
The symbol V, being originally the initial letter of the word rtJdiz. was
Irat used by Stifel to denote the square root of the number, or of tIM
.~bol, before which it is placed.
The Hindus, in their treatises on Algebra, indicated the ratio of twO
numbers, or of two algebraical a~bo1st by P~ one above the other.
without any line of separation. The line was first mtroduced by the Ara-
bians, from whom it passed to the Italians, and from them to the rest of
Europe. This notation has been employed for the expression of ~e
trica1 ratioa by almoat all writers on the Mathematics, on account of itt
pat convenience. Outtred flrat used points to indicate proportion;
thus. CI : II :: D : tI, means t a bears the same proportion to 6, .. fJ does to tl.
QUESTIONS ON BOOK n.
t. Is rtCttmgltJ the same as rect," tmgUlUl' Explain the c1iatinction,
and give the corresponding Greek terms.
2. What is meant by UN ,u". of two, 01' more than two straight lineI
in Geometry ?
3. Is there any difFerence between the straight lines by which a rect-
augle is said to be conttlinetl, md those by which it iI 60rintletl 1
4. Define a gnomon. How many gnonatm8 appear from the same con-
.truction in the same rectangle? Find the difFerence between them.
6. What axiom is assumed in proving the ft.rst eight propoaitioDl of
the Second Book of Euclid?
. 6. Of equal squares and equal rectangles, which must fteCIIIctrilg coin-
cide?
7. How may a rectan~le be dissected 80 as to form an equivalent .
rectangle of any proposed length? :
8. When the adjacent sides 01 a rectangle are commensurable, the area
olthe rectangle is properly represented by the product 01 the number at
. units in two adjacent sides olthe rectangle. mustrate thia by considering
the case when the two acijacent sides contain 3 and 4 units respectively.
and distinguish between the units ofthe factors and the unitsofthe~duct.
Shew generally that a rectangle whose adjacent sides are represented by the
integers a and 6, is represented byab. Also shew, that in the aame l8D8e,
G h '4
the rectangle is represented b1-'-;',
fAA
.1
if the ea be repreaeDMM .._..:Ib, - . -6.
....
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QUESTIONS ON BOOK 11. 111
9. Why may not Alaebraica1 or Arithmetical proofa be IUbitituted (II
~ shorter) for the demoDitratiODI of the PropoaitiODI in the Second
Boo& of Euclid?
10. In what sense is the CINCJ of a ~le ,aid to be !!9ual to half the
product of ita bale and ita altitude f What two prOpoaitiODI of Euclid
mar be adduced to prove it?
11. Bow do you ,hew that the area of a rhombua ia equal to half &he
rectangle contained bi the diagonals?
12. How may a rUle be deduced for lln~ a numerical expreesion
far the area of anY' parallelogram, when two adjacent sides are given?
13. The aria of a trapeziQl which has two of itaaidea parallel is equal
to that of a rectangle contained by ita altitude and half the sum of ita
puaUel aides. What propositions of the First and Second Books of Euclid
lie emploIed to prove this? Of what service is the above in the men-
suration of fields with irregular borders ?
U. From what propoaitiOJ18 of Buclid ma.., be deduced the following
ra1e for flndinR the area of any quadrilateral ftgUre : -" Multiply the sum
of the perpendiculars drawn from opposite angles of the ftgare uf,On the
diagonal joini~ the other two angles, and take half the product. '
16. In Euclid, u. 8, where must be the point of divis10n of the line, 80
that the rectangle contained by the two ~ may be a muimum? Ex-
emJ)lify in the case where the line is 12 lncheslong.
16. How may the demonstration of Euclid 11.4. be legitimatelyahort-
med t Give the Algebraica1 proof, and state on what suppositions it can
.. reprded as a proof.
17. Shew that the proof of Euc. II. 4, can be deduced from the twG
prnious propositions without any geometrical construction.
18. Shew that if the two complements be together equal to the two
tquarea, the given line is bisected. .
19. If the line JtB, as in Huc. u.4, be divided into any three parta,
enunciate and prove the analogous proposition.
20. Prove pmetrieally that if a straight line be trisected, the equar..
OIl the whole line equals nine times the square on a third part of it.
2l. Deduce from Euc. It. 4, a proof of Eue. 1. 47.
22. If a straight line be divided into two parts, when is the rectangle
eontained by the. parts, tM gf'ltltat poIli6ls' and when is the sum of the
1qU8le8 of th~ parts, the kMt fJOI.iblB 1
23. Shew that if a line be divided ilLto two equal parts and into two
~ua1 parts; the part of the line between the points of section is equal.
to hI1f the dift'erence of the unequal parts.
24. If half the sum of two unequal linea be increased by half their
difennce, the sum will be equal to the pater line: and if the sum of
two lines be diminished by half their clliFerence, the remainder will be
equal to the leu line.
21. Explain what is meant by the iral4rMl and ,.wtaal legmen" of
line; and show that the sum of the external segments of a line or the
cli6nmce of the intemal segments is double the distance between the
points of section and bisection of the line.
24. Shew how Euc. u. 6, may be deduced immediately from the
Pl'eceding Proposition. .
27. Prove Geometrically that the squares on the sum and dUFerence
ohwo linea are equal to twice the squares on the linea themselves.
28. A given rectangle is divided by two straight lines into four rect-
angles. Given the areas of the two which h:Lve not common sides: flDj
the areas of the other two.
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112 :BUCLID'S BLEMB~TS.
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GEOMETRICAL EXERCISES ON 'BOOK II.
PROPOSITION I. PROBLEM.
Dieitle II giom .trGight liM into ''''0 ptlrt. meh, tlaat tMir r~ctangz. ",ag
N eytItIl to tJ given .qtMJre; aM determine tM greatm .guare whiclt u..
nctanglB CtJft egutJl
Let..A.B be the given straight line, and let M be the side of the
gIven ~uare.
It is required to divide the line.AB into two parts, 80 that the
nctangle contained by them may be equal to the square on M.
D B
A FeB
Bisect .dB in C, with center 0, and radius CA or CB, deacribe the
IelDicircle ADB. '
At the point B draw BE at right angles to .dB and equal to M.
. DThrough E, draw ED ~eI to AB and cutting the semicircle
m ;
and draw DF parallel to BB meeting AB in F.
Then AB is divided in F, so that the rectangle AF, FB is equal
to the square on M. (II. 14.)
The square will be ihe greatest, when ED touches the semicircle,
or when M is equal to half of the given line AB.
F
Constructing as in Prop. 4. Book II.
Because the complement .A. G is equal to GB,
add to flach OK,
therefore the whole AK is equal to the whole DB;
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OBOIIBT.leAL BBaOlSHI
PROposmON m. TBBORBJL
I" . , tricmgl, tAl 'po"" OIl eM lIDO ridet tIN IDgetMr ~ of tAt
IfIIIW!' em 1w.lf t1ae b"" 'Ml
MUI OIl tA. ltrGigAt I.,., joining ill bitect_ tI1itA
~,..,le. .
Let A.BC be a triangle, and.AD the line drawn from the vertex A I
to the bisection D of the base BO. .
i
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O.JI BOOK II. 116
B D--O C
PROPOSITION V. THEOREM.
ne MIl 01 t1l8 ~icular. IBt faU from .,1 point tDillill Gil epila-
tritmgk, triU be Bgual to tM perpmdicultJ,. lst faU from MN of"-
lit vpma tA, oppoait, riM. 1. tAi, propo,itiofl trUB teAm tke point" '"
0/ de ,ide, of tM triangk' III flIMt man,.". fIIzm tM proporiIion N
. .AM tIN poi'" " tDitMvt tM 'IrilMglB'
Let ABObe an .eqailate!al ~le, and P .1 point within it:
andlromPletfall P D,PE, PFJl811lendicularson the sities ..4.B, DO,
respectively, also from.4. let fall .A. 0 perpendicular on the base B C.
Thea .A G is equal to the sum of P D, P B, P F-
A.
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116 GBOKBTJlICAL UBJlClSFJI
11. Shew that the difference between the squares on the two
~ual ~ (fig. Euc. II. 9.) is equal to twice the rectangle con .
by the whole line, and the part between the points of section.
12. Shew how in all the possible cases, a straight line may
,,,,,,,etricaUy divided into two such parts, that the sum of their sq
Bha1l be e~ual to a ~ven square.
13. DIvide a gIven straight line into two parts, such that
AquareS on the whole line and on one of the parts shall be equal to ~
die square on the other part.
14. Any rectangle is the half' or the rectangle contained by
diameters of the squares on its two sides.
16. If a straight line be divided into two equal and into two Q
~ual parts, the squares on the two unequal parts are equal to twi
ilie rectangle contained by the two unequal parts, together with ~
times the square on the line between the points of section.
16. If the ~inta 0, D be equidistant from the extremities of t
straight line .A B, shew that the squares constructed on .A.D and~.
uceed twice the rec~ngle .A C, ..4 D by the square constructed on
17. If any point be taken in the plane of a parallelogram
which yerpendiculara are let fall on the diagonal, and on the sid
which mclude it, the rectangle of the diagonal and the perpencli~
I
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ON BOOK II. 111
_ it, is equal to the Bum or difl'erence of the rectangles of the .deI
lid the perpendiculars on them.
r 18. ABCD is a rectangular parallelogram, 0' which A, C a1'l
~
te angles, B any point in BO, F any point in OD. Prove that
ee the area of the tnangle ABF together with the rectaDale BE,
I}' is equal to the parallelogram A O.
I
f n.
. 19. Shew how to produce a given line, 80 that the rectangle COD"
~ed bv the whole line thus produced, and the produced part. 8hall be
~uaI to'the square (1) on the given line {2) on the part produced.
'82(). If in the figure Eue. u. 11, we jom BF and OK, and pr~u08
to meet BF in L, OL is ~rpendicUlar to B:h~
21. If a line be divided, as in Euc. II. 11, the squares on the whole
and one of the parts are together three times the square on the
22.~in the fig. Euc. u. 11. the points F, D be joined outting
I HB, GHKinf, d respectively; then shall F/=Dd.
~ m.
23. If from the three angles of a triangle, lines be drawn to the
. ts of bisection of the opposite sides, the squares on the distancM
een the angles and the common intersection, are together one-third
the squares on the sides of the triangle. ..
2-1. AB 0 is a triangle of which the angle at 0 is obtuse, and the
eat B is half a right angle: D is the middle point of AB, and OE
n perpendicular to AB. Shew that.the square on .dOis double
the squares on .d D and DE.
25. H an angle of a triangle be two-thirds of two right angle4lJ,
that the square on the side subtending that angle is equal to the
on the sides containing it, together with the rectangle con-
brthose sides.
I. The square described on a straight line drawn from one of
~les at the base of a triangle to the middle point of the opposite
is ~ual to the sum or difference of the square on half the side
ted, and the rectan,le contained between the base and that part of
or of it produced, which is intercepted between the same angle and
r~diCuIar drawn from the vertex.
27. dBOis a triangle of which the angle at ais obtuse, and the
~ at B is half a right angle: D is the middle point of .A.B, and
a
~
t!18il drawn perpendicular to .A.B. Shew that the square on..4. is
Ie of the squares on A.D and DE.
2&.. Produce one side of a scalene trian~le, 80 that the rectant
it and the produced .part may be equal to the difference of .
~ on the other two Bides.
Ie~IJ' Given the base of any triangle, the area, aDd the line bisectinr
base, construct the triangle.
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118 GEOMETRICAL EXBROISES
IV.
30. Shew that the ~uare on the h~uae of a right-an
triangle, is equal to tour times the area of the triangle together
the square on the difference of the sides.
31. In the triangle .dBO, if .dD be the perpendicular let
upon the side BO J tlien the square on .d 0 together with the reeit.lDjl1l
contained by Be, BD is equal to the square on AB together WI
the rectangle OB, OD.
32. .dBC is a triangle, right angled at C, and OD is the ~nj
dicplar let fall from C upon AB; if HX is equal to the sum
or tht
aides A 0, CB, and LMto the sum of .dB, CD, shew that the squ81'f!
on EX together with the square on OD is equal to the square on LJ.
33. .dB 0 is a triangle Iia~ the angle at B a right angle: it ~
required to find in .dB a point P 8)lch tliat the square on .A. a ma~
exceed the squares on AP and PO by half the square on .A.B.
34. In a right-angled triangle, the square on that side which is ~
greater of the two sides containing the right an~le, is equal to th~
rectangle !>Y the sum and difl'erence of the other Sides. 1
36. The hYJ!Otenuse ...4B of a right-angled triangle ABC is tri1
sected in the pomts D, B; prove that if OD, OB be joined, the SUlD!
of the squares on the sides of the triangle ODB is equ81 to two-third~
of the square on A.B. .
36. From the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle portiona are
cut oft" equal to the aajacent sides: sllew that the square on the middle
segment is equivalent to twice the rectangle under the extrem~
segments.
v.
37. Prove that the square on any straight line drawn from the
vertex of an isosceles triangle to the base, is less than the square on a
side of the triangle by the rectangle contained by the segments of the
base: and conversely. '
3S. H from one .of the equal angles of an isosceles triangle a per-
B:':dicular be drawn to the opposite side, the rectangle contained by
t side and the segment of It intercepted between the perpendicular
aDd base, is equal to the half of the square descn"bed upon the base.
39. H in an isosceles triang1e a perpendicular be let fall from one
of the equal angles to the op~site 8lde, the square on the perpendicu-
lar is eqUal to the square on the line intercepted between the other
equal angle and the perpendicular, together with twice the rectangle
contained by the segments of that side.
40. The square on the base of an isosceles triangle whOle vertical
angle is a right angle, is equal to four times the area of the triangle.
41. Describe an isosceles obtuse-angled triangle, such that the
square on the side subtending the obtuse angle may be three times the
square on either of the sides containing the obtuse angle.
42. H A.B, one or the sides of an isosceles triangle .A.B 0 be pro-
duced beyond the base to D, 80 that BD = .dB, shew that
CDI=A.B'i 2.B(JI.
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ON BOOK 11. 119
43. If ABO be an isoseeles triangle, and DE be drawn 1)8.I'allel
to the base BO, and EB be joined; prove that BE' =BO>c DE'-r OEI.
I 44. If .ABO be an isosceles triangle of which the &J!glea at B and
a
f1 &1'& each double of ~; then the square on -4 is equal to the square
on BO together with the rectangle contained by ~ and BO.a
I VI.
I
~
l. If the two sides of a trapezium be parallel, ahew that ita
is equal to that of a triangle contained by its altitude and half
e sum of the parallel sides.
52. If a trapezium have two sides parallel, and the other two equal,
mew that the rectangle contained by the two parallel sides, together
with the s'luare on one of the other sides, will be ~ual to the square
Dn the sf.!'aight line joining two opposite angles of the trapezium.
. 63. If squares be described on the sides of any triangle and the
mgular points of the squares be joined; the sum of the ~uares on the
rides of the hexagonal figure thus formed is equal to' four times the
aum of the squares on the sides of the triangle.
VII.
, M. Find the side of a square ~11a1 to a given equilateral triangle.
66. Find a square which shall be equal to the sum of two given
rectilineal fia"ures.
00. To mvide a given straight line so that the rectangle under ita
~ts may be eqUal to a given :rectangle.
57. Construct a rectangle equal to a given ~uare and having the
iifrerence of its sides equal to a given straight line.
68. Shew how to describe a rectangle etJual to a given square, and
aaving one of its sides equal to a given straight line.
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BOOK III:
--._---_.-
DEFINITIONS.
I.
EQ17AL circles are those at which the diamete1'8 are
equal, or from
the oentera ot which the straight lines to the ci.rcumferelJctS are
equal.
Thit is not a definition, but a theorem, the truth of which is evident; for, I
if the circles be applied to one another.80 that their centers coincide, the
circles mUit likewise coincide, lince the straight linea from the centers art
equal.
II.
A straight line is said to touch a circle when it meets the circJe,
aDd being produced does not cut it.
ill.
Circles are aaid to touch one another, which meet, bllt do not cut
one another.
IV.
Straight lines are said to be equally distant from the center of a
circle, when the perpendiculars drawn to them from the center art
equal.
v.
And the straight line on which the greater perpendicular tans, is
laid to be further from the center.
VI.
A aegment of a circle is the figure contained by a straight line, and
tit.: urc or the part of the circumference which it cute ott
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BOOK IlL PBOP. L 111
. , VIL
II The ~le of a aepent ill that which fa contained b)' a straight
line and a part of the circumf'erence.
vm.
I An qle in a segment is an)' angle contained by two straight linea
:drawn from any lM?int in the arc of the aegment, to the extremities of
,the straight line which is the base of the aegmeot.
IX.
An qIe is said to insist or stand upon the part of the circum-
Innoe in~ between the straight lin~ that contain the aDgle.
x.
Asector of a circle is the figure contained by two straight linea
drawn from the center and the arc between them.
XL
Similar aep1enta of circles are those in which the angles are equal,
or which contain equal angles.
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111 B11cr.m'. BLBVDft.
PROPOsmON L PROBLBK.
To JIM .,.,.,. of.,... --.
Let ABC be the given circle: it is required to find its center.
c
E
Draw within it any straight line .A.B to meet the circumfererace iI
.A, B; and bisect .A.B in D; (I. 10.) from the point D draw DC a:
right angles to .A.B, (L 11.) meeting the circumference in 0, product
CD to B to meet the circumference again in B, and bisect OR in F.
Then the )!Oint P 8hall be the center of the circle ABO.
For,ititbenot,rr~ble, let Obe the center, and join OA, GD,GJ.
Then, because DA is equal to DB, (conatr.)
and DO common to the two ~les ADO, JJDG,
the two aides AD, DO, are equal to the two BD, DO, each to each;
and the base 9.4. is equal to the base OB, (I. def. 16.)
because they are drawn from the center 0:
therefore the angle ADO is equal to the angle 0 DB: (I. 8.) I
but when & 8~nt line 8tandiDg upon another 8traight line makes
the adjacent angles equal to one anotlier, each of the angles is & righ~
angle; (I. def. 10.)
therefore the angle ODB is a ~ht angle:
but PDB is likewise & right ~le; (constr.) .
wherefore the angle FDB is equal to the ~le ODB, (ax. 1.)
the greater angle equal to the less, which is impol8lo1ej
therefore G i8 not the center of the circle .dB O. I
In the same manner it can be 8hewn that no other point out of the
line CB is the center;
and since OB is bisected in F,
any other point in OB divides Oll into unequal parts, and
be the center.
Therefore no point but Pis the center of the cirole .4.BC-
Which was to be found.
CoL From this it is manifest, that if in a circle a ~ht .
biaecta another at right angles, the center of the circle is in the .
which bisects the other. .
A EB
For if ..4.B do not fall within the circle,
let it fall, if p088ible, without the circle 88 ~BB;
find D the center of the circle ..4.BO, (m. 1.) and join DA, DB;
in the circumference ..4.B ti.k.e any point F,
join DF, and produce it to meet AB in B.
Then, because D.& is equal to DB, (I. del. 16.)
therefore the angle DB.& is equal to the angle D.&JJ; (1.6.)
and because AE, a side of the triangle DAB, is produCed. to 11,
the exterior 8.!IKie DBB is greater than the interior and opposite
angle DAB; (I. 16.)
'tiut D.A.B W88 proved to be equal to the angle DBB;
therefore the angle DBB is greater thaa the ~le DBB;
but to the ~ter angle the greater aide is oppbalte, (L 19.)
theref01'e DB is ~ter than DB:
but DB is eClual to DF; (L def. 18.)
. wherefOl'e DFi. greater than DB,
the less than the ~ter, which is im.~88ib1e;
therefore the straight line Clrawn from..4. to B does not fall without
the circle.
In the same manner, it may be demODStrated. that it does not fall
upon the circumference;
therefore it f'aUs within it.
Wherefore, if any two points, &c. Q.l!- D.
PROPOSITION m. THBORlDl.
If ClItrtJigAt "'" dr.",. UwougA IAI CMUr 01 G circls 6iIfCI "rtligAt
I
Let .ABC be a circle; and let OD, a straight line drawn through
the oenter, bisec;t anr ~ht line ..4.B, which does not pass through
the oentar, in ~~j)Omt Fe
Then CD ahalI cut AB at right angles. .
c
D
Take Bthe center of the circle, (m.l.) and join B..4., BB.
Then, because AP is eqUal to FB, (hIP.)
and liB common to the two triangles APE, BFB,
62
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114 BUeLI's BLBKBNT8.
there are two aides in the one equal to two sides in the other, each
to eachJ
. and the base BA. is equal to the base BB; (I. del. Ui.)
therefore the angle APB is equal to the ~le BPB; (I. 6.)
but when a ~ht line standiDg upon another straight line makes I
A(jJD o
For, it it be possible, let .A.B be equal to EO, and BE to BD.
If one of the lines pass thro~h the center,.' .
it is plain that it cannot be bisected by the other which does n
pass through the center:
but if neither of them }&8S through the center,
find P the center of the clrCle, (m. 1.) and join BF.
Then because PB, a straight line drawn through the center, bisec
another ..4. 0 whieh does not pass through the center, (hyp.)
therefore PB cuts .dO at right angles: (m. 3.)
wherefore PB.A. is a right angle.
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BOOK. ID. PBOP. V, VI. 126
Alain. because the straight line PB bilecta the ItraIgh~ line BD,
,hic1i does not ~ througli the center, (hyp.)
'I therel'ore FE outs BD at right anglee: (UL 8.)
wherefore FEB is a right ~le:
but FBA "was shewn to be a right angle J
therefore the angle FEA is equal to the ~le FBB, (as. 1.)
the leas eqUal to the ~eater, which is impoaeible :
therefore ~O, BD do Dot bieeot one another.
Wherefore, if in a circle, &C. Q. L D.
PROPOSITION V. TBBOB'DL
I/IttJo elrelu cut OM tMOlA., tAsJ ,MIl fIOI Me, tAe ,,., ,..",..
; Let the two circles .ABO, ODG, cut ODe another in the points B, O.
They shall not have the same center.
I
A G
, B
I If possible, let B be the center of the two circles J join BO,
iIIldchaw anl!ttralght line BFG meeting the circumferences inFand G.
, because B is the center of the circle .ABO,'
therefore BFis egual to BO: (I. del. 16.)
~, because B is ilie center of the circle ODG,
therefore EG is equal to BO: (I. def. 16.)
but BFwas shewn to be eqwil to BO;
therefore BPis equal to BG, (ax. 1.)
the less line equal to the greater, whicli is impossible.
Therefore B is not the center of the circles .ABO, ODG.
Wherefore, if two circles, &c. Q.E.D.
PROPOSITION VI. THBOBEH.
: If - ftrcz. Ioveh cm.otlNr if&tsmGllr, tlHv ,1UJU not AcIN tAs,.., center
Ut the circle ODE touch the circle .ABO internally in the point Co
. They aba1l DOt have the same center.
a
It po881Dle, let ..Fbe the center of the two circles: join po,
anddrawany straight line FEB, meeting the circumferences inB andB.
And because F is the center of the circle .4Ba,
FB is equal to FO; (I. de. 16.)
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116
aIIo, because Pia the oeDter 01 the circle CDB,
FB is equal to FO: (I. del. 16.)
but FB waa shewn to be equal to 1'0J
therefore FB is equal to FB, (ax. 1.)
the leu line equal to the greater, which is impossible:
therefore Pis not the center 01 the circles-.ABO, ODA
Therefore, if two circlaJ, &c. Q.B.D.
Let ABOD be a circle, and AD ita diameter, in which let any point
P be taken which is not the center:
let the center be B.
Then, of all the straight linea PB, Fe, FG &c. that can be drawn
from F to the circumference, .
FA, that in which the center is, shall be the greateat,
and FD, the other ~ of the diameter AD, shall De the least: I
and of the rest, FB, the n~t to FA, shall be greater than PC
the more remote, and FO greater than PG.
~-K
G D H
10m !lB, OB,GR. !
Because two sides of a triaJlgle are greater than the third aide, (I. 20.
therefore BE, BF are greater than BF:
but AB is equal to BB; (I. det. 16.)
therefore AB, BP, that is, AF is greater than BF.
ARain, because BE is e~uaJ. to OE,
and F11 common to the ~les BBF, OBF,
the two sides BE, El! are equal to the two OB, BP, each to each;.
but the angle BEFis ~ter than the angle ORF; (u.9.)
. therefore the base BF18 greater than the base OF. (1.24.)
For the same reason OFis greater than GF.
Again, because OF, FE are ~ater than BG, (L 20.)
and EO is eqUal to ED;
therefore GF, PE are greater than BD:
take away the common part FB,
nnd the remainder OP is greater than the remainder PD. (ax. 6.
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l
I
BOOK Ill. PBOP. VIU. 117
Therefore, P.4. is the greatelt,
and FD the leut of all the straight lines from P to the ciroumference ;
and BFis greater tllan Cp, and CPthan GP.
Also, there can be drawn only two equal straight lin. from the
point F to the circumterence, one u~n each side 01 the diameter.
At the point B, in the straight line BP, make the angle FBB
equal to the ~le PBG, (I. 23.} and join FH.
Then, because GB is equal to BN, (L
and BF common to the two trianglea GBF, 'P;
def.lli.
the two sides GB, BF are equal to the two HE, BF, each to eaeh;
and the angle GBF is !cJ.ual
to the ~le KBP; (constr.)
therefore the base FO 18 equal to the base FH: (L 4:.)
but, besides FH, no other atraight line can be drawn from Pto the
circumference equal to PG :
for, if poIIlole, let it be FE:
and beca118e PE is ~ual to PG, and PO to FE,
.therefore FE is equal to PH, (ax. 1.)
. that is, a line nearer to that whicli passes through the center, is equal
to one which is more remote ;
which has been proved to be impolllDle.
Therefore, if any point be taken, &io. Q.B.D.
EA
Of those whieh fall upon the concave part or
the circumference
J.BFO, the greatest shan be D~, which passes through the center;
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118
and anI line neuar to it Ihall be greater than one more remote,
vis. DB aha1l be ~ than DP, and DF pater than DO;
but Ofth088 which fall \\pontheoonvex ~otthecU'Cumference BLEb,.
the least aha1l be DCTbetween the ~int D and the diameter A G;
and any line nearer to it ahall be lela than one more remote,
viz. DIl lela than DL, and DL less than DH.
Take Mthe center of the oircle ABa, (m.l.)
and join MB, MlJ, MO, MIl, ML, JIn.
And beoauae 4.M is equal to MB,
add MD to each of these equals,
therefore ~D iI equal to BM, MD:
but BM, MD are greater than ED; I. 2O.}
jU.
2.)
therefore also AD is greater than 'D.
Apin, because MB is equal to MF, and MD common to the m-
angles lDlD, FMD; BJl, MD, are equal to PM, MD, each to each;
but the angle BMD is ~ter than the an~MD J {ax. 9.)
therefore the base BD 18 greater than the PD. (I. 24.)
In like manner it may be shewn that FD is greater than CD
Therefore D4. is the ~atest;
and DB greater than DF, and DP greater than DO.
And, because MIl, IlD are greater than MD, (I. 20.)
and MIl is equal to MG, (I. del. 13.)
the remainder IlD is greater than the remainder GD, (ax. 6.) I
. that is, GD is less than IlD:
and because MLD is a triangle, and from the points M, D, the
extremities of its side MD, the straight lines MIl, DIl are drawn to
the point Il within the triangle, I
therefore, the remainder DIl IS less than the remainder DL. (ax. 6.) I
In like manner it may be shewn, that DL is less than DH.
Therefore, DO is the least, and DE less than DL, and DL less
than DH. , I
Also, there can be drawn only two equal s~ht lines from the
point D to the circumference, one upon each aide of the line w~cI:
passes through the center. I
At the point M, in the straight line MD,
make the angle DMB equal to the angle DMIl, (1.23.) and join DB.
And because ME is equal to )fB, and MD oommon to the
angles EMD, BMD, .
tri-I
the two sides EM, MD are equal to the two BM, MD, each to each; !
PROPOSITION X. THEOBO.
0,.. circum.",.... oJ tJ eire" cGMOt ~ tJraotAw in fIlMS tA_ lIDo poi_.
D'it be po881"ble, let the circumference .ABO cut the cUcumlerence
DBF in more than,tyo points, viz. in B, G, F-
A'
. 0
Take the center Kofthe circle .ABO, (m. 3.) and join KB"KG, KF.
Then because K is the center of the circle .ABa,
therefore KB, KG, KF are aU equal to each other: (I. def. 16.)
and because within the circle DBP there is taken the point X, from.
which to the circumference DBF fall more than two equal straight
lines KB, KG, EF;
therefore the ~int Kis the center of the ciro1e DBII: (IU. 9.).
but K is also the center of the cirole ...tf.B 0; (constr.)
, Go
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130 WOLID'S BLBV1QITI.
therefore the same point is the oenter 01 two circles that cut one
another, which_ is lJDpoaaible. (m.6.)
Therefore, one circumference ot a circ18 cannot cut another in more
than two points. G.B. D.
Let the circle ...4.DBtouch the circle ...4.BOinternally in the point ...4.,
and let F be the center of the circle .ABO, and 0 the center of the
circle ...4.DB;
then the straight line which joins the centers F, 0, being produ&!d,
shall pass through the point ...4..
A
B
For, if PO produced do not pass through the JOint 4.,
let it fall otherwise, if possible, as PODH, andjom...4.F, AG.
Then, because two sides of a triangle are together greater than the
third side, (I. 20.) ,
therefore PO, 0...4. are'greater than FA:
but FA is equal to FH; (L def. 10.)
therefore PO, OA are greater than FH:
take away from these unequals the common part FO;
therefore the remainder AO is greater than the remainder OH; (Ulo6.)
but AO is equal to OD; (I. def. 16.)
therefore 0 D is greater than 9H,
the les8 than the ~ater, which is imp088lole.
Therefore the straight line which joins the :(oints F, 0, b.eing produced,
cannot fall otherwise than upon the pomt A,
that is, it must \lus through it.
Therefore, if one Cllcle, &c. Q,. B. D.
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BOOlt m. PBOP. XIII. 111
GH-_ _+-I H
I---+--D
G
Join BD, and draw GHbiseetin, BD at right ~les. (I. 11.)
Because the points B, D are in the clrcumferences of each of the cirCles,
therefore the straight. line BD falls within each oftheJv.; (IlL 2.)
therefore their centera are in the straight line GHwhich bl8ecta iJD
at right angles; (m. 1. Cor,)
therefore GHpusea through the ~int of oontaot: (m.l1.)
. but it does not pass through it,
because the points B, D are without the 8~ht line GH;
which is absurd:
therefore one circle cannot touch another on the inside in more points
than one.
Nor can two circles touch one another on the outside in more than.
one point. .
For, if it be possible,
let the oirc1e A OK touch the circle .A.B 0 in the points A, O.
join .do.
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BVCL1D'S ELDIDTI.
__~O
Let the straight linea ..4B, OD, in the circle .ABDG, be equal to
one another.
Then ..4B and CD shall be equally distant from the center.
c
~ B
Take B the eenter of the circle ABDC, (DI. 1.)
from E draw EF, EG perpendiculars to ..4B, OD, (I. 12.) and join
E..4, BO.
Then, because the straight -line EF passing through the oenter,
cuts .A.B, which does not ~- through the center, at right angles;
BP bisects .AB in the point P: (m. 3.)
therefore .A.F is equal to FB, and AB double of AF.
For the. same reason CD is double of OG:
but AD is equal to OD: (hy.p.) .
. therefore ..4Fis equal to OG. lax. '7.)
And because ..4E is equal to Bo, (I. def: 16.)
the square on AB is eqUal to the. square on Be:
but the squares on..4F, FE are equal to the ~uare on .dB, (L 47.)
because the angle A.FB is a right angle;
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BOOlt III. PROP. XV. ISS
and lor the aame reason, the aquaree on BO, (JCare equal to the
square on BO;
therefore the ~uares on AF, FR are equal to the aquaree on CG,
BB: (ax. 1.) :
but the square on AF is equal to the ~uare on QG,
because .AF is equal to OG;
therefore the remaining ~uare on BF is equal to the remaining
square on BO, (ax. 3.1
. and the straJght line BFis therefore equal to BO:
but straight lines in a circle &rfI said to be equally distant from the
center, when the ~rpendicu1ars drawn to them frOm the oenter are
equal : (m. del. 4.) .
. therefore ..1.11, OD are e9.ually distant from the center.
Conversely. let the straight liDea :A.B, OD be equally distant from
the center, (m. del. 4.)
that 18, let FB be equal to B(J;
then .A.B shall be equal to OD.
For the same construction being made,
it may, as before, be demonstrated,
that AB is double of AF, and OD double of OG,
and that the Idt~ares on FB, AF are :~ual to the squares on BfJ, GO:
but square on PB is eql to the B\uare on BO,
beCause FB is equal to BGa (hYP.)
therefore the remaining aquare on AF is equal to the. remaining square
on CO: (ax. 3.}
and die straight line AF is therefore equal to OG:
but 4.B was shewn to be double of .AF, and OD double of CG ;
wherefore AB is 89,ual to OD. (ax. 8.)
Therefore equal straight lines, &c. Q. B.D.
For, if it does not, let it fall, it J)C)8sible, within the circle, as ~C;
and draw DO to the ~.int 0, where it meets the circumference.
And because Dod is equal to DO, (I. def. 16.)
the angle D.4. a is equal to the qle :.tI. OD: (I. 6.)
but D.4.0is a ~ht ~le; (hyp.)
therefore 4. OD IS a right angle;
and therefore the angles D.4. 0, ..4. OD are eqUtil to two right angles;
which is impossi'ble: (I. 17.)
therefore the 8~ht line drawn from .A. at right angles to B.A., d
not fall within the circle.
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BOOK III. PBOP. XVII. 111
In the same manner it may be demODltrated,
that it does not tall u~n the circumf'erence ;
therefore it must fall WIthout the circle, as .AB.
Also, between the atraight line A.B and the circumterenoe, no ~ht
line can be drawn from the point A. which does not cut the oircle.
For, if p088ibl&, let .AP fall between them,
PE
and from the point D, let DO be drawn perpendicular to A.F, (I. 12.)
and let it meet the circun:iference in H-
And because ..4. 0 D is a right angle,
and DA.G le88 than a right angle, {I. 17.}
therefore DA. is greater than DG: (I. 19.)
but DA. is equal to DB; (I. deft 16.)
theref'ore DHis greater than DO,
the less than the greater, which is impoasible:
therefore no straight line can be drawn from the point.A, between
.A..B and the circumference, which does not cut the circle:
or, which amounts to the same thing, however pat an acute angle
. a ~ht line makes with the diameter at the point.A, or however
IIIl&ll an angle it makes with .A.B, the circumference must pass be-
, tween that straight line an~Jcrpendicular .AB. Q.E.D.
CoB. From this it is . est, that the straight line which is
drawn at right &n$lea to the diameter of a circle &om the extremity'
, of it touches the CJrCle; (m. deft 2.) and that it touches it 001)' in one
point, because, if it did meet the circle in two, it would fall within it.
(UL 2.) "Also, it is evident, that there can be but one straight line
which touches the circle in the same point!'
PROPOSITION XVII. PROBLEM.
To d,.". G ItrGigAt "fIB from tJ giNfl, point, Bitlwr toitAout or ift the cir-
__/tfI'tmC8, ",AiM 'Mll touch G gi. . circle.
First, let A. be a given point without the g!.ven circle BOD;
it is required to draw a straight line from A. which shall touch the Qircle.
_~F
Find the center B of the circle, (UL 1.) and join .AB;
and from the center B; at the distance B.A, describe the circle .APG';
from the point D draw DP at Ijght angles to BA, (I. 11.) meeting
the cirCumference of the cire18 .APG in P;
and join BBP., .AB. Digitized by G 008Ie
138 BUCLID'S BLBlIDTS.
D C OR
It .PCbe Dot perpennicular to DB; from the point.F, it po88l_1e.
let FBG be drawn ~dicular to DB.
And because FGC is a right angle,
therefore GOF is an acute angle; (I. 1'1.)
and to the greater ~Ie the greater side is opposite: (L 19.)
therelore FO is greater than FG:
but FOis equal to FB; (I. del. 16.)
therefore FB is greater than FG,
the less than the greater, which is impossible:
therefore PG is not pelJ.l8ndicular to DB.
In the same manner It may be shewn,
that no. other line is perpendicular to DB besides FC,
that is, FUis pe~ndicular to DB.
Therefore, if. a straight line, .&c. .Q. B. D.
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BOOX I. paop. XIX, XX. 181
PROPOSITION XIX. THB01UDl.
If G _n"AI Ii,.. toucA II eirels, au./rtIM tIN point 01 ~ tI ltrtJiglat
liu H dna"", tit rigAt tmgle, to tIN toucAirag lint, ,IN . . , . of tIN chis ,iuul
".tAcltli....
and from Olet
Let the straight line DB touch the circle ABO in 0,
C4. be drawn at ~::1 ~leI to DB.
Then the ~ter of the circle be in CA
B
DeB
Por, itnot, let Pbe the center, ifpoasible, and join OF.
. Because DB touches the circle ABq
and PC is drawn from the center to the point of contact,
therefore FOis perpendicular to DB; (m.18.)
therefore FOB is a right angle:
but A OB is also a right f1!lgle; (hyp.)
therefore the angle FOB is equal to the angle .A OB, (u. 1.)
the less to the pater, which is imfoaaible :
therefore P is not the center of the cIrCle AB O.
In the same manner it may be shewn,
that no other ~int wllich is not in O.A, is the center;
that is, the center of the circle is in OA.
Therefore, .if a 8traight line, &c. . Q. B. D.
I
C
loin .AB, and ~oduce it to P.
Pirst, let the center of the circle be within the angle BA. a
Because BA is equal to BB,
therefore the ~le BBA is equal to the angle BAB; (I. IS.)
therefore the angles B.4.B, BBA. are double of the ~e B.A:B:
but the angle BBlI is equal to the angles B.d.B, BB.J1; (I. 32.)
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188 EUCLID'S BLIDIBJITI.
A
I'
B 0
It may be deplonstrated, as in the ftrat case,
that the angle FRO is double of the angle F..A.(J,
and that FEB, a part of the first, is double of FAB, a ~ of the other;
therefore the remaining angle BEC is double of the remaining
angle BAC.
Therefore the angle at the center, &c. Q.E.D
PROPOSITION XXI. THEOBEK.
De , . , . in tAe ,.".. "",.., qf CI canis (I'"
ef'lCll '10 OU GfIOIMr.
Let ABCD be a circle,
and BAD, BED angles in the same segment BABD.
Then the angles BAD, BED shall be equ8l to one another.
Firat, let the segment BAED be greater than a semiclrcle.
A B
B..---~D
o
Take'p' the center of the circle ABCD, (m.t.) andjoin BP, PD.
Because the angle BFD is at the center, ana. the angle BAD ~
the circumference, and that they have the same part of the circtJJB1
ference, viz. the arc BCD for their base ;
therefore the angle BFD is double of the angle B..A.D: (In. 20.)
for the same reason the Bl!8'1e BFD is double of the angle BBD:
therefore the angle B..A.D is equal to the angle BED. (ax. 7.) II
o
Draw .41J to the center, and produce it to C, and join OB.
Because A C is a diameter of the circle,
therefore the s~ent BADC is greater than a semicircle;
and the angles in it BA C, BBC are equal, by the first case:
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BOOK IlL PBOP. nil, DIll. 189
lor the lUile reuoD, beoauae OBBD is greater tban a aemiGircle,
the &!lIles CAD, OBD, are equal :
theret'orethewhole !IDIleBADiaequal to the whole angle BED. (as. t.)
Wherefore the ang1ea in the l81De MglDent, &0. Q. B.D.
A@B
loin AO, BD.
. And because the three angles of every triangle are equal to two
nght angles, (I. st.)
the tJiree angles of the triangle OAB,m. the angles OAB, .ABC,
BC.A, are equal to two rJght angles :
but the ~le OAB is equal to the angle ODB, (m. 21.)
because they are in the same segment OD:dB;
ana. the ~le ~ OB is equal to the angle ADB,
, because they are in the same segment ~DOB:
. 1heref01e the two angles OAB, ~ OB are together equal to the whole
&Dgle .ADO: (ax. 2.)
to each of these equals add the angle AB C;
therefore the three angles .ABa, OAB, BO..t4 are equal to the two
~les ABO, ~DO: (ax. t.)
but ABO, O~B, BC.A, are equal to two right anJles;
therefore also the angles ABa, ~DO are equal to two nght angles.
In the same m&lllMD', the angles BAD, DeB, may be Shewn to be
equal to two t:ight angles.
Therefore, the opposite angles, &0. Q.B.D.
A
~B
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140 BVOLID'. 'II,BII'B'R'1'8.
A
~
Del I
A+C rJ1:\
~
at the point .4., in the ~ht line .dB,
make the angle B.AB equal to the angle ABD, (I. 28.)
and P!Oduce BD, it n~, to meet AB in B, anet join Be.
Because the an,le ...4.BB is ~ual to the angle BAll,
therefore the straight line BJI. 11 equal to BB: (I. 6.) ..
and because .AD is eqUal to DO, and DB common to the trlaDalee
:JDB, ODE, .
ile two aidea ...4.D, DB, are equal to the two OD, DB, each to each I
and the angle 4.DB is ef{ual to the angle CDB
for each of them is a nght angle; (constr.) If
therefore the base B.4. is equal to tlae bale BC: (L 4.)
but E.A. was shewn to be equal to BB:
wherefore also BB is equal to BO: (u.l.)
and therefore the three straight liDes JU, BB, 110 are equal to one
another :
wherefore B is the center of the circle. (m. 9.)
From the center B, at the distance of any of the three B.A., BB,
Be, describe a circle;
this shall ~ through the other points J
and the circle of which ABC is a ~ent, is deacnDed.
And it is evident, that it the angle .4.BD be pater than the ~le
BA-D, the center B falla without the segment ABO, which theref01'8
fa leas than a semicircle:
. but if the angle .A.BD be 1_ than B.AD, the center B falls within
Ie ~ent .ABC, which is therefore greater than a semicircle.
W1ierefore a segment of a circle being given, the circle is deacnDed
oIwhich it is a segment. Q. B.!'. .
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141 EUCLID'S BLBJlBNTS.
E~--~"
B p
t G
fakeK,L, thecenters olthe circles, (m.l.) andjoin BE, EC, BL, LF.
Because the circles .dBC, DBF are equal,
the s . : t lines from their centers are equal: (m. def. 1.)
the BE, EC are equal to BL, LF, each to each:
and the baIIe BC is equal to the base BP, in the triangles BCE, BPL;
therefore the ~le BECis equal to the angle BLF: (1.8.)
but equal angles stand upon equal arcs, when they are at the
centers: (nI. 26.)
therefore the arc BGCis equal to the arc BHF:
but the whole circumference .ABC is equal to the whole BDP; (hyp.)
: therelore ~e remaining part o! ~e circumference,
m. the arC B..4. a, 18 ~ual to tlie reJDBJDlDg part BDP. (I. ax. s.)
Therefore, in equal circles, &0. Q.E.D.
G
B@P H
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144 BUCLID'S BLmlBNTI.
~
A
C B
loin .A.B, and bisect it in 0; (I. 10.)
from the ~oint C draw aD at right angles to .J.B. (L 11.)
Then the arc .A.DB shall be bisected in the point D. .
loin .t4.D, DB. I
And because .A C is equal to aB,
and CD common to the ~lea .A. CD, BC,a
the two sides ~ a, aD are equal to the two BlJ, CD, ea
to each;l
and the angle .A. CD is equal to the angle BaD,
because each of them is a right angle:
therefore the base ~D is equal to the base BD. (1.4.) I
But equal straight lines cut ofF equal arcs, (m. 28.)
the greater arc equal to the greaterf ad the less arc to t~e less;
and the arcs .A.D, DB are each of them less than a semicircle; 1
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BOOR 111. PROP. XXXI, XXX~L 1"
p
A/
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.
146 BUeLID'S BLDBNTS
and the angle DBB shall be equal to the angle in the alternate
.pent DOB.
A .
E B P
From the point B draw B.4. at right angles toEF, (1.11.) meeting
the circumference in .4. J
take any point 0 in the arc DB, and join .A.D, DO, CB.
Because the straight line EF touches the circle ..4. B CD in the
point B,
and B.4. is drawn at right angles to the touching line from the
point of contact B,
the center of the circle is in B.4.: (m. 19.)
therefore the angle .A.DB in a aemicirc1e is a !ight angle: (m. 31.)
and consequently the other two angles B4.D, ABD, are equal to
a right angle; (I. 32.)
but ABPis likewise a right angle; (conatr.)
therefore the angle ABF is equal to the angles B.AD, :.4.BD: (I.ax. 1.)
take from these ~uals the common angle .ABD:
therefore theremainjng angle DBFia equa!totheangleB.AD, (Lu.3.}
which is in BD.A, the alternate segment of the circle. i
And 'because .ABOD is a quadrilatelal filU:l'e in a circle, . :
the opposite angles B..4.D, BOD are equal to two right angles: (m.22.)
but the angles DBF, DBB are likewise equal to two right angles; !
~1~ I
therefore the angles DBF, DBB are equal to the angles BAD,
BCD, (I. ax. 1.)
and DBFhas been proved equal to B.4.D. I
~t23 A F B
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BOOK Ill. PROP. XXiUJ, XXXIV. 147-
Bisect AB in F, (I. 10.),
and from the center.F, at the distance IlB, descnbe the semicircle AHD,
and draw .A.H, BH to any point Hin the circumference.
Therefore the angle .A..HB in a semicircle is equal to the right
angle o.
(m.31.)
But it the a,ngle 0 be not a right angle:
H H
D
I
at the point A, in the straight line AB,
make the angle B.A.D equal to the angle 0, (I. 23.) .
and from the point .A. draw .A.B at right angles to AD; (I. 11.)
bisect AB in F, (I. 10.)
and from F draw FO at right angles to AB, (I. 11.) and join OB. ,
Because AF is' equal to FB, and FG common to the triangles'
.A.FG, BFO, .
the two sides AF, FO are equal to the two BF, FO, each to each,
and the angle A.FO Is equal to the angle BFG; (I. dtf. 10.)
therefore,the baseAO is equal to the base OB; (t.4.)
and the circle described from the center 0, at the distance GA,
shall pass through the point B:
let this be the circle AHB.
The se~ent AHB shall contain an angle equal to the given rec-
tilineal angle (J. .
Because from the point A the extremity of the diameter AE,
JD is drawn at right angles to .A.B,
therefore .AD touches the circle: (III. 16. Cor.)
and because .A.B, drawn from the point of contact .A, cuts the circle,
the angle D.A B is equal to ilie angle in the alternate segment
.J.HB: (m. 32.)' . . ,
but the angle tJ.AB is equal to the angle 0; (constr.)
therefore the angle 0 is equal to the angle in the segment AHB.
Wherefore, upon the given straight line A.B, the segment. .AHE
of a circle is described, which contains an angle equal to the given
angle O. Q.E.F. .
Let ;dB 0 be the given circle, and D the given rectilineal angle.
. It is required to cut off from the circle A. BOa segment that shall
contain an angle equal to the given angle D. .
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148 BUCL.'. BLEIIBNTI.
B B ~
Firat, if' .4. 0, BD pa8I each of them through the center, 80 that B
is the center; . '
it is evident that since .4.B, Bo, BB, BD, ~ all equal, (I. de! 16.)
therefore the rectangle AB, BO is equal to the rectangle BB, BD.
. Secondly, let one of them BD pass through the center, and cut the I
other .4. 0, which does not pass through the center, at right angles, in I
the point B.
D
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BOOK 111. PROP. XXXV. 149
Then, it BD be bisected in P,
F is the center olthe circle ABOD.
loin AP.
Because BD which PUles throuah the center, cuts the ~ht
.tine .A. 0, which does not put! througn the center, at ~ht augles in B,
therefore AB is egual to BO: (III. 3.)
and because the straight line BD is cut into two ~ual parts in the
~int P, and into two unequal ~ in the point B,
therefore the ~le BE, BD, together witli the square on BF,
is equal to the square on PB, (U.Ii.)
that is, to the square on FA. :
but the squares on A.B, BF, are equal to the ~uare on FA.: (I. 4'1.)
therefore the rectangle BB, ED, together with the square on BP,
is equal to the squares on A.B, B1!: (I. ax. 1.)
take away the common square on EP,
and the remaining rectangle BE, ED is equal to the remaining
square on AB; (I. ax. 3.)
. that is, to the rectangle A.B, BO.
Thirdly, let BD, which pa8888 through the center, cut the other 4. a,
which does Dot pa88 through the center, in B, but not at right angles.
8 t
A' G BC
B
Take the center F, (m. I.l .
and through B the intenection of the straight lines .d C, DB.
draw the diameter GEFH.
And because the rectangle A.B, BO is equal, 88 has been shewn,
to the rectangle GB':BH;
and lor the same reason, the rectangle BB, BD is equal to the
aame rectangle GB, BH; .
therefore the rectangle .AB, BO is equal to the rectangle BB, BD.
(I. ax. 1.)
Wherefore, if two straight lines, &C. Q.E.D.
PROPOSITION XXXVI. THEOREM.
1/ /.,.,. ,
u;1ticA eta" poi.' tI1i1laoilt cire'- 'tIHI ,traiglal Ii., be tlr.1fnIt .., oj
tla, circle, tIIId the otlae, 'OMelia it; 'lac r,ctn,le cortlai",d 6y
the fIIMI, U,.., .hie. CM" the circle, and ,IN part of il tI1itholl' ,AI circlet
.,",11 be equal to th, ,qua,. 0" IhB li", .laich toaclae, i'.
Let D be any point without the circle A.BC,
and let DCA., DB be two straight lines drawn from it,
of which DCA. cuts the circle, and DB touches the same.
Then the rectangle A.D, DO shall be equal to the sguare on DB.
Either DC.A. passes through the centet, or it does not:
first, let it pass through the center B.
D
A
. loin BB, I
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BOOK Ill. PROP. XXXVI. 111
take away tbe common square on BB, .
therefore the remaining rectangle AD, DO is equal to the aquare
on the ~t DB. (ax. 3.)
Next, if DOA does not pass through the center 01 the circle ABC.
D
A
Take Bthe center of the circle, (m.l.l .
draw BFperpendicular to.A.o, (I. 12.) andjoin BB,'Bo, ED.
Because tb.e straight line BF, which passes through the center,
cuts the straight line .A. 0, which does not pass through the center, at
right angles; it alsb bisects .A. 0, (III. 3.)
. therefore AF is egual to FO;
and because the straight line .A. ais bisected in .F, and produced to D,
the rectangle .4.D, DO, together with the square on FC,
is equal to the square on FD: (n. 6.)
to each of these equals add the ~uare on FE;
therefore the rectangle .A.D, DO, together with the squares on OF, FB,
is equal to the squares on DF, FB: (I. ax. 2.)
but the square oli BD is equal to the squares on DF, FB, {I. 47.}
because BFD is a right angle;
and for the same reason,
the square on EOis equal to the squares on OF, FE;
theref'ore the rectangle .A.D, no, together with the square on Be,
is equal to the square on ED: (ax. 1.)
but OE is ~ual to EB;
therefore the rectangle AD, DO, together with the square on RB,
is equal to the square on BD:
but the squares on EB, BD, are equal to the square on ED, (1.47.)
because EDD is a right angle:
therefore-the rectangle AD, DO, together with the square on EB,
is equal to the squares on BB, BD;
take away the common square on EB;
and the remaining rectangle .A.D, DO is equal to' the square
on DB. (r. ax. 3.l
Wherefore, if from any yoint, &c. Q. E. D.
CoR. It from any point without a cucle, there be drawn two straight
A
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151 WCLID'. BLBJl.B~T&
linea cuUiDg it, u .A.B, .A. 0, the rect.a.qlea conta.ined by the whob
M. and \he parts of them without the circle, are e~qual. to ont
another, viz. the rec~le BA, A.B, to the rectangle fIA., AP: fo)
each of them is equal to the Iquare on the straight line .A.D, ..hiel
touchee the circle.
PROPOSITION XXXVIL mEOBml.
I/.fro- .".,., .itAnl " eire" '".r, h drtDII'll two "Nigil
..s." II... .., ,
il j if tlte reet"",,. coral_ell " U_
llliicA nt, lie circle, 11 tlte olur
,It,
.". u.. .AieA cd. ,Ite circle, 11 parI of It lIIi,,,.,
'hi circll, N JaI te
II.. " ...., 011 1M lin .AieA .."" it, Ii. Ii., .IIie" " gll tOIleA u.. cirell,
Let any point D be taken without the circle ABC,
and from it let two straight linea DOA and DB be drawn, of which
DOA cuts the circle in the points 0,..4., and DB meets it in
the point B.
If the rectangle ..4.D, DO be equal to the ~uare on DB J
then DB ahall touch the circle.
D
-
A.
Draw the straight llne DB, touching the circle ABa, in the point I
B; (UI. 17.) I
find F, the center of the oircle, (III. 1.)
and join FB, PB, PD.
Then PBD is a right angle: (III. 18.)
and because DB touches the circle .J.B(/, and DOA cuts it, .
t11erefore the rectangle .J.D, DOis equal to the square on DB: (111.36.)1
but the rectangle .AD, DO, is, by hypothesis, i
equal to the square on DB: ' .
therefore the square on DB is equal to the square on DB; (r. ax. 1.)1
and the straight l~e DB equal to the straight line DB: I
ana FB 18 equal to FB; (I. del. 15.) 1
therefore the anp:le DBF is equal to the angle DBF: (I. 8.)
but DEF was shewn to be a right angle;
therefore also DBF is a right angle: (I. ax. 1.)
and BF, if produced, is a diameter;
and the straight line which is drawn at right angles to a diameter,
from the extremity of it, touches the circle; - (ur. 16. Cor.)
therefore DB touches the circle .AtJo.
Wherefore, if from a point, &c. Q. E. D.
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NOTES TO BOOK m.
Ix the Third Book or the mementl are demOllltrated. the molt
elementary properties of the circle, auuming all the pNpertieI of apr.
demonstrated in the First and Second Bookl.
It may be worthy of remark, that the word rirc14 will be found IOme-
times tak:en to mean tAB "'Ius included within the circumference, and
80Dletimes tAl circum/erenes msl/. Euclid has employed the word ("'P'
+iPllfI) perip/wry, both for the whole, and for a part of the cil'cu.mference
of a circle. If the word circum/er. . were restricted to fJUCJft tM tMol.
circumference, and the word arc to mean a JHW' 01 it, ambiguity might
be avoided when speaking of the circumference of a circle, where onI,.
a part of it is tlle subject under consideration. A circle is said to
be given in position, when the position of ita center ia known, and
in ~tude, when its radius is known.
Del. I. And it may be added, or of which the circumferenC81 ue
equal. And conversely: if two circles be equal, their diameters and
tadii are equal; as alao their circumferences.
Def. I. states the criterion of equal circles. Simson calls it a theorem ;
and Euclid seems to have considered it as one of those theorems, or
axioms, which might be admitted as a basis for reaaoniDg on the equality
of circles.
Del. II. There seems to be tacitl,. assumed in this de6nition, that a
Bt!'&ightline, when it meets a circle and does not touch it, must necesaarilYt
, when produced. cut the circle.
, A. straight line which touches a circle, is called a tag_ to the circle,
and a straight line which cuts a circle is called a Meant.
Del. IV. The distance of a straight line from the center of a circle
: is the distance of a point from a straight line. which baa been already
, explained in ~ote to Prop. De p~e 63.
. Def. VI. x. An arc of a circle is any portion of the circumference;
, and a cMwtl is the straight line joining the extremities of an arc. Every'
: chord except a diameter divides a circle into two unequal segments,
one greater than, and the other less than a semicircle. ADd in tne same
i manner, two radii drawn from the center to the circumference, divide
the circle into two unequal sectors, which become equal when the two.
: radii are in the same straight line. As Euclid, however, does not notice
re.entering angles, a sector of the circle seems necesaarily restricted
to the figUre which is less than a semicircle. A "uadrant is a sector
whose radii are perpendicular to one another, and which contains a fourth.
part of the circle.
Def. VII. No use is made of this definition in the Elements.
Det XI. The deftnition of similar segments of circles as employed in
the Third Book is restricted to such segments as are also equal. Props.
am. and XXIV. are the only two instances, in which reference is made
to similar segments of circles.
Prop. I. II Lines drawn in a circle," alwa~ mean in Euclid, such
only as are terminated at their extremities by the circumference.
If the point G be in the diameter CE, but not coinciding with the
. t 1', the demonstration ~ven in the text does not hold good. At
e same time, it is obvious that G cannot be the centre of the circle,.
use GO is not equal to GB.
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1M BUCLID'. BLEMBNTS.
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XOT. TO BOOK UI. liS
meet the 0Idrib or iraritU of the cireular 8I'e: &ad t1le two lJOlnta fOllDd
iJl . . circumference of a circle by two stftight lin. drawn lrom a liy-
poiat to touch the cbcle, divide the cb:eU1llfireDce into two port.U.I, one
of which ia ~ ani the othec ccmctI_, with respect to the giveD. paiat.
Prop. IX. ThiB appears to follow as a CoroUarr from Eue .. Ill. 7.
Prop. XI. and Plop. XII. In the enUJ1ciadon it Ie not uaerted tllat
the contact of two chclos is conftned to a single point. The meaning
appears to be, that supposing two circles to touch each ather in
point, the straight line which joins their center. beinl produced,
:fi
pili tbrou~h that p?iDt in which the circlee touch each other. In
Prop. XIII. It is proved that a chele cannot toIlch another in more points
t1wi one, by .swming two points of contact, and pmviag that this is
im))08iible.
""Prop. XIU. The following ia Euclid's demcmatratioa of the cue, ill ~
wllich one mele touches another on the illlide.
Ifpouible, let the circle BBF touch the cire1e ABC on tlle inaiele,
in more points than in one point, namely in tlle polata B, D. (fta. Eue.
. m. 13.) Let P be the cellter of the circle ABC, and Q the eeDter 01 EBF.
Join P, Q; thea PrJ produced shall pus through thepointl of contact B, D.
For since P iB the center of the circle ABC, PB ia equal to PD, but PB
is greater than QD. much more then is QB greater than. QD. Again,
since the point Q is the center of the circle BlI~', QII is equal to QD; but
QBhas been shewn to be greater than QD, which is impol8ible. ODe circle
therefore canno' touchanOtheron theinaidelnmorepointa thanm one point..
Prop. XVI. may be demonstrated directly by 8881DDing the followiDg
axiom; "If a point be taken further from the center of & circle than the
cimunference, that point.falla without the circle."
If one circle touch another, either iMmttlllg or MtemtJllg, the two
circles can have, at the point of contact, only one common tangent.
Prop. :s:m:.. When the given point is without the oircumference of
the given circle, it is obvious that two equal tangents may be drawn
from the given point to touch the circle, as may be eeen from the diagram.
to Prop. vnl.
The best practical method of drawing a tangent to a mele fEom a given
point without the circumference, ia the following: join the given point
aad the cente~ of the circle, upon this line describe a semicircle cutting
the Jiven circle, then the line drawn from the given point to the inter-
section will be the tangent required.
Circles are called conetmlric circles when they haYe the 18me center..
Prop. XVlD. appears to be nothing more than the converse to Prop.
m., because atangent to any point of a circumference of a circle is a
.~ht line at right angles at the extremity of the diameter which meets.
the mcumf'ereDce in that point.
. Prop. xx. This proposition is proved by Euclid only in the case in
which the angle at the circumference is less than a right angle, and the
demonstration is free from objection.. If, however, the angle at the cir-
cumference be a right angle, the angle at the center disappean, by the
two straight lines from the center to the extremities of the are becoming
ODe straight line. And, if the angle at the circumference be an obtuse
angle, the angle formed by the two lines from the center, does not stand
on the same arc, but upon the arc which the 888U1I1ed arc wants of the
whole circumference.
If Euclid's definition 01 an angle be strictly observed, Prop. xx. is
geometrically uue. only when the angle at die center ia leas than two~
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156 BtJCLl1ia .LBMBKTI.
rlsht .,leI. If. howl.... the defect of an aDale 1iodl four riPt -p.
IDa, be fttrardeclu an aagle, the propoaition Ia 11Divenally true~I '
be prond It, drawiD& a liDe from the aDSle in the circumference
the cenw. aDd th_ foImiDg two uagl_ at the center. in Euclid'. strict
IeDIe of the term.
In the 8nt cue, it II uaumed that, it there be four mapitud.t such I
that thNlnt la double of the aecond. and the third double of the fourth.
then the 8nt and third ~er Ihall be double of the second and fourth
together: alao in the BeCOIld cue, that if ODe znagnitude be double of
another, aDd a part taken from the first be double of a part taken from
the aecond. the remainder of the fint shall be double the remainder or
the BeCODd, which la. in fact, a ~cu1u cue of Prop. v. Book T.
Prop. XXI. Bence, the locue of the vertices of all trianglee upon the
same hUe, and which have the same vertical angle. is a cirCular arc.
Prop. XXIt. The convene of this P~itiOD, Damely: If the o~
Bite augl. of a quadrilatera18gure be !<lUal to two right angles, a cirde
can be described about it, ia DOt proved by Euclid.
It is obvious from the demoDstration of this proposition, that if any
side of the inlcribed figure be produced, the exterior angle is equal
to the opposite angle of the ftgure.
Prop. DUI. It is obvious frOm this proposition that of two circular
segments upon the lUIle bue, the 1argel' is that which contaiDI the
smaller angle.
Prop. xxv. The three c&IeI of this proposition may be reduced to ODe.
by drawing any two contiguous chords to the given are, bisecting them,
and from the points of bisection drawing perpendiculars. The ~t in
which they meet will be the center of the circle. This problem 18 equi.
Talent to that of finding" point equally distant from three given points.
Props. XXVI-XXIX. The properties predicated in these four proposi..
tiona with respect to eptIl circiu, are also true when predicated of
the .... circt.. .
Prop. XXXI. suggeets a method of drawing a Une at right angles to
another when the given point is at the extremity of the given line. .And
that if the diameter of a circle be one of the equal aides of an. isosceles
triangle, the base is bisected by the circumference.
Prop. xxxv. The most general case of this Proposition might lm'e
been first demonstrated, and the other more simple cases deduced from it
But this is not Euclid's method. He. always commences with the more
simple case and proceeds to the more clliIlcult afterwards. The following
proce88 is the reverse of Euclid's method.
A88uming the construction in the last fig. toEuc. III. 3S. 10inF.A, FD.
and draw FE perpendicular to .dC, and FL perpendicular to BD.
'l'hen (Euc. u. 6.) the rectangle .AE, Ee with square on BE is equal to
the square on :dE: add to these equals the square on FE: therefore the
rectangle AB, EO, with the squares on EK, FE, is equal to the squares
on .dE, FE. But the squares on EK, FKare equal to the square on BF,
and the squares on .AK, FE are equal to the square on .4F. Hence the
rectangle .AB, EC, with the square on EF is equal to the square on AP.
In a similar way may be shewn. that the rectangle BB, ED with the
square on Blt'is equal to the square on FD. And the square on FD is I
equal to the sq.uare on .4D. 'Yherefore the rectangle AE, EO with the
square on EO 18 equal to the rectangle BB. ED with the square on BF.
Take from these equali the square Ola EFt and the rectangle .A.B. Ee I
b ~ual to the rectangle BE, ED.
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QUESTIONS ON BOOK Ut. 161
TIle other more simple C88eI may eun,. be deduced from thfa laeral
ease.
The converse is not ~ by EucHd; namely,-Iftwo s~ht linea
F
iRteraect one another, 10 that the rectangle contained by the parts of
DIle is equal to the rectangle contained by the parte of tlie other; then
mar
be deocribed paaalng thnnigh the exn-itl.. of the two
Or, m other words :-If the dia~nals of a quadrilateral figure"
tersect one anothet', so that the rectangle centained by the segments
'i.d..~ of them is equal to the rectangle contained by the sepenta of the
pmer; then a circle may be described about the quadrilateral.
Prop. XXXVI. The converse of the corollary to this proposition may
~ thus stated :-If there be two straight lines, such that, when pro-
t eed to meet, the rectangle contained by one of the lines produced, and
part produced, be equal to the rectangle contained by the other
e produced and the part produced; then a circle can be described
g through the extremities of the two straight lines. Or, If two
te sides of a quadrilateral flr.re be produced to meet, and the
e
~
: IUs a circumstance worthy of notice, that in this proposition, 88 well
in Prop. XLVIII. Book I. Euclid departs from the ordina.ly e3J GlJlW'ao
I of proof of converse propositions.
QUESTIONS ON BOOK m.
t. DEPJ1(B accurately the ,ectMIt.
terms ,."aim, arc, circumferenc., clwrd,
~~2. How does a .ector cllifer in form from a segment of a circle? Are
~ in any case coincident? ,
~
: 3. Wliat is Euclid's criterion of the equality of two circles? What
meant by a given circle? How many points are necessary to deter-
. e the magnitude and poIition of a circle?
I When are segments of circles said to be aimllar? Enunciate the
~ti0D8 of the Third Book of Euclid, in which this definition is em-
roI~ Is it employed'in a restricted or general form? .
1..._6 In how many points can a circle be cut by a straight line and by
rwther circle?
I, 7.6. Shew
When are straight lines equally distant fro~the center ofa circle?
the necessity of an mdirect demonstration in Euc. DI. 1.
~: ,Find the ce~tre Of.& given circle without bisecting ~y straight
~ugh the center of the other, the portions of the two circles, each of
' 9. Shew that if the Circumference of one of two equal Circles pass
, "eli lies without the circumference of the other circle, are equal. .
~
' 10. If a straight line passing through the center of a circle bisect a
. ht line in it. it shall cut it at right angles., Point out the excep-
; and shew that if a straight line bisect the arc and base of a segment
a circle, it will, when produced, pass through the center.
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II
BtJCLlD'S BLBIIBXTI.
11. If' any point be taken within a circle. and a right liDe be c1mn
from it to the circumference, how many lines can generally be c1r&.
equal to it ? Dra.w them.
12. Find the Ihorteat distance between a circle and a given atraigh
line without it.
13. Shew that a circle C&D. emly have one center, ltating the mom
.upon which your proof depends. ;
14. Why would Dot the demonstration or Euc. In. 9, hold good, j
there were cmly two such e~ual straight lines ?
16. Two parallel chords m a circle are respectively six and ~ht ~
inle~. and one inch apart; how many incliea is the diameter m lendhl
16. Which it the greater chord in a circle whose diameter ia 10 inches;
that whOle length is 6 inches, or that whose distance from the center jj
inches? :
17. What is the locus of the middle points of aU equal straight lina
in a circle? .
18. The radius ofa circle BODGF, (fig. Euc. m. 16.) whose centIJ
is E, is equal to five inches. The distance of the line FG trom the centeII
is four inches, and the distance of the line Be from the center is tbret
inches, re~uired the lengths of the lines FG. BO. ' i
19. If the chord of an arc be twelve inches long, and be dividedin~
two sepienta of eight and four inches by anothe chord: what is the
length of the latter chord, if one of its sepents be two inches? !
20. What is the radius of that circle of which the chorda of an Ill!
=
and of double the arc are fi va and eight inchea respectively? i
21. If the chord of an arc of a circle whose diameter is 81 ~
be ftve inches, what is the length of the chord of double the arc of tIM!
same circle?
22. State when a straight line is said to touch a circle, and sh
from your definition that a straight line cannot be drawn to touch a .
from a point within it. . . i
23. Can more circles than one touch a straight line in the same
point? .
24. Shew from the construction, Euc. III. 17, that ttDO equal strai,W
lines, and only two, can be drawn touching a given circle tiom a .
point without it: and one, and only one, from a point in the .
cumference..
26. What is the locus of the centers of all the circles which
a straight line in a given point ~
26. How may a tangent be drawn at a given point in the cm.
ference of a circle, without knowing the center?
. 27. In a ci~le place two chords of given length at right aq-.
each other.
211. 'From Huc. nI .. 19, shew how many circles equal to a gi
circle m9 be drawn to touch a straight line in the same point.
29. Enunciate EUb. III. 20. Is this true, when the base is gr
than a semicircle? If so, why has Euclid omitted this case ?
30. The angle at the center of a circle is double of tbat at the .
terence. How will it appear hence that the angle in a semicircle is a .
angsle1? What conditions are essential to the POSSIbility 0 fth
e msanp
and circumscription of a circle in and about a quadrilateral flpre ?
S2. What conditions are requisite in order that a paraUefogram
be inscn"bed in a circle? Are there any analo~U8 conditiODl req .
that a parallelogram may be described about a circle P
33. Define the angle in a segment of a rirc1e..-e.nd the angle 011 a
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QUBSTIO);8 05 BOOK 111
ani &hew that in tae IUD8 cbrole. they are topthet" equal to two
light angles.
34. State and prove the convene of Euc. nIt 22.
31. AU circles which pass through two given points have their centcra
in a certain straight line.
, 36. Describe the circle of which a given segment isa part. Give
Buclid'. more simple method of solving the same problem independently
Wthe mflgllitude of the given segment.
37. In the same circle equal. straight lines cut off equal circumfer-
~. If these straight lines have any point common to one another. it
111IIt not be in the circumference. Is the enunciation given complete?
38. Enunciate Euc. III. 31, and deduce the proof of it from Buc. Ill. 20.
I 39. What is the locus oftha vertices of all right-angled triangles which
ean be described upon the same hypotenuse?
I 40. How may a perpendicular be drawn to a given straight line from
GIle of its extremities toitAout producing 1M liM 1
: U. If the angle in a semicircle be a right angle; what is the angle
III a quadrant?
: 42. The sum of the squares of any two lines drawn from anJ point
in a semicircle to the extremitl of the diameter is constant. Expre88
kt CORItw in terms of the radius.
I 43. In the demonst1'&tion of Euc. III. 30. it is stated that .. equal
Itraightlinea cutoff equal circumferences, the greater equal to the greater,
aad the less to the less:" explain by reference to the diagram the meaning
of this statement.
". How many circles may be described so as to pass through one.
two, aad three g!veu points? In what case is it impossible for a circle
topasa through three given points?
.0. Compare the circumference of the segment (Bue. m. 33.) with
the whole circumference when the angle contained in it is a right angle
and I half.
46. Include the four cases of Buc. m. 36. in one general proof.
47. Enunciate.the propositions which are converse to Props . 32, 36
~Book In.
. 48. If the poeitiOil of the center of a circle be knoWll with respect
., a KiT. point outside a circle, and the distance of the circumference to
the point be ten inches: what ia the lenatth of the diameter of the circle,
II a ~ent drawn from the given point De fifteen inches ?
49. If two straight lines be drawn from a point without a circle, and
.. both terminated by the concave part of the circumference, and if
one of the lines pass through the center, and a portion of the other
he in~ted by the circle, be equal to the radius: find the diameter
lithe airele, if the two lines meet the convex part of the circumference,
~ 6, units respectively from the given point.
60. Upon what propositions depends the demonstration of Eue. m.
In Is ~y extension made of this proposition in the Third Book?
61. What conditions must be fulfilled that a circle maypass through
liar givtm. points ?
I 62. Why is it considered necessary to demonstrate all the separate
-orEuc. III. 36. 36, geometrica11f' which are comprehended in one
IInauJa, when expressed by AlgebraiC spnbols ?
63. Buunciate the converse propositions of the Third Book of Euclid
!'hich are not demonstrated _ akurdo: and state the three methods
It'hich Euclid employs in the demonstration of converse propositions in
lite Pirat. and Third Books of the Elements.
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GEOMETRICAL EXERCISES ON BOOK In.
PROPOSITION I. THEOREM.
q AD, CO N cltortl, of. cif'ck til rigAt ''''Ile, to ,eel other. ",.... GIll elf
.... oJ th' tJJ'el ACt BO U ".'" to tA, "'. oJ-tA, tlrc. AD, BC.
Draw the diameter FOH parallel to .4.B, and cutting CD in H.
D
~--
I---i-----IG
c
Then the arcs FDO and FCO are each half the circumference.
Also since CD is bisected in the pc?int H,
the arc FD is equal to the arc Fa,
and the arc FD ia equal to tile arcs F.4., .A.D, of which, 0 is
equal to BO,
therefore the &rCS .4.D, BG are equal to the arc FC;
add to each CO,
therefore the arcs .4.D, B C are equal to the arcs Fo, CG, which make
up the half' circumference.
Bence also the arcs.do, DB are equal to hall the circumrerence. '
Wherefore the arcs .Ll.D, BC are equal to the arcs .4. CJ DB.
PROPOSITION n. PROBLEH.
114_.
TA. diaMter oJ II circle to Pta-,..t, it u repit_1
poi.', fro. fI1Aicl if ta.,,,,, N 4rtllllfl to
lelll prodUCId II
.'
loin DB and produce it to meet the circumference again in F;
\ join also OE and CF. .
Then in the triangle GDF, because 0 D is equal to GHJ
therefore the angle OED is equal to the angle ODB;
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GEOllB'l'RIOAL BXBB.CISBS ON BOOK Ill. 161
, and because OB is equal to OF,
the angle OBFia equal to the angle OFB;
therefore the angles OBF, GBD are equal to the anglea CFE,
6DB:
but ainee GB is a taDJent at B,
. therefore the angle OBG is a nght angle, {III. 18.)
hence the angles OEF, GBF are equal to a nght angle,
aDd consequently, the angles OFB, BDG are alac:i equal to a right
angle,
wherefore the remaining angle FOD of the triangle OFD is a right
angle,
and therefore OF is perpendicular to AD.
Spithesis. From the center a, draw OF perpendicular to AD
Ileeting the circumference of the circle in F:
join DF cutting the circumference in B,
join also OB, and at E draw BO perpendicular to OB and inter-
secting BD in G.
Then G will be th'e point required.
For in the triangle CFD, since FCD is a right angle, the angles
CFD, CDF are together equal to a right ~le ;
&lao since CBG is a right angle,
therefore the angles CEF, GED are together equal to a right
angle; .
therefore the angles OBF, GBD are equal to the angles OFD,
CDFJ
but because OB is equal to OF" .
the angle CEF is equal to the angle CFD,
1rherefore the remaining angle GED is equal to the remaining
~le CDF,
and the side GD is equal to the side GB of the triangle BOD,
therefore the point G is determined according to the required
conditions.
PROPOSITION III. THEOREM.
1/. cAord of II circls 6. ,rod"cld till tA, parI Fod"c,d hi 'f"al to th,
NIliu, G..d if Irom
it, ezlr,,,,itg II Ii., b, draum 'ArngA 'lIB center aN
_til, th, c6f1HZ and cOJIca", circum/.reRCB', 'lIB COftWoZ i, OfI,tI.ird 01 ,,,
.... time_fer","_ .
let AB anr chord be produced to 0, so tht BO is equal to the
radiU8 of the Clfcle : .
/-----k--~O
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.161 OEOKE'lllICAL EXBJlCISP8
A.
PROPOSITION V. PROBLEM.
G;"en the 6ale, the "ertical angle, and th, perpendic.ltJr ill a plan, 'ria.g"
to conllruct ~t. .
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O~ BOOK In. 168
. U~n the given base AB describe a segment ot a circle containing
~ angle ~u&l to the give~ angle. (nt.33.)
n
A-----::ilk-: 0
, A B
. At the p()int B draw BC perpendicular to AB, and equal to the
altitude oftbe triangle. (I. 11,3.)
Thro~ 0, dmw CDEf.arallel to AB, and meeting the circum-
ference in D and E. (I, 3 .)
. loin DA, DB; also E.A., EB;
, then B.A.B or DAB is the triangle required.
It is also manifest, that if CDB touch the circle, there will be only
one triangle which can be conatructed on the base.dB with the given
altitude.
DE-~--'
B P
Draw the diameter AF, ~d join A C, AD, CF, DB.
Then the angle .dOF in a semicircle is a ri~ht angle, (Ill. 31.)
and equal to the angle AED:
also the angle ADO is equal to the angle .4FC. (ul.21.)
Hence in the triangles ADB, AFC, there are two angles in the one
respectively equal to two angles in the other,
consequently, the third angle CAF is equal to .the third anrle
DA.B;
therefore the arc DB is equal to the arc CF, (III. 26.) .
lid therefore also the chord DB is equal to the chord CF. (111.29.)
Because ABC is a l~jht-angled triangle,
the squares on AE, BC are eqtl to the square on A C; (I. 47.)
similarly, the squares on DB, EB are equal to the square on DB;
therefore the squares on .dE, EO, DB, BB, are equal to the squares
on .dC, DB;
but DB was proved equal to FC,
and the squares on A C, FC are equal to the square on. oAF, .
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164 GBOJlBT1l10AL BXDC1SU
wherefore the Iquarel on .4.B, Be, DB, BB, are equal to the equm
on ~.F, the diameter of the circle.
When the chorda meet without the circle, the property is proved
a uml
m -Iar manDer.
L
7. THROUGH a given ~int within a circle, to draw a chord ..hic1a
ahall be biaected in that point, and prove it to be the least.
8. To draw that diameter of a given circle which shall pall at ~
given c1istance from a given point. I
9. Find the locua of the middle points of &Dy system ot parallel
chords in a circle. '
10. The two straight lines which join the opposite extremities ~
two parallel ehords, intersect in a point in that diameter which ia
perpendicular to the chords. i
- 11. The atraight lines joining towards the same parts, the extze,
mities of any two linea in a circle equally distant from the center, are
parallel to each other. , I
or
12. .4., B, a, A', H, 0' are }loints on the circumference a circle
it the linea .4.B, AObe respectively parallel to .4.'8, .4.'0', shew ~
'I
BO' is parallel to B' O.
13. Two chorda of a circle being given in position and magnitude,~
deecribe the circle. ~
14. Two circles are drawn, one lying within the other; prove that
no chord to the outer circle can be bisected in the point in which i~
touches the inner, unleas the circles are concentric, or the chord be
perpendicular to the common diameter. If the circles have the same I
center, ahew that every chord which touches the inner circle is bisecUld
in the point of contact. j
16. Draw a chord in a circle, so that it may be double of its per..
pendicular distance from the center. I
16. Thearca intercepted between: any two parallel chorda in a circle
are equal. 1
17. If any point P be taken in the plane of a circle, and P J.,
PB, PO, . . be drawn to anY' number of points .4., B, 0, . . situa~
symmetrically in the circumference, the Bum of P.4., P B, . is 1
when P is at the center of the circle.
II.
18. The sum of the area subtending the 'Vertical aDgles made b~
any two chords that intersect, is the same, as long as the angle of intM4
section is the same. ~
19. From a point without a circle two straight lines are dra~
cutting the convex and concave circumferences, and also respecti'~
parallel to two radii of the circle. Prove that the cllirerence of
concave and convex arcs intercepted by the cutting Jines, is equal ,
twice the arc intercepted by the radii.
20. In a circle with centor 0, any two chorda, .4.B, OD are c1ra
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011 BOOK III. 166
~ in B, and OA, OB, Oc, OD are joined, pro"e that the anslea
.400+BOD=2.ABO, and AOD +BOC= 2.ABD.
21. It from any point without a circle, linea be drawn cu~ the
tircle and making eqUal ansles with the longest line, ther will cut off'
~segments.
22. If the corresponding extremities of two intenecting chorda 01
circle be joined, the trian~les thus formed will be equi~lar.
23. Through a ~ven ~mt within or without a cirCle, it is required
to draw a straight line cutting 01' a segment containing a given qle.
24. It on two lines containing an angle, segments of circles be
deacribed conwning angles equal to it, the lines produced will touch
t1Iesegments.
..
26. Any Be(IDent of a circle being described on the base 01 a tri-
~e J to descnbe on the other sides segments similar to that on the
37. Find a point without a given circle, such that the sum or
two lines drawn from it touching the circle, shall be equal to the lin
drawn from it through the center to meet the circle.
38. If from a point without a circle two tang'enta be drawn I tb
~ht line whicli joins the points ot contact will be bisected at ri
auglea by a line drawn from the center to the point without the .
39. If tangents be drawn at the extremities ot any two diame
of a circle, and produced. to intersect one another; the straight lin
~ining the opposite points ot intersection will both pass thro
the center.
40. If from any point without a circle two lines be drawn touc
the circle, and from the extremities of any' diameter, lines be drawn
the point of contact cutting each other wiihin the circle, the line dra
trom the points without the circle to the point of intersection, shall
perpendicular to the diameter.
41. If any chord of a circle be produced. equally both ways,
tangents to the circle be drawn on opposite sides of it from its ex
mities, the liDe joining thejoints of contact bisects the given chord.
42. .A.B is a chord, an .A.D is a tangent to a circle at A... DP
any secant parallel to .AB meeting the circle in P and Q. Shew
the triangle P.A.D is eC}.uiangular with the triangle Q.A.B.
43. If from any pomt in the circumference ot a circle a chord an
tangent be drawn, tne pe:tpendiculars dropped upon them nom th
middle point of the sub\ended arc, are equal to one another.
IV. "
44. In a given straight line to find a point at which two oth
straight lines being drawn to two given pOInts, shall contain a riP
angle. Shew that it the distance between the two given points
greater than the sum of their distances from the given line, there
be two such points; if equal, there may be only one; if lui, th
problem ma)" be impossible.
45. Find the point in a given straight line at which the tangeu
to a given circle will contain the greatest angle.
46. Of all straight lines which can be drawn from two given po.
to meet in the convex circumference ot a given circle, the sum oftb
two will be "the least, which make equal angles with the tangent at th
point of concourse. .
47. DF is a straight line toucbin~ a circle, and' terminated b
.A.D, BF, the ta~ents at the extremities of the diameter AB, she
that the angle" which DF subtends at the center is a right angle.
48. It tangents .A.m, Bn be drawn at the extremities of'the .
meter ot a semicircle, and an)" line in mPn crossin~ them and tou .
the circle in P, ~d it .AN, BM be joined intersecting in 0 and cu
the semicircle in Band F; shew that 0, P, and the ~int ot in"'I'!IINi
tion ot the tangents at E and F, are in the same straight line.
49. If from a point P without a circle, any straigh~ne be dra
cutting the circumference in.A. and B, shew that""the Itraight .
jQining the points .A. and B with the bisection of the chord of COD
ot the tangents from P, make eq~ angles 'With that ,Phonl.
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OX BOOK 111. 167
V..
60. Describe a circle which shall pus through a given point and
.bich shall touch a given straight line in a given point.
; 61. Draw a strai~ht line "hich shall touch a given circle, and
lake a given angle With a given straight line.
, 62. Describe a circle the circumference of'which shall pa88 through
'given point and touch a given circle in a given point.
~ Describe a circle with a given center, such that the circle so
. ibed and a given circle may touch one another internally.
54. Describe the circles wliich shall pass through a given point
~ touch two given straight lines.
M. Describe a circle with a given center, cutting a given circle in
Ile extremities of a diameter.
. 56. Describe a circle which shall have its center in a given straight
!De, touch another given line, and pass through a fixed point in the
~ given line.
te
: 67. The center of' a given circle is equidistant from two given
ht lines; to describe another circle which shall touch the two
. ht lines and shall cut 011' from the ~ven circle a segment con-
. an angle equal to a given rectiline81 angle.
VI.
I 58. If any two circles, the centers of' which are given, intersect
,h other, the greatest line which can be drawn through either point
mtersection and terminated by the circles, is independent of the
eters of' the circles
. 69. Two equal circles intersec~the lines joining the points in
any straight line through one of' the pomts of section, which
the circles with the other point of' section, are equal.
60. Draw through one of the points in which any two circles cut
.another, a straight line which shall be terminated by their circum.-
ttences and bisected in their point of section.
I 61. Describe two circles with given radii which shall 'cut each
and have the line between th~ points of section equal to a given
~~2. Two circles cut each other, and from the points of'intersection
. ht lines are drawn parallel to one another, the portions inter-
~ by the circumferences are equal. -.
63. .A.eB, A.DB are W'o segments of circles on the same base
B, take any point Oin the se~ent .4. OB; join .A a, ~ and pro- a,
them to meet the segment ADB m D and B respectively: shew
the arc DB is constant.
84. ADB, A. OB, are the arcs or two equal circles cutting one
I er in the straight line A.B, draw the chord .4. aD cutting the
~.'.ccircumference in o and the outer in D, Buch that AD and DB
~ft 1I1&y be double of .A C and OB together.
I~. If flom two fixed points in the circumference of a circle,
~ lines be drawn intercepting a given arc and meeting without
'" CU'Cle. the locus of their intersections is a circle.
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168 GBOlIftRICAL JaDCII'II
78. Two circles touch each other externally, the diameter of~
being double ot the diameter of the other; thrOugh the ]Oint of ~
tact any line is drawn to meet the circumferences ot botli; shew till
the part of the line which lies in the larger circle is double of that;O
the smaller.
79. If a circle roll within another ot twice ita aize, any poW
ita circumference will trace out a diameter of the first.
80. Witll a given radius, to describe a circle toucbiJIs two p,",
circles. , !
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OX BOOK Ill.
I 81. Two equal circles touch one another externally. and through
Jae point of contact chorda are drawn,- one to each circle, at rigbt
. . . to each; prove that the straight Une joining the other t!xtre-
_ or these chords is equal aDd parallel to the straight Hue joining
.. teD~ of the circles.
~ 82. Two circles can be descnoed, each of which shall touch a
Iwm circle, and pass through two. ~ven points outaide the circle;
.eW' that the angles which the two given points subtend at the two
fint8 of contact, are one greater and the other less than that which
ley 8ubtend ~ any other point in the given circle.
f
'.
VIII.
I 83. Draw a straight line which shall touch two given circles;
p) on the same side j (2) on the alternate sides.
84. If two circles do not touch each other, and a segment of the
joining their centers be intercepted between the convex circum-
~ ces, any circle whose diameter 18 not less than that segment may
80 placed as to touch both. the circles.
. 80., Given two circles: it is required to :find a point froDi which.
tangents may be drawn to each, equal to two given straight lines.
86. Two circles are traced on a plane; draw a strai~ht line
f!BtJag them in such a maDDer that the chords intercepted Wlthin the
. . aball have givenlen~.
I' 87. Draw a straight line which shall touch one of two given circles.
and cut 01 a given segment from the other. Of how many solutions
. . tliis_problem aduiit P
~~ If from the point where a common tangent to two circles
the line joinin~ their centers, any line be drawn cutting the,
Iieles, it will cut oft' sl.JDilar segments. .
, 89. To find a point P, so that tangents drawn from it to the out-,
lidesottwo equal circles which touch each other, may contain an angle,
..w to a given angle. ' .
90. Describe a circle which sball touch a ~ven straight line at a
,len pomt, and bisect the circumference of a given circle. "
I 91. A circle is described to p81i1 through a given poin~ and cut. a
pven cllcle orthogonally, shew that the locus of the ceuter 1& a certain
~htline. '
i. 92. Through two given points to describe a circle bisecting the
Circumterence of a given circle. .
I 93. Describe a circle through a ~ven point, and touching a ~ven
IRaight line, so that the chord joinmg ilie given point and pomt of
1IOntact, may cut oft' a seg'l!lent containing a given angle. '
I 94. To describe a circle through two given points to cut a straig1;tt
line given in position, so that a diameter of the circle drawn through
the Point or intersection, shall make a given angle with the line.
96. Describe a circle which should passthrougb two gi.en points'
~ cut a given circle, so that the chord or intersection may be 'of .a
Pven length. , . '. . '
1
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110 OEOIIBTRIOAL :BXBOIIBI
IX.
96. The circumtereDCe of one circle is wholly within that of an-
other. Find the greatest end the least straight lines that can be drawn
touching the fOl'Dler and terminated by thelatter.
97. Draw a 11:!'&irht line through two concentric circles, 10 that the
chord terminated by the exterior circumference may be double that
terminated bf the interior. What is the least value of the radius of
the interior cll"Cle for whioh the problem is possible P
98. If a straight Une be drawn cutting any number of concentric
circles, shew that th:e segments 80 cut or are not eimiJar.
99. If from any point in the circumference of the exterior of two
concentric circles, two straight Unes be drawn touching the interior
and mei!i~ the exterior; the diatanee between the points of contact
will be that between the points of intersection.
100. Shew that all equal straight lines in a circle will be tollChed
by another circle.
101. ThrouRh a given point draw a atrahrht line 10 that the part
interc~ted by die circumference of a circle, Shall be equal to a gtvell
atraiJdlt line not ~ater than the diameter.
102. Two circles are described about the same center, draw acfloN
to the outer circle, which shall be divided into three 8C)ual parts bJthe .
inner one.' How is the ~ibility of the ~blem. Hmfted"
103. Find a point Wlthout a given circle from whioh it two tan-
gents be drawn to it, they shall contain an an~le equal to a given
~le, and shew that the locus of this point is a Chele concentrio with
the given circle.
104. Draw two concentric circles such that those chords 01*
outer cirole which touch'the inner, may be equal'to its diameter. '
103. Find a point in a given ~ht line from which the t.angent
drawn to a given circle, is of given lenJrth.
106. If any number of chords be Grawn in the hmer of two ~'
centric circles, trom the same point.A. in its circumf'erence, and each ,
ot the chorda be then produced ~ond .A. to the circumference of the i
outer circle, the rectangle contained by the whole line 80 produced I
and the part of it produced, shall be constant tor all the cases.
x.
107. The circles desonood on the aides of any: triangle as diameters
will interseet in the sides, or sides produced, of the triangle.
108. The circles which are described upon the sides or a ript-
angled triangle as diameters, meet the hypotenuse in the same ~t;
and the line drawn from the point of intersection to the center of either
orthe circles will be a tangent to the other circle.
109. If on the sides of a triangle circular arcs be described contain-
~ ang~e8 whose sum is equal to two right angles, the t~le formed
by the lines joining their centers, has its angles equal to tliose in tbB,
segments. '
110. The perpendiculars let fall from the three anglea of an~ tri
angle upon the opposite sides, intersect each other in the same pomt.
111. ,If ~D, CE be drawn perpendicular to the sidea Be, :J.B of.
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OW BOOK 111. 111
the ~le A.BC, pl'OYe that the rectangle contaiud Dr Be lu41JD,
is equal to the rectan,le contained by B~ ad BB.
112. The lines which bisect the .ertical angle. of all triqle1 OIl tbfl
same base and with the same vertical angle, an intersect in one point.
113. Of all triantt: on the same baae and between the ..me
puallels, the iS08Celea the ~ vertical anrle.
114. It is required within an iaoacelea triangle to flnd a point .uch,
that its distance from one of the equal anglea may be douole ita dia.
tance from the vertical angle.
113. To Snd within an &cute-angled triangle, a ~t from whiob.
if straight lines be drawn to the three angle. of the triangle, they sbtlH
make ~qual angles with each other. .
116. A flag..ataff or a given height is erected on a tower .hOSt'
height is also given: at whAt ~int on the horizon will the ftag-ataf
appear under the greatest pouible angle P
. 117. A ladder is gradually raised againat a wall J flnd the locUi 01
its middle point.
118. The triangle formed by the chord of a eitcle (produced
or notl ,! e tangent at ita extretBity, aDd any line perpendicular
to the eter tbrough ita other extremity will be isosceles
9 .A.D, BE are p~ndiculars from the angles .A. and B
on the opposite sides of a triangle, BF pe~ndicu1ar to ED or ED
produced j ahew that the angle 1{BD = BBJt.
. . XI
120. If three ~ua1 eircles have a common point or intersection;
~Te that a straight line joiDing any two of the points of intersection,
1rill be Jl8l1!8ndicUlar to the straight line joining the other t.o point
of interseCtion. .
121. Two equal circles cut one another, and a third circle touches
each of these two. equal circles extemally I the Itraight line which joine
the points of seot,H,n will, if produced, pass through the center of the
third cirele. .
122. A number of circles touch each other at the laDle ~t, and a
atraight line is draw. from it clltting them: the atrai"ht linea joining
each point of intersection with the center oltha circle will be all Parallel.
123. If three circles intersec' one another, wo and two, tfle three
chords joining the points of interaeetion shall all pus through ODe
point. .
124. If three circle. touch each. other externally, and the three
common tangents be cira'Wll, tbeae tangeats shall intersect in a pain'
equidistant from the point. of contact or the circles.
120. If two equal circles intenect one another in A and B, and
from one or the points or iDteraection aa a center, a circle be described
which shall cut both of the equal circles, then will the other point of
intersection, and the two points in which the third circle cuts th~
other two OIl the same aide of .dB, be in the IaID8 straight line.
xu. .
126. Given the base, the vertical angle, and the dift'erence or the
Bides, to <-onstruct the triangle. . .
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..
I'll OEOJlBTBICAL BXUCISES
.
lIT. DesanDe. a triaD!!e, having giTen the vertical angle, and,
the segments of the base made by a liD.e oiaecting the vertical angle. .
128. GiTen the perpendicul8r height, the vertical angle and the
IUDl of the aides, to construct the trian~le.
129. Construct a trjangle in which the 'Vertical angle and the
dift'erence of the two angles at the base ,hall be respectively equal
two giTen angles, and whose base shall be equal to a given 8~ht
Uue. r
130. Given the vertical angle, the dift'erenee of the two sides .
tabling it, and the dift'erence of the segments of the base made by
perpendicular from the vertex; con8truct the triangle.
- 1'1. Given the vertical angle, and the lengths of two lines drawn.
from the extremitie. of the base to the points of bisection of the sides,
to construct the triangle.
132. GiTen the base, and vertical angle, to find the triangle wh
area is a maximum.
133. Given the base, the altitude, and the sUm of the two
lDaining sides J coutruct the triangle.
134. Describe a triangle of given base, area, and vertical angle.
136. Given the bue and vertioal angle of a triangle, find tiler
loe.. of the inteneetion of perpendicular. to the sides from ~
tremities of the ~
xm
136. Shew that the perpendiculars to the sides of a quadrilaterat
inacribed in a circle troDi their middle j)ointa intersect in a fixed point.
137. The lines biseeting any angle of a quadrilateral fi~lre in-
scribed in a circle, and the opposite exterior angle, meet in the cir-
cumference of the circle. .
138. If two opposite aides of a quadrilateral fi~re inscribed in a
circle be f!qual, prove that the other two are pu:alleJ.
139. The an~le8 SQbtended at the cellter of a circle hy any two
opposite ,sides of a qua~lateral figure circumscribed about it, are
together equal to two right angles.
140. Four circles are described so that each may touch int.mally
three of the sides of a quadrilateral figure, or one side and the ad~
jacent tides produeed; shew that the centers of these four circles will
all lie in the oi!cumference of a circle. ' ,
141. One side of a trapezium capable ofbemg inscribed in a given
circle is given, the sum of the'remaining three aide. is given; and also
one of the angles opposite to the given side: construct it.
142. If tlie sides of a quadrilateral figure inscribed in a circle be
produced to meet, and from each of tlie points of intersection 8
,traight line be drawn, touching the circle, the squares of these tan-
gents are together equal to the square of the straight line joining the
points of intersection. .
143. If a quadrilateral figure be described about a circle, the
8UD?8 of the oppotlite sidee are e'lual; and each sum equal to half tbe
penmeter of the figure. .
. 144. A quadnlateral.A.BOD is ~cnDed in a circle, Be and D~
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ON 'BOOK In.
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111. 'he) })Omt. are taken in the diameter of a circle at ally
equal dietancee from the cellter; ~h ODe ofthe.e draw any chord,
and join ita extremities and the other 1!0int. The triangle 80 formed
baa the sum of the ~uarea of ita aides mvariable.
168. If chords cUawn from anI fixed ~int in the circumlerenee
of. circle, be cut by pother chora which ia parallel to the tangent
at that point, the rectangle contained by each Chord, and the part of
it intercepted between die given point and the given chord, is conatant.
167. 1f AB be a chord. ot a Circle inclined by half' a right ~le fA)
tlle tangent at A, and .J. 0, .4.D be any two chords equally inclliiecl to
.J.B, .J.V'+.4D'.2 .J.B'.
lU. A chord POQ cuts the diameter of a circle in Q, in an angle
equarto halt a right angle; PO'+ OQ'=2(rad.).
169. Let .J.ODB &e a semicircle whose diameter is 4.B; and
~D, BO any two chords intersecting in P; prove that
.4.B'=D.A..AP +OB.BP.
160. It ABDObe any paral!elogram, and if a circle b. deacn"bed
paaing thro~h the point .A, and cutting the sides .A.B, .4. C, and the
Wagow .J.D, in the points F, G, H respectively, shew that
.4.B .AF+A 0 .4 G=..A.D .dE.
161. Produce a given straight line, 80 that the rectangle unde:rthe
given line, and the whole line produced, may equal the square 01 the
l-.rt produced.
162. If.A. be a point witbin a circle, BOthe diameter, and through
A, .4.D be drawn ~dicular to the diameter, and BAR meeting
the oircumference in B, then B.d..BB=BO.BD.
163. The diameter .40D of a circle, whose center is ~ Is ~
duced to P, determine a point P in the line.A.P such that the l'eetaDgle
PF.PCmay be equal to the rectallgle PD.PA..
164. To produce a given straight line, so that the rectangle eon-
tained by the whole line thus produced, and the part of it produced,
shall be egual to a given square. . .
.I61S. Two straight lines stand at ric-ht an~le8 to each other, one of
which pa88es through the center of a gIven cllele, and from any point
in the other, tangents are drawn to tlie circle. Prove that the chord
joining the points of contact cuts the first line in the same point" what-
ever be the point in the second from which the tangents are drawn.
166.. .A, B, ~ D, are four points in order in a straight line, find
a point B between Band 0, such that 4B. BB = BD.Be, by a
geometrical construction. .
16'1. If any two circles touch each other in the point 0, and lines
~ ~wn th;ough 0 at right an~les to each oth~r, tile ~ne ~~ ~utting
the clrcles m P, P, the other m Q, (l; and it the line JOlnmg the
centers of the circle. cut them in .A., ..JJ'; then
pp+ (1(1=4',4.'.
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BOOK IV
DEFINITIONS.
I.
A lLECTlLINEAL figure is said to be inecnDed in another rectilinea1
t!gure, when all the ~ points of the inscribed 6gure are llpoD
tlie aides ot the figure in which it iii inscribed, each upon each.
~.
II.
. In like manner, a ~ is mid to be desCribed about another ~,
"hen all the aides ot tlie circ1lJD8C1ibed figure p88I thro:agh the aniular
point. or the igure about which it is deaCribea, each through eaCh.
m.
A reotilinea1 fIaure is said to be inscribed in a circle, when all the
angaJar pointl of the inscribed figure are upon the circumference of
the circle.
o IV.
A rectilineal fi~ is said to be deaeribed about a circle, when each
&ide or the circUlDlCl'ibed ftgure touches the circumference or the circle.
o v.
In lib JD8DDe1', a eirele is said to be inlCribed in rectilinea16gure,
-hea the circumference of the circle touobee each aide of the figure.
I
VI.
A circle is said to be described about a rectilineal fi~, when the
circumference of the circle passes through all the angular points of
the tigure about which it is described.
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176 BUOLlD'. BLBIlBB'l'I.
VII.
.
A straight liDe is said to be placed in a circle, when the extremities
of it an in the circumference of the circle.
PROPOSITION I. . PROBLEM.
I. fI gi... cWcz. 10 111M, " .,..igAt liu, tJffMJl 10 " gi. . mwigJt _
.AieA u not "...,.,. tAM 1M d~ of 1M ein:~.
Let .ABO be the given circle, and D the given straight line, not
pater than the diameter of the circle.
It is required to place in the circle .ABO a straight line equal to D.
.
D_
Draw BO the diameter of the circle .ABa.
. Then, if BOis equal to D, the thing required is done; .
tor in the circle .AB (} a &trai~ht line BOis placed. equal to D.
But, if it is not, B 018 p-eater than D; (hyp.) .
make CB equal to D, (I. 3.)
and from the center 0, at the diStance CB, aescribe the circle ~BJ;
andjoin O.A.
Then O.A. shall be ~ua1 to D.
Because C is the center of the circle A.BF,
therefore O.A. is equal to CB: (I. def. 16.)
- . but OR is eqUal to D; (CODstr.) . I
E
~ ~
Draw the straight line G.A.H touching the circle in the point 4., (IlL 17;)
and at the point .A, in the straight line .4.8,
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BOOK IV. PROP. 11, III. 111
make the angle HAOequal to the angle DBF. (L 23.)
and at the point A, in the 8~ht line ~ G,
make the angle GAB equal to the angle DFB;
and join BO: then ~BC ah&ll be the triangle required.
Because HA G touches the circle ABO,
and .4 0 is drawn from the point of contact, .
therefore the angle HA C is equal to the angle AB 0 in the altemate
segment of the circle: (Dr. 32.)
but H.4Cis equal to the angle DBF; (conatr.)
therefore also the angle ~BCia ~ual to DBF: (ax. 1.)
for the same reason, the ~le ..4. OB is equal to the angle DFB:
therefore the remaining angle BA. C is equal to the remaining angle
BDF: (I. 32. and ax. 1.)
wherefore the triangle ABO is equiangular to the triangle DBF,
and it is wenDed in the circle Jl.BG. Q.E.P.
PROPOSITION m. PROBLEM:,
A60uI G gi,*, eire" to ducrilHl G triGrag" .iGragwlor to G giNn triangt..
Let ABObe the given circle, and DEFthe ~ven triangle.
It is required to describe a triangle about the cucle ABO equian-
gular to the triangle DBF.
L
.J~
OBPH
JI. B N
Produce ~F both ways to the points G, H;
find the center K of the circle .&Bo, (III. 1.)
and from it draw any 8traight line KB;
at the point K in the straight line KB,
make the ~le BKA equal to the angle DEG, (1.23.)
and the angle BKe equal to the angle DFH;
and through the points A, B, 0, draw the 8traiffht linea L~M, MBN,
NOL, touchmg the circle .4.BO. (III. 17.)
Then LMN shall be the triangle required.
Becatl8e LM, ltfN, NL touch the circle .dB 0 in the points .4., B,
a, to which from the center are drawn KA, KB, Ko,
a
therefore the angles at the points A, 'B, are right angles: (J1I. 18.)
and because the four angles of the quadrilater81 figure A.lIfBK are
equal to four right an~le8,
for it can be divided into two triaD~les ;
and that two of them .K.AM, KBM are nght ~lea,
therefore the other two .4.KB, A.MB are equal to two nght angles:
(0. 3.)
but the angles DBG, DB1l are likewise equal to two right angles;
(1.13.) . . .
IS
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ITS
therefore the aDglee AKB, AIB are equal to the 8111111 DBG..DBF;
(ax. 1.)
otwhieh .A.EB iI equal to DBG; (CGDstr.)
wherefore the remaining angle ~MB is equal to ~e remaining angle
DBF. (ax. S.}
In like manner, the . .Ie LN. may be c1emODltrated to be equal
to DPB;
and therefore the remaining angle MLN it equal to the :remaining
angle BDF: (I. 32 ana ax. 3.)
therefore the triang1e LMN is eq~ to the triangle DBP:
and it is described about the circle .tI.BC. , Q.B.P.
PROPOSITION IV. PROBI,BH.
2b itut1riN CI eire,. .. CI gi- 'ritIftgr..
Let the given triangle be .4.BG.
It is required to inscribe a circle in .ABC.
A
B P C
Bisect the angles ABC, B 0.4. by the straight linea BD, CD meetiDg
one another in the point D, (L 9.)
from which draw DB, DF, DO perpendiculara to .A.B, B(J, C.4.. (L 12.)
And because the angle BBfJ is equal to the angle FBD,
for the angle ABC is bisected by BD,
and that the rightangle BBDise~ual to the rightaugle BFD; (u.ll.)
therefore the two triangles BBD, FBD have two angles of the ODe
equal to two angles of the other, each to each;
and the aide BD, whioh is 'opposite to one of the equal angles in each,
is common to both;
therefore their other aides are equal; (L 28.)
. wherefore DB is equal to DF:
. for the aame reason, D(Jis equal to DF: .
therefore DB is equal to DO: (ax. 1.)
therefore the three straight linea DB, DF, /)e are equal to ODe
another;
and the circle described from the center D, at the distance of aD!
of them, will pass through the extremities of the other two, and
touch the straight lines A.B, B C, C.4,
because the angles at the points E, F, G are rie'ht angles,
and the straight line which is diawn ftoom the extremity of a diameter
. at right angles to it, touches the circle: (m.I6.) . .
therefore the straight linea .4.B, B(J, C.A do each of them touch the
circle,
and therefore the circle EPG is inscribed in the triangle .tI.1lC. Q.LP.
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BOOK IV. PaoP. V, VI. 17'
PBOPOSITION V. PBOBltBK.
trimIg".
To tluori1M II aWcltJ . . " II,.,.
Let the giVeD triangle be ~BC.
It is required to describe a oitcle about Jl.BC.
B~C B~CB4c
a
Bisect .A.B, .A. in the points D, B, (I. 10..)
I and from these p()ints draw DJ!, BF at right angles to .4.11, 4. CJ (1.11.)
: DJ!, EFproduced meet one another:
. for, if they do not meet, they are paralJel,
wherefore .A.B, .A. 0, which are at right angle8 to them, are parallel;
which is absurd :
let them meet in P, and join F.4. ;
also, if the l>oint Fbe Dot in B(], join BP, CF.
Then, because .AD 18 equal to DB, and DF common, and at right
angles to A.B, .
therefore the.base AF ia egual to the bMe FB. (I. 4.)
In like manner, it maY' be sliewn that OF is equal to F.A ;
and thmef'ore BFia equal to FC; (ax. 1.)
and FA. FB, FC are equal to ODe ~other:
wherefore the circle described from the center F, at the distance of
one of them, will pass througb the extremities of the other two, and
be described about the triangle .ABO. Q.E.F.
ColL-And it is manifest, that when the center of the circle falla
within the trian,le, each of ita angles is less than a ri~ht angle, (m. 31.)
each of them bemg in a se~ent greater than a seDllcircle; but, when
the center is in one of the sides of the triangle,. the angle opposite to
this side, being in a semicircle, (III. 31.) is a right angle; and, if the
center falls without the triangle, the angle opJK?Site to the aide beyond
which it is, being in a segment less than a semicircle, (m. 31.) is pater
than a right ~le: therefore, conversely, if the given triangle be
acute-anf{led, the center of the circle falla within it J if it be .. right-
analed triangle, the center is in the side opposite to the right angle;
anait it 'be aD obtule-angled triangle, the center f&lls without the tri-
ancle, be)'0nd the side opposite to the obtuse angle.
PROPOSITION VI. PROBLEH.
To ifUtlf"iblll ~. ita II giNn eire".
Let .ABOD be the given circle.
It is required to inscribe a square in 4.BCD.
A
B~D
o
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180 lmCLID'. BLDlBlft'L
B~D
Hex
Draw two diameters 4. a, BD of the circle .ABCD, at right angles
to one another,
and through the points A, B, a, D, draw PO, OK, HE, KF touch-
ing tile circle. (UI. 17.)
The figure OHKF shall be the square ~uired.
Because FO touches the circle ABOD, and B.4 u drawn from the
center B to the point of contact A,
therefore the angles at A are rie-ht angles: (m. 18.)
for the same reason, the angles at the pomts B, C, D are ~ht ang!es;
and because the .angle .dBB is a right angle, aa likewise u BB9,
therefore GHis parallel to .4.0: (1.28.)
for the same reason .J. (J is parallel to FE:
and in like manner OF, HK may each of them be demonstrated to
be parallel to BED:
therefore the ~ OK, Go,.J.K, FB, BKare paralleloPJ!l8J
and therefore OPis equal to HK, and OHto JJ'K: (L M.)
and because .4. 0 is equal to BD, and that.d C is equal to each Of the
two GH,PKJ
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BOOK 1\,. PROP. VlJ, VIII. 181
ad BD to each of the two 011, HIt:
ON, FK are each of them equal to OF, or HE r
therefore the quadrilateral figure FOHX is equilateral.
It is also rectan~ ;
for GBBA being a parallel0IP'lD' and AEB a right angle,
therefore A. rJ B is likewue a right angle: (I. 34.)
and in the same manner it may be shewn that the angles at H, E, F
are right ~les :
therefore tlie quadrilateral figure FOHE is rec~ :
aDd it was demonstrated to be equilateral;
therefore it is a Btuare; (I. del. 30.) .
and it is described about the ciide .4.BCD. Q.B.!'.
PEaK
B B 0
Bisect each of the aides A.B, .A.D in the points F, B, (I. 10.)
and through B draw BE parallel to .dB or DC, (I. 31.)
and through Fdraw FKparallel to AD or Be:
therefore each of the ft~es AK, KB, AN, ED, .4.0, O(], BO, OD
is a right-angled parallelogram ;
and their op~t.e sides are equal: (I. 34.)
and because .A.D is equal to AB, (I. def. SO.)
and that .dB is the half of A.D, and .A.P the half Of .A.B,
~erefore.4.B is equal to AF; (ax. 7.)
wherefore the aides opposite to these are equ8l, viz. FO to 0 B :
in the same manner it may be demonstrated that ON, OK are each
of them equal to FO or 0 B: .
therefore the four straight lines OB, GF, ON, OX are equal to one
another;
. and the circle described from the center G at the distance of one of
them, will ~ through the extremities of the other three, and touch
the straight lines .dB, B (], CD, DA; - .
because the angles at the points B, F, N, X, are right angles, (I. 29.)
and that the 8~ht liDe which is drawn from the extremity of a
, ttiameter, at right al!8'les to it, touches the circle: (m. 16. Cor.)
tbezetore each otthe 8~ht lines .dB, Be, CD, DA. touches the cire1e,
"bieh therefore is inscribed in the square .dBCD. Q.B.I'.
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181 B11CLlD'. BLEKUTS.
~
~
;roin A 0, BD, cutt.il!g one another in B:
a
and becaue DA is equal to ..4.B, and ...4. common to the _triangles .
a,
DA a, B...4. (1. del. 30.)
a a,
the two sides D...4., ~ are equal to the two BA, A each to each j
and the baae DO is equa~ to the base BO;
wherefore the angle D.dOis equal to the angle B.4.0; (1.8.)
and the angle D.dB is bisected by the s~ht line .4. 0:
in the same manner it may be demonstrated that the angles .A.BC,
BOD, OD.4. are severally bisected b,. the s~ht lines BD, .J.C:
therefore, ,becaue the angIe D.4.B 18 equal to the angle
(I. der. 30.)
no.
and that the angfeBA.B is the hall of D.AB,andEB.A the half of ...4.BC;
thelPfore ilie angle E.4.B is equal to the angle BBA.; (ax. 7.)
wherefore the side B.A. is ~ual to the side BB: (I. 6.)
in the same manner it may be demonstrated, that the straight lines
EO, BD'are each of tIlem equal to B.A. or BB:
therefore the four straight lines E.4., EB, Bo, ED are equal to one
another; ,
and the circle described from the center B, at the distance of ODe
of them, will paas through the extremities of the other three, and be
described about the square .4.BOD. Q.&:r.
PROPOSITION X. PROBLEM.
To tl6lcriH dA uOICelu IriGflgk, _.", ICIM 0/ 1M ..,,,, aI 1M 6at
double 01 tIN. tlaW ..,U-
Take any straight line AB, and divide it in the point (IL-II.) a
80 that the rectangle .A.B, BO may be equal to tile square of 0...4.;
and from the center .A, at the distance .AB, describe tlie circle BD1J,
in which place the straight line BD equal to ...4. a, which is not greater
than the diameter of the circle BDB; (IV. 1.)
and join DA.
Then the triangle ABD shall be such as is required,
that is, each of the anglel ABD, ..4.DB shall be double of the angle
BAD. _
loin DO, and about the tria~le .ADOdescribe the circle ..4. aD. (IV.6.
And because the rectangle.4.B,BOis equal to the ~uare on 400,
and that ~ a is equal tD B!J, (conatr.) .
the rectangle .dB, BOis equ8J. to the ~1l&T8.on BD: (ax. 1.)
. and because from the P9int B, without the circle A OD,-two
lines :IJC.4., BIJ are dra'WD to the circumference, one of which cut.,
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BOOK. IV. paop. X, XI. 188
..
B
the other meets the circle, and that the rectangle ~B, B(J, contained
by the whole of the cutting line, and the ~ of it without the circle,
~ul.to the square on BD which meets it;
tlleretore the s~t line BD touches the circle .A. CD: (m.87.)
and because BD touches the circle, and DO it drawn from the
point of contact D,
the angle 1!DC is equal to the angle D.A. C in the alternate segment
of the cucle: (m. 32.)
to each of these add tile a:~le CDA;
therefore the whole angltjDA is eq to the two angles CDA,
D.A. 0: (ax. 2.)
but the exterior angle B CD Is ~ual to the angles CDA, DA (]; (I. 32.)
"therefore also BD.A. 18 equal to BOD: (ax. 1.)
but BD..4. is ~ual to tlie angle OBD, (t. I.)
because the side AD is equal to the side ..4.B ;
therefore CBD, or DBA, is equal to BCD; (ax. 1.)
and consequently the three angles BDA, DBA., BCD are equal to
one another :
and beca.uae the angle DBCis e~ to the ~le BCD,
. the side BD 18 equal to the side DC: (1.6.)
but BD was made equal to CA J
.
an" therefore also CA is equal to CD, (ax. 1.)
the angle CD.A. equal to the angle D.A. (]; (t. I.)
therefore the angles ODA, DA (] together, are double of the angle
D~C:
but BCD is equal to the an~les CDA., D.A.C; (r.32.)
therefore also BCD 18 double of DA C:
and B CD was proved to be equal to each of the angles BDA, DBA;
tMrefore each of the angles BDA, DBA. is double of the angle DAB
.Wherefore an isosceles triangle...,dBD has been described, having
each of the angles at the base double of the third angle. Q. E.:P.
PROPOSITION XI. PROBLEH.
To 1fUt:f'iN 11ft epilateml lIf1d Ipiaflgular pmtagtm ita II giwA eire".
Let ABCDE be the given circle.
I~ is .required to inscribe an equilateral and equiangular pentagon
fa the circfe .4.BCDB.
Describe an isosceles triangle FOH, having each of the angles at
0, H double 01 the angle at F; (IV. 10.) .
I in
and the circle ABCDBinscnoe the triangle ..4. CD equiangular
~ to the tz!angle FO H, (IV. 2.)
sO that the angle CA.1J ma.r De equal to the angle at F, ~
aad each ofth~ angles, ~aD, C:p..4. equal_ to ~:i~~~b~~r H, '
184 XI10LlD'S BLB!lDT8.
wherefore each of the angles A. CD, CDA. is double of the angle CAD.
BiNet the angles..4. cn,.o.D..4. by the straight lines ClJ, DB; (L 9.)
and Jom .dB, BC, DB, B.4..
A.
p
(j
G JI
B
C D
Then ..4.BCDB ahall be the pel!tagon required.
DecaUie each of the angles ..4. OD, OD..4. is double of OAD,
and that they are bisected by the s~ht lines OB, DB; .
therefore the five angles DA C, ..4. CB, BCD, CDB, BD.A. are
equal to one another:
but equal angles stand upon equal circumferences; (m. 28.)
therefore the ive circumferences 4.B, Bo, CD, DB, BA.. are equal
to one another: '
and equal circumferences are subtended 1equa1straight linea; (UL 29.)
therefore the :tive straight lines A.B,-Be, CD, DB, BA are equal
to one another.
Wherefore the pen~on .ABCDB is equilateral.
[t is also equian~:
for, because the circumference A.B is ~Ual to the circumference DB,
if to each be added BCD,
the whole A.BCD is equal to the whole BDOB: (ax. 2.)
but the angle ..4.BD stands on the circumference ..4.B(JD i '
and the angle B..4.B on the circumference BDCB ; i
therefore the angle BAB is equal to the angle .ABD: (IlL 2'1.) I
for the same reason, each of the angles ..4.BC, BCD, C1JB is equal
to the angle B..4.B, or ..4.BD: I
therefore the pentagon ..4.B ODB is e'luianplar;
and it has Deen shewn that it is eqWlateial: '
wberefore, in the given circle, an equilateral and equiangular pentapai
has been described. Q. E.P.
X L
and because FOK is a right angle,
the square on FK is equal to the squares on Fa, OK: (I. 47.)
for the same reason, the square on FK is equal to the squares on
PB,BK:- .
therefore the squares on Fo. OK are equal to the squares on FB,
BE; (ax. 1.) .
.01 which the sq.uare on FO is equal to the square on PB;
therefore the remainmg square on OK is equal to the remaining square
.' on BE, (ax. 3.) and the straight lirie OK equal to BK:
IIJ.i because FB is equal to Fe, and FK common to the triangles
BFE,OFK,
the two BF, FK are equal to the two OF, FK, each to each:
and the base BKwas :proved equal to the base KO:
therefore the angle BFK 18 eq!lal to the angle EFe, (I. 8.)
and the ~le BKFto FKO: (I. 4.)
wherefore the angle BFO Is double of the angle EPo.
and BEO double or FKO:
for the same re88on,.th~ ~le OFD is double o~th~'angle CFL, .
. ' . and CLD double of OLF: .
.a because the circumference BO is equalto the circumference CD,;
the angle BFCis equal to the angle OFD; (III. 27.)
and BFa is aouble of the angle KFe,
and OFD double of CFL; .
! therefore the 'angle EFOis equal to the an,le OFL: (ax. 7.) .
, and ~e right, angle FOE is equal to the nght angle peL;
~rore, m the two triangles FEC, FLO, there are two angles of the
I one equal to two angles of the other, each to each; . - ,
IIld the side FO which is adjacent to the equal angles in each, is com-
mon to both; . .
therefore the other aides are equal to the other sides, and the third
-.le to the third angle: (I. 26.) ;
therefore the straight line KCis equal to eL, and the angle FKO
to the angle FLO:
~ and because XOis equal to OL, "
. KL is double of Xo.
~ the same manner it may be shewn that HX is double of BE:
and because BKis equal to KO, 88 was demonstrated.
and that KL is double of KO, and HK double of BE,
, . therefore HK is equal to KL: (ax. 6.)
_like manner it may be shewn tliat GH, (J1J, ML are each of them
equal to HX, or KL:
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.BVeLI'a 1U.DI'DmI."
C X D ~
:Bisect the angles BOD, ODB by the atraiht lines OF, DP, (I. 9.
and from the point F, in which they JIIe8t, draw the Itraigbt liD8I F.
F.A,PB:
therefore since BO ia ~ual to OD, (hyp.)
and OFcommon to the triangles BOl!, naF,
the two aides Be, OF are equal to the two DC, OF, each to eaeh;
and the angle BOFis equal to the angle DOF; (constr.)
therefore the base BF 18 equtJ to the base PD, (I. 4:.)
and the other angles to the other aDglea, to which the equal sides
opposite:
therefore the angle OBF is equal to the angle ODP I
and because the angle ODE is double of ODF,
and that ODB is equal to OB.A, and CDF to OBF; .
OB.J. is also double of the angle OBF;
therefore the angle .4.BF is equal to the ~le OBF;
wherefore the angle .A.BCis bisected by the straight line BF:
in the same manner it may be demonstrated,
that the angles BAR,.4 BD, are biaeeted by the straiht lines ..,411,
Fro~ tlie point 1', draw FfJ, FH, FE, FL, FMperpendiculars
the s~ht linea A.B, Bo, CD, DB, B.A: (I. 12.) ,
and llecause the angle HOF is equal to kOF, 8.nd the right
PHO equal to the right angle FEO;
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BOOK IV. P.OP. XUI, XIV. 18T
therefore in the trlanles PHa, PKC, there sre two angl88 of the ODe
l!'lual to two an,lea of the other, each to each; .
1JId' ~ side F(1, which is opposite to one of the equal angles in each,
18 common to both;
therefore the other sides are equal, each to each; (t. 28.)
wherefore the perpendicular FH is equal to the perpendicular FE:
in the same manner it mal be demonstrated, that FL, FM, FO are
each of them equal to FH, or FE:
therefore the five straight lines FO, FH, FE, FL, FM are equal
to one another :
wherefore the circle described from the center F, at the distance of
~e of these five, will pus through the extremities of the other four,
~d touch the straight linea A.B, B(1, CD, DE, EA.,
: because the angles at the points 0, H, X, L, M are right angles,
and that a stiaiglit line draWn from the extremi~ of the diameter of
a circle at right angles to it, touches the circle; (III. 16.)
therefore each. of the straight !iDea 4.B, B 0, CD, DB, B.J. toucheI
tlle cirele : .
1rherefore it is inacribed in the pentagon .4.B ODE. Q.E. F.
(J D
iBisect the angles BCD, CDE by the straight linea CF, PD, (I. 9.)
lid from the point F, in which they meet, draw the straight lines Fh.
PA, FB, to the point. B, .d., B.
~~may be demonstrated, in the same manner as the preceding pro-
~tba II, ,
t the angles CBA., BAB, AED are bisected by the straight lines
PB,FA., FB.
And because the angle BOD is equal to the angle CDE,
and that FCD is the half of the angle BCD,
and CDF the half of CDB,
therefore the angle FCD is equal to FDa; (ax. 7.)
wherefore the side CF is equal to the side FD: (I. 6.)
t
in like manner it mal be demonstrated,
that FB, FA., FE. are each 0 them e~ual to FC or FD :
Itbererore the five straight lines F.4., FB, Fo, FD, FB, are equal to
one another;
~and the circle descn"bed from the center F, at the distance of ODe of
rem, will pass through the extremities of the other four, and be de-
Il'ibed about the eqUilatera\ and equiangular pentagon ..4BC:QB.
iE,r.
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188 EUCLID'S BL'EIIB~.
H
Find the center 0 of the circle ABODBF, 1
and draw the diameter AOD; (m.l.) -.I
and from D, as a center, at the distance DO, describe the circle BGf.ilJ.
join BG, e.G., and produce them to the points B, Fi
. and J0111 .A.B, BC, CD, DE, BF, FA : ;
the hexagon 4.BODEFshaIl be equilateral and equiangular,
becauae 0 is the center of the circle ABCDEF,
OBis equal to OD: '
and because D is the center of the circle BG ON,
DB is equal to DG:
. wherefore GR is equal to ED, (ax. 1 . ) . I
and the triangle EGD is equilateral ;
and therefore its three angles BOD, GDB, DEG, are equal to ~
another: (I. 6. Cor.) '
but the three ang1es of a triaD$le are eq.ual to two nght angles; (L 31j
therefore the angle BGD 18 the third ~ of two right angles: I
. in the same manner it maT be demonstrated,
that the angle DGO.is also the third part of~o right angles: .j
and because the straight line 0 C makes with EB the adjacent 8D~
BOe, OOB equal to two right angles; (I. 13.)
the remaining angle OOB is the third part of two right angles:~
therefore the angles BOD, DOC, OOB are equal to one another:
and to these are equal the vertical opposite angles BoA, .A. OF, FG
(I. 10.) .
therefore the six angles BOD, DOe, COB, BOA, AOF, FO
are equal to one another: , .
but equ8.l angles stand upon equal circumferences; (In. 26.) i
therefore the six circumferences AB, Be, OD, DB, BF, F 4 are eq1ll
to one another:
and equal circumferences are 6ubtended by equal straight'
(IU.29.) .
therefore the six straight lines are equal to one another,
and the hexagon ABODBFis equilateral.
It is also eqqian~:
tor, since the circumference .Al! is equal to BD,
to each of these equals add the circumference AB OD ;
therefore the whole circumference PABOD is equal to the w
BDOB..4. : Digitized by
G oog Ie
:BOOE. IV. PBOP.. XV, XVI. 189
and the angle FBD standi upon the circumference FA-BOD,
. and the angle ~FB upon EDOB.A. J .
therefore the angle ~B is eqUal to FED: (m. 27.)
in the same manner it may be demoDltrated,
~ that the other anglet of the hexagon ..4.BODEP are hob of them
equal to ~he angle AFE or FBD: therefore the hexagon is equi-
angular; and it is equilateral, as was shewn ;
and it is inscnDed in the ~ven circle ..4.BODBF. Q.E.F. t
B
C
D
~. !-B
.
~
contains fifteen, .
.Circumference .AB 0, bei~g th~ ~ part of the whole, contains five;
IIld ~e circumference .dB, wlllch 18 the fifth part of the whole, con- .
tains three;
. therefore B C, their difFerence, contains two of the same parts :
[, bisect B a in B; (In. 30.)
ttheretore BE, EO are, each of them, the :fifteenth part of the whole
, circumference ~BOD:
~
erefore if the straight lines BB, BO be drawn, and straight lines
to them be placed round in the whole circle, (IV. 1.) an equi..
and equiangular quindecagon will be inscribed in it. Q. E. F. .
, And in the same manner as was done in the ~ntagon, if through
points of division made by inscribing the quindecagoD, straight
be drawn touching the circle, an equilateral ant;! equiangular
decagon will be described about it: and likewise, as in the ~n
n, a circle may be inscribed in a given equilateral and equiangular
decagon, and circumscribed about it.
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. NOTES TO BOOK IV.
-.
T.B Fourth Book of the Elements coataiDa lOme particular cueI
lour leneral problema 011 the iDaaription and the ciroumaoripdon of
uape and repla ~ ia and about.... EllOlid hu not Hi
~ iDatul_ of the iuoriptioa or circumscription of rectiljne&l
in and about other recti1iDea1 8gureI. -
A:tt"/ rectillneal ~ of flve side. and ~les, is caUecl a pen
or leven aides and IUlIl., a heptagon; 01 eiglit aides and angles, an
gon; of nine sides and angles, a nonagon; of wn aides and ~
decagon; of eleven aides and angles, an undecaaon; of twelve sides
anlles, a duodecagon; of fifteen sides and angles, a quindecagon, &c.
These figures are included under the general name of polygoru ;
are called ftJUiltRmJl, when their aides are equal; and ,~, "
their anglea are equal; also when both their 'sides and anglee ate
poly,,,,...
the,r are caUecl ,..,...
.Prop. Ill. An objection has been railed to the CODItructioa" I
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lfODS '10 BOOJl IV. 191
(I)" DMde tU line ~B ia C, 10 that . . ""_pe All, ~O, ma,.
be
I
!qIIltothe l'Iwrre OR AC.
: The cilele BDB fa deIcrlbecl about .A with the clIataDce AS, &ieiua
the triangle iI to be iaoeceles, ha~ ~B for one side, and thenfore ~
other utremity of the bue II In the circumference of that circle. .
The 1iDe AB II dbided in C, 10 that the rectangle AB, Be aha1l 1M
equal to the square on .AC, ..... the base of the triangle must be equal
'to the aegment .AC.
And the line 4ID is drawn, 6aIe it complete. the triangle, two eli
"Whoae sides, .AB, BD are already drawn.
. Whenner we haTe reduced the conatruotion to depend upon ~
which haTe been already CODatructed, our analysis may be terminated;
.. was the case where, in the precediDg exam,le, we arriTed at the
~ion of the line ~B in C; ~hia problem havmg been aheadJ con~
'8tructed as the eleventh of the second book.
Prop. XTl. The arc lubtenc1ing a side of the quindecagon, maT be
found by placing in the circle from the same point, two linea respectively
equal to the .ides of the replar huapn and~~. .
The centers of the inscribed and circumacribed circles of any reglI1ar
polygon are coincideDt.
Besides the circumscription and inscription of triangles and ~
polygons about and in cirCles, some Tery important problems are sOITed
m the conatructiona respecting the dil'iaion of the circumferenea of
eirclea into equal parte.
By inscribin, an equilateral triangle, a square, a pentagon, a hex"
.-JOn, Bec. in a CU'Cle, the circumference is divided into three, four, five,
8lX, ac. equal parts. In Prop. 26, Book m, it has been shewn that equal
angles at the centers of equal circles, and therefore at the center of the
.same circle, subtend equal area; by bisecting the angles at the ceater'l
-=
the area which are 8ubtended by them are also bisected, and hellee, I
sixth, eighth. tenth, twelfth, &c. part of the circumference \If & circle I
may be found.
If the right angle be considered as divided into 90 degrees,
into 60 minutes, and each minute into 60 seconds, and 80 on, . I
to the su:agesimal division of a degree; by the aid of the first corollary
to Prop. 32, Book '. may be found the numerical magnitude of aD. interior,
angle of any regular polYF w h a t e v e r . . ,I
Let e denote the magmtude of one of the interior angles of & reglI1ar
polygon of A sides, i
then ,.6 is the I11Dl of all the interior angles.
But all the interior angles of any rectilineal figure together with fo~
right angles, are equal to twice as many right angles 88 the figure has sides,
that is, if 'Jr be assumed to designate two right angles,
A6 + 2... = A"', I
and n6 = n ... - 2...' == (n - 2). 'Jr,
" (n - 2)
.-. fJ == - - .T,
A
the magnitude of an interior angle of a regular polygon of A sides.
:By taking n = 3, 4, 6, 6, &c. may be found the magnitude in terms
two ~gle8t of an interior angle of anY' regular polygon whaWfer.
P oras was the first, as Proclus informs us in hiS commea
who discovered that a multiple of the angles of three reRUlar figures
namely, the trigon, the square, and the hexagon, cm 1111 up apace ro
" point in a plane.
. -It has been shewn that the interior angle of any regular polygon 0
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..md TO BOOK IV. 19S
.-- .....
tidea in terma ot two right &ngl.., I. exprtlHd hy the efIU&tion
ft-2
ft
Let I, denote the magnitude of the interior angle of a regular figure
01 three sides, in which case, n == 3.
Then 8. = 8 ; 2 .... =i = one third of two right angl. .
:. 38, = T,
and 68, == 2...,
that is, six angles, each equal to the interior Ingle of an equUateral tri.
angle. are equal to four right angles, and therefore six equilateral triangles
mar be placed 80 as completely to All up the apace round the point at
Dich they meet in a plane.
, In & similar way, it may be shewn that tour squares and three hexagou
Illy be placed 80 as completely to ill up the apace round a point.
Also it will appear from the results deduced, that no other regular
Ipres besides these three. can be made to All up the space round a point;
'u any multiple of the interior angles of any otIier regular poly-gon, will
be found to be in excesa above, or in defect from four right angles.
The ~uilateral triangle or trigon, the square or tetragon, the penta-
lOB, and the hexagon, were the only regUlar polygons known to the
Greeks, capable of being inscribed in circles, besides those which may
be derived from them.
14. Gauss in his Disqulsitionea Arithmeticee, haa extended the number
by shewing that in general, a regular polygon of 2" + 1 sides is capabJe
of being inscribed in a circle by means of straight lines and circles, in
Ithose cases in which 2- + 1 is a prime number.
The case in which ft =.4, in 2" + 1, was proposed by Mr. Lowry of the
!loJaJ. Kilitary College, to be answered in the seventeenth number of
I.jboum's Mathematical Repository, in the following form:-
Required a geometrical demonstration of the foJlcrwiDg method of
IIODatlucting a regular pol~n of seventeen sides in a circle.
Draw the radius CO at ~ht angles to the diameter .dB; on 00 and
OB, take OQ equal to the half, and 0 D equal to the eighth part of the
radius; make DE and DF each equal to DQ, and EO andFHrespectively
equal to BQ and FQ; take OK a mean proportional between OR and
OQ, and through K, draw KM p8;rallel to .AB, meeting the semicircle
~bed on 06 in AI, draw MN parallel to OC cut~ the given circle
III N, the arc .AN is the seventeenth part of the whole clrCumterence.
A demonstration of the truth of this construction has been given by
Mr. Lowry himself, and will be found in the fourth volume of Leybourn' s
Repoai~. The demonstration including the two lemmas occupies
JIlOre'tlwi eight pages, and is by DO means of an elementary character.
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4. Wha . . . rectillDeal ...... Aiel to be iaIeribecl ia, ad einaa-
ICribed about another rectllineal laure ?
I. Modify the construction 01 Eue. tY. 4, 80 that the cirele may
touch one aide of the triangle and the other two aides produced.
8. The aides of a tn.ale are 6, 8, 7 anita ~tively, :find the l!Idii
of the iDacribed and circumscribed circle.
'I. Give tIN COftItnu:timu by which the eenters of circles described
about. .,nd iucribed in trianglee are found. In what triaugles will they
coincide?
S. How fa it shown that the radiua of the eircle inscribed in an
equilateral triangle is half the radius deaeribed abow; the same triangle r
9. Tlle equilateral triangle inacribed in a circle is one-founh or the
equilateral triaD~cireumacribed about the same circle.
10. What re 'on .ubaiata between the aquare inscribed in, ana the
square c1rcumacribed about the ume circle?
11. Enunciate Ruo. Ill. 2.2: and extend this property to an,. inscribed
polygon havillg an even number of sides.
12. Trisect a quadrantal arc ot a circle, and show that every arc
which is an ;. th part of a quadrantal arc may be trisected geometricaHy:
til and .. being whole numbers:
13. If one side of a quadrilateral figure b1acribed in a circle be,pro-
duoed, the exterior angle ill equal to tIte interiOl"' and opposite angle elthe
~. II this property true of an,. inacribed polyp baring an eTen
number of sides ?
14-. In what pual1elograms em circles be iIlsMbed ~
16. Give the analysis and synthesis of the problem: to deemibe I
an isosceles triangle, llal'ing each of the angles at the bue dovhle of '
the third angle? . I
16. Shew that in the figure Rue. IV. 10, th.-ee.r.e two triangles pos-
sessing the required property. .
17. How il it made to appear that the line BD is the aide ef a replar
tlecagOR iDacribed in the larger eirole, a11d the -side of'a regular ptIf&'IIIgI1A
inscribed in the .maller circle~ jIg.:Hue. IT. 10.
IS. In the construction of Eue. IV. 8, Euclid laas omitted to uew
that the tangents drawn through the pointaA and ..B will t i'a 8OII1e
point II. How may this be shewa ~
19. Shew that if the points of intersection of the circles in Euolid's
fi~, Book IV. Prop. 10, be joined with the vertex of the triangle and
With each other, another triangle wiil beform.ed equia.agular and equal
to the fbnnel'
20. Di.ide a.right angle ~ iTe equal p~. Bow 1Il8f an iaosee1es I
triangle be d88Ulbed. upon a glven base, hanng each 1U1gle .t the base i
one..third of the angle at the vertex.? .!
. 21. What regular figures may be in.cribed. in a -circle b,. the llelp 01.
Eue. IV. 10? I
PROPOSITION I. TBEORm.t:.
q ".la'eral tria",l, 6, '",cri6ed ,. a circl" tl" 'lJatmI0' ,AI ride
rtplor MZG,OJI i,.,cri6e1l i. the .a_
oJ tIN tria,.,Z. iI tri,l. 0/ th' 'lJlUIr' 0/ tIN rad;",.
circle.
or 0/ tke ride of the
PRoposncroNn. PROBLEM.
To de,crib, " circle wAicA ,AaU toucA a ,trai,At Un, giw. ia I'olititna, GIll I
fJtII, tAroug1. tfDO ,i.IR point
AnalY.Bis. Let.4.B be the given straight line, and
given pomts.
D the two a i
C G
loin 0, D, and produce D a to meet .dB in F,
and let the circle be described having the center L,
join also LE, and draw LH perpendicular to aD.
. Then an is bisected in H, and LE is perpendicular to AB.
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OK BOOK IV. 191
Also, sinCe from the point F without the circle, are drawn two
B~ht lines, one of whicn FB touches the circle, and the other PlJO
cuts It; the rectangle contained by Fa, FD, is equal to the square of
FB. (III. 86.) .
Synthesis. loin 0, D, and produce aD to meet A.B in F,
take the point B in FB, such that the square on FB, shall be equal
to the rectangle FD, FC.
Bisect CD in H, and draw HX perpendicular to CD;
then HE ~ses through the center. (III. 1, Cor. 1.)
At B draw BO pe!"pendicular to FB,
then EO ~es through the center, (UI. 19.)
consequently L, the point of intersection ot these two linea, is
the center of the circle.
It is also manifest, that another circle may be described passing
through 0, D, and touching the line .A.B on the other side of the
point F; and this circle will be equal to, ~eater than, or less than the
other circle, according as the angle CFB is equal to, greater than, or
less than the angle OF4... .
PROPOSmON m. PROBLEM.
gi"", ,ector oj II circk.
1,.,crilJ6 (I circle in II
Analysis. Let CA.B be the given sector, and let the required circle
"'hose center is 0, touch the radii in P, Q, and the arc of the sector
in D.
c
E D p.
loin OP, OQ, these lines are equal to one another.
Join also 00.
Then in the triangles OPO, OQO, the two sides po, CO, are equal
to QC, 00, and the base OP is e<J,ual to the base OQ j
therefore the angle PCO IS equal to the angle QOO;
and the angle A. OB is bisected b1 00: '
also 00 produced will bisect the al"C A.B In D. (m. 26.)
If a tangent EDFbe drawn to touch the arc.4.B in D;
an~ CA., CB be produced to meet it in B, F:
the inscription of the circle in the sector is reduced to the inscrip-
tion of a circle in a triangle. (IV. 4.)
c
., Draw GL ~dicular to BD, ..t join GB,
al80 produce FO to M, and BO to N.
. Jl~ triaDgle L9Ebe auppoud to be equl to the triangle EHB,
by adding HOB to each,
the triangles LOB, OBB &'Ie equal, ad they 818 lIJ01l the &IDle
bale GB, and on the same aide of it J
therefore they are between the ~8 ~e1aJ
that is, if L; B were joined, LB would be ~el to G B;
and if a semicircle were described on GB as a diameter, it would
pass through the points B, L; for the angles at B, L are'l'ight
angles:
. also LB wouli be a chord parallel to the diameter G B;
therefore the area intscepted between the parallels LB,. GB are
equal,
and consequently the chorda BB, LO are also equal J
but BB is equal to OM, and GHto ON;
wherefore LO, GM, GN, are equal to one another;
hence 0 is the center of the circle inscribed in the triangle BDa.
Synthesis. Draw the ~onal BD.
Find 0 the center of the circle inscribed in the !rlan!e BDO;
through 0 draw BGNP!'rallel to Be, and FKMparallel to AB.
Then BO and PO bisect the rectangle ABCD.
. Draw OL pe~ndicular to the diaional BD. I
In the trill!lglei 0 LH, BHB, the angles ULH, HBB are equal,
each be!.nJ a ript anale, and the vertical8Dglea L/IG. EBB, alsO the I
aide LG 18 equ&l to tie aide BB ; .
therefore the triangle LEO is equal to the ~e EBB. I
Sim~ly, it Ki1i be proved, that tlie triangle 6 is equal to the .
~le 'D, i
therefore the whole triangle KGB is equal to the two triangles
BHB,EFD,
ad consequently BO, FO bisect the reetanp ABCB.
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OK BOOK IV. 199
I.
1. IN a Ki!en circle, place & straight line equal and ~el to a
gben ~lit.lin8 Dot l{I'eater than the diameter of the oircle.
2. Trisect a given cll'cle by dividing it into three equal secton.
I 3. The centers of the circle inscribed in, and circumscribed about
an equilateral trian,le coincide; and the diameter of ODe it twice the
difUDeter of the other.
4. If a line be drawn ftom the vertex of an ~uilateral ~Ie,
perpendicUlar to the base, and intersecting a line drawn from either of
the-anglae at the bue pe~ndicu1ar to the opp<lsite aide; the diataDce
from the vertex tQ the ~int of interaectioJl, shaIl be equal to the radiUl
of the circumBcriJ:fing cJrCle. .
6. If an equilateral t.rl~le be inacribed in a chcle, aad a straight
line be drawn from the vertical angle to meet the eireumference. it
will be equal to the sum or d.i1rerence of the stralght linea drawn from
the extremities of the base to the point where the line meets the cir-
cumference, according as the line noesor does net cut the base.
6. The ~rpendicular from the vertex on the base of an equi..
lateral triangle, ia equal to the aide of aa equilateraltriangle inscribed
in a circle whose diameter is the base. Rf:!quirecl proof.
'I. -If an equilateral triangle be inscribed in & cirole, and the
a.djacent arcs cut oil by two of ita sides be bisected, the line joining
the points of bisection shall be trisected by the sides.
8. If an equilateral triangle be inscribed in a circle, any of ita
aides -will cut 01r one-fourth part of the diameter drawn through the
oppo9,site
Th anegpenmeter
le. f
0 an eq
ui1
atera.1..:.:... -....lID80n
v.m.uea.e - bed m Ie 18
a Cll"C .
greater than the perimeter of any otlher isosceles triangle iDscribed in
-the same circle.
, 10. If any two consecutive sides of a hex~n itlacnibed in a circle
be respectively parallel to their opposite sides, the remaining sides are
parallel to each other.
11. Prove that the area of a regular hexagon is greater than that
of an equilateral tri~e of the same perimeter.
12. H two equilateral triangles be inscribed in a oDele 80 as to
have the sides of one parallel to the sieles of the other, the figure
common to both will be a regular hexagon, whose area and ~rimeter
will be equal to the remainder of the area and perimeter of the two
triangles. .
13. Determine the distance between the opposite aidea of an equi.
lateral and e'l.uiangular hexagon inscribed in a circle.
14. Inscnbe a regular hexagon in a given e'Jui1ateral triangle.
~. To inacribe a re2UIar dodecagon in a glven circle, and shew
that ita area is e'l.ual to the square of the side of an equilateJ:al triangle
inaeribed in the cU'ele.
n.
16. Describe a circle touching three straight lines-
17. Any number of triangles naving the saBle base qd the same
\'el1ical angle, will be circumscribed by one circle. .
18. Find a point in a triangle from whioh two atraight linea
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G EOllBTB10AL URRCISES
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05 BOOK IV. 101
32. Hanng lP~eD the hypoteDUIe ot a right-aDJled triangle, aDd
the radius ot the IDacribed circle, to conatruct the triaD,1e.
33. 4.BC is a triangle inscribed in a circle, the liDe joining the
middle ~nta of the arcs .dB, .d 0, will cut oir equal portiona of the
two contiguous aidea meuured from the angle Ji.
IV.
34. Having given the vertical angle of a triangle, and the radii of
the inscribed and circumscribed circles, to construct the triangle.
30. Given the base and vertical angle of a triangle, and also the
radius ot the inscribed circle, required to construct "it.
36. Given the three angles of a ~le, and the radius or the
inscribed circle, to construct the triangle.
37. II the base and vertical angle of a plane triangle be ~ven,
prove that the locus of the centers ot the inscribed circle ia a circle,
and find its position and magnitude_,
V.
38. In a given triangle inscribe a parallelogram which shall be
equal to one-haIl the triangle. Is there any limit to the number of
such parallelograms P
39. In a _given triangle to inscribe a triangle, the aides ot which
shall be parallel to the sides ot a given triangle.
40. If any number ot parallelograms be inscribed in a given
pat!llelogram, the diameters ot all the figures ahall cut one another
In the same point.
41. A square is inscribed in another, the dift'erence of the areas
is twice the rectangle contained by the 8e~enta of the side which
are made at the angular eoint of the inscribed square.
42. Inscribe an equilateral triangle in a square, (1) When the
Yertex of the tria~le is in an angle of the square. (2) When the ver-
tex ot the triangle IS in the point of bisection of a side of the square.
43. On a given straight line describe an equilateral and equi-
angular octagon.
VI.
44. Inscribe a circle in a rhombus.
46. Having given the distances of the centers of two equal circles
which cut one another, inscribe a square in the space included between
the two circumferences.
46. The square inscribed in a circle is equal to half the square
described about the same circle
. 47. The square is greater than any oblong inscribed in the same
Cll'Cle.. .
48. A circle having a square inseribed in it being given, to find a
circle in which a regu18r octagon of a perimeter equal to that of 'he
&quare, may be-inscribed.
49. Describe a circle about a figure formed by constructing aD
equilateral triangle upon the base of an isosceles triangle, the vertlcal
angle ot which is four times the angle at the base.
00. A regular octagon inscribed in a circle is equal to the rec~1}gle
Di9itiz~d byGOO~Pe
202 GEOMETRICAL ltXEJlOlSES
xv.
Componendo, by composition; when there are fOUl" pt"()~rtionals,
and it 18 inferred that the first together with the second; is to the
second, as the third together with ilie fourth, is to the fourth. Prop.
18, Book v.
XVI.
Dividendo, by division; when there are four proportionals, and it is
inferred, that the exce88 of the first above the second, is to the second,
8.8 the excess of the third above the fourth, is to the fourth. Prop. 17,
Book v.
. XVll.
Convertendo, by conversion; when there are lour proportionals, and
it is inferred, that the ftn;t is to its excess above the second, as the
third to ita excess above the fourth. Prop. E. Book v.
xvm.
E, ~ua1i (sc. distantiA), or ex equo, ,from equality ot distance:
when there is any Dumber of magnitudes more than two, and as many
others such that thef are proportionals when taken two and two or
each rank, and it is lDferred, that the first is to the last of the first rank
of m~nitudes, as the first is to the last of the others: 'Of this there
are the two following kinds, which arise from the difFerent order in
which the magnitudes are taken, two and two.'
XIX.
Ex aequali, from equality. This term is used simply by itsell, when
the first magnitude is to the second of the first rank, as the first to the
second of the other rank; and as the second is to the third olthe first
rank, 80 is the second to the third of the other; and so on in order: and .
~e inferenc~ is as mentio.ned in t~e preceding deftion; whence this I
18 called ordinate proportion.. It 18 demonstrated m Prop. 22, Book v. i
.XX. I
Ex equali in proportione perturbatA seu inordinat&, from equality
in perturbate or disorderly proportion-. Tbis term is used when the
first m~tude is to the second of the first rank, as the last but one is I
to the l8st of the second rank.; and as the second is to the third oftbe '
first rank, so is the last but two to the last but one of the second rank:
and as the third is to the fourth of the first rank, 80 is the third froID
the last to the last but two of the second rank; and 80 on in a cross
order: and the inference is as in the 18th deiinition. It is demon-.
atrated in Prop. 23, Book v. .
AXIOMS.
I.
EQUIlIULTIPLES of the wne, or of equal magnitudes, are equal t4
one another.
II.
Those magnitudes, of which the same or equal magnitudes &It
equimultiples, are equal to one another.
Prop.
,
an"-- &-cdiDc1ro.
4. Lib. II. Arcbimedia d.D,gT~e~UV6l\:.
BOOK V. PROP. 1, 11.
ill
: A multiple of a greater magnitude is greater than the same mul-
:tiple of a less.
IV.
: That magnitude, of 'Which a multiple is greater than the same
!multiple of another, is greater than that other magnitude.
PROPOSITION L THEOREM.
i 1/-11 n.N,. oJ wzpitruJe. be 'fJui",ultiple. 0/fU ",a"y, each oJ each: Dial
i...uifJ"
~ .0000er any Ofte 0/ tA.", i. of it, fHl"t, the .ame multiple .hall all II"
~" ..,.it 6e oj all the olher.
and B G the flfth the 8&lDe multiple ot C the 1eCODcl, that BH the
,ixth is of P the fourth.
Then shall A. 0, the first together with the fifth, be the same mul-
a
tiple of the eecond, that DE, the third together with the eixth, iI
of P the fourth.
A B G D B H
c-- p---
Because .dB is the same multiple of a-that DB is of P;
there are 8S man~ magnitudes in.dB equal to q 88 there are in DB
equal to Fe '
in like manner, as many as there are in BO equal to C, 80 many are
there in EH equal to F:
therefore as many as there are in the whole .d 0 esual to q
so many are there in the whole DH equal to }j :
therefore AO ia the same multiple of o that DHia of F;
that is, AG, the first and fifth together, is the same multiple orthe
second 0,
that DE, the third and sixth together, is of the fourth P-
It therefore, the first be the same multiple, &0. Q.E.D.
CoB.. From this it is plain, that if any number of magnitudes JB,
BO, GHbe multiple8 of another 0;
and as many DB, BK, KL be the same multiples of F, each of each:
then the whole of the first, viz. AH, is the same multiple of C,
that the whole of the last, viz. DL, is of Fe
A B G II D K L
'-,--.---
F-
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BOOK V. PROP. lY. tOO
and becauae .A is the lame multiple of B, that 0 is or D,
and that BX is equal to .A, and G L ~ual to 0:
therefore BE is the same multiple of H, that GL is of D:
lor the same reason, KF is the same multiple of B, that LH is or D:
and so, if there be more parts in BF, GH, equal to .A, (J:
: therefore, because the first BK is the same multiple of the second H,
which the third 0 L is of the fourth D,
. and that the fifth KF is the same multiple of the second B, which the
sixth LH is of the fourth D;
M'the first, together with the fifth, is the same multiple of the second
H, (v. 2.)
which GH the third, together with the sixth, is of the fourth Do
If, therefore, the first, &c. Q.E.D.
! PROPOSITION IV. THEOREM.
i q til. Jlrlt offour mtqnltt.Ul" Aa, the .am. ratio 10 'h.
Ht:OfItl gA1e1a th'
l." "'''lfl the ,am, ratio 10 a"y eq.imultiple. o/the ucorul and lourl'" tn.. ,IN
t1&ird 1uu to the/ourl"; th,. oy ,q,,'mullipk. wAalewr of Ihe ~r" tIIItl Ihird
i~tipl' 0/ the 1'" ,hall htltle the lame ratio to that oj Ih' "co,"" ghieh the
,ttpdatdtiplB of th, third hal to that of lhe /oKrth.
.
Let ~ the first have to B the second., the same ratio which the third
C has to the fourth D;
o
and of.4. and let there be taken any equimultiples whatever H, Fj
and of Band D anyequimultiples whatever 0, H.
Then B shall have the same ratio to 0, which Fhas to H.
x Jr(
E G
A_ :B
c- D-
F H
L N
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110 BUOJ.,ID'S BLBKDTS.
the first and third thall haft the same :ratio to the second and fburth;
and in like manner, the first and the third. shall have the same ratio to
an,. equimultil!les whate~r of the second and tourth. .
Let ..4. the Brat have to B the lecond the same ratio wmch
a
third haa to the tourth D"
and ot .d and (J let E and P be any eq'flimultiples whatever.
Then B shaD be to B as F to D.
. TaB of B, F any equimultiples whate'ver, X, h,
and of B, D any equimultiples whateTer G, H:
then it may be demonBtl'ated, &8 before, that K is the same multi
or A, that L is of 0:
. and because .A4 is to B, as a is to D, (hyp-.l
and of .d and a certain equimultil!les have been taken VlZ., K and Lj
and of B and D certain equimultiples 0, H;
therefore, it K be greater than fl., L is ~eater than H;
and if equal, equal; if less, less: (v. del. 6.)
but X, L are any equimultiples whatever 01 E, P, (constr.)
and 0, H any whatever of B, D;
therefore as E is to H, so is F to D. (v. del: 6.)
And in the same way the other case is demonstrated.
PROPOSITION V. THEOREM.
1/ 0tII mtl8f1iltuie "e the ,arne multiple 0/ no""', toAicIa 4 _"Pi'" tak",
(rom the jir,' u tf II magnitude lam /rorA the 01Mr; 'Ae rerrKIiader.Wl H Ik.
I
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BOOK v. PUP. VI. ttl
PltOPOll'llON VI. THBO'JIBK.
1/ ,.. ...".uutlll h ....".1., 0/ "'"' ..,." .." If .,.,..""". oj
.... it 1M","" tAe It'd '_I 'h. ",,,,,,ifld,,,, ... ritla.,. IpGl '0 ,At. olAn
,~,. "',ltna.
Let the two map!tudes .A.B, aD be equimultiplea of the two B, .F,
ani let .A fJ, VB taken from the first two be equimultiples of the
lameR,P.
Then the remainders GB, ED aha1l be either equal to B, P, or
"'ultiplea of them.
A. G B E---
][ C H
D
i I :r-
Pirat, let GB b .. equal tG B:
ED shaD be equal to Fe
Make OK equal to P:
and because.A.G is the aame multiple of B, that CHis or F: (hyp.)
and that GB is equal to B, and CE to F;
therefore .A.B is the same multiple "f B, that EH is of F:
!Jut AB, by the hypothesis, is the same multiple of E, that aD is of P;
therefore EN is the same multiple of F, that CD is of F:
wherefore ED is equal to CD: (v. u. 1.)
take away the common magnitude CK,
then the remainder EC is equal to the remainder ED:
. - but EC is eq.ual to F: (conatr.)
therefore ED is equal to Po
Next let GB be a multiple of B.
Then ED shall be the same multiple of P.
A G , B E-
][ C B D F--
t . -
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III EtlCl"ID'1I EI.BKBNTS.
:PBoposmoN A. THEOREM:.
* '0
1/ Jr,' oJIOIW' .apitude, 1uu 'M '4.6 r41iD 10 ,I.. HCOftIl, wlid
'Aird . . the ltn4rlh; th'1&, 1/ II" jlr,t H ,realer Iha ,h, .COtId,
,he t .
II ,rla"r thG1& ,IN lourth; and if e,,,al, "ual; if I,". leu.
Take any equimultiples of each of them, as the doubles of each:
then, by der. 6th of this book, if the double of the 1irst be ~
than the double of the second, the double of the third is greater
the double of the fourth:
but if the first be greater than the second,
the double of the first is greater than the double of the second;
wherefore also the double of the third is greater than the double
the f o u r t h ; .
therefore the third is greater than the fourth :
in like manner if the first be eqUal to the second, or.less than it,
the third can be~roved to be equal to the fourth, or less than it.
Therefore, if the first, &c. Q. E. D.
PROPOSITION B. THEOREM.
If lour ",.mlud" ar, fWOIO"lUmtaU, the, ar, proportio.al, 4lIo
,eak,. i,,,,ertelg.
a
Let ..d. be to B, as is to D.
Then also inversely, B shall be to .A, as D to C.
A- B c- D--
G E H P'---
Take of Band D any equimultiples whatever Band F;
and of .4. and a any equimultiples whatever G and H.
First, let B be greater than 0, then 0 is 1~S8 than B:
a
arid because ..d. is to B, as is to D, (hyp.)
and of ..d. and 0, the first and third, G and Hare equimultiples;
and of B and D, .the second and fourth, B and Fare e'luimultiples;
and that G is less than B, therefore His le88 than F; lV. del. 0.)
that is, F is greater than H; .
if, therefore, E be greater than 0,
F is greater than H;
in like manner, if B be equal to 0,
F may be shewn to be equal to H;
and if less, less;
but E, P, are any equimultiples whatever of Band D, (CODstr.)
and 0, Hany whatever of..d. and 0;
therefore, as B is to .4., so is D to (J. (v. det: 6.)
Therefore, if four magnitudes, &c, Q. E.D.
PROPOSrrION 0. THEOREM.
'A,
If tA~ jlrd be 1AB stune ",,",;pIs oj .econd, or 1M ,G.6 ptJrl oJ ii, ,
,h, Ihird I, 01 IAI lourlh; IAI Jlr" .. 10 ,Ite .'CORtI, til '1M 'lairll U 10
loar''''
Let the first .A. be the same multiple of the second B,
that the third a is of the fourth D.
Digitized by Google
JIOOl[ V. PROP. D. 118
Then A shall be to B 81 C is to D.
A B 0- D-
E. 0 P H---""7
Take of.A and 0 any equimultiplea whatever Band F;
and of B and D any equimultiples whatever G and H.
~en, because .A is the same multiple of B that C is of D; (hyp.)
and that B is the same multiple of .A.., that F is of C; (constr.)
therefore B is the same multiple of B t that F is of D; (v. 3.)
that is, Band Fare equimultiplea of B and D:
but 0 and Hare equimuftiples of Band D; (conatr.)
therefore, it E be a greater mUltiple of B than (/" is ot 11,
F is a ~eater multiple of D than H is of D;
that is, it Bbe greater than 0,
. F is greater than H:
in like manner, if B be equal to O. or less than it,
F may be shewn to be equal to H t or lees than it,
but B, Pare equimultiplest any whatever, of .A, 0; (constr.)
and 0, Hany equimultiples whatever of B, D;
. therefore .A is to B, as 0 is to D. (v. del. 6.)
Next, let the first.A.. be the same part of the second 11, that the
Ilird C is of the fourth D.
Then.A shall be to B, as Cis to D.
A- B' c- D--
For since .A.. is the same part of B that 0 is of D,
therefore B is the same multiple of .A, that D is of a:
wherefore, by the preceding case, B is to .A, as D ill to a;
and therefore inversely, .A is to B, as Ois to D. (v. B.)
Therefore, if the first be the same multiple, &0. Q. E. D.
PROPOSmON D. THEOREM.
If I'lle /lr.' "' '0 'he ,ecorul tu 'he ,hi,.d '0 the /oa"h, and if the II""
6, II
~t;"le. or a part oj II""COJId I the third iI Ihe lalllB .,,'tip'e, 0,. tAB ,,,.,
trt of 1/,; fourth.
Let .A be to B as (J is to D :
and first, let .A be a multiple of B.
Then (J shall be the same multiple of D.
A---- B C D-
E F-----
I Take B !9,ual to .A.,
and whatever multiple .A.. or E 18 of B, make F the same multiple
olD:
I . then, because .4. is to B, as C is to D; (hlP.)
! and of B the second, and D the fourth, equimultiples have been
taken, .E and F;
therefore.A is to E, as C to F: (v. 4. Cor.)
but.A is e9.ua1 to B, (constr.)
therefore (J 18 equal to F: (v. A.)
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114 DOLlD" ELJDlD'IL
"ct
OD
L )[ H D
j
A
L K D
I
1
I)I
It the m~itude which is not the greater or the two.A. 0, OB, be
aot less than D.
. take EF, FO, the doubles of .A. 0, CB, (as in fig. 1.)
'hat it thM which is Dot the greater of the two A. a, aB, be lesa than D.
(88 in fig. 2 and 3J;!is magnitude can be multiplied, 80 as to
'heeome greater D, whether it be ..4. 0, or aBo
Let it be multiplied until it become greater than D,
and let the other be multiplied as often;
and let BF be the multiple thus taken of ..4. 0,
and FG the same multiple of aB:
therefore BF and FG are each of them greater than D:
and in every one of the cases,
take H the double of D, K its triple, and 80 on,
till the multiple of D be that which first becomes greater than FG:
let L be that multi{lle of D which is first ~eater than FG,
and K the multillle of D which is next less than L.
Then because L is the mUltiple of D, which is tbe first that becomes
~ter than FO,
the next preceding multiple K is not greater than PO;
that is, FG is not le88 than K:
aad since EFis the same multi,Ple of ..4.0, that FO is of OB; (conatr.)
therefore FG is the same multiple of OB, that BO is of ..4.B; (V.I.)
that is, BO and FO are equimulti{les of ..4.B and CB;
and since it was shewn, that FO 18 not le88 than X,
and, :by the eoDstruction, EF is greater than D;
therefore the whole EO is greater than K and D together=
.but K Wgether with D is equal to L; (CODstr.)
~ therefore EO is greater than L;
I but FO is not ~eater than L: {constr.)
and BO, FO were proved to be equimultiples of ~B, BO;
and L 18 a multiple ofD; (constr.)
""ore.14B bas to D a greater ratio than BOhas to D. (v. de 7.)
Also D shall have to Ba a greater ratio than it bas to .dB.
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216 . EUCLtD'. BLBMBN'I8.
PROPOSITION X. TBEOB.B.
TIM . . . . . . .AiM Au .. grltw ratio tAM tIfIOIAw . , MIlo 1M
..., Au gr. . . f'tllio 'Iuua it Iuu wato tJttOtMr
O'IM ftDo.
fIllIP...
.... ",.".itvde, .. tM grtJIIttw of lAs 1tDo; GfUI tIaGt "."".Uudt to _AkA tIN
if 1M ,."
,
E~--
I L
B- 1>-
p-
N------
Take of ~, C, B, .any equimultiplea whatever G, H, K;
L
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III ZtJDLufs "RJ.BMU~"
" to
If ag .tanHr of .""Utulu IN: ".fIJI."-"", ". OtIS 0/ tlul
u. ""IJW.', 10
alIut1""l
,hall t.l1I lAs .",.11,.,. laiD ,..",.. be to till
,At
i
COJU'lJun',.
Let any number of magnitudes .A, B, a, D, B, .F, be proportionals:!
that is, as A is to B, 80 a to D, and B to P. I
Then 88 A is to B, 80 shall A, 0, Btogetber, be to B, D, Ptogether.l
G H K I
A c--- 6B---
B D- 1'-
L K N-----
Take of A, C, B any equimultiples whatever 0, 11, K;
and of B, D, P any equimultiples whatever, L, M, N.
Then, because .A. is to B, as 0 is to D, and as B to Pj
and that 0, H, K are equimultiples 01 .A, a B,
and L, M, N, equimUltiples of B, D, P;
therefore, if G be greater than L, .
H is greater than lIl, ana K greater than N;
and if equal, equal; and if less, less : (v. del. li.)
wherefore if 0 be greater than L. .
then 0, H, K together, are ~eater than L, M, N together;
and if equal, equ81; and if less, less:
but 0, and 0, H, K together, are any equimultiplea or ..4., and..4.,
Bto~ether;
J I
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I
BOOK v. paOP. ltDI. t19
I
i for the same le8IOD L, ad L, Jt; N are 10)' equilllultiplel of B, and
B,D, F: .
-therefore u 4. it to B, 10 are A, C, B together to B, D, F together.
(v. def. 6.)
Wherefore, it any number, &0. Go B.D.
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BOOK 'V. PROP. XVI. III
aDd DB into.magnitudes, each equal to F, 'riz. DE, IlL, LB:
then the number of the first ..( 0, GH, HB, is equal to the number
of the last DE, EL, LB:
and becaUle .A. 0, ON, HB are all equal,
and that DE, EL, LE, are also equal to one another;
therefore AG is to DE, 88 OHto EL, and as HB to LB: (v. 'I.)
but 88 one of the antecedents is to ita consequent, 10 are all the
antecedents together to all the consequents together, (v. 12.)
wherefore, as AO is to DE, so 11 ..4 B to DB:
but .A. G is equal to 0 and DE to F:
therefore, as 0 is to F, 80 is AB to DB.
Therefore, magnitudes, &c. Q. E. D.
I
PROPOSITION XVI. THBOREH.
Iffour magnitvda of the same kind H proporlionaU, tMtl JuJU olto N
I
l
!
proport~ toAm tG/cm, tJlm,u",".
Let..4, B, C, D be four magnitudes ot the same kind, which are
proportionals, viz. as ..( to B, 80 0 to D.
They shall also be proportionals when taken alternately:
. that is, .A shall be to 0, as B to D.
B G------
A- c-
D- D-
1'- H __
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PROPOSITION XVII. TBBOBJDI.
1/ .aplltuk" 1M". join"" H fWoporliOfUll., tAe, .hall al. ", ".-
portiOflall _AI. takeR ''fH'''Gl,'': IAlII II, If tWo ",api'"d" 'OletA", haw
r,.aini"l on, tI Ih' J"" "0 _'cia
10 ou 0/ tAt"" tA. ,GfIN ratio '100 other, haw to on. of th.elt, tAl
,ull 1uJH 1o Ut, 01"'" tA. ,.,. rtJllo ..,Aiel
la rnuJini., ... of 1M Ita, I . . Au to 'M DlMr oJ ,II".
Let .A.B, BB, CD, DF be the magnitudes, taken jointly which
are proportionala ;
. that is, as.dB to BB, so let OD be to DP.
Then they shall also be proportiona1s taken separately,
viz. as .dB to RB, 80 shall OF be to FD.
G H X x L JrfN p
A. BB C I'D
Take of AB, RB, OF, FD any equimultiples whatever (JH, HE,
LM,MN:
and again, of JIB, FD take any equimultiples whatever KX, NP.
Then because G H is the same mUltiple of AE, that HK is of ED,
therefore GH is the same muItiyle of AB, that GK is of .&B ; (v.I.)
hut GHis the same multiple of A.B, that LACis of. OF:
therefore GE is the ,same multiple of A.B, that LAC is of CF.
Again, because LM is the same multiple of OF, that MN is ot FDi
therefore LM is the same multiple of OF, that LN is of OD: (v. 1.)
but LM was shewn to be the same multi~le of OF, that OK is ot A.B;
therefore GK is the same multiple of A.B, that LN is of OD;
that is, GE, LN are equlmultiples of AB, OD.
Next, 'because HK is the same mUltiple of BB, that MN is of PD;
and that KX is also the aame multiple of BB, that NP is of FD;
therefore HX ia the same multiple of BB, that MP is of FD. (v. 2.)
And because A.B is to BE, as CD is to DF, (hyp.)
and that of ..4.B and CD, GK and LN are equimultiples,
and of EB and FD HX and MP are e9.uimultiples;
therefore if GK be greater than HX, then LN IS greater than MP;
and if equal, equal; and if less, less: (v. deL is.)
but if GH be greater than EX,
then, by adding the common part HK to both,
OK is greater than HI; (r. ax. 4.)
wherefore also LN is B!'eater than MP;
and by taking away MN from both,
LM is greater than NP: (r. ax. 6.)
therefore, if GH be greater than KX,
LM is greater than NP.
In like manner it may be demonstrated,
that if GH be equal to EX,
LM is equal to NP; and if less, less:
but OE, LM are any equimultiples whatever of A..B, CF, (coDlb'.)
and XX, NP are any whatever of EB, FD:
therefore, as .dB is to EB, 80 is OF to FD. (v. del. 6.)
If then magnitudes, &c. Q. E. D.
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lIOOJt V. PBDJ'. XVUL .11
PROPOSmON XVUI. TBEOBEH
:Let .A.B, EB, OF. FD be proportioaals ;
that is, as ..4.B to BB, 10 let OF be to FD.
Then they ahall also be ~portiona1a "hen taken jointly;
that is, as .dB to BE, 80 ahall CD be to DP.
G x 0 B L NPJ[
A B o :r D
i
Take of .A.B, BB, CD, DF any equimultiples whatever (}H, HI{
LM,MN;
and again, of BE, DF take any equimultiplea whatever KO, NP:
and because KO, NP are eqllimultiples of BB, DF;
and that EN, NAl are likewise equimultiples of BE, DF;
therefore if EO, the multiple of BB, be greater than EH, which
is a multiple of the same BE,
then NP, the multiple of DF, is also greater than NM. the mul-
tiple of the same DF;
and if EO be equal to KN,
NP is equal to NM; and if less. less.
First, let EO be not ~eater than KH;
therefore NP is not greater than NM:
and because GN, HX, are equimultiples of AB, BE,
and that .dB is ~ater tha.n BE,
therefore GH is greater than HX; (v. ax. 3.)
but KO is not greater than KH;
therefore (JH is greater than KO.
In like manner it may be shewn, that LM is greater than NP.
Therefore, if EO be not ~r th&n EN,
then GN, the multiple of ..4.B, is Ilways greater than EO, the
multiple of :BE;
and likeWIse LM, the multiple of CD, is greater than NP, the
multiple of DF.
Next, let EO be greater than EN;
therelore, 88 has been shewn, NP is greater than NJL
o x B 0 L N H P
A ED C
PD
ADd because the whole GH is the l&1De multiple of the whole
.&B, that HE is of BB,
therefore the remainder G K is the same multiple of the nmaind81'
"(Bthat GHis of A.B, (v.6.)
which is the same that LM is of CD.
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ft4' B1JCLID!s BLBKUTI.
In like manDer, beca1lle LJCia the same multiple of CD, that JIN
is or DB, . ,
therefore the remainder LN is the same multiple of the remainder
CF, that the whole LM is of the whole CD: (v. 6.) .
but it was shewn that LJC is the same multiple of CD, that GK
is of ..4.B;
therefore OX is the same multiple or J4B, that LN is of OF;
that is, OX, LN are equimultiples of AB, OF.
And because KO, NP are equimUltiples of BB, DP,
therefore if from EO, NP there be taken XN, NJL, "WhiCh are
likewise equimultiplea of BB, DF,
the remainders HO, AlP are either equal to BB, DF, or equi-
multiples of them. (v. 6.)
First, let HO, MP be equal to BB, DF:
then because .:dB is to E Bt as OF to FD, (hyp.)
and that OX, LN are equimultiples of AE, OF;
therefore GKis to EB, as LNto FD: (v. 4. Cor.)
. but HO is equal to BB, and MP to FD;
wherefore G K is to HO, as LN to MP;
therefore if OX be greater than HO, LN is greater than AlP; (v. J..)
and if equal, equal; and if less, less.
But let HO, MP be equimultiples of :RB, FD.
. . Then because .dB is to EB, as OF to FD, (hyp.)
G X B 0
- ---:-.-.:---
L N JI P
A 'B B
. . C I'D
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BOOK v. paop. XIX.
Let the whole .AB be to the whole CD, as .AB a magnitude taken
from ..dB is to CF a magnitude taken from CD.
o Then the remainder EB shall be to the remainder FD, 81 the whole
: ..dB to the whole CD.
A B B
C P D
PROPOSITION E. THEOREM.
1/ 'our.agtJilfltl" b, proporliofla", 11aeg M' ""0 I'roporlionau ", COM-
."itm; ,Aal", Ih' fir" " 10 it, 'C'"
,,6017, the "COfItl, til the Ihird 10 ii'
1Ma, Gbon ,''' fourth. r
Let .AB be to BE, as CD to DF.
Then l!.4 shall be to .AE, as DOto CF.
A E B
C F D
, .
Because .dB is to BE, as OD to DF, ' .
therefore by division, .AE is to BB, as OF to FD;
and by inversion, BB is to B..d, as DFis to OF; V. D.)
t
17.) .
wherefore, by C9Jll1!0sition, B.A.. is to .dE, as DC is to, (v. 18) o.
. Htherefore four, &c. Q;E.D~ .-
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BUCLID'. BLBII1nIT8.
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BOOK v. JtBOP, XXI
.rBOPOSlTION xxx. TJIBOUK.
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'BueLID's BLBJlBm."
A--- B C
D E--- p- I""
B L N
, Take of .4.. and D any equimultiples whatever G and H,
and or Band E any ~quimultiples whatever K and L;
and of a and P any whatever 11 and N:
then because A is to B, as D to B,
and that 0, Hare equimultiples of A, n-
and K, L equimultiples of B, E;
therefore as G is to K, so is H to L: (v. 4.)
for the same reason, X is to 11 as L to N:
and because there tJ,l'e three magnitudes 0, X, 11, and other three
H, L, N, which two and two, have the SlPDe ratio;
therefore if be greater than 11, H is greater than N;
and it equai, equal j and if less, less; (v. 20.)
but 0, H are any equimultiples whatever of ..4., D,
and 1L, N are any equimultiples whatever of. 0, F; (conatr.)
therefore, as ..4. is to 0, so is D to F. (v. def. 6 )
Next, leI; there be four magnitudes A, B, 0, D,
and other four B, F, 0, H, which two and two have the same ratio,
viz. as A is to B, so is B to F;: .
and as B to 0, so Pto 0;
..
and as 0 to D, 80 to H.
\. . Then .A shall be to D, as B to H. .
.'
A.B.C.D
E.P.G.B
I
Because A, B, 0 are three m~tudes. and B, P, G other three,
which taken two and two, have tlie same ratio' ;
tberefQre by the foregoing case, .A is to a, as B. to G:
but 0 is to D, as is to H; .
wberef'ore again, by the first case .A is to D, as B to H:
and SQ on, whatever be the number of magnUudea.
Thetefore, if there be any number, .&0. Q.,r. D.
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BOOK, V. PROP. XXIII.
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BUOLI'. .LBMBl'TI.
Becauae BG is to 0, as BEto 7;
. bI inversion, Ois to BO, as Fto BE: "(v, 'B.,
and because, as AB is to C, so is DB to Pi (hyp.)
and as Oto BO, so is Pto BE;
ex ~uali, A.B is to BO, as DB to BH: (v. 22.)
and because these n:-agnitudes m:rp.ortiona1s w~en taken ae~1' .
theT aze likew18e proportio when taken Jointly; (v. 18.) I
.
PROPOSn'ION XXV. TBEOR'RV
_I
1/ /..,. mapl"''''' de ..... ii.tI lIN ~, 1M .,.,.,
"411 oJ tA,. t.ge'''', art I",at. Ilia ,IN of"'"
tlDO ,.,t_. .
Let the four ~tudea A.B, CD, B, Pbe proportiouaJi,
nz. A.B tAl CD, aa B to P; .
diet AB be the sreateJt Df . ., aa4 lOutq1Ieat1y P the... i
(v. 1'.
aDd )
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BQOK T. PBOP. nv, P. al
Then ..4.B togethe! with F Iha1l :- peafer thaD CD together with B.
A. G B C H D
i
- , .E "1-
Take ..4. G equal to B, aDd ON 8CJ.ul to Fe
Then because as .A.B is to CD, so 18 E to F,
and that ..4. G u equal to E, and OR equal to F,
t:herefore..4.B is to OD, as..4.0 to eN: (v. 11, and T.)
and because .A.JJ the "Whole, is to the whole CD, as .A. G is to ON,
likewise the remainder GB is to tlte remainder HD, .. the 'Whole ..4.B
ia to the whole CD,: (v. 19.)
but .A.B is greater than CD; (h~)
therefore GB is rreater thm ED; v. A.l
. tmd beense ~ (J is ~ual to E, and a to P f
.A. G and F together are equal to ON and B toether: (I. as. 2.)
therefore if to the unequal magnitudes GB, IlD, of which G1J is
the ~tm, there be added equal magnitudes, m.
to G B the two ..4. G
and F, and CE and E to ED;
.A.B and F together are greater than OD and B. (1. ax. 4.)
Therelore, if foUr magnitudes, &c. Q .E. D.
PROPOSmON F. THEOREM.
l!IItiN JJIlitA .,., c"",....4 DJ lA, ,all ratiDI, 4re ,,,. .... 10 .,., ,.,..
LetA be to B, as D to B; and B to C, as Bto F.
Then the ratio which is compouded of the ratios of ..4. to B, and B
too,
which, by the definition of compound ratio, is the ratio of ..4. to 0,
shall be the same with the ratio of D to F, which, by the same
de1Jnition, is compounded of the ratios of D to E, and B to F.
\
lA.BeC
D.B.P
I..
A. :1.0
D .. E.P,
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BUCLID'S 'BLBM'BNTS. ~
PROPosmON G. THBORDf.
If ."""al ratio. 1M tM .a"" to , ..,ral ratiOl, each to ,acl j ,he ratio
"hlch II compounded of ratio. IIIhich ar, ,he ,alN to th, firll ratiOl, . -
to ,ach, 'hall b, tM .,ame to th, ratio cOfl&poruad,d of rati~ IIIhich ar, till
,.",. to the other raliOl, each to ,ach.
Let.4. be to B, as E to P; and Oto D, as (J to H:
and let.4. be to B, as K to L; and Cto D, as L to Me
Then the ratio of K to M,
by the definition of compound ratio, is compounded of the ratios
of K to L, and L to M, which are the saxne with the ratios ()f A to B
and Cto D.
~, as E to F, so let N be to 0; and as (J to H, 80 let 0 be to P.
Then the rati.o of N to P is co,:"pounded .of the ratios of N to 0,
and 0 to P, which are the same WIth the ratios of B to ~ and G,to
H:
and it is to be shewn that the ratio of K to 1Jl, is the same with
the ratio of N to P j
or that K is to 1Jl, as N to P,
A B O. D. K. L. M
E.P.G.R. N .o.?
PROPOSITION H. THEOREH.
If a ratio "Weh if co",pou1IIl,d 0/ IIwral ratio, H tA, ,a"" '0 CI rCllio .AieI
if compouatUd 0/ ".",.al other ratio. 1 OM if 0111 of 'M fir.' rafol, or 1M
ratio IIIhich if compounded of "veral qf the"" btl tM ,a",e to ou of ,IN IaI
ralio,_ or to the ratio IIIhich il compound,d oJ ,ewral 0/ th,,,,; theta the ....
flltlin.ng ratio of tM /ird, or, 11 th,r, b, 1IIOf" tlul" DrI',-'' '
ratio coa"...'"
of th, r'PAtlining ratios, ,hall be the ,am' to '''' rlPAt.li~l", ratio 0/ tIM /at;
or, "tMr, b. mor, tha" one, to the ratio compou.ded 0/ the" r,mala.., f'CItifM.
Let the first ratios be those of.4. to B, B to C, a-to D,OD to B, qd
BtoP;
and let the other ratios be those of G to H, H to K, K to L, and
L to M:
also, l~ the ratio of .& to F, which is cQIDp4?unded of the first ratios,
be the same With the ratio of (J to M, which is compounded. of the
qther ratios; .' ." . . .
. and besides, let the ratio of .A. to D, which is compounded of ill,
ratios of .A to B, B to a, C to D, be the same with the ratio ot 9- to
K, which is compounded of the ratios of G to H, and H to E-
Then the ratio compounded of the remaining first ratios, to wit, of
the ratios of D to E, and B to' F, which compounded ratio is the rati~
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BOOK V. PROP. H, It.
.
PRoposmON x. THEOREM
I
!..I.,.
i 1/""'" N tin, ....6u of ratio6, and 0, .UlNr of otUr ratio., ..ch, IIW
wAkh are tu .... t. tulr.' ratiDI,
i,., rtIIio tMicA U cO'lltfJDflrul.tl of ratiDI
to ,acl, if Ih, .a,., 10 the ratio wlUcA U c~,tI oj ratio, vAieA
'A,
tu 1aII, ,acA to ,ach, to /fIIl raliOl; aatl if DfII of tM Jr,'ratiDI, or tM
:ratio _AieA U CDfllpoufUletl of rat;" .hich are tA, .a.. 10 ,e"".al of 'A, jI,."
!NIioI, ,acA '0 eacA, N tA, .ame to one 0/ the lalt ratiOl, or to ,he ratio vAieA
:" coaptnuIIl,tI oj ratiDI vAieA aI" tM lame, eacA to ,acA. to "".,AI of ,,,, 'II"
:,..,; 1M. tA, "r,maI,';,.g ratio oj the firll, or, 1/ ther, 6. mor. tAa DfII,
:I. ratiD vAie" II c~tktl 0/ ratiol .MeA aI" th. ItmU ,acA to ,acA to
:lie ".al.i", ratio. of tA'lr", ,hAIl 6, tA, lame to the r"""";"g ratio 0/ the
"lat, or, "'ABre 1M ",or, tAan Oft',
-Aiel ar, tAl ,tam, '0
the ratio .Aleh I. cnapou,..tI oJ rtlt_
eacA to ,acA to tAe" retlltlini"g raliOl.
Let the ratios of .d to B, 0 to D, B to F, be the first ratios :
and the ratios of G to H, E to L, 14 to N, 0 to P, Q to R, be the
other ratios: .
and let Jt be to B, as 8to T; and Oto D, as Tto Vi andBto F,
u YtoX:
therefore, by the definition of compound ratio, the ratio of 8 to X is
icompo
I " unded of the ratios of 8 to T, T to V, and V to X, which are
" laDle to the ratios of Jt to B, 0 to D, B to F: each to each.
: Also, as G to H, so let Ybe to Z; and Eto L, as Zto a;
: JC to N, as a to h; 0 to P, as h to 0; and Q to R, as 0 to d:
therefore, by the same definition, the ratio of Y to d is compounded
iot the ratios of Y to Z, Z to a, a to h, b to 0, and 0 to a, which are the
)lllDe, each to each, to the ratios of G to H, K to L, M to N, 0 to P
;.adQtoB: .
: therefore, by the h~thesis, 8 is to X, as Y to d.
Also, let the ratio of Jt to B, that is, the ratio of 8 to T, which is
;ODe of the first ratios, be the same to the ratio of 6 to g, which is com-
1M>unded of the ratios of 6 to f, and f to g, which, by the hypothesis,
Ire. the same to the ratios of G to H, and K to L, two of the other
latiOl ;
and let the ratio of A to I be that which is compounded of the ratios
of Ato i, and " to l, which are the same to the remaining first ratios,
liz. of C to D, and B to F, .
II
I
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EUCLID'S BLBIIDD.
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NOTES TO BOOK V.
Ix the hit four :Boob of the Elements are conaic1erecl, onII the
ahaolllte equalit}' and ia~ua1itr of Geometrical magnitudes. The Pifth
Book rmtajnl an expoaiuon of the principlee whereby a more definite
,~mpezi8on ~r be iDatitu~ of the relation of mapitudei, bellid.. their
mj)le equalit}' or iaequaJi~.
The doctrine of PrOportion it one of the molt important in the whole
:eourae at mathematical. truths, and it aJ)pe8l'l probable that if the aubject
II"'" read aimultaneoualy in the Alpbraical and Geometrical form, tbe
m_tigatiou of the properties, UDder both &lpecta, would mutuall,
IIsist Iaeh other, and both become 4MJ.ually coDiprehensible; also them
diatinot ebaraeten would be more easily perceived:
I Del. 1, n. In the flnt. Pour :Boob the word JH.&rl is uaed in the same
IeDIe 81 we :find it in the ninth axiom. .. The whole is gre.r than ita
put :" whaze the word port meau any portion whatever of any whole
.itude: but in the Fifth Book, the word pGrl is reatl'ic&ed to mean
11aai portion of magnitude which is contained an exact number of timea
Iil the whole. Por instance, if any at:n&ight line be taken two, three, four,
I_~umber of timea another a~ht line, by Euc. 1. 3; the leaa line
II a part, or rather a submultiple olthe greater line; and the p:eater,
amultiple of the lesa line. The multiple is composed of a repetition of
abe lime mapitude, and theae debitioDa auppose that the multiple may
lie dMded into ita parts, aar one of which is a measure of the multiple.
Aacl it ia also obvious that when there are two ~tudes, one of which
aaml&iple of the other, the two magnitudea must be of the same kind,
6at ia, the,. mUit be two linea, two angles, two surfacea, or two solids :
I~ a ~le is doubled, trebled, &c., by doubling, trebling, &c. the
-.; and completing the laure. The same may be said of a parallelo-
.... Angles, area, and aectcmJ of equal circles may be doubled, trebled,
I ~ mu1tiplea found bJ Prop. lrXVI-XXlX. :Book m.
TWo magnitudes are said to be commetaIIWG6lB when a third magnitude
iof the same JdDd can be found which ,rill measure both of them; and
I lis thirJl magnitude is called 1heir crmnmoA mftIItW,: and when it is the
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216 BUCLID~8 BLUlBNTS.
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"OTBI. TO BOOK V.
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'BUCLID'. BLBKDT&
c contains
and amce d ,f
times; ~
(J == f:
therefore i == ~ which is the fundamental eqnation upon which an
reasonings on the proportion of numbers depend,
If four numbers be proportionals, the prOduct ofthe extremes Is e
to the product of the means.
For if tI, h, 0, d be proportionals, or tI : b :: (J: tI.
Then
tI
..
II - d'-
-- C
Multiply these equals by lid,
a1Hl c1Jd
9
,., Tad'
or, tid == be,
that is, the product of the extzem.ea is equal to the product of the
And conversely, If the product of the two extmDea be equal to
product of the two means, the four numben are F.porticmala.
. 'For if tI, 6,0, d, be four quaDtiti_,
I
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ltOTB8 TO BOOK. v.
such that "" - Ie,
therefOIe i - ~,
.~ aivic1iDg these equala b,.W,
~= and 6 :: D: ",
G :
number baa the .ame ratio to the lecond, II the third haa to
e
the relation of the equimultiples expressed should hold good, not
y for anf particular multiples, as the doubles ortrebles, but for any
, lea whatever, whether large or small.
Tliia criterion of proportion mar be applied to an Geometrical magni-
es which can be muUipUetl, that is, to all which can be doubled. trebled,
:p,led, &c. But it must be bome in mind, that this criterion does
exhibit a de1ln.ite measure for either of the two ratios which constitute
proportion, but only, an undetermined measure for the sameness or
'ty of the two ratios. The nature of the proportion of Geometrical
'tudes neither requires nor admits of a numerical measure of either
two ratios, for this would be to suppose that all magn!.tudes are
r---'~able. Though we know not the definite measure of either of
ratios, further than that they are both equal, and one may be taken as
measure of the other, yet particular conclusions mal be arrived at by
, method: for by the test of proportionality here laid down, it can be
~ed that one magnitude is greater than, equal to, or less than another:
.t a third 'proportional can be found to two, and a fourth proportional
three stratght lines, also that a mean proportional can be found be-
'een two straight lines: and further. that which is here stated of
'light lines mat be extended to other Geometrical mapitudes.
Tlie fifth defuiition is that of equal ratios. The definition of ratio itself
Wa. 3. ~ contains DO criterion by which one ratio may be known to be
Ilal to another ratio: analogous to that by which one magnitude is
owu to be equal to another magnitude (Euc. I. Ax. 8). The prece~
lnitiODl (8, 4) only restrict the conception of ratio within certain limits,
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but lay down DO tat for compariecm, or the deduction of propertiea.
Buclid's reUODinp were to tum upon this comparison- o{ratios,
hence it wu competent to la,. down a: criteriOD of equality and inequ
of two ratios between two p&lJ'8 of m~tudea. In mort, his BJ!_-
flnition is a deftnition of proportiona18. -
The precision with which thia definition is expr8l8ed, considering
number of conditions involved in it, is remarkable. Like all comp
definitions the terms (the subject and predicate) are convertible: that
(0) II four magnitudes be proportion&1s, and any equimUltipIea
taken as prescribed, they shall have the speci1ied relations with
to ... rater, ~eater," &c.
(6 II of four magnitudes, two and two of the same G
Specnes, it can be shewn that the prescribed equimultiples being
tlie conditions under which those ~udes exist, "._ b. such u
fulil the criterion" greater, greater, &c."; then these four magni
aball be proportionals.
It may be remarked, that the cases in which the second part of
criterion (If equal, e,\ual" ) can be fulftlled, are comt>aratively few:
those in which the given m~tudes, whose ratio 18 under consi
are both exact multiples of some third m~tude-or those which
called COfII~le. When this, however,18 fulfilled, the other two
be falfUled a& 0 COfU6pmcB 01 tAu. When this is not the case, or
magnitudes &l'e inoommmuwG6le, the other two criteria determine the
~rtiona1iV. However, when DO hypothesis respecting C01lllJlllDllill
ability is mvolved, the contemporaneous existence of the three
(U greater, greater; equal, equal; less, less") must be deduced from
hypothetical conditions under which the magnitudes exist, to render
criterion valid.
With respect to this test or criterion of the pro{M>rtionality of
magnitudes, it has been objected, that it is utterly lJDpossible to
trial of aU the possible equimultiples of the first and third m~
and also of the second and fourth. It may be replied, that the ~
question is not determined by making such trials, but by shewiq
'the nature of the magnitudes. that whatever be the mUltipliers, if
multiple of the first exceeds the multiple of the second magnitude,
multiple of the third .mIl exceed the multiple of the fourth magni
and if equal, tDill be equal; and if less, IDiU be less, in any case
may be taken.
The Arithmetical definition of proportion in Book 'VII, Del. 20,
if it were equally general with the Geometrical definition in Book v,
6, is by DO means universally applicable to the subject of Geo .
m~tudes. The Geometrical criterion is founded on multipU ..
which is always possible. When the magnitudes are commensurable,
multip'les of the Bnt and second mtJ, be equal or unequal; but when
magmtudes are incommensurable, anr multiples whatever of the ftrat
second mUlt be unequal; but the Arithmetical criterion ofproiYW'lo1..tinai
founded on diVision, which is not always possible. Euclid has not
in Book v J how to take Gfly ptJrl of a line or other magnitude, or that
two tenns of a ratio have a common measure, and therefore the num
definition could not be strictl,. applied, even in the limited W&1 iD. w
it may be applied.
Number and Magnitude do not correspond in all their reIationa;
hence the distinction between Geometrical ratio and Arithmetical
the former is a comp~ion "cz'rcl..,,,A,,,.sn,'rcz, according to quanti,>,.
~
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lfOTBS TO BOnK V. 141
6.e latter, aecorcting to quotlty. The former gives an undeterminecl,
s\oagh deftnite measure, in magnitudes; but the latter attemptl to
~e the exact value in numbers.
The !fth book exhibitR no method whereby two magnitudes may be
termined to be commensurable, and the Geometrical conclusions de-
from the multiples of magnitudes are too P.Deral to furnish a
erieal measure of ratios, being all in~ndent of the commenaura-
or incommensurability of the magnitudes themselves.
It is the numerical ratio of two magnitudes which will more certainly
" ver whether they are commensurable or incommensurable, and
, recourse must be had to the forms and pro;l?erties of numbers.
numbers and tractions are either rational or irrational. It has been
that rational numbers and fractions CtJra ezpreu the ratios of Geo-
'cal magnitudes, when they are commensurable. Similar relations
iucommensurable magnitudes mGY h ,.rUNG by irrational numbers,
i the ~ebraica1. e.:a:presaiona for such numbers may be asaumed and
, ployed in the same manner as rational numbers. The irrational
_res8i'ona ~ considered the exact and de1lnite, though undeter-
piLllWt values of the ratios, to which a aeries of rational numbers may
1IbCCle88ivelyapproximate.
ThollJh two incommensurable magnituclea haTe not an asaignablenume ..
ratio to one another, yet they have a certain definite ratio to one
ert and two other magnitudes may haTe the same ratio as the ftnt
: and it will be found, that, when reference is made to the numerical
of the ratios of four incommensurable magnitudes, the same irra-
number appears in the two ratios.
The sides and diagonals of ~uares can be shewn to be proportionals,
though the ratio of the side to the diagonal is represented Geome-
. 1by the two lines which form the side and the diagonal, there is
rational number or fraction which will measure exactly their ratio.
H the side of a square contain tJ units, the ratio of the diagonal to the
is numerically as '" 2 to 1; and if the aide of another square contain
1IDita, the ratio of the diagonal to the side will be found to be in the
of 42 to 1. Again, the two parte of any number of lines which
be divided in extreme and mean ratio will be found to be r~~ctively
the ratio of the irrational number 46 - 1 to 3 - 46. 0, the
"08 of the diagonals of cubes to the diagonals of one of the faces will
found to be in the irrational or incommensurate ratio of 48 to '" 2.
Thus it will be foun.d that the ratios of all incommensurable magni-
which are proportionals do involve the same irrational numbers,
these may be used as the numerical measures of ratios in the same
er as rational numbers and fractions.
It is not however to such enquiries, nor to the ratios ot magnitudes
. expressed as rational or irrational numbers, that Euclid's doctrine
~rtion is legitimately directed. There is no enquiry into what a
is in raumhf",. but whether in diagrams formed according to assigned
"tions, the ratios between certain parts of the one are the same as
ratios between corresponding parts of the other. Thus, with respect
any two squares, the question that proper11 belongs to pure Geometry
":-whether the diagonals of two squares have tM lOme ratio as the
es of the squares? Or whether the side of one square has to its
onaI. the ,ams mtio as the side of the other square has to its diagonal ?
again, whether in Euc. VI. 2, when BO and DE are parallel, the line
lJ lias to the line D4, tIN ,am, rGti6 that the line VB has to the line
M
Digitized by Google
BVOLlD'. BleBKOTS.
Digitized by Google
liOTBl TO BOOK V.
Digitized by Google
:ROTa TO BOOB: V.
then~-=~
a., 0,
And since the fraction Al is equal to ~. the following relationa
o. 0,
filly can subsist between A. and CI.; and between .AI and CI,.
~ if Al be greater than CIa; then A. is also greater than a, ~
~dl1~ if AJ be equal to~; then Ais &lao equal to a,:
Thirdly. if Al be 1888 than CIa; then.As 18 a1eo leas than a, :
Otbenriae, the fraction ~ could not be equal to the fraction ~
. CI. CI,
Prop. B. Algebraically.
Let .11' CI.t 4., CI, be proportionals,
or Al : CI.:: A. : CI"
Then shall CI. : .11 :: (I, : A,
.
:ror since A. : CIt :: A, : CI,
A ..I,
... -==-
".
... 0,
Digitized by Google
Bt10LlD'S BLlClIBllft.
they are alSo pro~rtionaIs according to the 20th def. of Book TIl. I
Firat, if A be to B, 88 C to D;
then if.l be any multiple or part of B, C is the same multiple or
part of D, by Prop. D, Book v.
Next, if .AB.be to CD, as BF to GN:
then if .dB contain any part of CD, BF contains the same part of OB:
A B E P
K:----
c ][ D G L H
for let CKbe a part of CD, and OL the same part of GN,
and let ABbe a multiple of CK:
B' is the same multiple of GL :
take JL the same multiple of GL that AB is of CK;
therefore, by Prop. 0, Book v, AS is to CK, 88 Jf'to GL:
and CD, GB, are equimultiplea of CK, GL; ,
wherefore, by Cor. Prop. 4, Book v, .AB is to CD, as Jf'to GB. i
Digitized by Google
Thia ia 1he ..... b1 which. Sim. . IIhew tMt 1he o.a.etrlcal
de8Dition of proportion is a eouequenc8 01 the Arithmet.ica1 de8Dition,
aad conversely_
It may however be shewn b1 employing the equation l-i. and taking
.... Me any equimultiplea of. and tJ the flnt and third, and fib, fill any
equimultiples of 6 and d the second and fourth.
And conversely, it ~:e lhewn e. a6Iurdo, that it four quantiti..
are ~rtionala acco to the 8fth deftnition of the flftli book of
Bucl1cl. they are also proportionals according to the A1gebraica1 deflnition.
The atuc1eat mUlt Itowever bear in mincf, that the Algebraica1 clefiai
Dition is not equally applicable to the Geometrical demonatrationa con-
tained in the sixth, elft'enth, and twelfth Boob of Euclid, where the
Geometrical de6nition is employed. It baa been before remarked. that Geo..
metry is the acience of fllllPitude and not of numhr j and thoup. sum and
.1 dilerence of two m.apitud. can he represented Geometrically, as well
a multiple of any gJ.VeD. magnitude. there is no method in Geometry
where~ the quotient of two magnitudes of the lame kind can be ex-
pressed. The idea of a quotient is entirely foreign to the principles of
the Fifth Book, as are also any distinctions of JI!&gIlitudea as being com-
11IeDIUrable or incommensurable. As Euclid in Books VII-X baa treated
ioftherroperties of proportion according to the Arithmetical deflDition
il1ld 0 tl1.eir application to Geometricil magnitudes; there can be no
Icloubt that his mtention was to exclude all reference to numerical mea-
~ and quotients in his treatment of the doctrine of proportion ill the
~Jl.!", Book; and in his applications of that doctrine in the Sixth, eleventh
'and twelfth books of the Elementa.
Prop. C. .Algebraically.
Let AI' CI As. CI, be four magnitudes. .
First let .AI = mea. and 41 mG,: =
Then .AI : CI. :: .AI : CI,.
For since.Al = mel., :. m = AI;
Ow
A
and AI = mG, :. m = -.!;
CI,
Hence Al ::r As
CIt a,
and Al : Ow :: .Aa : CI,.
1 1
Secondly. Let .AI =- CI., and.A1 =-
CI, :
'" '"
Then, as before, . -A = -l ,iand
A- . = '"-1 ;
CI. m CI,
Hence ~ II: ~
CI. a,
and .AI : CI. :: AI : CI,.
Prop. D. Algebraically.
Let A It CI .A., CI, be proportionals,
or .AI : ca, :: As : CI,.
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BUCLm's BLEIIB5T8.
.- A- --.
~
A
CI.
I _
G,
'
and smce..4
"
dividing these unequals by G,
, > A'
" .
1 1
f'. I> A ;
and multiplying these unequals by A 4
: .A. > A.,
or ..4, < Alo
/ Digitized by Google
XOTBI TO BOOK V. 149
Prop. D. Alpbraieally.
Let the ratio of A. : .. be the lame u the ratio of .4, : CI.
ad the ratio of ~ : CI, be the I&IIl8 U the ratio of .dt : ....
TheD the ratio of AJ.: a..ahall be the aame u the ratlo of.4 : _,.
~or lIIlee .AI : CIt :: A. : a"
CIt
.. ---,
.AI AI
a.
and aee AI : CI, : : ..4, : ..
. -=-
.AI AI
_, .4,
.AI AI
B ence-=-.
as -.
and AI : tis :: AI : Gte
Prop. DI. ~1lraically.
Let At. list ..4. CI.. AI' -, be PfOIM)rtlonala,
10 that Al : tit :: A, : CIt -:: .AI : ...
Thealhe1l41 : a.:: AI + .Aa +.A I : '" + _, + CI,.
Par llDee .AI : '" :: .A. : G, :: .AI : ..,
A, A. .Aa
.. -.-a-.
.4. '" .A - .. At
And': -1= _I, :. A.G.. =t-
o. G,
o. =~.
!J ., ... .AICit = ",Au
also .AI'" = GtA
Hence .AJ (Os + G, + GJ - ~J + .A. + AJ, by additioD,
ana diViding theae eq by a. (a. + CIt + CIt),
AI A. + .4. + AI
.. o;=- a,+a,+a.'
and.A. : .. : :.41 +.AI + .AI : '" + a, + ...
Proo. XIII. Algebraically.
Wt A,. ~ 4 G" ~, G~ be Biz mapitudea, such that A J : o. :: ..4a : G.
but tliat the ratio of AI : G4 is greater than the ratio of .AI : .,.
G.
Then the ratio of AI : aha1l be greater than the ratio of A. : G,.
'D
~or
&moe JI.
butaince.A.,: ...
JI CI ..A. As
"'At lis ............ - =-,
..
> Aa: G, :. ~ > Aa
..
G. G..
Al -4
Bence - > -.
CIt GI.
That is, the ratio of .A, : tit is greater tho the11Ltib of J . : .....
Prop. XIV. Algebraically.
Let ,,4., A., G.. be proportionals,
Then if AI > A.. then a, > a. and if' eqUal, equal ;. ap.d if 1_&.I...,
Por linee A. : fit :: .A. : 41_
.A.~
... .A.
-a, =-.
a~.
.Is
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}l'l1'fo.irlr U-'SA i"\1.lIU. bv 1: !
J.I -2
_l'-:~
A~ "'4
and beoauae these tractions are always equal, .
1f Al be > ..tt.." then 4\1 ID.vJh, be fsJ.'eatb&' 'wlfwl _.,
.lor 1 as wen. not lSn.atd .hw1 .J",
Uu ~'a ~ ti n CI,.! ~J
, a. 0114
._, -
I .t 1)e er-If'. h
A,
,-he lr w u'i "e 'X","\VVW' 1'~ t.be hvpotheslS.
tr &e ar-,e "Danner
;f Al be = A-, tb.en at must oe eqm.i W tIo6,
ana iI ..41 be < ~, at nJ.llbli La &e88 1...1.&.4 a.,
Hence, therefore, if &c. '
Pro!'. A v. .ri.ll'e'ura1clwll .
.o.Ie.. "'1' tlJ :x BLY -DLgLtUlt I f ~\r .-m J-ini,
TJ eJ ..... Q_: m 4 I t t ; t:
' / 1 -~., f--,(J~ b-irJ -.D~ l':lrU foir'ep {)f.) ~CI 0-
.A 1l
Mor - = - t
tis t
ana SU1ee ,ht: :UUulf:A.,&lI\lr add d n u....n....tt.. f a .:rl.Jt:.)~ ILa! b rd
JpJeJ Ly.he s...m. 411'...,lbvr N'_.h u. a~tELkJu v It) f'~~ fr1C':or
. J1 f'J.A,
- =---
tis'lta s
and AI: at:: mAa: ma,.
:Prop. XVI. A1~eoraicallv.
Let 4 Qs, .LIs, "4 b. 1oUl; ~m.~U'IA~ c,: '~E. s....u..J :.tLd.. ,.~ 'b. --re'
propOl..iollal$,
)"'1 : ~ :: lAo: ...
,fheh tde",e dhdt. b\:1 J.d'0pc,,.-t. n...J.I.. ,. hUl Le~ L.1t _n It Ir t'"at it, ,
.AI : As .: "2'
~'or smee Al : a2 : : .Lis ' a,.
.A
tLeL-
-4
-=-.
Q4
tI
~t....titil1 t_e...e q.... al If 4"
Al "2
.. A ..:: -- ,
,II
ald ~: t : CIt: ,.
P-o:.- 4 -v -:, II[ t aha".y ..
I t 4. + as (/ I 4..<> + Q4 a bq :nroT)ortionals
~ aI .J~. :,. .A , b. U 'le P fir"o-a'1.
f r i c A-I" as:1t : Is + a.: ..
.)"'1
......
'r, . i. +
~--.:'"'"""l
64
at a.
110'1. '1'0 BOOK V. 161
and ta;kingl Itom eaeh of dleIe ~quala,
.. ---,
...41 .As
tit 41,
and .AI : tI3 :: .A. : G..
~. rnll, fa the converse of Prop. XVII.
The following is Euclid's indirect clemoDitration.
Let .AE, EB, CF, FD be proportional.,
that is, as .AE to EB, 80 let CF be to I'D
then these shall be proportionala alao when taken jointly;
that is, as .AB to BE, 80 shall CD be to DF.
A B B
c ~ ~ D
I
For if the ratio of .AB to BE be not the same as the ratio of CD to DF;
the ratio of AB to BE is either greater than, or leu than the ratio of
CD to DF.
First, let AB have to BE a less ratio than CD ,hN to DF;
and let DQ be taken so that .AB has to BE the same ratio as CD to DQ :
and since magnitudes when taken jointly are proportionals,
they are also proportionals when taken separately; (v. 17.)
therefore AE has to EB the same ratio as CQ to aD;
i but, by the hypothesis, AS has to EB the same ratio as CF to I'D ;
;therefore the ratio of CQ to QD is the same as the ratio of CFto I'D. (v. 11.) .
i And when four ~tudes are proportionals, if the first be greater than
the second, the third 18 greater than the fourth; and if equal, equal; and
'I
or, Al
.
+ at = ..4.3 + .. ,
",-
and Al + a. : a. :: ~ + CI, : a..
Pro~ XIX. Algebraically.
Let the whole Al have the same ratio to the- whole ~,.
as Cl1 taken trom the first, is to al taken from the secon~
that is, let A. : As :: lit : 4
Then .A1 - 41 : A1. - Ga.:: Al : AI....
Digitized by Google
161 EUCLID'. BLBKBNft.
:. .A.. . - CIt AI
= -;;'.
n, - '" -.
and .A... ". : .A, - .. ::.A J : .dt.
Co.. It.A, 2 ..4, :: ". s ..
Then Al - ". : .A .;. (I, ::
process.
.1 :
c;. fa 'o~d FQved in the prececUDg
Prop. E. Algebraically.
. Let .A, ~ 81 :: .A a : ""
neD. shall.A, : .AI - tis :.: .A, : .A, - ."
For since.A. : "'- :: 4. : ...
.AI _ A
.. ~
CIs
--,
4,
.ubtracting 1 from each of these ~ua1a
:'. ~
..
-1-~-
41,
I.
A,-a, _ A,- 4.
01 . - .
tL CIt
-"..tl A, .
but - . - ' .
.. 4,
DivictiDI the latter by the former of these equaJa.
II
Al Al - tit A,. Aa - II,
__ ___
CIt Cb q,. 4,
Al
Of-X
IL.
- .. a-X
4, II,
.. AI-as ~ .4, _II,'
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BOT. TO BOOK V 138
or .AI _ - As- ;
.AI - ca,. .A, - G,
anel .AI : .AI - CIt :: ..fa : ..... - ...
~. xz. A1aebnicaUy.
Let Au ~ -4 'be three JDalDitudes, and "I, ....... other three,
moh that .AI : At :: CIt : ...
aDd As : .As :: ",_: tIa:
it .AI > 4 then shall CIt > ...
and it equal, equal; and it leII, I..
.. .... "AI CIt
cu- ce
aID 41 ~
IL 11-_
-& wop ". Is - a;.'
.., - - MftAA
,a&IIU.......,..,~. ~
... .... II- IL..
I. -a - - .
At ..
T--'
or ~....
and multiplying these equala.
.AI ~ CIt ca,.
." .A, x .Aa ==;; X~.
Al CIt
01'-=-,
As CIa
and IInce the fraction $ is equal to ~ ;
4a '"
aDd that Al > A,:
It followa that CIt is > CIa.
In the 8ame _y it may be shewn
that if Al = 4 then "I == CIa; and if .AI be < 4 then tit < ...
Prop. X~I, ~gebrai*ly.
Let .Au .As. A3t be three magnituclee,
and CIt. ca,., three others, G,
such that .AI : As :: ca,. : Gat
and As : As :: CIt : ca,..
If .AI ;:;. A" then _ball CIt > era. and if equal, equal; and if leu. leu..
For since .AI : As :: as : Ga, .". ~ =~ t
."',d am"ce ... ... - &. 11-_ " As _ CIt
.... ~ ~ -, -.. As - CIa
Multiplying ~ese equals,
.A1 A2 as CIt
:. At x .As = CIa x ca,. ,
.AI tit
4S
is equal to Cl1 t
CIa
Digitized by Google
BUcr.m'. BLBIOIfTS.
.As tis
.As : A, :: tJa : a':t ~ = 0 a, '
Multiplying these equals,
Al .As .A3 tit tis CIs
-x-x-==-x-x-.
...At As .A,. tis CIs a,
.AI til
or-==-,
.A,. a,
and .AI : ~ :: tit : a"
and siDiiJ.arly, if there were more than fo~ magnitudes.
Prop. XXDI. A!gebraically.
Let Au 4 Aa be three magnitudes
and tit, tis, as other three,
such that Al : ~ :: ., : CIst
and 4t: .As :: tit : a,..
Then shall Al : As :: tit : ~.
Por since .AI': At:: ., : Gat ,0. "i =: ..
'
and smce
..t
A3; ~ ::
.d
tit :."
,As
Is
, ==
.41
c:&.I '
Digitized by Google
-0'1'. TO BOOK v.
:Multiplying then equala
. 1lx~_t1tx~
.. As .A, 0, CIt
Al OJ
ar -
As
=-,
tis
and .41 : AS :: Cli : CIa.
Il there were four magnitudes, and other four.
such that .AI : As :: tis : CI
~ : A8 : : tit : 4at
A, : A, :: tit : tit.
Then shall also Al : .4, :: CIJ : a,
Al tis
Par since.AI : Az :: tis : 4" 4 = a, '
.AI CIt
or
.....
~
.....
a,
:c ..... ,
..... n
41 4 , wi ..,'"
and similarly, if there be more than four magnitudes.
Prop. XXIV. Algebraically.
Let Al : ., :: .As : a"
and Aa : .., :: A, : Cl4J
Then shall Al + .A, : lis :: '.As + A. : CI,
Al _ As
Por since .AI : lis :: .A3 : "'. Ii; - ;;-,
.. .A, A.
and since A.: lis :: .4,: tie
"'.&
= - :. -
a,
Divide the former by the latter of these equals,
.~.:..A._~.:.~
a, . a..a a, a,'
Al a..a ~3 a,
or-x-=-x-,
tis At. ,A, a,
Al
. . . .,. = ,-.,
.As
.. A A'
adding 1 to each of these equals.
AlIAs 1
:. A& + = A +
Al +.46 .As + ~
ar A, ... A,
Digitized by Google
BUOLID'. BI..BKBlfT8
and ~-~,
CIa "'
Multip1r theae equala together,
Al + 4 4 .As + .A., .de
A
A, X
tis -.
X-, = - . .- a,
Al
or - - - - -
+ .4 .As. -+-A' .
CIa a,
and :. Al + .4 : CIa :: .As + .d, : ...
COB. 1. Simil ar1r mar be shewn, that
Al - 4 : tis :: A, - 4 : a"
Prop, xxv. Alpbraica11r,
Let Al : CIa :: .Aa : -.
and let Al be the greatest, and ccmsequent1r the leut. II,
Then shall Al + > CIa + .A... II,
Since Al : CIa :: A, : a.
Aa
,AI
.. ---.-,
CIa II,
Jrlultiplr these equals br .:'
-. . - = -,
", Al ~
CIa
a,
IUbtract 1 from each of these equala.
Al CIa
...,
,0, 7: - 1 - - -1,
tI,
or
Al - As
A
AS
-= CIa -II, at ,
Multiplying these equals br' A, a
CIs-a.
, Al - As _ ~
'0CIa _ G, - 0,'
but Al = As
a.., ""
:, Al - As = ~.
Digitized by Google
QUBlTIO ON BOOK V
laUea' be~ once unc1entood. ita remit. are deduced by ~-of
orur.
itself without the n~ of lookina at any thbia e1l8. Hence,
a great distinction between the ftfth and ille preceding"boob pl'8l8llta
itself. The first four are a aeries of propositions, rcsting on dil"erent fun-
damental 8I8umptions; that is, about di1ferent kinde of mapituc1ea.
'.rhe fifth is a defiDition and ita deYeloJH9l!ent; and if the analogy by which
. Dames haYe been given in the prececlin& Boob had been attended to, the
propositions of that Book would have 6een called corollarW of tM tUJlni-
Won." -c~ oJNumlHJrtIfUIMtlpittMII, byProf888Or De )forgan, p.66.
The Pilth Book of the Elementa as a portion of Euclid' 8 System of
Geometry ought to be retained. as the doctrine contains lOme of the mOlt
im~t characteristics of an dective instrument of intellectual Educa-
Uon. This opinion is favoured by Dr. Barrow in the following expreuive
terms: U There is nothing in the whole body of the nlementa of a more
mbtile invention, nothing more solidly established, or more accurately
handled than the doctrine of proportioDals."
QUESTIONS ON BOOK V.
1. ExpLAm and exemplify the meaning of the terms, mvltipk, .vb
mvltiple, eguimultip16.
2. What operations in Geometry and Arithmetic are analo,ous?
3. What are the di.ft"erent meaninp' of the term mBt'JlW'6 in Geometl'J?
When are Geometrical magnitude8 88ld to have tJ common mealtW61
4. When are ~tude8 said to have, and not to have, a ratio to one
another? What restriction does this impose upon the magnitudes in
regard to their 6pBCiu'
6. Whenare ~tudes said to be commensurable or incommensur ..
able to each ether? Do the definitions and theorems of Book v, include
incommensurable quantities?
! 6. What is meant by the termgtlOfMtrical ratio 1 How is it represented?
7. Why does Euclid give no independent definition of ratio? .
8. What sort of quantities are excluded from Euclid's idea of ratio,
and how does his idea of ratio differ from the Algebraic definition?
9. How is a ratio represented JtlgefW'aicaU" Is there any distinction
between the terms, G ratio of epa lit,. and etpMllitll of ratio'
10. In what manner are ratios. in Geometry, distinguished from each
I other as equal, greater, or less than one another? What objection is
i there to the use of an independent definition (properly so called) of ratio
: in a system of Geometry'
I 11. Point out the distinction between the geometrical and algebraical
! methods of tre~ting the subject of pro~mon.
12. What is the geometrical definition of proportion ? Whence arises
the necessity of such a definition as this ?
13. Shew the necessity of the qualiflcation "tln1l tIJ'AaterJer" in Euclid's
deJlnition of proportion.
14. Must magnitudes that are proportional be all of the same kind ?
16. To what objection has Euc. v. def. 6, been considered liable?
16. Point out the connexion between the more obvious definition of
proportion and that given by Euclid, and illustrate clearly the nature of
the advantage obtained by which he was induced to adopt it.
17. Whr mar not Euclid'B c1e~tiQl1 Qf proportion be 8upeneded h1
Digitized by Google
a ~ of ~ by the following: 1.:p0lll' quanti1:iel are propor-
tional., when the In& ia the ...... muftiple of the aeccmd, or the same
part of it, that the third is the fourth p"
18. Point out the defect of the following de!nition: U Four magni-
mete. .... proJ)01'tional when equimultiplel mar be taken of the int imcl
the third,.a alIo of the seomid and fourth, aUch that the multip1ea ~
the ant and second are ~ua1. and also thOle of the third aad fourth."
Ie. Applr Buclid's dcdlnition of prGJ)Oltioza, to shew that iffour quaD-
titiea be p.zoportioDal. and if the ant ad the third be cliWiecl into the
aame arbitrary number of equal parte, then the 8800Ild and foUl'th will either
be equimulti~ea of thOle parts, or will lie between the same two sue-
ceaaive m1lltiPlefl of them.
20. The Geometrical definition of proportion ia a CODaequence of the
Algebraica1 de8nition; and CODVene1J"
21. What Geometrical test has Buclid given to ascertain that four
quantities are not proportionala? What is the Algebraical teat t
22. Shew in the manner of Euclid, that the ratio of 16 to 1'1 is greater
than that of 11 to 13.
23. Bow far may the Ilfth deinition of the ftfth Book be regarded 88
an wom? Is it convertible P
2'. Def. 9, Book v. U Proportion consists of three terms at least."
How is this to be understood?
26. Define duplicats ratio. How does it appear from Euclid that the '
duplicate ratio of two magnitudes is the same as that of their squares? I
26. When is a ratio compounded of anr number of ratios? What is
the ratio which is compounded of the ratios of 2 to 6, 3 to 4, and 6 to 6?
27. Bf what process is a ratio found equal to the composition of two
or more I1ven ratios? Give an e~ample, where straight linea are the
magnitudes which express the given ratios.
28. What limitation is there to the alternation of a GIJMIWtrictIl pIG-
portion?
29. Explain the construction and sense of the phrases, - eptIli, ,
and a ceq&IIJli in proportimN p6riurbtJttJ, used in proportiona.
30. Exemplify the meaning of the word hoMolog".,. as it is used in
the Pifth Book of the Elements.
81. Whr, in Euclid v. 11, is it necessary to prove that ratios which
are the same with the same ratio, are the same with one another t
32. Apply the Geometrical oriterion to ascertain, whether the four
lines of 3. 6, 6, 10 units are proportionals.
33. Prove br taking equimultiples according to Euclid'. cle&uition, ,
that the magnitudes 4, 6, 7, 9, are notproportioJials.
84. Give the A1gebJ.'Bical proofs of Props. 17 and 18, ofthe Fifth BooL
3 6. What is necessary to constitute an exact definition t In the de-
monstration of Euc. v. 18, is it legitimate to assume the converse of the
fifth definition of that Book? Does a mathematical definition admit of
proof on the principles of the science to which it relates ?
36. Expliin whr the properties proved in Book V t br meaDI f4.".;g1l
(1ft,
litaa, are true of t:OftCf'6t~ mGgftihula.
37. Enunciate Eno. v. 8, and illustrate it by numerical uamp1ea.
88. Prove Algebraica11r Euc. T. 26. 'I
89. Shew that when four magnitudes are j)ropottionals. they caDIlOt,
when equally increased or equa11r diminished by any other magnitude.
continue to be proportionals.
40. What ~unds are there for the opinion that Euclid in_dad to
ea:cl... the idea of numerical measures of ratios in his Fifth Book.
4:1. What is the object of the Fifth Book of Euclid's Elements r
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BOOK VI.
DBPINITIONS.
I.
, SIJIlLAB rectilineal ilp1'e!J are thole which have their lever&!
; angles equal, each to eacb; and the aides about the equal angles pro-
I portional8.
II.
: " Reciprocalflprea, viz. triangles and parallelograms, are such as
have theIr aides about two of their angles ~oportionals in such a
manner, that a side of the ftrst flpe is to a sIde of the other, as the
, remaining aide of the other is to the remaining side of the first."
m.
A atrai~ht
line is said to be cut in extreme and mean ratio, when
. the whole 18 to the p-eater segment, as the greater segment is to the
leu.
IV.
The altitude of any figure is the straight line drawn from ita vertex
perpendicular to the base.
PROPOSITION I. THEOREM.
7WGRglu tBUJ ptJrallelogrw.tM oj u.s IQfII6 "ltittfds Gf'6 0fI6 to til, ot"'" tJB
IWrha". .
Let the triangles .AB(J, .A CD, and the parallelograms BO, OF,
have the same aTtitude,
viz. thelerpendicular drawn from the point A to BD or BD pro-
duce
As the base BOis to the base CD, 80 shall the triangle .A.B be to a
the triangle .A. OD,
and the parallelogram BOto the parallelogram OF.
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,I
tOO
BGB 0 D K. L
Produce BD both wa~ to the points H, b.
and take any number of 8traight linea BG, OH, each equal to the
base BO; (I. 8.)
ana DK, KL, any number of them, each equal to the baae OD;
and join A G, AH, AK, .AL. .
Then, because OB, BG, OH, are all actual,
the triangles AHG, AGB, ABC, are all equal: (L 88.)
therefore, whatever multiple the base HC is of the base 11(1,
the same multiple is-the ~le AHOofthe triangle ABO: -
fur the same reason whatever multi'ple the base LC is Of the base CD,-
the same multiple is the triangle ALC of the triangle ADO:
and if the base HO be equal to the base CL,
the triangle AEOis also ~ual to the triangle ALO: (L 88.)
and if the base HObe greater than the base CL,
h1tewise the triangle AHO is greater than the triangle ALO;
and if le88, le88;
therefore since there are four ~tudes,
viz. the two bases Ba, CD, and the two triangles ABO, AOD; I
and of the base B 0, and the triangle AB 0, the first and third, any I
equimultiples whatever have been taken,
VIZ. the base HO and the triangle AHC, .
and of the base OD and the triangle A OD, the second and fourth. I
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BOOK VI. PROP. 11. 181
CoB.. From this it is plain, -that trianglee and para1le10puDI tha&
...e equal altitudes, are to one another as their bales.
Let the ~ be Jlaced 10 as to have their bu. in the lIII1e
~ht line; and ha\'lD.g drawn :pe~ndiculara from the vertices of
the ~lea to the baae8, the straight line whichjoina the vertices it
I)&lallel to that in which their bases are, (I. 33.) becauae the perpen-
~1'8 are both equal and parallel to one anotLer. (I. 28.) Then, if
the same construction be made as in the proposition, the demonstration
rill be the same.
PROPOSITION D. THEOREM.
1/ G . . . , ' " liM H tlnJ"", parGlkI to OM oJ the Ii4a oJ G triag"
I." cut tIN MAw ride., or tla, produced, proportionally: tmtl COfttJef'uly.
r 'M
aida, or tM rida~,
~fU tIN point, o/.:tiota ."all HH partJlW
cut proportionDU,. ,ira;g""
tIN
to lla, rlllttJining rid, of tA,
liM
BCD .E .as
Join BB, CD.
Then the triangle BDB is equal to the triangle ODB, (L 8'7.)
because ther are on the same base DB, and between the same
parallels DB, B 0;
but .A.DB is another triangle; .
and equal magnitudes have the same ratio to .the same magnitude;
(v. 7.)
! thelelore, as the triangle BDB is to the triangle ~DB, so is the
I triangle ODB to the trian$le ~DB:
~t II the triangle BDEto the ~le ~DE, so is BD to D.A., (VI. 1.)
, becauae, having the same altitude, viz. the pe!pendicular drawn
: from the point E to ~B, they are to one another as their bases;
and for the same reason, as the triangle CDE to the triangle .4.DE,
is OE to E.A. :
80
therefore, as BD to DA.; so'is OB to BA.. (v. 11.)
Next, let the Bides .4.B,.A.O of the triangle ~BO, or these sides
"oouced, be cut proportionally' in the ~ints D, B, that is, so that
aD may be to D:A as OB to BA, and Join DB.
Then DE shall be ~el to Be.
The same construction being made,
because as BD to D.A., so is CB to EA. ;
lbdaaBDtoD.A., soisthetriangleBDEtothetriangle .A.DE; (VI. I.)
and as CE ~ E.A., so is the triangle ODB to the triangle ADB;
therefore the triangle BDE is to the triangle ~DB, as the triangle
. CDB to the triangle ~DE; (v. II.)
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181
that is. the triangles BDB, ODE have the 88Dle ratio to the triana
~DB: I
therefore the triangle BDB is equal to the triangle ODB: (v. 9.)
and they are on tlie same base DE:
but equal triangles on the same base and on the same side of it, aJ
between the same parallels; (I. 39.) I
therefore DB is parallel to Be. ~
\ Wherefore, if a straight line, &0. Q. E. D. I
PROPosmON m. THEOREM.
q tAB anglB 01 tJ tnangls b6 dif1itW into ttDo epal tmglel, 6r G *.'
line tDAicA also ctIU 1M btu6; tA6 ''1mmt, 01 tM bGIIJ Mall AtIH tIN ,
ratio tDAicA tM other ride, oj 'M t,wllgls AGH to 0fIf GIIOtMr: CIIIIl
"er,ely, if tAs ,egmenf' oj tAe bal M'H tM ,amB rtItio tDAicA t/w ot1Mr
01 tM tnang1e MW to OM anotAer; 'M .traig"t lirae drattm from tAe f)Bria
tM point 01 uction, tllt1itla tAs".tiJlangle into two IptIlfJnglu.
Let .A.B 0 be a triangle, and let the angle B..4. Obe divided. into
equal angles bIJhe straight line .A.D.
Then BD 8hall be to DO, as B.A. to Ao.
li .u C
Through the point 0 draw OB parallel to DA, (t. 31.)
. and let B..4. produced meet OB in B.
Because the s~ht line .A. 0 meets the ~els AD, B(J,
the angle .AOB is equal to the altemate angle CAD: (1.29.)
but OAD, by the h}pothesis, is equal to the ~le BAD;
wherefore B.A.D 18 equal to the angle AOE. (ax. 1.)
Again, because the straightline BAB meets the ~eIa AD, B
the outward angle B.LD is equal to the inward and opposite an
ABO: (I. 29.} I
but the angle A OB has been ~o"ed equal to the angle BA.D;
therefore also ~ OB is equal to the angle .ABe, (ax. 1.'
and consequently, the side ~ is equal to the side .A. 0: (1.6.)
tri
and because AD is drawn parallel to Be, one of the sides of the .
angle BOB, . :
therefore BD is to DO, as BA to AB: (VI. I.) .
but 4.E ia ~ua1 to AO;
therefore, as BD to DC, so is B.A to AC. (v.7.)
Next, let BD be to DO, as BA. to .40, and jom AD.
Then the angle B.4. 0 shall be dinded into two eqUal angles by
Itraight liDe .4.D.
. The same construction being made,
because, as BD to DO, 10 is .'11.4 to A C;
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BOOK TI. PROP. Ill, A. 163
and as BD to DC, 10 ia B..4. to ..4.B, becauae.LDilpara1lel to BC,
(VI~ 2.)
therefore B.4. iI to ~ C, sa B..4. to ..4B: (v. 11.)
conaequently ~ C i. equal to A.B, (v. 9.)
md therefore the angle :dBOi. equal to the angle AOB: (L 6.)
t the angle ..4.BO ita equal to the outWaM and opj)Olite angle B.4.D;
IDd the aD8le ..4. OB is equal to the alternate augl8 C..4.D: (I. 29.)
herefore arso the angle B~D ita equal to the angle O.4.D; (u.l.)
that is, the angle B.4. 0 is cut into two equal angl81 by the atraiglit
liDe .A.D.
Therefore, it the angle, &0. Q. B. D.
I
PROPOSITION.A.. THEOREH.
;I/IM DtIIvHJrtl ",.g~ of G 1riMg~ .... 6y ,..",., ... 0/ ill Iitla.
f tlitidItI ifato two equl ong'-, ", 0 nroigAt Ii.., .Aiel cillo cult 1M 6cIN
, . . . j tM .""..,.,. NttNM tIN lliNing oM 1M "'""itiu oj tM
., Aar1t ""' .... ratio .AiDA ,IN alAw .... 01 tM triMg~ M". to OJW
-....,.
. . . : tJfItl COR""',.", iJ 1M ,,,,,..,.,. 01 tM lHU. protluoM AcaN 1M ....
.. tMicA 1M otlNr rida 01 1M 1riM,~ ,... J 1M ftroig'" ,.,.. tInaaa tr0-
II wrta: to tIN point 01 , __ dieidl, 1M 0tIItIJtJnI..,,. 01 1M '""",Ie
et ABO be a triangle, and let one of ita aidea B..4. be produced to B;
and let the outward angle C.Lf.B be divided into two equal aaalea by
. the straight line .4.D which meeta the base produced in !J.
"Then BD aball be to D~ as B..4. to..4.c.
B
B C
Thro~h Cdraw CF~1 to AD: (I. 31.}
- \teeaua. the Araight line .4. 0 meets the ~ela AD, FC,
the angle .4. OF is equal to the alternate angle C.4.D: (L 29.)
I but CAD is equal to the a~le D.4.B; (hYP.~
therefore also DAB is equal to the angle .A. CF. ax. 1.)
Anin. beeauae the Itraig!tt lliie F4B meets the ~e .A.D, FC,
tlie outward angle D~ B is equal to the inward and oppOIite angle
CPA.: (I. 29.)
: h.t the a~le .4. CF has been proved equal to the angle D.J.B;
therefore also the ande ACP. is equal to the angle CF.A.; (ax. 1.)
and oonsequeatly the side .4.F is equal to the side A C: (t. 6.)
and because.AD is parallel to FC, a side of the triangle "BCp,
therefore BlJ is to DC, as BA to .A.F: (VI. 2.)
. but .4.F is equal to .4. (J;
I therefore, aa BD is to DC, so is B..4. to..4.o. (v. 7.l
Next, let BD be to DO, as B.4. to.4.(], and join AD.
The angle CAD, .hall be equal to the ~Ie D.4.B.
The 8aDle construction be!ng made,
beoalJ88 BD is to DC, as B..4. to ..4.C;
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264 Euor"l's ELEMENTS.
A~
BeE
Let the triangle DOE be placed, so that its aide CB may be COD
ugt!ous to B 0, and in the same straight line with it. (I. 22'.)
Then, because th e angle BOA is equal to the ~Dgle CBD, (hyp.)
add to each the angle ABO;
a,
therefore the two angles AB BOA are equal to the two angl
ABO, OED: (ax. 2.)
but the angles ABO, BOA. are together less than two right anglea
(I. 17.)
the refore the angles AB C, OED are also less than two right . .-
wherefore BA, ED if produced will meet: (I. ax. 12.)
let them be produced and meet in the ~int F:
then because the angle ABOis equal to the angle DOB, (hyp.)
BF is parallel to CD; (I. 28.)
and because the ~le A VB is equal to the angle DBC,
AOis parallel to FE: (1.28.)
therefore FA OD is a parallelognun;
and consequently AFis equal to CD, and AOto FD: (L 34.\
and because A Ois parallel to FB, one of the sides olthe triangle FBIl.
. BA is to AF, 8S 'BOto OR: (VI. 2.)
but AF is equal to CD;
therefore, as BA. to OD, so is BOto CB: (v. '1.)
and alternately, as.AB to BO, so is DCto oa;
(v. 16.)
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BOPK VI. PROP. IV, V.
PROPosmON V. THEOREM.
1'/IAB.u. 0/ tfDO fritmg186, tJboue iacA of eMi,. tmglu, H proptW'IiontJI"
lis tritMglu ,AallIM lfUiangultw; MUI UN 'ful cmglu Mall 68 tAoH toAicA
are oppotit, to tIN Aomologow ,ide
Let the triangles ..4.Ba, DEFhave their aidesproportionals,
~ 80 that .A.B is to Bo, as DE to BFj
and BO to OA., as EF to FD j
. alid oonsequentlY', exa:Jiali, B.A. to ..4.0, as BD to DF.
: Then the triangle ..4.BO be equianRular to the triangle DEF,
i and the ~les wliioh are opposite to the '"homologous aides shall be
: equal, viz. the angle ..4.B(J equal to the angle DBF, and BOA to
,, BFD, and also B.A. 0 to BDP.
A D
LJ E(;)'
.as c u
At the po~ts B, F, in the straight line EF, make the angle FEG
equal to the angle ..4.BC', and the ~le EFG equal to BO.A.: (I. 23.)
wherefore the remaining angle BOF, is equal to the remaining
angle BA. 0, (I. 32.)
and the trl$ngle G EF is therefore equian~lar to the tri~le .A.BC:
coDSeCJuently they have their sides opposite to the equal angles pro--
. portional : (VI. 4.)
wherefore, as.A.B to Ba, 80 is OR to BF;
but as.A.B to Be, so is DE to BF; (hyp.)
therefore as DR to EF, so GBto EF; (v. II.)
. that is, DB and 0 E have the same ratio to BF,
and oonsequently are e9,ual (v.9.)
For the same reason, DFlB equal to FG:
and because, in the triangles DBF, GBF, DB is equal to BO, and
ED Is oommon,
the two sides DB, BF are equal to the two G H, BF, each to each;
and the base DF is equal to the base OF;
tberefore the angle DBFis eqUal to the angle OBJI', (1.8.)
and the oth~r angles to the other angles whioh are 8ubtended by the
equal 81des; (1.4.)
therefore th, angle DJ?B is equal to the angle OFB, and BDF to
BGP.
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266 . SlJ'CLID'. ELBMBNTS.
L. DO
B 0
At the points D, F, in the straight line DF, make the angle FDG I
equal to either of the angles BA 0, BDF; (I. 23.)
and the angle DFG equal to the angle .A. OB:
wherefore the remaining angle at B is equal to the remaining angle I
at G: (I. 32.)
aDd consequently the triangleDGFia equiangular to the triangleABO; ;
therefore as B.A. to ..d 0, so is GD to DF: (VI. 4.) I
but, by the hypothesis, as B..d to A 0, so is BD to DP;
therefore as ED to DF, so is OD to DF; (v. 11.) I
wherefore ED is equal to DO; (v. 9.)
and DFis common to the two triangles BDP, GDF:
therefore the two sides BD, DP are equal to the two aides GD, DF, I
each to each;
and the angle BDFis equal to the angle GDF; (coDBtr.)
wherefore the base EF is equal to the baae FO. (L 4.) I
and the triangle EDF to the triangle GDF,
and the remaining angles to the remaining anglee, each to eaoh,
which &resubtended by the ~ual sides: . I
Ao
B C
For uthe angle .ABa, DBFbe not e3.~'
. one of them must be ~ter n the other :
let ABO be the greater,
and at the point B, in the straight line ..A.B,
make the angle .ABO equal to the angle DBF; (1.23.) .
and because the angle at .A is equal to the angle at D, (hyp.)
and the angle .A.BO to the angle DBl!;
the remaining angle .A. GB is equal to the remaining angle DFB:
~3~
therefore the triangle .AB 0 is equiangular to the triangle DEl!:
wherefore as .A.B is to BG, so is DE to BF: (VI. 4.)
but as DB to BF, 10, by hyPothesis, is .AB to BO,
therefore as.A.B to Be, 80 18 4.B to BG: (v. 11.)
and because .A.B has the same ratio to each of the lines Be, BO,
BOis equal to BG J (v. 9.)
,uld therefore the a!l$1e BGOis equal to the angle BOO: (L 6.)
but the angle BOO 18, by hypothesis, less than a right angle;
therefore also the angle BOO is less than a right angle J
and therefore the adjacent angle 4. 0 B must be greater than a right
angle; (I. 13.)
but it was proved that the angle A G B is equal to the angle at P;
therefore the angle at l! is greater than a right &Ilgle;
but, by the hypothesis, it is less than a right angle J which ia absurd.
Therefore the angles .ABO, DlIF are not unequal,
that is, they are equal:
and the a~le 'at .& is equ8l to the angle at D: (hYPe)
wherefore the rem&JDjng angle at 0 is equal to the remaming angle at
l!: (I. 32.)
therefore the triangle .A.BOis equiangular to the triangle DBF.
Digitized byGOJg~e
JroCLlD'S BL,MBKTS.-
Ne1t, let each or the qles .t q P be not leal than a right angle.
Then t.he triangle ..4.B 0 shall also in this case be equiangular to the
triangle DBF.
A
D
do
BeE
LlF
The same construction being made,
it may be proved in like manner that BOis equal to BO,
and therefore the angle at a equal to the angle BOO: '
a
but the angle at is not less tlian a r:ight an~le; (hyp.)
therefore the angle BGO is not less than a nght angle:
wherefore two angles of the triangle BOa are together not lesa than
two right angles : ~
. which is impossible; (I. 17.)
and therefore the triangle ABO may be proved to be 'equiangular to
the triangle DBF, as in the first case.
Lastly. let one of the angles at a, F, viz. the an~:nt 0, be a right
angle: in this case likewise the triangle AB as be equiangular
to the triangle DEF. :
A A. D
Ao B~C LJ G
E F
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'BOOK VI. PllOP. VIII, lX. 169
A
I
I: 0 .
: Because the angle BAO is equal to the ogle .DB, each of them
. beiq a right augle, (ax. 11.)
: and that the angle at B is common to the two triqlea ABO, .A.BD:
: the remaining angle .4. CB is equal to the remaining angle B.4.D J
i (L 32.)
! therefore the triangle ABO is equiaugular to the triangle ABD,
and the aides about their equal angles are proportionaJ8; (\'L 4.)
wherefore the triangles are similar: g:.
del. 1.)
in the like manner it may lie demonstrated, t the triangle .4.DC
is ~uiangular and similar to the ~le ABC.
And tlie trian,les ABD, A CD, being both equiangular and aimjJar
to JiB 0, are eqwanplar and similar to each otlier.
'l'herefore, in a right-angled, &c. Q. B. D.
CoB. FroU).- this it is -manifest, that the ~~ndicular drawn from
the right angle ot a right-angled triangle to the base, is a mean pro~r
tional between the sepent. ot the base; and also that each of the
sides is a mean proportional between the base, and the segment of it
adjacent to that side : because in the triangles BDA, ADO; BD is to
D:4., p DA. to DC; (VI. 4.)
I and in the triangles ABO, DBA; BOis to B.A., as B~ to BD: (VI.4.)
and in the triangles ABC, A CD; B C is to CA, as 04.. to CD. (VI.4.)
B C
! From the point A draw a straight line .4. a, making any angle with .A.Bj
. and in .4. a take any point D,
I and take A. 0 the same multiple of ..4.D, that 4..B is of the part
! which is to be cut 01' from it;
: join BO, and draw DB parallel to OB.
, Then .A.E shall be the part required to be cut oir.
; Became ED is ~el to Bo, one olthe aides of the triangle ABa,
. 88 OD ii to DA, so is BB to EA"; (VI. 2.) "
and by composition, OA is to ..4.D, as BA to 4B: (v. 18.)
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270 B11CL1D'S BIJlMDT8. ~
&
B X
Let ACbe divided in the points D, B;
c
. and let AB, ..4. 0 be placed so as to contain any angle, and join BO,
and through the points D, B draw DF, BO paloallels to BO. (I.31.)
Then .J..B shall be divided in the points P, 0, similarly to ACe
Through D draw DEE parallel to .A.B :
therefore each of the ~es, FH, EB is a parallelogram;
, wherefore DI! is equal to Fa, and HE to .0B: ~I. 34.) .
and because HB 18 parallel to K 0, one ot the Sides of the triangle
DEC,
as .OB to ED, so, is EH to ED: (VI. 2.)
but KH is equal to BO, and HD to GPj
therefore, as OB is to ED, so is BO to OF: (v. '1.)
again, because FD is parallel to aB, one of the sides of the triangle
AG~ .
a BD is to DA., is GFto FA: (VI. 2.)
80
therefore~ as has been proved, as OB is to ED, 80 is BG to OF,
and as ED is to DA., so is GFto FA:
therefore the given straight line ..4.B is divided similarly to ...4. a.
PROPOSITION XI. PROBLEM.
To find A tAird proportional to two giNn ,trAigAt linu.
a
Let AB, A be the two given straight lines.
It is required to find a third proportional to .dB, .4. C.
A
b D E
Let AB, A a be placed so as to contain any ugle:
. . . produce .d.B,.~ato the points D,~; .
-G~itized by Google .
BOOK. VI. PROP. Xl, XU, Xlii. 111
and makeBD equal to AC; .
join Be, and through D. dra" DE~e1 to Be. (1.31.)
Then C.B shall be a third proportional to A.B and ..4 C.
Because BC is ~el to DB, a aide or the triqle ADB,
.J.B 18 to BD, as AOto CB: (VL 2.)
but BD is ~ual to A. 0, '
therefore as .A B is to. A. 0, so is .4. C to CB. (v. '1.)
a,
Wherefore, to the two given straight linea A.B, .4. a third pro-
portional OR is found. Q.B.I'.
.
PROPOSITION XII. PROBLEK
To Jlfttl Gfourtla proportional to tlar. giwm ,erGig'" Ii,..,.
Let A, B, 0 be the three given straight lin..
It is required to find a fourth proportionIJ. to At B, Co
Take two straight lines DE, DP, containing any qle BDP:
and upon these make DG equal to A, GB equil to B, and DH equal
to C; (I. 3.)
D A
8
E F
-Dc
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EUCLID'S' :aLEMDT8.
Let the sides DB, BBbe placed in the same straight line;
wherefore also FB, BO are in one straight line: (I. 14.)
complete the parallelogram FE.
'.And ~because the ~elogram AB is equal to Bo, and that FB
is another paiallelogram, . .
.A.B is to FB, as BOw FE: (v. '1.)
but as .J.B to FE 80 is the base DB to BE, (VI. 1.)
and asBOto FE; so is the base GBto BF;
therefore, as DB to BE, so is GB to BF. (v. 11.)
Wherefore, the aides of the parallelograms .A.B, iJ a about their
equal angles are reciprocally proportional.
Next, let the aides about the equal angles be rec!Jlrocally proportiou.aJ,
viz. as DB to BE, 80 OB to BF-:
the parallelogram AB sball be equal to the paraJlelogram Be.
Because, as DB to BE, so is GB to BF;
and as DB to BE, 80 is the pa:ra1lelogram dB to the parallelogram
. FE; (~. 1.) ,
and as GB to BF, so ia the parallelogram BOto the parallelogram FBi
therefore as AB to FE, 8o.BOto FE: (v. II.)
therefore the parallelogram JiB is equal to the paranelogram Be.
-(v. 9.)
Therefore equal parallelograms, &0. Q.ILD.
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BOOK VI. PAOP. XV. 178
PROPosmON xv. THEOREM'.
, Let ABa, .A.DB be ~ual triangles, wbleh have -the angle B.4.C
, equal to the angle D.A.B.
i Then the aidea about the equal angles of the triangles shall be n-
, ciprocal1y proa:,rtional ;
: t is, 0.4. shall be to AD, aa E.4 to .dB.
B D
, c
I Let the triangles be p1aeed so that their aides 04, AD be in one
straight line J
wherefore also B-A. and.4.B are in one straight lin, J (I. 14.)
and join BD.
Because the triangle A.BO is equal to the triangleADB,
and that .4.BD is another triangle I
therefore as the triangle CAB, is to the triangle B.A.D, so is the
triangle .J.BD to the triangle D.4B; (v. 7.)
but as tile triangle (JA.B to the triaDgle BA.D, 80 is the base OA.
to the base .4.D, (VI. 1.)
and as the triangle B.A.D to the triangle DAB, so is the base B.d
to the base AIl; (VI. 1.)
therefore as O.A. to .AD, 80 is B.4 to JiB: (v. 11.)
wherefore the sides of the triangles AB a, .4DB, about the 4MIual
angles are reciproeally proportional.
Nut, let the aides of the triangles 4B~ .4.DB about the equal
'I ang1ea be reciproca1lf proportional,
. VlZ. CAo to AD sa B.4 to .4.B.
Then the triangle .4.B 0 ahall be equal to the triangle .A.DB.
loin BD as before.
'l1len becauae, as (J.4. to.AD, 80 is E.4 to .A.B; (hyp.) ,
and 88 (J.d to .A.D, 80 is the triangle .A.BO to the triangle )J.A.D:.
(VI. 1.) . ,
and as E.d to ..dB, 10 is the trianSle BAD to the triangle B.A.D ;
'''(VI. 1.) ' . .
therefore as the triangle B.4 Oto the triangle lJ.4.D, 80 is the .tri-
qle B.A.D to the triangle B.&.D; (v. 11.)' ,
a,
that is, the triangles B.4 B.d. have thQ same ra"tio to the tri-
-qle B.A.D: ..!
wherefore th~ ~le.A.BCia ~ual to the triangle .A.Dl/" (v. 9.)
:. Therefore, equaJ triangJos, .&0,. Q.B.P. .
Digitized by Go~~e
BUCLlD'. BLlIUlIft..
; I
bA B
DB: . .
C D
From the points ..I, a draw .A.. G, CK at right angles to .A.B, CD:
(I. 11.)
and m,ke.A.G equal,to F, and en equal to B; (I. 3.)
, and ~6mplete the para.!1elogratns BO. DIL (I. ~1.)
, Because, as AB to CD, so is B to F; .
. . sud that B is equ.t. to OR, aad F to AG ;
AB is to CD as CHto AG: (v. 7.)
therefore the sides of the parallelograms BO, DE about the equal
angles are recip~ proportional J
but parallelograms whioh lia.e their sides *Mut equal agles ieci-
.procally prop'ortioDal, are eqnal to one another, (VIe 14.)
. therefore the parallelogram B(} is equal to ~ patallelogmm DE:
but the parallelo~ BO is containe~ the afmight liDea A.B, P;
, .' . ' hecause A.G is eq to F;
and the parallelogram DE is coatamed by CD and B;.
OOOause Ollis equal to..B;
the~tbre the rectan$le ~()Iltained by the ll11'aight lineIJ ..4.B, " is
e~ual to that which is coatttined by CD and B.
Arld' 11 the rectangle eontained by the etraiJdlt linea .If.B, F. be
equal to that whioh is contained by -CD, Eo; .
these fbur linea shaU be 'Pl".~r1ional,
. -me :i4.B shall be tb Oli, as ..B to F. . ~
The same oonstruetioa bemg made,
because the rectangle oontained DI the straight lines .A.B, F, is
'-equal to that which is con1aitteid by CD, .B,
and tot the rectangle BO is contained by .AB, Ff
because .A (} is equal to .1'; .
and the rectangle DHby CD, B; l>ecaU8e CN is ~<o B;
therefG~ the pirallelbgtam :JIG is equal ~ the parall8lopam DE;
(ax. 1.)
and they .._ 8q\liabplar.:
but the sides about the equal angles of equal parallelopams are
l"eci~y Pl'oporti~nal: -Cu. 14:.)
wherefore, ... 4.B 10 CD, 10 .. CHto..dQ
Digitized by Coogle
BOOK V.L ~JlQP. XVI, :am, %Vlll. ~6
_MU ..
If tAre, ,trlSight line, he proporlionall, 1M recltmg18 conttJiflBll 6g 1M
equal to tM 'f'UW' on tM mean; and CIJfft1"."I,l, if tM r.ctang18
tJM&IIJiud &v tM u:tnmeI b, epal 10 "'" 'fUIII" ,. tIN fMM, , . tAr"
rtraigAt line, ar, proporti01lGII.
Let the three straight lines A, .B, abe proportionals,
viz. 88 .A. to B, 80 B to C.
The rectaDgle contained by A, C shall be aqua! to the equate ~ B.
A---
B--
.D--
c ___
Take D equal to B.
And becauae as Ato B, 80 B to 0, and that B is equal to D;
.A. is to B, as D to (J: (v. 7.)
but if four straight lines be proportionale, the rectangle contained
by the extremes is equal to t1ULt which is contained bj the means J
(lI. 16.)
therefore the rectangle contained by .d, C is equal to that COD-
tamed by B, D: .
but the rectangle contained by B, D, is the square on B,
because B is equal to D:
therefore the rectangle contained by .A., C, is equal to the sCJ1l2lre.on B.
And if the rectangle contained b)'.A., a
be equd to the iquare on B,
then .4 shall be to B, as 11 to a.
The same construction being made, .
, because the rectangle cOlltained by .A, Cis eiua! to the square OD B,
an(! the equare on B is equal to the rectan e containea by B) D,
because B is equal to ;
therefore the :rectangle' contained by A, e, is equal to that co.ntaiDe~
by B, D: . .
h1lt if the rectangle 'contained bl ifte extremes be e~ual to that ,Con-
tained by the means, the four straIght lines are proportiOnals: (VI. 16.)
therefore .A. is to B, as D to a; "
but B is equal to D;
-.berefore, as .4. to B, so B.to (J.
Therefore, if three .tra~ght lines, &c. Q.E.l'.
Digitized by Coogle
~'CCLID~8 BLlnIBRTS.
lL tiE
loin DF, and at the points A, B in the straight line .dB, make the
angle BA 0 equal to the angle at 0, (I. 23.)
and the an,leABO equal to th9 angle ODF;
therefore the remaimng angle A OB is-equal to the remaining angle
OFD: (I. 32 and ax. 3.) ,
. therefore the triangle ~CD is equiangular to the m:~e G .AB. i
Next, let It 1>e 're'l.uired to describe upon a given straight line AB, i
Join DE, and upon the -given 8~ht line AB describe the recti1i-I
!leal ~ .ABBO similar, and simnarly situated, to the quadrila&enl
figure CDEF, bf the former case: . . . i
B ,G e
~
E P
Take BG a third proportional to BO, EF, (VI. 11.)
.10 that BOmay be to BF, B8 BJ?to BO, ancljoin GA.
Then, because as .dB to BO, so DE to BF;
: '., alternately, AB is to DB, 8.8 BOto BF: (v. 16.) ,
but as BOto BF, 80 is BFto BG; (constr.)
: .therefore, as ABto DB, 80 is BFto BG: (v. II.} ,-
therefore the sides 01 the triangles ABO, DEF, WhiCA are about the
'~~lea, A!e reciprocally P,!OportiOJl8l: ' , '. .
but . . , wmob IuWe the .S1de8 about, two equal qlea reCipro-
cally proportional, are equal to one another: (VI. 16.) .
ther.;fore the triangle ABO ill equal to the triangle. DBF;
and .becau~ .. BO ia tc),BF,so BF to JlO;
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BUCLID'. BLBYB'lft'&
EeB L::!
D
A
C
'
K 11
the whole angle .A.BO is ~ tDUle ..hole qleFGHI ' {'ft. .ut1.}
u8le 1!G~:
&~hl
.A is
BecauseC, similar to
they are equian~lar, and also have their sides about the equal
angles proportional: (VI. def. 1.)
, again, because B is similar to 0, . .
they are equiangUlar, and have their sides about the equal angles
, proportiona18: (VI. def. 1.) .
therefore the figures ..4, B are each of them equiangular to C. and
have the sides about the equal angles of each of them and of 0 pro-
l>ortionalS. .
Wherefore the rectilineal figures A. and :B are equiangular,
(I. ax" 1.) and have their sides about the equal angles proportionals;
(v. 11.)
therefore..4 is similar to B. (VI. del. 1.)
Therefore, rectilineal1igures, &c. Q.E.D.
PROPOSITION XXll. THEOREM.
Illow .wGight linB8 N proporttotUMI, tM rimiZar r.tjUftMll.,.,....
similarly ducribetl upon them ,1uIl1 GUO h, prtJplWtionall: afItl eon..." " .
if eM ,imilar rectilineal figuru Bimilarly de.cribed upon /(ltIt" ,wait/AI IiINit
~~ proporlionall., t/w.s 8t'aight lines 8hall be proportionail. ..
Let the tour straight lines ~B, CD, EF. OE be pro~rt.ionaJs.
, viz .AB to OD, as BFto OK J .
and upon ..4B, OD let the eimilal'rectilineal figures KAB; LCD be
similarly described;
and upon BF, GH the similar rectilinea1 figures MF,.NH, in like
manner:
. ~ the J8Cti1~eal.Jigure ,KAB shall ~ to :LOD, aa MF ~ NH.
Digitized by Coogle
'BOOK VI. PBOP. XXlI, XXIII. lSI
It 'L X
/\ '6 x ~ \ ~ ~
8
HOD
To ~B,
aD take a third proportional X; 11.)
B J!' OK
(VI.
H
and to BF, 0 H a tliird pro~rtional 0:
and because .4.B is to CD as BF to OK,
therefore OD ia to X, as OHto 0; (v. 11.) ,
wherefore, ex eq.uali, aa ~B to X, 80 BF to 0: (v. 22.)
but as.dB to X, 80 18 the rectilineal1lgure KAB to the rectilineal
figure LCD,
and 88 BF to 0, 80 is the rectilineal 1lgure MF to the rectilineal
firure NE: (VI. 20. Cor. 2.)
therefore, aa KAB to LOD, so is MFto NE. (v. II.)
And if the rectilineal fi~e K.dB be to LCD, as MFto HE;
the straight line .AB Iball be to OD, as BF to OE
Make as AB to OD, so EFtQ PR, (VI. 12.)
and upon P B describe the rectilineal figtlJ-e 8B similar and simi-
I larly situated to either ot the ftpres Alp, NH: (VI. 18.)
, then, because as AB to OD, so is BF to PR,
i and that upon .A.B, aD are described the similar and similarly
i situated rectilineals KAB, LOD,
.d upon EF, P B, in like manner, the similar rectilineals MF, SR;
therefore KAB is to LOn, as MF to 8R:
but by the hypothesis KAB is to LCD, as AlF to NH;
and therefore the rectilineal AlP having the same ratio to each of the
two NH, 8R,
these are eq.ual to one'another; (v. 9.)
they are also sImilar, and similiarly situated;
therefore 0 H is equal to P R:
and because as AB to OD, so is EF to P R,
, and that PB is equal to OH;
~B is to aD, as BFta OK. (v. 7.)
It therefore, tour straight lines, &c. Q. E. n.
PROPOSITION xxm. "THEOREM.
~,. par~logrtJfU Aa".
to ou araot4Ir tAs ratio .,AieA u
IDIrIpoundBfl of 1M rGtiol of tMir ridu.
Let ~ 0, OJ! be equiangular parallelograms, having the angle BOD
equal tD the ~le BOO.
Then the ratio of the ~elogram .A C to the parallelogram OF,
man be the same with the ratio which is compounded of the ratioB ot
6leir aides. '
A D H
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181 EUCLID'S BLBUBNTS.
D J[ C
Because DO, GF are parallels,
the angle .dDOis equal to the angle .A.OF: (I. 29.)
for the same reason, because B 0, EF are parallels,
the angle .A.B 0 is ~qual to the angle A.EF:
Digitized by Coogle
BOOK VI. PROP. XXIV, XXV.
and each of the angles BOD, BFG is equal to the oppolite angle
D.dB, (L 34.)
and therefore they are equal to one another:
wherefore the parallelograms .dBOD, .A.BFG, are equiannlar:
and because the angle .dB 0 is equal to the angle ABP,
and the angle BA. C common to the two triangles BA 0, RAP,
, they are equiangular to one another;
therefore as AB to BO, 10 is ..4B to BP: (VI. 4.)
aDd because the oPfosite sides of parallelograms are equal to one
another, (I. 34
.dB 18 to.AD as AB to AG; (v. 7.)
and DOto OB, as OF to FE;
and alao aD to DA, as FO to 04.:
therefore the sides ot the parallelograms ABCD, ABFG about the
equal angles are proportionals ;
and they are therefore.similar to one another; (VI. del. 1.)
for the same reason, the parallelogram AB OD is similar to the
parallelogram FHCK:
. wherefore each of the parallelop,1DS GR, KHis similar to DB:
but rect.ilineal fig1lrea which are 81milar to the same rectilineal figure,
are also similar to one another: (VI. 21.)
therefore the parallel~pm OBis similar to EN.
Wherefore, parallelograms, &c. Q. E. D.
Bl"--~--'P
[10
G
6 H
L .B.If
Upon' the straight line B 0 describe the parallelogram :BE equal to
the figure ..d.BO; (1.46. Cor.)
also upon OB describe the parallelogram OM equal to D, (1.46. Cor.)
and having the angle FOB equal to the angle OBL:
therefore BO and OF are in a straight line, as also LB and EM:
(I. 29. and I. 14.)
between BO and OFfind a mean proportional ON, (VI. 13.)
aria upon 0 H describe the rectilineal figure KOH similar and simi.
larly situated to the figure ABO. (VI. 18.) ..
a
Because B is to 0 Has 0 H to OF,
Digitized by Coogle
184: EUCLID'S BLBKBlITS.
B C
For if not, let, if possible, the paraUelopm BD have its diameter i
.A.HOin a di1f'erent straight line from.A.F, the diameter of the paral-I
lelogram BO,
and let GFmeet A.HOin H; I
and thr~Uh H draw HE_parallel to AD or BO;
therefore the elo~ .A.BOD, :dEBG being about the same
diameter, ey are SImilar to one another; (VI. 24.) I
wherefore as DA to .A.B, 80 is G.A. to .A.X: (VI. del. 1.)
but because .A.B CD and .A.BFG are similar parallelograms, (hyp.)
as D.A. is to .A.B, 80 is G.A. to .A.B; I
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BOOK VI. PROP. XXVII.
ff[ju
A CK B
.AD shall be greater than .AF.
First, let .4.K the base of AF, be greater than .A. a the half or .AB:
and because CB is similar to the ~~elogram HK, (hyp.)
they are about the same . eter: (VI. 26.)
draw their diameter DB, and complete the scheme:
then, because the parallelogram OF is equal to FE, (I. 43.)
add KH to both:
therefore the whole OH is equal to the whole KE: .
. but OHis equal to 00, (1. 36.)
because the base .A. ais equal to the base CB;
therefore CO is equal to KB: (ax. 1.)
to each of these equals add OF;
then the whole .A.F is equal to the gnomon eHL: (ax. 2.)
therefore OE, or the parallelogram .4..D is greater than the para!. .
: lelogra.m .AF.
i. Next, let .AK the base of .4..F be less than ..4. C:
H
A XC B
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EUCLID'S 'KLEilitNTS.
' -If
opplWd " to be egtUll, mull not be gretJter tMn eM partJl/8logrom applied tG
01 eM gifItJJI line, AtIfIing ttl tklect Ii.ilar to 1M _/tJCI 0/ tAaI .ohicA it
to IN tJP,pIW; tAtIl ii, to tM gifHm partJlWogrtJm.
Let .A.B be the given straight line, and Othe given rectiiineal n~
to which the pat"&llelogram to be applied is required to be equal, which
~ure must not be greater (VI. 27.) than the parallelo~ applied to
the half of the line, having ita defect from tliat upon the whole line
similar to the defect of that which is to be ~f:ed ;
and let D be the parallelogram to which defect is required to be
ar ~
~ is re uired to appl! a parallelogram to the straight line .dB
_!_!l
wruch sha~ be equal to the figure C, and be deficient from the paral
lelogt'8!!l upon tlie whole line by a parallelogram similar to D. I
DiVIde .dB into two eq alj)arts in the point B, (I. 10.)
ll
and upon EB describe the paraIlelogram BBFG similar and simi..
larIy situated to D, (VI. 18.)
and complete the paralIelopm ..4. 0, which must either be equal ~
C, or greater than it, by the determination.
If .d G be equal to 0, then what was required is already done :
B G OF
~
L .:
A E 8D
\JK. .N
for, upon the straight line .dB, the parallelogram .4. 0 isJ~y!!.ed eqll
to the fiS'llre C, and deficient by the parallelogram BF s to D.
But, if .4. G be not equal to C, it is greater than it :
and BF is equal to .4. 0; (I. 36.)
therefore BF also is ~ter than a.
Make the paranelo~m KLMN equal to the excess of BP abo
a, and simjJar and similarly situated to D: (VI. 26.)
th., since D is similar to BF, (constr.)
therefore also EM is similar to EF, (VI. 21.)
let XL be the homologous aide to BO, aDd LM to OF:
and because BFi. equal to CaRd KMtoptller,
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BOOK n. PaOP. XXVIII, XXIX. 181
. :SF is greater than IlK;
~eref'ore the a~ght lineBG is pater than XL, and (}F than LM:
I make Gr equal to LX, and GO equal to LM, (I. 8.)
: and complete the 'P&1'81lelopm XGOP: (I. 31.)
therefore XO Ia equal and similar to EM:
but EM i. similar to BF;
wberefo1'e al80 XO it similar to BF;
and therefore XO and BF are about the same diameter: (VI. 26.)
let GP B be their diameter and complete the scheme.
Then, because EF is ~ual to (J and EM to~ther,
, and ZO a ~ 01 the one is equal to EM a part olthe other,
the remainder, ~z. the gnomon BRO, is equal to the remainder C:
(ax. 3.)
and because OR is equal to XS, by adding SR to each, (1.43.)
the whole OB is equal to the whole XB:
but XB is equal to TB, because the base AB is equal to the base
BB; (I. 36.) .
. wherelore al80 TB is equal to OB: (ax. 1.)
add X8 to each, then the whole T8 is equal to the whole, 'Viz. to
the pomon BRO :
but It haa been proved that the gnomon BRO is equal to 0;
and therefore also T8 is equal to C.
! Wherefore the paralJelogram T8, ~ual to the given reetilineal
~ 0, is applied tc) the given straight line .A.B, deficient b}' the
elogram SR, similar to the given one D, because 8R is 81milar
BF. (VI. 24.) Q.B.P.
I
I PROPOSITION XXIX. PROBLEM.
To G gifJeft .trGight lins to Gpply a paralklogram 'f'MIl to a gifJlft recti.
~ figwe, emceedi", 1Jy a paraU8logram ,imilar to GnOtMr givm.
L
Let AB be the ~ven straight line, and (J the given rectilineal figure
which the parallelogram to be applied is required to be. equal, and D
e parallelo~ to which the excen of the one to be applied above
t upon the given line Is required to be similar. .
It 18 ~uired to apply a p)U'&llelo~ to the given a~ht line
B. which shall be equal to the figure 0, exceeding by a parallelogram
toD.
~ P LX K H
~D 1( P X 0
i Divide .A.B into two equal parts in the point ..E, (I. 10.) and upon
rB describe the parallelogram BL similar and similarly situated to
D: (VI. 18.)
and make the j)arallelo~m GH equal to BL and C together, and
aimiJar anti similarly situated to D: (VI. 26.)
wherefore (JH is similar to EL: (VI. 21.)
Digitized by Coogle
188 .EUCLID'S :BLlDlBNft.
C F
Upon.A.B describe the square Be, (r.46.) I
and to .dCapply the parallelogram CD, equal to BO, exceeding~
the figure AD similar to B a: (VI. 29.)
then, since BOis a square, I
therefore also AD is a ~uare: I'
Digitized by Coogle
BOOK VL paop. XXX, XXXI. 189
th~re their lides about the equal angl. are reclprocaUy propor
tional: (VI. 14.)
therefore, aa FE to BD, 10 AB to BB:
but FB is equal to A 0, (I. 34) that is, to AB J (del. SO.)
and ED is eqUal to AB;
therefore al BA to AE, 10 is AB to BB :
but AB is greater than AB;
wherefore AE is gl"eater than BB: (v. 14.)
therefore the straight line .dB is cut in extreme and mean ratio in
B. (VL def. 3.) Q.E.P.
Otherwise,
Let AB be the given straight line.
It is required to cut it in extreme and mean ratio.
I
A C B
Divide .AB in the point C, so that the rectangle contained by .4..B.
Bo, may be equal to the square on A O. (II. 11.)
Then, because the rectangle .4..B, BOis equal to the Iquare on .4.. 0;
as BA to A (1, so is A 0 to OB: (VI. 17.)
therefore AB is cut in extreme and mean ratio in (}. (VI. def. 3.)
Q.E.F.
tor til. I88le reason, _ DO to CB, 10 Is the 'pre 11po1l CJJ to tlaat
upon OB:
therefore 88 BD aDd DCtogttther to Be, 80 ate the figures upon
11.4.,.4.0 to that u~n BO: (1'. 24.) .
but BD and DC together are equal to BO;
therefore the fture described on Be is ~ual to the similar and
aimUarly described figures OD B.A, ~ O. (v. A.)
Wherefore, in rigllt-angled triangles, &0. Q.JLD.
. DigitizedbyGoogle
BOOK VI. PROP. XXXIII. 191
PROPOsmON xxxtn. THEOl'tEK.
1. IfII4l circlu, tmglu, tlJA.tMr til tM CMUr' or tJircum/WIftCII, Aa,,~
"" , . . nKio wAicA tM circvm/wmca OIl tlJAicA tJwv ,taM /aGw to 0'"
tIItOIMr: 10 oho Me' tM Iftkw,.
Let ABC', DEFbe equal circles; and at their centers the angles
BG(J, RHF, and the angles B.A. C, BDF, at their circumferences.
As the circumference BO to the circumference BF, so shall the
angle BOO be to the angle BEF, and the ansJe JJdCto the
angleBDF;
a
and also the sector BG to the sector BHF.
A~
~
'L
~,
J[
B C
Take any number at circumferences OK, EL, each eqtW to B ()
and any number whatever FM, MN, each equal to EF;
and join OK, 0 L, EM, ON.
Becauae the circumferences B 0, OK, XL are all equal,
the angles BOO, 00K, X 0 L are also all equal: (IU. 27~)
therefore what multiple .soever the circumference BL is of the c.ir-
~erence Bo, the same multiple is the angle BOL of the angle
DGC:
for the same reason, whatever multiple the circumference EN is ot
the circumference BF, the lame multiple is the angle BEN of the
t.ngle BHF:
and if the circumference BL be equal to the circumference Bli"',
the angle BGL is also equal to the angle BEN; (111.27.)
and if the circumference BL be greater than :EN,
likewise the angle BGL is greater than BEN; and if less, leu:
therefore, since there are four magnitudes, the two cireumerences
PC, RF, and the two .angles BOO, REF; and that of the circum
~ce Bo, and of the angle BOO, have been takenanyequimultiples
rhatever, -viz. the circumference BL, and the angle BOL; and of the
ircumterence EF, and of the angle REF, any equimultiples what-
tVel, viz. the circumference EN, and the angle BEN:
and aince it has been proved, that if the oircumference BL be greater
than BN; .
the angle BOL is greater than EEN; .
and if equal, equal; and if le8s, less;
a
herefore as the circumference B to the circumference EFt so is the
angie BGC to the angle EHF: (v. del. 0.)
ut as the ~e BGU is to the angle REP, 10 is the angle B.4 to a
the angle BDF: (v. 15.) .
for each is double of each; (m. 20.)
lleretOre, Bsthe circumference BOis to EF, so is the angle B,!Oto:
the angle BEF, and the angle B.AOto the angle BDF.
02
. DigitizedbyGoogle
19~ BUCLID'S BLlDlBNTS.
X
'...I.-_V 0
BXC B FM
loin B(], ax, and in the circumferences, Bo, OK, take any points
X, 0, and join BX, Xc. 00, OK.
Then, because in the triangles GBO, OOK,
the two aides BO, OOare equal to the two 00, OK each to each,
and that they contain equal angles;
the base BOis equal to the base OX, (1.4.)
and the triangle GROto the triangle GOK:
and because the circumference BOis equal to the circumference CX.
the remaining part of the whole circumference of the circle .ABC, is
equal to the remaining part of the whQle circumference of the same
circle: (ax. 3.)
therefore the angle BXO is equal te the angle OOK; (m. 27.)
and the se~t BXa is therefore similar to the segment OOE.:;
(m. def. 11.1 '
and they are upon equal straight lines, B 0, OK! I'
but similar segments of circles upon equal straight lines, are equal
to one another: (III. 24.)
therefore the segment BXO is equal to the seg'!Dent (JOK:
and the triangle BGOwas proved to be equal to the triangle CGE: 'I
therefore the whole, the sect~r BOO, is equal to the whole, the
sector OOX:
for the same reason, the sector XGL'is equal to each of the sectors,
BOO,OGX: I
ference Be, the same multiple is the sector BOL of~he sector BGC~
and for the same reason, whatever multiple the circumference B~'
is of BF, the same multiple is the sector BEN of the .sector
BEF:
and if the circumference BL be equal to BN, the sector BGL i'1j
equal to the seetor BEN;
and if the circumference BL be greater than BN, the sector BGL
is greater than the sector BEN; 1'
Digi~ized by Coogle
BOOJ[ VI. PROP. B, O.
PROPOSITION B. THEOREM.
If "" angz, 01 CI tria,.,,. 6, 6i1Jtl 6y a 'night lilll tllAieA lilutDiu cut.
tAe lHue; tM reetag" contIJi1&Btl 6y the ,Ulu Of tM triangr. .. epallo tM
rtdaftgle contained 6y tM .egmmt. oj 'A, bu" together witA 1M 'pM' on
lite IlmigAt line _AieA bileet. tIN angle.
a
Let A.B be a triangle, and let the angle BA.. C be bisected by the
~htliDe~D.
The rectangle B.A.,.AO shall be equal to the rectangle BD, DO,
together with the square on A.D.
~_A
Be D
........
E
Describe the circle A.OB about the triangle, (IV. 6.)
'I and produce .AD to the circumference in B, and join EO.
Then because the angle BA.D is equal to the angle C.A.B, (hyp.)
and the angle ABD to the angie .ABO, (III. 21.)
r for they are in the same segment;
I the triangles .A.BD, ABO are equiangular to one another: (I. 32.)
: therefore as BA to AD, so is BA.. to AC; (VI. 4.)
! and consequently the rectangle B.A., A a is equal to the rectangle B.A.,
A.D, (VI. 16.)
that is, to the rectangle ED, DA., together with the square on .AD ;
(n. 3.)
but the rectangle BD, DA. is equal to the rectangle BD, DO; (nl. 35.)
: th~fore the rectangle BA, A.. 0 is equal to the rectangle BD, DC,
~ together w~th the square on .A.D.
, Wherefore, if an angle, &c. Q. E. D.
I
I
PROPOSITION C. THEOREM.
i If from tin,
angle 01 a triangle, a .traigAt line 6, tlraum pI'I'P6IItltcu/Qr to
11M lJase; the rectangliJ contained by the .ide,
01 tIN triangk if epa,1 to the
:rectangle contained lJv tIN perpendicular cand eM tliametw 01 tke circle tle
lCribetl about the triangle.
Let .A.B 0 be a triangle, and AD the perpendicular from the angle
.J. to the base B C. .
The rectan~le B.A., A. 0 shall be equal to the rectangle contained by
4D and the diameter of the circle described about the triangle.
Digitized by Coogle
-.
E .
De8t'ribe the circle .A OB about the triangle, (IV. 6.) and draw its
diameter A.B, and join Bo.
Because the right angle BD.A is equal to the angle BOA ill a
semicircle, (III. 31.)
and the angle A.BD equal to the angle.ABOin the same segment;
(DI. 21.) the triangles .A.BD, .ABC are equiangular:
therefore as BA. to .A.D, 80 is BA. to .A. C; (VI. 4.)
and consequently the rectangle B.A., .A. 0 is equal to the rectangle B~,
.A.D. (VI. 16.) If therefore from any angle, &c. Q.E.D.
PROPOSl'l'ION D. THEOREM.
TM ,.ecttmgls conttJinllJy tM ditlgoraaZ. of tJ qutItlrilatwal figure iftltftW
in (I circle, i& egual to 60th tAe recta.nglu conttJifUld by it. oppo.it8 ,ideI.
A.~D
and consequently the rectangle BC, .AD is equal to the rectangle I
BD, OB: (VI. 16.) . 1
again, because the angle .ABB is ~ual to the angle DBC, and
angle B.11B to the angle BDO, (III. 21.}
. the triangle ..&BB is equian~lar to the triangle BCD:
therefore as BoA. to .A.B, 80 is BD to DO;
wherefore the rectangle BA, DO is equal to the rectangle BD, 4
but the rectangle B 0, AD bas been shewn to be equal
. to the rectangle BD, CR;
therefore the whole rectangle .A.. 0, BD is equal to the lee
A.B, DC, together with the rectangle .A.D, BO. (u. 1.)
'. Therefore the rectangle, &c. Q. B. D.
This is a Lemma of 01. Ptolemeus, in pace 9 of his Ifl".~" Z~.
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NOTES TO BOOK VL
Digitized by Coogle
tOO EUCLID'S BLBMBNTS.
Digitized by Coogle
:NOTU TO BOOK VI. 191
proportional, when the ratio compoundecl of these ratloa fa a ratio of
equality. ~
. ProP. XVIl is only a particular cate of Prop. XVI, and more proper11.
IDJght appear 88 a corollary: and both are caees of Prop. XIV.
Alpbraically, Let .A.B, CD, B, P, contain a, h, c, " unite reapective1r
Then, since a, 6, tI, " are proportional., :. i - i.
Multiply theBe equals by W, :. ad a:: IN:,
or. the product of the extremes is equal to the product of the meana.
And conversely, If the propuct of the extremes be equal to the pro-
duct of the means,
or ad = be,
a c
then, dividing these equals by btl, i -= d '
or the ratio of the first to the second number, is equal to the ratio of the
third to the fourth.
SimiJarly may be shewn, that if j =~; then ad =hi.
And conTersely, if tJtl=h'; then i =~ .
Prop. XVIII. Similar figures are said to be similarly situated, when
their homologous sides are parallel, as when the figures are situated on
the same straight line, or on parallel lines : but when similar figures are
situated on the sides of a triangle, the similar figures are Baid to be similarly
situated when the homologous sides of each figure have the same re-
lative position with respect to one another; that is if the bases on which
the similar figures stand, were placed parallel to one another. the re-
maining sides of the figures, if similarly situated, would also be parallel
to one another.
Prop. xx. It may easily be shewn, that the perimeters of similar
polygons, are proportional to their homologous sides.
Prop. XXI. This proposition must be so understood 88 to include all
rectilineal figures whatsoever, which require for the conditions of simila-
rity another condition than is required for the similarity of triangles.
See note on Euc. VI. Def. I.
Prop. XXIII. The doctrine of compound ratio, including duplicate and '
triplicate ratio, in the form in which it was propounded and practised by
the ancient Geometers, has been almost wholly superseded. However
satisfactory for the purposes of exact reasoning the method of expressing
the ratio of two surfaces, or of two solids by two straight lines, may be in
itself, it has not been found to be the form best suited for the direct ap-
plication of the results of Geometry. Almost all modem writers on Geo-
metry and its applications to every branch of the Mathematical Sciences,
have adopted the algebraical notation of a quotient AB : BC; or of a
fraction ~: j for expressing the rfrtio of two lines .JiB, BC: as well as that
or a product .A.B x BC, or A B BO, for the expression of a rectangle"
The want of a concise and expressive method of notation to indicate the
proportion of Geometrical Magnitudes in a form suited for the direct ap-
plication of the results, has doubtless favoured the introduction of Alge-
braica1 symbols into the language of Geometry. It must be admitted,
:however, that such notations in the language of pure Geometry are liable
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BUCLID'S BL'BMBNTI.
to Terf aerioua objectiona, chiefly on the ground that pure Geometry does
not admit the Arithmetical or Algebraic:il idea of a product or a ~
iato ita reuonings. On the other hand, it may be urged, that it is not
the employment of Iymbols which renders a process of reasoning pecu~
liarly Geometrical or Algebraical. but the ideas which are expressed by
them. If symbols be employed in Geometrical reasonings, and be under-
8tood to express the magnitude. t"eml,l"a and the COftCqJtion oj t"sir aMI-
flNtricGl ratio, and not any meauru, or numerical "Glue. 01 tMM, there
,vould not appear to be any very great objections to their use, provided
that the notationa employed were such as are not likely to lead to mil-
c()nception. It is, however, desirable, for the sake of avoiding confusion
of ideas in reasoning on the properties of number and of magnitude, that
the langual{e and notations employed both in Geometry and Algebra
should be ngidlf defined and strictly adhered to, in all cases. At the
commencement of his Geometrical studies. the student is recommended
not to employ the symbols of Algebra in Geometrical demonstrations.
How far it may be necessary or advisable to employ them when he fully
understands the nature of the subject, is a question on which some di1f'e-
rence of opinion exists.
Prop. xxv. There does not appear any sufficient reason wh~ this pro-
position is placed between Prop. XXIV. and Prop. XXVI.
Prop. XXVII. To understand this and the three following proposi-
tions more easily, it is to be observed:
1. " That a parallelogram is said to be applied to a straight line, when
it is described upon it as one of its sides. Ex. gr. the paraIlelogram 4C
is said to be applied to the straight line A B.
2. But a parallelogram AE is said to be applied to a straight Jine
A B, deficient by a parallelogram, when AD the base of A B is le88 than
A B, and therefore ~ E is less than the parallelogram AO described upon
AB in the same angle, and between the same parallels, by 'the para11eIo-
gram DC; and DC is therefore called the defect of A E.
8. And a parallelogram A G is said to be applied to a straight line
AB, exceeding by a parallelogram, when ..IF the base of AU is ~
than AB, and therefore 4G exceeds ~c the parallelogram described
upon A B in the same angle, and between the same parallels, by the
paraUelogra.m BG." -Simson.
Both among Euclid's Theorems and Problems, cases occur in which
the hypotheses of the one, and the data or qwesita of the other, are I
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800 BUCL1D'S BLBJlBNTI.
18. State aome of the UH8 to which Euc. VI. '. may be applied.
I'. Aprl1 Buc. TI. 4. to prove that the rectangle contained by the
....enta 0 any chord puaing through a given point within a circle is
constant.
16. Point out clearly the diirerence iD the proof's olthe two latter cues
in Bue. TI. 7.
16. Prom the corollary of Euc. VI. 8, deduce a proof of Euc. I. 47.
17. Shew how the last two properties stated in Eue. VI. 8. Cor. may
be deduced from Euc. I. 47 ; II. 2; VI. 17.
18. Given the nth part of a Itraight line, 6nd b,. a Geometrical con-
Itruction. the <n + l)th part.
19. Define what is meant by a mean proportional between two given
linea: and find a m.ean pro~rtional between the lines whose lengths &Ie
4 ad 9 units respectively. Is the method you employ8uggeated by aay
Propositions in any of the first four books?
20. Determine a third proportional to two tinea of 6 ad 7 units : and
a fourth ~roportiona1 to three lines of 6. 7, 9, units.
21. Find a straight line which shall have to a given straight line, the
ratio of 1 to '" 6.
22. Define reciprocal figures. Enunciate the propositions proved re-
specting Buch figures in the Sixth Book.
23. Give the corollary, Euc. VI. 8, and prove thence that the Arith-
metic mean is greater thaD. the Geometric between. the same extreme&. '
24. If two equal triangles have two angles together equal to 'two
right angles, the sides about those angles are reciprocally proportional.
25. Give Algebraical proofs of Prop. 16 and 17 of Book VI.
26. Enunciate and prove the converse of Euc. VI. 16.
27. Explain what is meant by saying, that U similar triangles are in the
duplicate ratio of their homologous sides."
28. 'Vhat are the data which determine triangles both in speciee ad
magnitude? How are those data expressed in Geometry ?
29. If the ratio of the homologous sides of two triangles be as 1 to
4, what is the ratio of the triangles I And if the ratio of the triangles be
as 1 to 4, what is the ratio of the homologous sides?
30. Shew that one of the triangles in the figure, Eue. IV. 10, is a mean
proportional between the other two.
31. What is the algebraical interpretation of Buc. TI. 19?
32. From your definition of Proportion, :prove that the diagonals of
a square are in the same proportion as their SIdes. .
33. What propositions does Euclid prove respecting similar poly~?
34. Theparallelograms about the diameter of a parallelogram are aimDar
to the whole and to one another. Shew when they are efJII4l. .
35. Prove Algebraically, that the areas (1) of sim.ilar triangles and (i)
of similar parallelograms are proportional to the squares of their homo-
logous sides.
36. How is it shewn that equiangular parallelograms have toGIle
another the ratio which is compounded of the ratios of their bases and al-
titudes?
37. To find two lines which shall have to each other, the ratio eom-
pounded of the ratios of the lines A to B, and C to D.
38. State the force of the condition" similarly described;" and shew
that, on a given straight line, there may be described as many pol~
of diJferent magnitudea, similar to a given polygon, as there are sidea of
d.iBerent lengths in the polygon.
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QUBSTJOlfS ON BOOK vr. 301
39. D~ a triangle similar to a giTeD. triaqle, anel baving itt
area double that of the given triangle.
I to. The three aides of a triangle are 7. 8, 9 units reepectiTely; deter-
mine the length of the lines which meeting the bue, and the bue produced,
bisect the interior ~le opposite to die greatest aide of the triangle,
and the adjacent extenor angle.
41. The three aides of a triangle are 8, 4, 6 incbee reepectively; ftnd
the lengths 01 the external tegmenta of the aides determined br the lines
which bisect the exterior angles of the triangle.
42. What are the segments into which the hypotenuse of a right-
angled triangle is divided by a perpendicular drawn from the right angle,
if the aides containing it are and 3t1 units respectively P
43. If the three aidea of a triangle be 3, 4, 6 units respectivel,: what
are the parts into which they are aivided by the linea which b18ect the
angles opposite to them?
44. If the homologous aides of two triangles be aa 3 to 4, and the area
of one triangle be known to contain 100 square units; how many aquare
1lhita are contained in the area of the other triangle?
46. Prove that if BD be taken in AB ~roauced (fig. Euc. VI. 80)
equal to the greater segment AC, then J.D 18 divided in extreme and
mean ratio hi the point B.
Shew also, that in the series 1, 1, 2, 3, 6, 8, &c. in which each term is
the sum of the two preceding terms. the last two terms ~erpetua1ly ap-
proach to the_proportion of tlie segments of a line divided m extreme and
mean ratio. Find a general expression (free from surds) for the nth term
of this series. .
46. The parts 01 a line divided in extreme and mean ratio are incom-
mensurable with each other.
47. Shew that in Euclid's figure (Euc. u.l1.)fourother linea, besides
the giTen line, are divided in the required manner.
48. Enunciate Euc. VI. 31. What theorem of a previous book is in-
cluded in this proposition?
49. What is the superior limit, as to magnitude, of the angle at the
eircumference in Euc. VI. 33 ? Shew that the proof may be extended by
withdrawing the usually supposed restriction. as to angular magnitude;
and then deduce, as a corollary, the proposition respecting the magnitudes
of angles in segments greater than, equal to, or less than a semicircle.
60. The aides of a triangle inscribed in a circle are tI, 6, c, units respec-
tively: find by Euc. VI. 0, the radius of the circumscribing circle.
61. Enunciate the converse of Euc. VI. D.
li2. Shew independently that Euc. VI. , i. true when the quadri-
1ateralftgure is rectangular.
63. Shew that the rectangles contained by the opposite sides of a
quadrilateral figure which does not admit of having a circle described
about it, are together greater than the rectangle contained br the diagonals.
64. What di1ferent conditions may be stated as essential to the possi-
b~f the inscription and circumscription of a circle in and about a
q . ateral.figure?
66. Point out those propositions in the Sixth Book in which Euclid's
definition of proportion IS directly applied. .
66. Explain brieft.y the advantages gained by the application of
analysis to the solution of Geometrical Problems.
67. In what cases are triangles pro.ved to be egt4tJl in Euclid, and in
what cases are they proved to be ,imilar'
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GEOMETRICAL EXEROISES ON BOOK VI.
PRoposmON I. PROBLEH.
To ifNCf'iH G ,ptJN ita G "",,. mang".
Analysis. Let AB (J be the ~ven triangle, of which the bate Be,
and the perpendicular .4.D are gn"en.
A B
H II DK C
Let FGHE be the required inscribed square.
Then BEG, BDA. are similar triangles,
and GHia to GB, as.AD is to .dB,
but GFis equal to GN;
therefore GF is to GB, as AD is to AB.
Let BF be joined and produced to meet a line drawn from .Jl pa-
rallel to the base B (J in tlie point B.
Then the triangles B GF, B.AB are similar,
and AB is to AB, as GFis to GB,
but GFis to GB, as .AD is to .dB;
wherefore .dB is to .AB, as AD is to .4.B J
hence .dB is equal to .A.D. I
B
I Then IO bisects CD in G; (In. 2.)
,I and 10, .A.E being both perpendicular to OD, are parallel. (I. 29.)
Therefore BI is to BH, as IA. is to HE; (VI. 2.)
and BHis to FO, as HB is to GB;
therefore BI is to FO, as IA is to GB;
but BI is equal to I.A. ,
therefore FO is egual to GB.
It is also manifest tbat DB is -:q.ual to CF.
When the chord does not intersect the diameter, the perpendicu-
lars intersect the chord produced.
PROPosmON m. THEOREM.
, IJtfDO diagonal, 01 a regular pMta,gon be draum to cut one QMotMr, tM
! greater legment, wllhe tgual to tAe lide 0/ tM pentagon, tmtl tM diagOflaU
i tDiIl cut one anotAer in "trems and mean ratio.
Let the di~na1s A 0, BE be drawn from the extremities of the
~ ~de .A.B .of the regular pentagon ABODE, and intersect each other
. mthe pomt H.
: Then BB and A. 0 are cut in extreme and mean ratio in H, and
. the greater segment of each is equal to the side of the pentagon.
Let the circle A. BCDB be described about the pentagon. (IV. 14.)
Because EA., AB are equal to AB, BO, and they contain equal
angles;
therefore the base BB is equal to the base .A C, (I. 4.)
and the triangle BAB is equal to the triangle CB.A.,
and the remaining angles will be equal to the remaining angles,
each to each, to which the eqUal sides are opposite.
D
Wherefore also the ratio of .J.D to .J.B is gi1'eD, and a1Io the ~
nitude of ..4.D.
Synthesis. 10in..4.B and produce it to D, 10 that ..4.D lhall be to
BD, a8 the square on B -to the ~uare on F.
From D draw DO to touch toe circle in G and join OB, CA..
Since .AD is to DB, as the square on B is to the ~uare on..F~ (constr.)
and..4.D is to DB, as the s9.uare on .AOis to tile square on BO,
therefore the square on A. 01S to the square on BO, as the square on
B is to the square on F,
and ..4. 0 is to BO, as B is to F.
PRoposmON V. PROBLEM.
A, B, Care gifJm point.. It i. rtguired to draUJ tArougA aft1/ otA". point
in tAB lame plane ,oitA A. B. and C. G ,trClight line. IUCA t1uJt tlie I1mI oj it,
dilttmCU from two of tAe giwn point" naGY 6e epal to it, dilUmce from 'M
,Ian.
Analysis. Suppose F the point required, luch that the line XPH
bein2 drawn through any other point X, and .AD, BB, OK perpen-
dieufars on XFH, the aUlD of BB and OH is equal to .dD.
A
/J
B G
Join ..4.B, BC, CA, then ..4.BC is a triangle.
Draw A 0 to bisect the base B.C in 0, and draw GK perpendicular
toBF.
Then since BCis bisected in 0,
the aum of the perpendiculars OH, BE is double of GK;
but CD and BB are equal to AD, (hyp.)
therefore A.D must be double of GK;
but since AD is parallel to GX,
the triangles .ADF, GKF are similar,
therefore AD is to .AF, as OK is to GF;
but AD is double of GX, therefore .AF is double of GF;
and consequently, GFis one-third of.AG the line drawn from the
vertex of the triangle to the bisection of the base.
But .A 0 is a line given in ma~itude and position,
therefore the point F IS determined.
Synthesis. loin AB, .A. C, 'Bo, and bisect the base BC of the tri-
angle ..4.BCin G; join .A.G and take OF equal to one-third of OA;
the line drawn through X and F will be the line required.
It is also obvious, that while the relative position of the points .A,
B, 0, remains the same~ the point F remains the same, wherever the
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GEOI( &TR1CAL BXBRC18B1
I.
6. TRrANGLBS and parallelogram.. of unequal altitudes are to each
other in the ratio compounded of the ratios of tbeir bases and altitudes.
7. If.4 OB, .A.DB be two triangles upon the same base .A.B, and
between the same parallels, and if through the point in which two of
the sides (or two of the aides produced) intersect two straight linea be
drawn parallel to the other two sides 80 as to meet the base..JiB (or
A.B produ~ed) in points B and Po Prove that .A.E == BF-
8. In the base .A. 0 of a triangle A.B 0 take any point D; bisect
AD, DC, .4B, Be, in H, F, 0, H respectively: shew that BO is
equal to HF.
9. Construct an isosceles triangle equal to a given acalene triangle 'I
u.
16. Find two arithmetio meaDS betweeB two given ....ht Ii-.
17. To divide a given line in harmonical proportiOJl.
Digitized by Coogle
O!f BOOB. 'YL 801'
28. To ImI, by a geGDl8trical conatractfon, an aritbioetic,
geoaaetric, and harmonic mean between two gnen lin..
19. Prcmt geometrically, that an arithmetic mean between two
qUDt.it.iea; is greater thaD a geometrio mean. AlIo haYing given the
!tum of two lines, and the eX0888 of their aritlunetic above their
geometric mean, Ind by a conatruction the linea themaelvel.
10. If through the ,PGint of bisection ot the hue of a triangle aDy
line be drawn, intersecting one side of the trierIe, the other produced,
and a liDe drawn _parallel to the base from the vertex, this line ahall
be out barmonicalfy.
21. If a. riven straight line ..A.B be divided into any two partI in
the point 0, it is reqUired to produee it, so that the whole line
predUeed may be harmonic!illY divided in C and B.
22. If from a point without a eircle there be drawn three ~ht
l~ two of whicli touch the circle, and the other cuts it, the line
which cuts the circle will be divided harmonically by the cODTex
~Dce, and the chord which joins the points of contact.
ill.
23. Shew geometrically that the diagonal and side of a square are
incommensurable.
24. If a straight line be divided in two given points, detennine a
third point, such that its distances from the extremities, may be
proportional to its distances from the gi\"en points.
26. Determine two straight lines, such that the sum of their
squares may equal a given squarE', "and their rectangle equal a given
rectangle. .
26. Draw a straight line such that the perpendiculars let fall
from an! point in it on two given lines may be in a given ratio.
27. If diverging lines cut a straight line, so that the whole is to
one extreme, as the other extreme is to the middle part, they will
intersect every other intercepted line in the same ratio.
28. It is required to cut off a part of a given line so that the part
cut oft' may be a mean proportional between the remainder and
another given line.
29. It is required to divide a given finite straight line into two
parts, the squares of which shall have a given ratio to each other.
IV.
30. From "the vertex of a triangle to the base, to draw a strai~bt
line which shall be an arithmetic mean between the sides contaimng
the vertical angle.
31. From the obtuse angle of a triangle, it is required to draw a
line to the base, which shall be a mean proportional between the
fiegments of the base. HoW' many anSwen does this question admit
ofP
32. To draw a line from the vertex of a triangle to the base, which
!ballbe a mean proportional between the whole base and one segment.
33. If the perpendicular in a right-angled triangle divide the
hypotenuse in extreme and mean ratio, the less sicle ill equal to the
alternate segment.
Digitized by Coogle
808 G!.OIlBTaYCAL BXBB.C18BS
34. Prom the vertex of any ~le .ABO, draw a straight line
meeting the base produced in D, 80 that the rectan$le DB. D()=AI1.
36. To find a point P in the base B 0 of & triangle produced, 80
that P D being drawn pa.rallel to cd 0, and meeting ..4. 0 produced to D,
..4.0: OP:: OP : PD.
36. If the triangle ..4.BC has the angle at 0 & right angle, and
from 0 a perpendicular be dropped on the opposite side intersecting
it in D, tIlen .AD: DB:: ..4. (]I: OH.
37. In any right-angled triangle, one side is to the other, 88 the
excess of the hypotenuse above the second, to the line cut oirfrom the
first between tlie right angle and the line bisec~ the opposite angle.
38. If on the two sides of a right-angled trianf{le squares be
described, the lines joining the acute angles of the triangle and the
opyosite angles of the squares, will cut oir egual segxnents from the
sides; and each of these equal segments will be a mean proportional
between the remaining segments. i
39. In any right-angled triangle .ABO, (whose hypotenuse ian)
bisect the angle A by AD meeting OB in D, and prove that
2.A.C': A(JI- OD' :: BO: ODe
40. On two given straight lines similar triangles are deacnDecL
~uired to find a third, on which, if a triangle similar to them be
described, its area shall equal the difference of their areas.
41. In the triangle ..4.BO, A 0= 2.BCo If aD, OE res:pectively
bisect the angle 0, and the exterior angle formed by producmg .4.(J;
prove that the triangles eBD,..4. OD, ..4.B 0, ODE, have their areas 88
1, 2, 3,4.
V.
42. It is required to bisect any triangle (1) by a line drawn parallel,
(2) by a line drawn perpendicular, to the base.
43. To divide a given triangle into two parts, having a given ratio
to one another, by a straight line ell-awn paral1el to one of its sides.
44. Find three points in the sides of a triangle, such that, they
being joined, the triangle shall be divided into four equal tria~l~
45. From a &ien 'point in the side of a triangle, to draw Imes to
the sides which 8 I divide the triangle into any number of equal Jl8!'!B.
46. Any two triangles being given, to draw a straight line pirallel
to a side of the greater, which shall cut off a triangle equal to the leas.
VI.
47. The rectangle contained by two lines is a mean proportional
between their squares.
48. Describe a rectangular parallelogram which shall be equal to
a given ~quare, and have its sides in a given ratio.
49. If from any two points within or without a ~rallelo~,
straisht lines be diawn perpendicular to each of two iuiJacent sides
and mtersecting each otlier, they form a pa.rallelogram 8J1DiJar to the
former.
50. It i8 required to cut oir from a rectangle a similar :rectaDgle
which .hall be any required part of it.
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drawn to the opposite anglea 01 the square described on the base, cut
the diagonals of the square 'in B and P. prove that the line BP is
parallel to the baM.
98. Inscribe a square in a segment of a cirle. .
99. Inscribe a square in a sector 01 a circle, 80 that the angular
~inta shall be one on each radius, and the oth.. two in the cireum-
ference.
100. Inscribe a square in a given equilateral and equiangular
101. In.scnbe a paralleI ogram In
pentagon a gtven
I e Slml
triang 1ar to a
given parallelogram.
102. If any rectangle be inscribed in a given triangle, required the
locus of the point of intersection of its diagonals.
103. Inscribe the greatest parallelogram in a given semicircle.
104. In a given rectangla mscribe another, whose sides shall bear
to each other a ~iven ratio.
100. In a given segment of a circle to inscribe a similar segment.
106. The square inscribed in a cirole is to the square inscribed in
the semicircle ::0 : 2. .
107. If a square be inscribed in a right-angled triangle of which
one side coincides with the hypotenuse of the triangle, the extremities
ot that side divide the base into three segments that are continued
proportionals.
108. The square inscribed in a semicircle is to the square inscribed
in a quadrant of the same circle :: 8 : O.
109. Shew that if a triangle inscribed in a circle be isosceles,
haVing each of its sides double .the base, the squares described upon the
radius of the circle and one of the sides of the triangle, shall be to each
other in the ratio of 4: 10.
110. .d.PB is a quadrant, BPT a straight line touching it at
P, PM perpendicular to CA.; prove that triangle 8OT: triangle
.d. OB :: triangle .A. OB : triangle OMP.
111. If through any point in the arc of a qua~t whose radi1ll
is R, two circles be drawn touching the hounding radii of the quadrant,
and r, r' be the radii of these circles: shew that 'T' = R'.
112. If R he the radius of the circle inscribed in a right-angled
triangle ABO, right-angled at.A.; and a perpendicular be let talI.from
A on the hypotenuse BO, and if r, r' be the radii of the circles in-
scribed in the triangles .d.DB, AOD: prove thatr'+rllt=R.
XIV.
113. If in a given equilateral and equiangular hexagon another
be inscribed, to determine its ratio to the given one.
114. A regular hexagon inscribed in a circle is a mean In:Opor-
tional between an inscribed and circumscribed equilateral triangle.
115. The area of the inscribed pentagon, is to the area 01 the
circumscribing pentagon, as the square of the radius of the circle
inscribed within the greater pentagon, is to the square of the radius
of the circle circumscribing it.
116. The diameter of a circle is a mean proportional between the
sides of an equilateral triangle and hexagon which are described about
....at circle.
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GEOMETRICAL EXERCISES ON BOOK L
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314 O-SOMETRICAL EXERCISES, &C.
S3. The two given points may be both on the lame side. or o~e point'
may be on each side oftlie line. Ifthe~int required in the line be supposed:
to be found, and lines be drawn joimng this point and the given points,.
an isosceles triangle is formed, and if a perpendicular be drawn on the
base from the point in the line: the construction is obvious. :
2f. 1.'he problem is simply this-to find a point in one side of a
triangle from which the perJ,>!ndiculars drawn to the other two sides
shall be equal. U all the posltions of these lines be considered, it will
readily be seen in what cue the problem is impossible.
26. If the u()lCfl~. triangle be obtuse-angled, by Eue. I. 6, 32. the
tl'Uth will be made evident. If the triangle be acute-angled, the enun-
ciation of the proposition requires some modification.
26. Construct the fiRure and apply Euc. I. 6, 32, 16.
If the isosceles triangle have its vertical angle less than two-thirds of
& right-angle, the line BD ~roduced, meets AB produced towards the
bue, and then 3 ABF == 4 rlght angles +. AFE. If the vertical angle be
greater than two-thirds ofa right angle, ED produced meets AB produ.ced
towards the vertex, then 3 AEF = 2 right angles + AFB.
27. Let ABC be an isosceles triangle. and from any point D in the
base BC, and the extremity B, let three lines DE, DF, BO be drawn to
the sides and making equal angles with the base. Produce ED and make
DR equal to DF and join BH.
28. In the isosceles triangle ABC, let the line DFE which meets
the side AC in D and AB produced in E, be bisected by the base
in the point B. Then DC mo.", be shewn to be equal to BE.
29. If two equal straight lines be. drawn terminated by two linea
which meet in a point, they will cut oft'triangles of equal area. Hence
the two triangles bave a common vertical angle and their areas and bales
equal. By Eue. I. 32 it is shewn that the angle contained by the bisecting
lines is equal to the exterior angle at the base.
30. There is an omission in this question. After the words Ie milking
equal angles with the sides, I t add, If and be equal to each other re-
I~tively:' (l), (3) Apply Euc. T. 26, 4. (2) The equ31 lines which
bllect the sides may be shewn to make equal angles with the sides.
31. At C make the angle BCD equal to the angle ACB. and producp,
AB to meet CD in D.
32. By bisecting the hypotenuse, and drawing a line from the vertex
to the point of bisection, it may be shewn that this line forms with the
shoTter side and half the hypotenuse an isosceles triangle.
33. Let ABC be a hiangle, having the right anglp at A, and the angle
at C greater than the angle at B, also let AD be perpendicular to the ~
and AE be the line drawn to E the bisection or the base. Then AB ma
be proved equal to BE or Ee independently of Euc. III. 31.
34. Produce BG, FG to meet the perpendiculars CE, BE', produce
if necessary. The demonstration is obvious.
35. If the given triangle have bQth of the angles at the base, acu
angles; the di1Ference of the angles at the bue is at once obvious
Euc. I. 32. If one of the angles at the base be obtuse, does the propert
hold good? .
36. Let ABC be a triangle having the e.n81e ACB double of the augl
ABC, and let the perpendicular AD be drawn to the base BO. Take D
equal to DO and join AE. Then AE may be prove4 to be equal to ED
If AOB be an obtuse angle, then AO is equal to ~he lum of the Beg.
menta of the baRe, made by the perpendicular from the vprtex A.
31. Let the sides AB, AC of any triangle ABC be produced, the ex.
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'terior angles biaected by two lines which meet in D, and let AD be Joined,
t~en AD bisects the angle J,\.A.C. For draw DB perpendicular on BC
. also DF, DG perpendiculars on AB, AC produced, ilneeeuarr. "henDF
may be proved equal to nG, and the squares on DP, DA are equal toth.
equarea on FO. G A, of which theaquareon PD is equal to the square on DG;
hence AF is e!lual to AG, and Buc. I. 8, the angle BAC is bisected by AD.
38. The line required will be found to be equal to half the IUOl
of the two sides of the triangle.
39. Apply Euc. I. I, 9. '
jOe The angle to be trisected Is one-fourth of a right angle. If an
equilateral triangle be deacri~ on one of the lides of a triangle which
contains the given angle, and a line be drawn to bisect that angle of the
equilateral triangle whIch is at the given angle, the angle contained
between this line and the other Bide of the triangle will be one-twelfth
of a right angle, or equal to onethird of the ~ven angle.
It may be remarked, generally, that any angle which is the half, fourth,
eighth, &c. part of a right angle, may be trisected by Plane Geometry.
'1. Apply Buc. I. 20.
42. Let ABC, DBC be two equal triangles on the same base, of which
ABC is isosceles, Ag. Euc. I. 37. By producing AB and malting AS equal
to AB or AC, and joining OD, the perimeter of the triangle ABC may be
shewn to be less than the perimeter of the triangle DBC.
43. . Apply Euc. I. 20. .
". For the flnt cue, lee Theo. 32, p. 76 = for the other two cuel,
apply Euc. I. 19.
". This is obvious from Eue. I. 26.
is. By Eue. I. 29, 6, FC may be shewn equal to each of the lines
~, PO.
n. loin GA and AF, and prove GA. and AP to be in the lame
Itraight line.
48. Let the straight line drawn through D parallel to BC meet
the side .AB in E, and AC in F. Then in the triangle EBD, EB is
~ual to ED, by Euc. I. 29, 6. Also, in the triangle EAD, the angle
EAD may be shewn equal to the angle EDA, ,,-hence EA is equal
to ED, and therefore AB is bisected in E. In a similar way it. mny
be ahewn. by bisecting the angle C, that AC is bisected in F. Or
the bisection of AC in F may be proved when AD is shewn to be
bisected in E.
49. The triangle formed will be found to have ita sides respectively
parallel to the sides of the original triangle.
60. If a line equal to the given line be drawn from the point where
the two lines meet, and parallel to the other given line; a parallelogram
may be fonned, and the construction effected.
61. Let ABC be tbe triangle; AD perpendicular to BC, AE drawn
to the bisection of BC, and AF bisecting the angle BAC. Produce AD
and make DA' e'Jual to AD : join FA', EA'. ,
62. If the pomt in the base be supposed to be determined, and lines
drawn from it parallel to the sides, it Will be found to be in the line which
bisects the vertical angle of the triangle.
63. Let ABC be the ~le, at C draw CD perpendicular to CB and
equal to the sum of the required lines, through D draw DE parallel to CB
1Jlee~ AC in B, and draw EP' parallel to DC, meeting BC in F. Then
RP is equal to DC. Next produce CB, making CG e9.ual to CE, and join
EG CUtting AD in 'B. From H draw HK perpendicular to EAC, and
p2
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316 GBOKBTRI(JAL BXACISES, &e.
HL perpendicular to Be. Then 11K. and HL tegether are equal to DC,
The PrO# depend. on Theorem 21, p. 76.
64. Let C' be the intersection of the circles on the other side oftha
base, and .loin AC', BO'. Then the angles OBA, C'BA being equal, the
anglea OBP, O'BP U'e also equal, Ruc. 1. 13: nextb-" Buo. t. 4, CP, PC'
are prayed equal; lastly prove CO' ~ be equal to CP or PO'.
66. In the ftg. Bue. I. 1. produce AB both ways to meet'the circlea
in D and B, join CD, OB, then CDE is an iaoeoe1ea triangle, having each
of the anglea at the bale one-fo~ of the angle at the Tertez. At B
draw BG perpencJicu!ar to DB aad meetiag DC produced in G. TheIl
CBG is an equilateral triangle.
66. loin 00', and shew that the anclea OO'F, OO'Gare equal to two
right angles; alao that the liae FO'G is equal to the diameter.
67. Construct the ~ ad by Bue. I. l2. H the angle BAO be
a right ~le, then the &Ogle BDC is 1lalf a right angle.
68. Let the liDes whiCh bisect the three exterior angles of the tri-
angle A.BC form a new triangle A/B'O'. Then each of the angles at
A', B', 0' may be shewn to be equal to half of the angles at A imd B,
B aud 0, C and A YeBpectively. ADd it will be found that half the
~ of every two of three unequal numbers whose sum is COD8&IJd,
ave leu difFerences than the three numbers themaelvea.
J 69. The first case ~ be shewn by Buc. I. 4: aDd the aeco:acl bJ
Euc. I. 32, 6, 16. . .
60. At D any point in line EFt draw DO perpeadicu1ar to BP and
equal to the given perpendicular on the hypotenuse. Witheentre C IDd
radius equal to the given base describe a circle cutting EP in B. At 0
draw CA pe~ to CB ad meeting EF in A. Then ABC ia the
triangle reqUlred.
61. Let ABC be the required triangle ha~ the . .Ie AOB a right
angle. In BC produced, take CE equal to ACt and with center B lad
radius BA describe a circular arc cutting CR in D, and join AD. Then
DE is the cllif'erence between the Bum Of the two sides AC, CD aad the
hypotenuse AD; also one side AC the perpendicular Ie clTen. Hece
the construction. On any line ED take EC equal. to the given side, ED
equal to the given clliFerence. At Ct draw CA perpendicular to OB, aud
equal to EC, join AD, at A in AD make the angle DAB ~ua1 to ADD,
and let AD meet ED in B. Then ABO is the triangle required.
62. (1) Let ABC be the triangle required, having AOD the riabt
angle. Produce AD to D making AD equal to AC or CD: then BD is
the sum of the sides. loin DC: then the angle ADC is one-fourth ofa
right angle, and DBO is one-half of a right angle. Hence to construct:
at B in BD make the angle DBM: equal to half a right angle. and at D
the angle BDC equal to one-fourth of a r!ght angle, and let DC meet BK
in C. At C draw OA at; right angles to BC meeting BD in A: andADO
is the triangle required.
(2) Let ABC be the ~le. 0 the right aDgle: from AD cut of
AD equal to AO; then BD is the diff'erence of th8 hypoten1ll8 and 0D8
aide. loin CD; then the ~lea ACD, ADO are equal, &ad each _hill
the supplement of DAC, which is half a right angle. Hence the COIl-
BUUcUon. .
63. Take any 8trai,ht line terminated at A.. Xake AB equal to
the dift'erence of the 81des, and AO equal to the h~tenUie. A.C B
make the angle OBD equal to half a right angle, and with center A
and radius AC describe a circle cu~ BD in D: join AD, and draw
DE perpendicular to AC. Then ADB is the requiredtriangle.
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ON 'BOOK t. 817
64: Let BO the given baae be biaected in D. At D draw DB at
right angles to BC and equal to the aum of one aide ot the triangle
alld the perpendicular from the vertex on the baae: join DB, and at B
in BE make the angle EBA equal to the angle BED, and let BA meet
DE in A.: join AC, and ABC is the ilORCelea triangle.
66 This construotion may be effected by means of Probe 4, p. 71.
6~. The perpendicular from the vertex on the base of an equilattral
triangle bis~ts the angle at the 'Yertex which is two-thirds ot one right
8IJ~;: Let ABC be the equilateral triangle of which a aide is required
to be found. haviDg given DD, OD the llilea bisecting the angles at B. C.
I Since the angles DBC. DOB are equal, each being one-third of a right
angle, the Bidee BD t DC are equal, and BDe is an isosceles trianglb
having the angle at the 'Vertex the aupplement of a third of two right
angles. Hence the .ide BC may be found.
68. 1M the giTen angle be taken, (1) as the '"eluded angl, between
tbe giTen aides; and (2) as the oppolite a'llgll to one of the given sid.es.
III die latter case, an ambiguity will arise if the angle be an acute angle.
and op~site to the leas of the two gi'Ven sides. . .'
"69. Let ABO be the required triangle, BC the g!ven base, CD th.
giYen difference nf the sides AD, AC: join BD, then DBC by Euc. 1. 18,
can be shewn to be half the difFerence of the angles at the baae, and AB
is equal to AD. Hence at B in the ~Ten base BC, make the angle CBD
equal to half the di1ference of the angles at the base. On CB take CE
equal to the difFerence" of the sides, and with center C and radius CE,
describe a circle cutting BD in D: join CD and produce it to A, making
DA equal to DB. Then ABC is the triangle required.
70. On the line which. is equal to the perimeter of the required tri-
angle describe a triangle haTing its angles equal to the given anglcs.
Then bisect the angles at the base; and from the point where these lin~s
meet, draw Hnea parallel to the sides and meeting the base.
71. Let ABC be the required triangle. BC the given base, and the
tide AB greater than AC. Make AD equal to AC. and draw CD.
Then the angle BCD may be shewn to be equal to half the difFerence,
and the angle DCA equal to half the sum of the angles at the base.
Hence ABC, ACB the angles at the base of the triangle are known. .
12. . Let the two given lines meet in A, and let B be the given point.
If BC, BD be supposed to be drawn making equal angles with AC.
and if AD and DC be joined. BCD is the triangle required, and the figure.
ACBD may be shewn to be a parallelogram. Whence the Con8truCtiO~.\
7;s. It can be shewn that lines drawn from the angles of a triangle to
'bbect the opposite sides, in~.rsect each other at a point which is two..
thirds of their lengths from the angular points-from which they are drawn.
Let ABO be the.trian,lerequired, AD. BE, CF the given lliies from the
~les drawn to th~ bIsections of the opposite s!d~ and intersecting U,1 G.
Pioduce OD, maktng DH equal to DG, and Jom BH, CR: the' figure
GBHO is a parallelogram. Hence the construction. .
'14. Let ABC (fig. to Euc. I. 20.) be the required triangle. having
the base BC equal to the _given base, the a~gle ABC equal to the given
~le, and the two sides BA, AO together equal to the given line BD.
Zom DC, then since AD is equal to. AC, the trianlde ACD is isosceles,
and there!ore the angle ADC is equal to the angle ACD. Hence t11:e
eonstruction. . .
76. Let ABC be the reqnired triangle (ftg. to Enc. 1.18), having the
angle ACB equal to the gi'Ven angle, and the base 00 equal to the giveT"
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31R GEOMBTRICAL EXERCIIES, &C.
line, also CD equal to the difFerence of the two aides AB, AC. If ID
be joined, then ADD is' an isosceles triangle. Hence the 1JIltheaia.
DGef this CODStruCtion hold good in all cases f
76. Let ABC be the reqUired tria~le, (8g. Euc. I. 18), ofwbich the
aide BC is given and the angle BAC, a180 CD the difference between the
sides AD, AC. Join BD; then AB is equal to AD, because CD is their
dift'erence, and the triangle ADD is isosceles, whence the angle .ABD i8
equal to the angle ADB; and since BAD and twice the angle ADD
are equal to two rilht angles, it foUoWl that ABD is hall the 8upplemtllC
of the given angle AC. Hence the COD8truCQOn of the triangle~ I
pI!81lel to the other diagonal, in the same way as Theo. 97, supra. The
other property is manifest from the relation of the areas of the triangles
made by the linea drawn through the bisections of the sides. .
139. It is suftleient to suggest, that triangles on equal bases, and of
equal altitudes, are equal.
140. Let the side AB bepardllel to CD, and let A.B be bisected in E
and CD in F. and let EP be drawn. loin' AF, BF, then Euc. 1. 38.
141. Let BCED be a tra~zium of which DC, BE-are the dia,onala
intersecting each other in G. If the triangle DBG be equal to the triangle
BGC, the side DB may be proved "arallel to the side BC, by Eue. I. 39.
142. Let ABCD be the quadrilateral figure haYing the sides AB.
CD, Parallel to one an,~ther. and AD, BC equal. Through B draw BR
paranel to AD, then ABED is a panillelogram. "
143. Let ABeD be the quadrilateral haYing the side AB parallel
to CD. Let E, F be the points of bisection of the diagonals BD t AC.
and join EF and produce it to meet the sides AD, BC in G and H.
Through H draw LHK ~e1 to DA meeting DC in L and All pr0-
duced in K. Then BK 18 half the di1ference of DC and AB.
144. (1) Reduce the trapezium ABCD to a triangle BAB by Prob.:
106, supra. and bisect the triangle BAE by a line AF from the vertex.i
If F fall without BC, through F draw PG parallel to AC or DE, ani
., AU.
JOUlOr thua. Draw the diagonal& AC, BD: bloeet BD in Eo and ~
it;
EC. Draw FEG parallel to AC the other diagonal, meeting in p.
and DC in G. AG being joined, bisects the trapezium.
(2) Let E be the given point in the side AD. loin EB. BJaeet th
quadrilateral EBCD by EF. )fake the triangle EFG equal to the tri1"
angle BAD, on the same side of EF 88 the triangle AB. Bisect the tri
angle EFG by EH. EH bisects the Ague.
146. If a straight line be drawn from the given point through the in~
teraection of the diagonals and meeting the opposite side of the square =
the problem is then reduced to the bisection of a trapezium by a line
from one of ita angleR. .
dl'&d
146. If the four sides of the figure be of different lengt!ls, the truth
the theorem may be shewn. If, however, two adjacent sides of the ~
be equal to one another t as also the other two, the lines drawn from the
angles to the bisection of the longer diagonal, will be found to divide th~e
trapezium into four triangles which are equal in area to one anothef.
Eue. 1.38.
147. Apply Eue. 1. 47, observing that the shortest side is ODe h
of the longest.
148. Find by Eue .,I. 47, a line the square on which shall be &eYen
times the square on the given line. Then the triangle which haa these
two linea contain!ng the right angle shall be the triangle required.
149. Apply Eue. I. 47.
160. Let the base BC be bisected in D, and DE be drawnperpenc1icu:
1ar to the hypotenuse AC. loin AD: then Eue. 1.47.
161. Construct the figure, and the truth is obvious from Eue. J.47. '
162. See Theo. 32, p. 76. and apply Eue. 1. 47. '
163. Draw the lines required and apply Eue. 1.47.
164. Apply Eue. J. 47.
166. Apply Euc. 1. 47.
166. Apply Eue. 1.47, obaening that the square on aD,.
line is four
times the square on half the line. I
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67. Apply Eue. I. '7. to express the aquuea of the three aides in
terms of the squares on the perpendiculars and on the segments of AB.
11,8. By Eue. I. '7. bearing in mind that the ..quare described on any
line is four times the square described upon half the line.
169. The former part is at once manifest by Eue. I. '7. Let the (lia ..
gonaIs of the square be drawn, and the g;ven point be supposed to coincide
with the intersection of the diagonals, the mInimum is obvious. Find ita
value in terms of the aide.
160. (II) This is obvious from Eue. I. 18.
(6) Apply Euc. 1. 32, 29.
(c) Apply Euc. 1. 6, 29.
(d) Let AL meet the blfBe BC in P, and let the perpendiculars from
Ft k meet BC produced in M and N reapectivell'; then the triangles
APB, F MB may be proved to be equal in all respectl. as also APC, CKN.
(e) Let fall DQ perpendicular on FB produced. Then the triangle
DQB may be proved equal to each of the triangles ABO, DBF; whence
the triangle DBF is equal to the triangle ABC.
Perhaps however the better method is to prove at once that the tri ..
angles ABC, FBD are equal, by shewing that they have two sides equal
in each ~le, and the included angles, one the supplement of the other.
U) If DQ be drawn perpendicular on FB produced, FQ may be
proved to be bisected in the point B, and DQ equal to AC. Then the
!quare on FD is found by the right-angled triangle FQD. Similarly, the
square on KE iEJ found, and the sum olthe squares on FD, EK, GH Will be
found to be six times the square on the hypotenuie.
, (g) Through A drawPAQ parallel to BC and meeting DB, EO
produced in P, Q. Then by the right angled triangles.
I 161. Let any parallelograms be described on any two sides AB, AO
of a biangle ABC, and the sides parallel to AD, AC be produced to meet
pn a point P. loin P A. Then on either side of the base BC, let a paral-
~elogram be described having two sides equal and parallel to AP. Pro-
,duce AP an. it will divide the parallelogram on lIC into two parts re-
titpectivell' equal to the parallelograms on the sides. Euc. I. 36, 36.
162. Let the equilateral triangles ABD, BCE, CAF be described on
AD, BC, CA, the sides of the triangle ABC having the right angle at A..
loin DC, AX: then the trian~les DBC, ABE are equal. Next draw
DGperpendicular to AB and jom CG: then the triangles BDG, DAG,
DGC are equal to one another. Also draw AU, EK perpendicular to
iBC; the triangles EKH, EKA are equal. Whence may be shewn that
the triangle ADD is equal to the triangle BRE, and in a similar way may
he shewn that CAF is equal to CHE.
. The restriction is WUleee88&ry: it only brings AD, AE into the same
line.
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011 BOOK II.
is hall of the aide lubteDded by the right aagle made by tlae perpendioular
and the base produced. .
26. (1) Let the triangle be acut8-&Ilfled. (Bue. II. 18, Ag. 1.)
Let AO be bisected in B, and BE be Joined; also 'EF be drawn per-
pendioular to BO. EF is equal to FO. Then the square on BE may be
proved to be equal to the Iquare on BC and the rectangle BD, BC.
(2) If the triangle be obtuse-angled, the perpendicular EF tal1a Whin
or without the base according as the bisecting lhie it drawn hm the 06,.."
or the t.ICtIU angle at the base.
27. This may be &hewn from theorem 8. p. 114:.
28. Let the perpendicular AD be drawn from A on the base BC. It
may be shewn that the base BC must be produced to a point B, luoh
that CE is equal to the difference of the eegmentl of the base made by
the perpendicular.
29. Since the baae and area are given, the altitude of tke ~le it
known. Henoe the problem is reduc8cl to a-Given the hue and altitude
of a triangle, and the line drawn from the vutu: to the bieection of the
base, construct the triangle.
30. This follows immediately from Huc. 1.4:7.
31. Apply Euc. It. 13.
32. The t.ruth of this property depends on the fact that the rectangle
contained by AC, CB is equal to that contained by A.B, CD.
33. Let P the required point in the base AD be lupposed to be lmown.
loin OP. It mar then be shewn that the property Itated. in the Prob.
lem is contained m Theorem 3. p. 114. .
3!. This may be shewn from. Eue. I. 4:7; II. 6. Cor.
35. ,From 0 let fall CF perpendicular on AB. Then ACE is an ob-
tuse-angled, and BEO an acute-angled triangle. Apply Eue. II. 12, 13;
and by Euc. I. 4:7, the squares on AC and CB Be equal to the square
onAB.
36. Apply Eue. I. 47, n. '; and the note p. 9', on Ruo. II
37. Draw a perpendicular from the yertes: to the baae, and apply
Eue. I. 47; II. 6, Cor. Bnunciate and prove the proposition when the
straight line drawn from the vertex meet. the base produeeci.
38. This follows directly from Eue. II. 13. Case 1.
39. The truth of this proposition may beshewnfromBuc. 1.47;
40. Let the square on the base of the isosceles triangle be described.
tt.'.
Draw the diagonals of the s'luare, and the proof is obvious.
4:1.. I ..et ABC be the triangle required, such that the square on AB
is three times the square on AO or BO. Produce BC and draw AD per-
pendicular to BC. Then bI Hue. II. 12, CD may be shewn to be equal
to one half of BC. Hence the construction.
42. Apply Eue. II. 12, and Theorem 88, p. 118.
43. Draw EF parallel to AB and meeting the base in F; draw also
EG pe~endicular to the base. Then by Bue. I. !7; II. 6, Cor.
U. Bisect the angle B by BD meeting the opposite side in D, and
draw BE~per,endicular to A.C. Then by Euc. I. 47; II. 6, Cor.
4:6. This follows directly from Theorem 3, p. 104.
46. Draw the diagonals intersecting each other in P, and join OP.
By Theo. 3, p. 104.
4:7. Draw from any two opposite angles, straight lines to meet in the
biaection of the diaonaljoining the other angles. Then bI Huc. II. 12, 13.
48. Draw two lines from the point of bisection of either of the bi-
sected sides to the extremities of the opposite side; and three triangles
will be formed, two on one of the bisected aides and oue on the other, in
Digitized by Goog1\!
OBOIIBTBIOAL nOOlIBS, &e.
each of which is a line drawn 110m the ftI'tex to the bileetion of the base.
Tlum by Theo. 8, p, 104.
49. If the extremities of-the two linea 'Which bisect the opposite aides
of the trapezium be joined, the agure formed is a parallelogram which
hu itt sian reapttCtively parallel to, and equal to, ball the diagonals of
the trapezium. The tum of the squares on the two diagonals of the tra~
pezi.um may be easily thewn to be equal to the tum. of the squats on
the four tidea of the parallelogram.
60. Draw perpendiculan from the extremities of one of the paraDel
aielea, meeting the other aide produoed, if necessary. Then from thew
right-angled trianglea thus formed, may be thewn the ,ruth of the pro- I
poaition.
61. In the problem, for ~le read rectangle. Let ABCD be any ,
trapezium having the tide AD parallel to BO. Draw the diagonal AC, :
then the IUJD. of the trianglel A~C, ADO may be shewn to be equal to
the rectangle contained by the altitude and half the a11m. of AD and BO.
62. Let ABOD be the trapeaium, having the sides AB, CD, ~el,
and AD, BO equal. loin AO and draw AI{ perpendicular to DC. Then
by Euc. II. 13.
63. Let ABO be any tri~le; AHKB, AGFC, BDEC, the squares ,
upon their sidet; EF. G H, KL the lines joining the ang~es of the squares. I
Produce GA, KB, EO, and draw UN; DQ, PR perpendiculars upon them '
respectively: also draw APt BM. OS perpendiculars on the sides of the
~e. Then AN may be proved to be equal to AM:; CR ~ CP; and
BQ to BS; and by Euc. II. 12, 13.
64. Oonvert the triangle into a rectan~le, 'ben Eue. n. If.
66. Find a rectangle equal to the two figures, and apply Buc. II. I'.
66. Pind the side of a square which shall be equal to the giYeD ree~
tangle. See Prob. I. p. 113.
07. On any line PQ take An equal to the given difFerence of the
sides of the rectangle, at A draw AO at right angles to AB, and equal to
the aide of the given square; bisect AB in 0 and join OC; with center
o and radius 00 describe a semicircle meeting PQ in D and B. Then
the lines AD, AE have AB for their difference, and the rectangle oeD-
tained by them is equal to the square on AC. .
68. Apply Euc. u. 1f.
this line describe a semicircle, a line equal to the given distance may be
drawn from the given point to meet the arc of the semicircle. When
the po~t is without the circle, the given distance may meet the diameter
produced.
9. This may be easily shewn to be a straight line passing through
the center of the circle.
10. The two chords form by their intersections the aides ottwo fsoa
celes triangles, of which the parallel chords in the circle are the baaea.
Digitized by Coogle
Olf : BOOK 111.
11. The angl. ill equal . . . .nts are equal, and by Eua. I. 29. U
the chords are equally autant from the center, the lUiea intenect the
diameter in the center of the circle.
12.. Construct the figure and the arc EC may be proved equal to the
In B'e'.
13. The point determined by the linea drawn from the bisections of
the chords and at right angles to them respectively, will be the center of
the required circle.
14. Construct the !gures: the proof oWen no diftlculty.
16. On any radius conatruct all isoace1ea right.. anglea triangle, and
produce the side which meets the circumference.
16. Join the extremities of the chords. then'Ruc. 1.27 jIll. 28.
11. Take the center 0, and join AP, AO, &c. and apply Euc. I. 20.
18. Draw any straight line intersecting two parallel chords andmeet-
ing the circumference.
19. Produce the radii to meet the circumference.
10. loin AD, ad the ftrst equality follows directly fi:om Euc. III:
20, I. 32. Also by joining AC, the second equality may be proved in a
timi1ar way. If h.owever the line AD do not fall on the same side of the
eenter 0 as E, it will be found that the df/fersncB, not the nma of the two
anglee, is equal to 2. AED. See note to ~uo. UI. 20, p. 166.
21. Let DKE, DBO (Ag. Buc. IU. 8) be two lines equally inclined
to DA. then KE may be proved to be equal to BO, and the ae~ents cut
oft'by equal straight lines in the same circle, as we1las in eqUal eircles,
I are equal to one another.
22. Applf Hue. I. 16, and lIt. 21. '
23. This 18 the same as Euc. III. 84, with the condition, that the line
must pus through a given point.
24. Let the segments AHB, AKC be externally described OIl the
given lines AB, AC, to contain angles equal to BAC. Then by the con-
verse to E~. III. 82, AB touches the circle AKC, and AO the cirele ABB.
2S. Let ABC be a triangle of which the base ar longest side is BO,
and let a segment of a circle be describecl on BO. Produce BA, CA to
meet the arc of the segment in D, E, and join BD, CEo If circles be de-
acribed about the triangles ABD, ACB, the sides A.B, AC shall cut off
segments similar to the segment described upon the base BO.
2&. This is obvious from the note to Bue. Ill. 26, p. 166.
27. The segment must be described on the opposite side of the pro..
duced chord., By eonverae of Buc. m. 32.
28. If a circle be described upon the side AC as a diameter, the cir-
eumferenee will pus through the points D, E. Then Eue. Ill. 21.
29. Let AB, AC be the bounding radii, and D any point in the arc
Be, aad DE, DF. perpendieulars from D on AR, AC. The circle de",
scribed on AD will alwa,. be of the same magnitude, and the 8ugle HAP
in it, is constant :-whence the arc EDP is constant, and therefore its
ehord.EF. '
80. CODstruct the figure, and let the oircle with center 0, described
on AU 88 a diameter intel'seet the given circle in P, Q, join OP, PB, and
prove EP at right angles to OP.
31. If the tangent be required to belerpendicular to a given line :
draw the diameter parallel to this line, an the tangent drawn at the p -
treaUty of this diameter will be pe?endicular to the given lin6.
32. The straight line which joms the center and puses through the
iatersection of two tangents to a circle, bisects the angle contained by
the tangents.
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GBOKBTaICJAI. UD011., &c.
88. Draw two adii . .tamin ' " equal to the .pplement of
the gi.,.. ~; the~. c1nwn. at tile ex:tremitl.ee of theI8 radii will
contain the pven augle.
M. &mee the ciiole ia to touch two pualle1 linea drawn tram two
given points in a third line, the ndius of ille circle is determined by the
diltance between the two pya poiIlta.
86. It is .uf8clent to lun- that the arqle between a chord and a
tangent ia equal to the angle in the alternate .egment of the circle. Rue.
111.32.
86. LetAB be the Biven chord of the circle whose center is O. Draw
DE touching the circle at an,. point E and equal to tlae liven line; join
DO, and with center 0 and radius DO deacn1)e a circl.e:. produce the
chord AD to meet the circumference of this cirele in P: then F is the
poiDt required.
37. Let D be the point required in the diameter BA produced, such
that the tangent DP is half of DB. Join CP, C being the center. Then
CPD is a right-angled triangle, having the sum of the base PC and hypo-
tenuse CD double of the J)8I'PeDdicular PD.
38. If BB intenect DP in K. (flS. Euc. m. 37). Join PD, PE, then
by means of the triangles, BB is &hewn to be bisected in K at right anglee.
39. Let AD, CD be any two diameters of a circle, 0 the center, and
let the tangenta at their extlemities form the quadrilateral figure EFGH.
Join EO, 01". tleaHO and OP may be proved to be in the same straight
line, and aimiJarly HO, OK.
N ou.-This Proposition is ~ually tme if AB, CD be any two ohords
whatever. It then becomes eqUlvalent to the following pro~tion:
The diagoDala of the oireumacribed and inscribed quadrilaterals, intersect
in the same point, the pointa of contaot of the former being the angles of
the latter figure.
40. Let C be the point without the circle from which the tangents
CA, CB are drawn, '.ad let DB be an1 diameter, also let AB, BD be
Joined, interl80ting in P. then if CP be Joined and produced to meet DE
m G: CG is perpendicular to DB. Join DAt ED and produce them to
meet in F.
Then the a.n&lea DU, BBD being aaglee in a semicircle, are riPt
angles; or DB. EA are dra.wn perpendicular to the sides of the trianIle
DHF: whence the line drawn from P through P ia perpendicular to ihe
third side DB.
41. Let the chord AD, of whieh P ii, ita middle point, be produced
both ways to 0, D, so that AC is equal to BD. From C, D, draw the
tangents to the circle forming the tangential quadrilateral CKDB., the
points of coDtact of the sides, being B, H, p. G. Let 0 be the center or
the circle.. Join HR, Bl1, CO, GO, FO, DO. Then En and GP may
be proved eaoli parallel to CD. they are therefore parallel to one another.
Whence is J>roved that both EF and DG bisect AB.
42. This is obvious from Huc. 1. 29, and the note to TIl. 22. p. 168.
43. From any point A in the circumference, let any chord AD and
tangent AC be drawn. Bisect the arc AD in D, and from D draw DE,
DC perpendiculars on the chord AB and tangent AC. Join AD. the
triangles WE. ADO may, be shown to be equal.
44. Let A, B, be the given points! Join AB, and upon it describe a
segment of a circle which shall oontain an angle equal to the given angle.
If the circle cut the given line, there will be two points; if it only toUch
the 1iae, there will beane;' and if it .either-cut nor touch the line, the
problem is impossible.
Digitized by Coogle
ON BOOK III.
88. The tangent mal intersect the line joining the centers, or the line
produced. Prove that the angle in the lIegment of one circle is equal to
the angle in the correapondinjf segment of the other circle.
89. Join the centers A, ; at 0 the point of contact draw a tangent.
and at A draw AF cutting the tsngent m P, and making with OF an
angle e<Jual to one-fourth of the given angle. Prom P draw tangents
to the clrclea.
90. Let 0 be the center of the giTell circle. and D the given point in
the giTen line AB. At D draw any line DE at right angles to AD, then
the center of the circle required is in the line A& "hrough C draw a
diameter FO parallel to DB. the chele deacribed pueins through the
points E, F, G will be the cirele required.
91. Apply Hue. 11'1. 18.
92. Let At B-. be th1! t1fO' given pointe, and a the center of the given
eircle. Join AC, and at C draw the diameter DeE perpendicular to AC,
and through the points A, D, B describe a eirele, and produce AO to
meet the eircumference in F. Bisect AF in G, and AB'in H, and draw
GK, HK. perpendiculars to AF. AB respectively and intersecting in K.
TheIl K is the center of the circle which passes through the points A. B,
and biaeets the circumference- of the circle whose center is O.
93. Let D be the given point and BF the given straight line. (Ag.
Buc. III. 32.) Draw 00 to make the angle DBF equal to that contained
in the altemate_segment. Draw BA at right angles to EF, and DA at
right angles to DB and meeting B:A in A. 1.'1len AB is the diameter of
the circle.
94. Let A, B be the given points, and OD the given line. From E
the middle of the line AB, draw EM: perpendicular to AB. meeting CD
in lrI, and'draw MA. In BM take 8I1y point Fi draw FH to make the
given angle- with OD; and draw FG equal to FH, and meeting MA.
produced in G. Through A draw AP8ara1lel to FG; and CPK p8ra1lel
to FR. Then P is the oenter, and the third defining point of the
circle required: and AP may_ be proved equal to OP by means of the I
triangles GMF, AMP; and HlrIF, CMP, Eue. VI. 2. Also CPK the
diameter makes with CD the angle KCD equal to FHD, that is, to the
given angle.
96. Let A. B be the two given points, join AD and bisect AD in C,
and draw CD perpendicular to AB, then the center of the required circle
will be in CD. From 0 the center of the given circle draw CFG parallel'
to CD, and meeting- the circle in F and AB produced in G. At F draw
a chON FF' equal to the fliven chord. Then the cir~le which passes
through the pomts at B and F, passes also through F.
96. Let the straight line joining the centers of the two circles be
produeed both ways to meet the circumference of the exterior circle.
97. Let A be the common center of two circles. and BCDE the chord
such that BE is double of CD. From A, B draw AF, BG perpendicular
to BE. loin AC, and produce it to meet BG in G. Then AC may be
ahewn tG be'equal to CG, and the angle CBG being a right anglet_the
angle in the semicircle described on CG as its diameter. _
98. The lines joining the common center and the extremities of the'"
chords of the circles, may be shewn to contain unequal angles; and the
angles at the centers of the circles are double the angles at the cireum'"
ferences, it follows that the segments containing these unequal an,les-
are not similar.
99. Let A.B, AC be the straight lines drawn from A, a point ja.
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'l
ON BOOK Itt.
182. Of all triangles on the same hue and bam, equal vertical I
angles. that triangle Will be the greatest whose perpendicular from the .
vertex on the bue is a maximum, and the greatest perpendicular is that
which bisects the bue. Whence the triangle is iaoaceles.
133. Let AB be the given base and ABC the sum of the other two
lid. ; at B draW' BD at right angl. to AB and equal to the given alti-
tude, produce BD to B making DE equal to BD. 'With center A and
and radius AC describe the circle CFG, draw FO at right anKles to BB
and ind in it the center 0 of the circle which palBe8 througli B and E
IIld touches the former circle in the point F The centers A, 0 being
joined and the line produced, will p888 through F. loin OB. 'lhen
A.OB is the triangle required.
1M. Since the area and bases of the triangle are given, the altitude
it given. . Hence the problem is-given the baae, the vertical angle and
the altitude, describe the triangle.
135. Applr Eue. III. 27.
136. The fixed point ma, be proTed to be the center of the circle.
187. Let the line which bisects any angle BAD of the quadrilatenl,
meet the circumference in E, join EC. and prove that the angle made by
producing DC is bisected by Ee.
138. Draw the diagonals of the quadrilateral, and by Eue. UIe 21, It 29.
139. From the center draw lines to the angles: then Euc. In. 27.
1.0. The centers of the four circles are determined by the intersec-
tions of the linea which bisect the four angles of the given quadrilateraL
loin these four points, and the opposite angles of the quadrilateral 80
formed are respectively eq1lal to two right angles.
1.1. Let ABCD be the required trapezium inscribed in the given circle
(fig. Eue. 111.22.) of w:hich AB is given, also the sum of the remaining
three sides and the angle ADC. Since the angle ADO is given, the
opposite angle ABO is known, and therefore the point 0 and the side
BC. Produce AD and make DE equal to DC and join EC. Since the
sum. of AD, DC, CD is given, and DC is known, therefore the sum of
AD, DC is given, and likewise AO, and the angle ADO. Also the angle
DEC being half of the angle ADC is given. Whence the segment of the
circle which contains AEO is given. also AE is given, and henee tlle
point E, and consequently the point D. Whence the construction.
142. Let ADBC be the inscribed quadrilateral; let ACt BD p. .
duced meet in 0, and AD, CD produced meet in P, also let the tangents
from O. P meet the oircles in X, H respectively. Join OP, and about
the triangle PAC describe a circle cu~ PO in G and join AG. Then
A, B, G. 0 may be shewn to be points m the circumference of a circle.
Whence the sum of the squares on 0 H and PK may be found by Bue.
ID. 36, and shewn to be equal to the square on OP.
14 3. This will be manifest from the equality of the two tangeafl
drawn to a circle from the same point.
144. Apply Euc. HI. 22.
146. A circle can be described about the figure AEOBF.
146. Apply Euc. III. 22, 32.
147. Apply Euc. III. 21, 22, 32.
148. Al~y Duc. III. 20, and the angle BAD "ill be fOUDd to be
equal to B and CBD.
149. Let At B. 0, D be the angular points of the inscribed quadrila-
teral, and E, P, G. H those of the circumscribed one whose ~ts of ;
contact with the circle are at A, B, C, D. Draw the diaaonala AC, BD; I
join EO, OG, 0 being the center of the circle, and prove-:80 to be ia the I
"''lJDe straight line with OG. Digitized by Google '
O:N BOOK Ill. 337
150. A~Y' Bue. ilL 22.
161. J'om the center of the circle with the other extremity of the liller,
perpendicular to the diameter.
162. Let AD be a chord parallel to the diameter FG of the circle.
fig. Theo. 1, p. 160,and H any point in the diameter. Let HA and HD
be joined. Bisect FG in O. draw OL perpendicular to FG cutting AD
in X. and join HK, HL, OA. Then the square on HA and HF may be
proved equal to the square. on FH. HG by Theo. 3, p. 114 ; Euc. I. 47;
Euc. n. 9.
163. Let A be the given point (Ag. Eue. lit. 36, Cor.) and suppose
APC meeting the circle in F, CJ to be bisected in F, and let AD be a
tangent chawn from A. Then 2. AF' I : AF AC = AD', but AD is
given, hence also AF is given. To construct. Draw the tangent AD.
On .AD describe a semicircle AGD. biJect it in G; with center A and
radius AG, describe a circle cutting the given circle in F. Join AP and
produce it to meet the circumference again in O.
154. Let the chords AD, CD intersect each other in E at right
angles. Find F the center, and draw the diameters HEFG, AFK awl
join AO, CK, DD. Then br Euc. II. 4. I); JIt. 36.
155. Let E, F be the pomts in the diameter AB equidL4Itant from the
center 0; CED any chord; draw OGperpendicular to CED, and join
FG,OC. The sum of the squares on DF and FC may be shewn to be
equal to twice the square on FE and the rectangle contained by AE. EB
by Euc. 1. 47; n. 6; III. 36.
166. Let the chords AB, AC be drawn from the point A, and let a
chord FG parallel to the tangent at A be drawn intersecting the chords
AB, AC in D and E, and join BC~ Then the opposite angles of the
quadrilateral DDEC are eqllal to two right angles, and a circle would
circumscribe the figure. Hence by Euc. I. 36.
157. Let the lines be drawn as directed in the enunciation. Draw
the diameter AE and join CE, DE, DE; then AC' + AD' and 2. ABlt
may be each shewn to be equal to the square of the diameter.
168. Let QOP cut the diameter AD in O. From C the center draw
OR perpendicular to QP. Then CH is equal to OB, and by"Euc. II. 9,
the squares on PO,.OQ are readily shewn to be equal to twice the square
on OP.
169. From P draw PQ perpendicular on AB meeting it in Q. loin
AC, CD, DB. Then circles would circumscribe the quadrilaterals ACPQ
and BDPQ, and then by Euc. DI. 36.
160. Describe the figure according to the enunciation; draw AE the
diameter of the circle, and let P be the intersection of the diagonals of tho
parallelogram. Draw EB, EP, EO. EF, EG, EH. Since AE is a
diameter of the circle, the angles at F, G, H, are right angles, and EF,
EG, EH are _perpendiculars from the vertex upon the bases of the tri.
angles EAB, EAC, EAP. Whence by Eue. n. 13, and theorem 3, page
114, the truth of the property ma~ be shewn. .
161. If FA be the given line tlg. Euc. It. 11}, and if FA be roduced
to C; AO is the pan produced w ich satisfies the required conditions.
162. Let AD meet the circle in G, H, and join BG, GC. ThenBGC
is a right-angled triangle and GD is perpendicular to the hypotenuse,
and the rectangles may be each shewn to be equal to the square on DG.
:Hue. III. 36; n. 6; I. 47. Or. if EC be joined, the quadrilateral
figure ADCE may beeircumscribed by a circle. Euc. m. 31,22, 36, Cor.
163. On PC describe a semicircle cutting the given one in E, and
draw EF perpendicular to AD; then F is the p~int required.
Q
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.
318 OBOIIBT&ICAL DBBOIIBI, &0.
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Olf BOOK. IV. 389
~le inscribed in a circle to meet the circumference. It may be proved
that the radius is bisected bl the opposite aide of the triangle.
13. Let ABC be an equilateral triqle inscribed in a circle, anc! let
AB'C' be an isosceles triangJe inscribed in the same circle, having the
l&1Ile vertex A. Draw the diameter AD intersecting BC in E, and BC'
in E', and let B'C' fall below BC. Then AB, BE, and AB', B'E', are
respectively the semi-perimeters of the triangles. Draw B'F perpendi-
cu.lar to BC, and cut 01f AH equal to AB, an~' oin B H. If BF can be
proved to be greater than B'H, the perimeter 0 ABC is greater than the
perimeter of AB'C'. Next let B'C' fall above C. .
1.. The angles contained in the two segments of the circle. may be
shewn to be equal, then by joining the extremities of the arcs, the two
remaining sides may be shewn to be parallel.
Hi. It may be shewn that four equal and equilateral triangles will
form an equilateral triangle of the same perimeter as the hexagon, which
is formed by six equal and equilateral triangles.
16. Let the figure be constructed. By drawing the diagonals of the
hexagon, the proof is obvious.
17. By Eue. I ..,. the perpendicular distance from the center of the
circle U~ll the aide of the mscribed hexagon may be found.
18. The alttltnate sides of the hexagon will fall upon the sides of the .
triangle, and each side will be found to be equal to one-third of the side
of the. equilateral triangle.
19. A regular duodecagon may be inscribed in a circle by means of
the equilateriJ. ~le and square, or by means of the hexagon. The
area of the duodecagon is three times the square of the radius of the circl.,
which is the square of the side of an equilateral triangle inscribed in the
l8D1.e circle. Theorem 1, p. 196.
20. In general, three straight lines when produced will meet and
form a triangle, except when an three are parallel or two parallel aile
intersected by the third. This Problem includes Euc. IV. 6, and all the
cases which arise from pr9ducing the sides of the triangle. The circles
described touching a side of a triangle and the other two sides produced,
are called the 61cribBd circles.
21. This is manifest from Euo. IU. 21.
22. The point required is the center of the circle which circumscribes
the triangle. See the Dotes on Eue. In. 20, p. 156.
23. If the perpendiculars meet the three sides of the triangle, the
point is within the triangle, Euc. IV. 4. If the perpendiculars meet the
base and the two sides produced, the point is the center of the ucrihed
circle. .
24. This is manifest from Euc. In. 11, 18.
26. The base BC is intersected by the perpendicular AD, and the
side AC is intersected by the perpendicular BE. From Theorem I. p.
160; the arc AF is proved equal to AE, or the arc FE is bisected in A.
In the same manner the arcs FD, DE, may be shewn to be bisected in BC.
26. Let ABC be a trianffle, and let D, E be the points where the in-
scribed circle touches the s1des AB, AC. Draw BE, CD intersecting
each other in O. Join AO. and produce it to meet BC in F. Then F i~
the point where the inscribed circle touches the third side BO. If P be
not the point of contact, let some other point G be the foint of contact.
Through D draw DR parallel to ACt and DK paralle to BC. By the
similar triangles, CO may be proved equal to OF, or G the point of con-
tact coincides with F, the point where the line drawn from A throulJh 0
meetsBC.
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'40 OBOKBTBICAL UBlUlISB8J &0.
27. In the Ipre, Hue. IV. 6. Let AF bisect the angle at A, and be
produced to meet the circumference in G. loin GB. GC and find the
center HoI the circle inacribed. in the triaqle ABC. The linea G H, GB.
GC ve equal to one another.
28. Let ABC be any triaDgle in.cribed in a circle. and let the per-
pendiculara AD, BE, CF iDtenect in G. Produce AD to meet the cir-
cumlerence in H, and join BR, CR. Then the triangle :HHC may be-
shewn to be equal in all reapectl to the triangle BGC, and the .circle
which circumscribes one of the triangles will also ciroomscribe the other.
Similarly may be shewn 1fr producing BB and CF, &c.
29. Firat. Prove that the perpendiculare All, :Rb, Co paM thNUJh
the same point O. as Theo. 112, p.168. Secondly. That the triangkB
AdJ, Bell, Cd are equiangular to ABC. Euc. D1. 21. Thirdly. That the
aagles of the triangle ca6c: are bisected by the ~diculara; and Iutly.
by meaus ofProb. 4, p. 71, t,hat cab + be + ctJ 18 a minimum.
30. The equilateral triangle can be proved to be the least triangle
which can be circumscribed about a circle.
31. Through C draw OR parallel to AB and join AB. Then HAC
the dift'erence of the angles at the baae ia equal to the angle HFC. Hue.
111.21. and UFC is biaected by FG. .
32. LetF, G t (flgure, EUC.IV. 6,) be the centers of the circumscribed
and inscribed circles; join GF. GA, then the angle GAF which is equal to
the difl'erence of the angles GAD, FAD, may be shewn to be ecJul fa
half the dift'erence of the anKles ABC and ACB.
33. 'I'bis Theorem may De stated more generaUy, as follow.:
Let AB be the bue of a t.riangle, AEB the locus of the verta'.; D the
bisection of the remaining arc ADB of the circumscribing circle; then the
locus of the center of the inscribed circle is another circle whose center is
D and radius DB. For joiD CD: then P the center of the Inscribed
circle is in CD. loin AP, PB; then these lines bisect the angles CAB,
CBA, and DB, DP, D:t::r. be proved to be equal to one another.
34. Let ADC be a e. having C aright angle, and upon A.C.BC.
let semicircles be described: bisect the hypotenuse in D. and let fan DB.
DF perpendiculars on AC. BO respectively. and produce them. to maS
the circumferences of the semicircles in P, Q; then DP may be proved
to be equal to DQ.
36. Let the angle BAC be a right angle, fig. Euc. IV. 4. loin .AD.
Then Euc. Ill. 17, note p. 166.
36. Suppose the triangle construoted, then it .ay be shewn that the
dift'erence between the hypotenuse Uld the sum. of the Wo aides is equal
to the diameter of the inscribed circle.
37. Let P, Q be the middle points of the area A.B. AC. and let PQ
be joined. cutting AD, A.C in DE; then AD is equal to AB. Find the
center 0 and join OP, QO.
as. With the given radius of the circumsoribed circle, describe a
circle. Draw BO cutting off the segment :HAC containing an angle
equal to the ~ven vertical angle. Bisect BC in D, and draw the diame-
ter ED F: jOin FBt and with center F and radius FB describe a circle :
this will be the locus of the centel'8 of the inscribed circle (see Theorem
2ft, supra.) On DE take DG equal to the _given radius of the iDacribed
circle, and through G draw G H parallel to BC, and meeting the locus of
the centers in H. H is the center of the iDScribed circle.
39. This may readily be effected in almost- a similar way to the pre-
ceding Problem.
jO. With the given radius describe a circle, then by Euc. m. 14.
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OK BOOJ[ IY. 841
1 fl. Let ABC be a tria'Ilgle on the given baae BC and having its ver-
tical angle A equal to the given angle. Then since the angle at A is
eonstant, A is a point in the arc of a segment of a circle described on BC.
Let D be the center of the circle inscribed in the triangle ABC. Join
DAt DB, DC: then the angles at B, 0, A, are bisected. Euc. IV. 4.
Also since the angles of each of the triangles ABC. DBC are equal to two
right angles, it follows that the angle BDC is equal to the angle A and
h&lfthe sUDlofthe angles B and O. But the sum of the angles B and C
can be found, because A is given. Hence the angle BDC is known, and
thnefore D is the locus of the vertex of a triangle described on the base
Be .and having its vertical angle at D double of the angle at A.
42. Suppose the parallelogram to be rectangular and inscribed in the
given triangle and to be equal in area to half the triangle: it may be
shewn that the parallelogram is equal to half the altitude of the triangle,
and that there is a restriction to the magnitude of the angle which twu
adjacent aides of the parallelogram make with one another.
43. Let ABC be the given triangle, and A'B'C' the other triangle, to
the sides of which the inscribed triangle is reguired to be parallel.
Through any point II in AD draw tab parallel to A 'H' one side of the frtven
triangle and through at b drawac, be respectively parallel to AC, BC.
loin A.c and produce it to meet BC in D; throug~ D draw DE, DP,
psrallel to ca, cb, respectively, and join EP. Then DE!' is the triangle
required.
l 44. This point will be found to be the intersection of the diagonals
of the given parallelogram.
46. The di1t'erence of the two sq\lare8 is obviously the sum of the four
triangles at the comers of the exterior square.
46. ~1) Let ABCD be the given square: join AC, at A in AC,
make the angles CAE, CAF. each equal to one-third of a right angle, and
join EF.
(2) . BisectAB any side in P, and draw PQ parallel to AD or BC.
then. at P make the angles as in the fonner case.
4:7. Each of the interior angles of a regular octagon may be shewn ..
he equal to three..fourths of two right angles, and the exterior angles
made by producing the sides, are each equ81 to one fourth of two right
BD!les, or one-half of a right angle.
48. Let tlle diagonals of the rhombus be drawn; the center of the
inscribed circle may be shewn to be the point of their intersection.
49. Let ABCD be the required square. Join 0,0' the centers of the
eircles and draw the diBgonal. ABC cutting 00' in E. Then E is the
middle point of 00' and the angle ABO is half a right angle.
60. ' Let the squares be inscribed in, and circumscribed about a circle.
and let the diameters be drawn, the relation of the two squares is manifest.
61. Let one of the diagonals of thEt square be drawn, then the isas-
eeles right-angled triangle which is half the square, may be proved to be
peater than 'any other right-angled triangle upon the same nypotenuse.
62. Take half of the side of the square inscribed in the gtven circle,
this will be equal to a side of the required octagon. At the extremities
on the same side of this line make two angles each equal to three-fourths
of two right angles, bisect these angles by two straight lines, the point
at which they meet will be the center of the circle which circumscribes
the octag~n, and either of t~e. ~isecting }inPS i;' the rad:i~ of the circle.
63. First shew the posSIbilIty of a Cll'cle mrcumscnbmg such a figure,
aDd then determine the center of the circle.
64. By constructing the figures and drawing lines from the center of
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341' GBOIIBTBICAL DBB018B8, &0.
the circle to the ana1ee of the oetapD. the area of the eight trialigles
ma,. be easily ehewn to be equal to eight times the rectangle contaiDed.
b,. the radiua of the circle, and half the aide of the inacribed square.
66. Let AD, AC, AD, be the sides 01 a Iquare, a regular hexagon
and ~n respectively inacribed in the eircle whose center is O. Pro-
duce AC to E making AE equal to AD; from E draw EF touching the
circle in F, and prove EF to be equal to AD.
66. Let the circle required touch the given circle in P, anel the givell
line in Q. Let C be the center of the given circle and C" that of the re-
\uired circle. Join CO', C'Q, QP; and let QP p:roduced meet the given
clrCle in R t join RC and ~I'oduce it to meet the liTen line in V. Then
RCV ia perpendicular to VQ. Hence the couatruction.
67. Let A, B be the centers of the given circles and CD the pTa
Itr&ifht line. On the aide of CD opposite to that on which the circles
are 8ltuated, draw a line EP -'Parallel to CD a. a distance equal to the
radius of the smaller circle. From A the center of the larger circle de-
acribe a concentric circle G H with radius equal to the dil'erence of the
radii of the two circlea. Then the center of the circle touching the
circle GH, the line EPt and pusing through the center of the amauer
circle B t may be shewn to be the center of the circle which touches the
circles whose centers are A, B, and the line CD.
68. Let AD, CD be the two lines given in position and E the center
of the given circle. Draw two linea FG, HI paraUel to AD, CD respec-
tively and external to them. Describe a circle passing through E and
touching FG, m. loin the centers E, 0, and with center 0 and radiul
equal to the di1l'erence of the radii of these circles describe a circle; thia
will be the circle required. .
';9 . Let the circle ACF having the center G t be the required circle
touching the given circle whose center is B, in the point ~ and euttinJ
the other given circle in the point C. loin BG, and through A draw a
Une perpendicular to BG; then this line is a eommOD tangent to the
circles whose centers are B, G. Join ACt GC. Henee the construction..
, 60. Let C be the gi~en point in the given straigh' line AB. ana D
the center of theteen circle. Through C draw a line CE perpendicular
to AB on the a aide of A.B, take CB equal to 'he radius of the giTa
circle. Draw ED, and at D make the angle EDP equal to the angle
DEC, and produce EC to meet DF. This gives the construction for on.
cue, when the given line does not cut or touch the other circle.
, 61.' This is a p.rtieular case of the general problem; To describe a
circle passing through a given pain, atid touching two atraight lin.
given m position.
Let A be the given point between the two given lines which when
~oduced meet in the point B. Bisect the angle at B by BD and through
A draw AD perpendicular to Bl> and produce it to meet the two given
lines in C, E. Take DF equal to DA, and on CBlake CG such that the
rectangle contained by CF, CA is equal to the square of CG. The circle
described through the points F, A, 0, wiU be the circle 2eqwdred. De-
duce the particular case when the given linea are at righ' angles to one
another, and the given point in the line which bisects ~e angle .'B. If
the lines are parallel, when is the aolution possible ~
62. Let A, B, be the centers of the giveD cire1es, which touch
externally in E; and let C be the given point mthat whose center is B.
~ake CD equal to AE and draw .AD. make the angle DAG equal to
the anJle ADO: then G is the center of the oirole requized, aDd GO
ita radius. .
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OK BOOK IV. 848
83. If the three pointe be auqh .. when joined by atraigbt lin. a
~le
sides of the triangle, are the pointe at which the three circles touch
another. Euc. IV. 4:. DifFerent cuea arise from the relative position
on.
is formed; the points at which the inacribed circle touch. the
76. In the ape, Rae.. IY. 10. let DO beproduoed to meet the circum
leftDCe in F, and join FB. Then FB ia the side of a regular pentagon
iJUlcribed in the larger circle, D is the middle of the arc subtencled by
the acljacellt siele of the pentagon. Then the diJference of FD and BD
is equal to the radius AB. Next, it naay be shewn. that FD is divided
in the .me manner in 0 aa AB, and by Buc. II. 4, 11, the squares on
FD and DB are three tim. the square on AD, and the rectangle of FD
and DB ia equal to the square on AB. .
76. If one of the diagonals be drawn, this line with three sides of the
pentagon forms a quadrilateral figure of which three consecutive sides
are equal. 'l'he problem is reduced to the inacription of a quadrilateral
in a square.
77. This may be deduced from Buc. IT. 11.
78. 1"he angle at A the center of the circle (fig. Euc. IV. 10.) is one-
tenth of four right angles, the arc BD is therefore onetenth of the
circumference, and the chord BD is the aide of a regular decagon
mlOribed in the laraer circle. Produce DC to meet the circumference
in F and join BFt tlien BF is the side of the inscribed pentagon, and AD
is the side of the inscribed hesagon. loin FA. Then PCA may be
proved to be an iaoecelee triangle and FB is a line drawn from the
vertex meeting the bue produced. If a WBPeadicular be drawn from
F OD. BC. the di1Ference of the aqurea on ,Fe may be shewn to be
equal to the rectangle AD, Be, (Euc. I. 4:7; 11. o. Cor.); or the square
onAC.
79. Divide the circle into three equal sectors, and draw tangents to
the middle points of the arcs, the problem. is then reduced to the
inscription of a circle in a triangle.
80. Let the inscribed circles whose centers are A, B touch each
other in G, and the circle ROlle center is C, in the points D. E; join
A. D; A, E; at D t draw DF perpendicular to DA, and EF to ED.
Dleetin~ in F. Let F, G be joined, and FG be proved to touch the two
circles In G whose centers are A and B.
81. The problem is the same u to find how =~ual circles may
be placed round a circle of the _me radius, . g this circle 8Dd
each other. The number is BU..
82. This is obvious from Euc. IV. 7. the side of a square circum-
maing a circle being equal to the diameter of the circle.
83. Each of the vertical aagles mthe ~tl: 10 formed, may be
proved to be equal to the dift'ereace between exterior and interior
_gle of the heptagon.
84. Every regular polygon can be divided into equal isosceles tri~
angl~s by drawing lines from the center of the inscribed or circumscribed
circle to the angular points of the figure, and the number of triangles
will be equal to the number of sides of the polygon. If a perpendicular
FG be let fau from F (Jigure, Eoo. IV. 14) the center on the base CD of
FOD. one of these triangles, and if GF be produced to H till FH be
equal to FG, and HO, HD be joined, an isosceles triangle is formed,
such that the ~le at H is half the angle at F. Bisect HC, HD in K,
1" and join XL; then the triangle HKL may be placed round the
vertex H, twice as many times as the triangle CFD round the vertex F.
86. The sum of the arcs on which stand the 1st, ard, 6th, &c. angles,
is equal to tb, sum of the arcs on whieh stand the 2nd, 4th, 6th, &c.
angles.
86. The proof of this property depends on the fact, that an isoaceJes
triangle has a greater area than any scalene triangle of the aame perimeter.
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GEOMETRICAL EXERCISES ON BOOK VI.
mNTS, &c.
26. Let the two given lines meet when produced in A. At A draw
AD perpendicular to AB. and AE to ACt and such that AD is to AB in
the given ratio. Through D, E, draw DF. EF, respectively parallel to
AB, AC and meeting each other in P. Join AF and produce it, and
the perpendiculars drawn from any point of this line on the two giveD
lines will always be in the given ratio.
27. The angles made by the four lines at the point of their divergence.
remain constant. See Note on Euc. VI. A, p. 296.
28. Let AD be the given line from which it is required to cut a
part BC such that BC shall be a mean proportional between the
remainder AO and another given line. Prod\1ce ~~ -D... making BD
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d
ON BOOlt VI 847
. equal to the other given line. On AD describe a semicircle. at B draw
DE perpendicular to AD. Bisect DD in 0, and with center 0 and
radius OB describe a semicircle, join OE cutting the semicircle on BD
in P, at F draw FC perpendicular to OE and meeting AD in C. C it
the point of division, such that BC is a mean proportional between
AC and BD. .
29. Find two squares in the given ratio. and if BF be the given line
(figure, Eue. VI. 4), draw BE at right angles to BF, and take DC, CR
respectively equal to the sides of the squares which are in the given ratio
.Join EF, and draw CA parallel to EF: then BF is divided in A. as
required.
80. Produce one side of the triangle through the vertex and make
the part produced equal to the other side. Bisect this line, and with.
the vertex of the triangle as center and radius equal to half the sum of
the sides, describe a circle cutting the base of the triangle.
31. H a circle be described about the given triangle. and another
circle upon the radius drawn from the vertex of the triangle to the center
ofthe circle. as a diameter. this circle will cut the base in two points, and
give two solutions of the problem. Give the Analysis.
82. This Problem is analogous to the preceding.
83. Apply Ruc. VI. 8; Cor.; 17.
84. Describe a circle about the triangle, and draw the diameter
I
through the vertex A, draw a line touching the circle at A, and meeting
die base BC produced in D. 'Ihen AD shall be a mean proportional
between DC and DB. Euc. III. 36.
36. In-BC produced take CR a third proportional to BC and AC.;
on CE describe a circle, the center being 0; draw the tangent EF at
E equal to AC; draw 1'0 cutting the circle in l' and 'r; and lastly
draw tangents at T, T meeting BC in P and P'. These points fulful the
conditions of the problem.
By combining the proportion in the construction with that from the
aimUar t~le8 ABC, DBP, and Euc. III. 36, 87: it may be proved
that CA.PD == CPl. 'The demonstratioll is similar for P/D'.
86. This property may be immediately deduced from Euc. VT. 8, Cor.
37. Let ABC be the triangle, right-angled at Cf and let AE on AB
be equal to AC, also let the line bisec!i.Etthe angle A, meet BC in D.
loin DE. Then the triangles ACD, are equal, and the triangles
ACB, DEB equiangular.
38. The segments cut off from the sides are to be measured from the
right angle, and by similar triangles are proved to' be equal; also by
aimUar triangles, either of them is proved to be a mean proportional
between the remaining segments of the two sides.
a9. Pirstprove AC2:ADS:: BC! 2. BD; then 2. ACt: ADI:: BC: BD,
whence 2.AC- AD':ADj::BC - BD: BD,
and since 2.AC - ADI == 2.AC - (AC' + DC,) = AC' - CD',
dle property is immediately deduced.
40. 'l'he construction is suggested by Euc. I. 47, and Euc. VI. 81.
41. See Note Euc. VI. A. p. 296. The bases of the triangles CBD,
ACD, ABC, CDE may be shewn to be respectively ~qual to DB, 2.DD,
S.DD,4.BD. .
42. (1) Let ABC be the triangle which is to be biseoted by a line
drawn parallel to the base BC. Describe a semicircle on AB, hom t.he
center D draw DE perpendicular to AD meeting the circumference ill
!:j0in EA., and with center A. and radius AE describe a circle cutting
in 1', the line drawn fron F parallel to BC, biseC1tl the triangle. TAe
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348 GBOJlBTlllOA..L UBBCI8SS, &0.
proof.~OIlBuc.,". 19; to, Cor. t. (2) Let ABCbethe~e,
BC bebaa the hue. Draw.AD at riaht angies to BA meetiDgthe bMe
produced in D. Bileot BC in E, ana on ED deecribe a semicircle, &om
B draw BP to touch the semicircle in P. Prom BA cut off BP' equal
to BP, and from. P draw FG perpendicular to BC. The line FG biseets
the triangle. Then it may be _proved that BFG: BAD :: BE: BD.
and that BAD : BA.C :: BD : BC; whence it follows that BPG : BAC
:: BE : BC or u 1 : 2
3. Let ABC be the given triangle which ja to be divided into two
parte baving a given ratio, by a line Jlarallel to BO. Describe a ,semi-
circle on AB and divide AlJ in D In the given ratio; at D draw DB
~dicular to AD and meeting the circmUference in E; with center
A and n.diaa AB deseribe a ci:icle cu~ AD in F: the line drawn
through P parallel to BC ia the line required. In the eame JlWlDer
a triangle may be divided into three or more parts ba~ any: giT8ll ratio
t.o one anodler bylines draWB parallel to ODe of the aidet of the triangle.
Let theae pointe be taken, one on each aide, anclltraight IiDeti be
drawn to them; it ma]' then be proved that theae pointe sevei'allr biaeot
the aidea of the triangle
0. Let ABC be any triangle and D be the given point in BC, from
which lines are to be drawn which shall divide the triangle into any
_umber (auppoae five) equal parte. Divide BC into five equal parts in
B. P, G. H, and draw A.E, AF, AG, AR, AD, anel through B. P, G, H
draw EL, PM, GN, HO parallel to AD, and join DL, DM, DN. DO;
these line. divide the triangle into fiye equal parts.
By a similar process, a triangle may be divided into any Dumber of
parts which have a given ratio to one another.
46. Let ABC be the larger, aIJc the smaller triangle. it is required to
draw a line DB parallel to AC cutting off the triangle DBE equal to the
triangle abc. On BC take BG equal to 00, and on BG describe the
t~le BGR equal to the ~le GOO. Draw HK parallel to BC, join
KG; then the triangle BGK is equal to the triangle abc. On BA, BC
take BD to BE in the ratio of BA to BC, and such that the rectangle
contained by BD, BE shall be equal to the rectangle contained by BI,
:BG. loin DE, then DE is parallel to AC, and the triangle BDE is
equal to abc.
47. Let ABCD be any rectangle, contained by .A.B, BC,
'l'hen ABI : AB. BC : : AB : BC,
and AB.BC : BC' :: AB : BC,
wheneeABI: AB.BC:: AB.BC: BCI,'
or the rectangle contained by two adjacent aides of a rectangle, is 8 mean
proportional between their squares. .
.8. In a straight line at any point A, make .AlJ equal to Ad in the
ghtp.n ratio. At A draw AB perpendicular to eAtl, and equal to a side
of the given square. On cd describe a semicircle cutting AD in 6; and
join 00, btl; from B draw BC parallel to 00, and BD parallel to 6d: then
AC, AD are the adjacent sides of the rectangle. For, CA is to AD
,as cA. to Ad, Bue. VI. 2; and CA.AD = AB', CBD being a right-angled
triangle.. .
49. From one of the given points two str~ht lines are to be draWll
perpendicular. one to each. of any two adjacent SIdes of the parallelogram ;
. and from the other point, two lines perpendicular in the same manner to
each of the two remaining sides. When these four linea are drawn to
intersect ODe another, the fiKure 80 formed mar be ahewn to be equi-
angular to the given parallelogram.
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OK BOOK VI. 349
IJO.It Is manifest that this is the general case of Prop .f., p. 198.
If the rectangle to be cut off be two-thirds of the given rectangle ABCD.
Produce BC to E so that BE may be equal to a side of that square
which is equal to the rectangle required to be cut off; in this case, equal
to two-thirds of the rectangle ABeD. 011 AD take AP equal to AD or
BC; bisect FB in G, and with center G and radius GE, describe a
eemieircle mee~ AD, and AD produced, in Hand K. On CB take
CL equal to AU and draw HM, LM parallel to the sides, and HBLM
is two-thirds of the rectangle ABCD.
61. Let ABOD be the parallelognml, and CD be cut in P and BC
produced in Q. By means of the sUnilar triangles formed, the property
may be proved.
02. '1'11e intersection of the diagonals is the common vertex of two
triangles which have the parallel sides of the trapezium for their bases.
63. Let.AB be the given straight line, and C the center of the given
circle; through C draw the diameter DeE perpendicular to AD. Place
in the circle a line FG which has to AD the given ratio; bisect FG in
H, join CB, and on the diameter DOB, take CK, CL each equal to
OR; either of the linea drawn through K, I" and parallel to .A:B is
~elinenqmred. .
64. Let C be the center of the circle, CA, CB two radii at right angles
to each other; and let DEFG be the line required which is trisected in
the points E, F. Draw OG perpendicular to DH and produce it to meet
the circumference in K; draw a tangent to the circle at K: draw eG,
and produce CB; CG to meet the tangent in L, M, then MK may be
shewn to be treble of LK.
66. The triangles AOD, BCE are similar, and OF is a mean propor-
tional between AC and CB.
66. Let any tangent to the circle at B be terminated by AD, BC
tangents at the extremity of the diameter AB. Take 0 the center of the
circle and join OC, OD, OE; then ODe is a right-angled triangle and
OE is the perpendicular from the right angle upon the hypotenuse.
67. This problem on11 dift'ers from problem 69, -infra, in having the
given point without the gtven circle.
68. Let A be the given point in the circumference of the circle, C its
center. Draw the diameter ACB, and produce AD to D, taking AB to
BD in the given ratio: from D draw a line to touch the circle in E,
which is the point required. From A. draw AF perpendicular to DE,
and cutting the circle in G.
69. Let A be the given point within the circle whose center is 0, and
let BAD be the line required, 80 that BA is to AD in the given ratio.
loin AC and produce it to meet the circumference in E, F. Then EF
is a diameter. Draw BG, DB perpendicular on EP: then the triangles
. BGA, DHA are ~uiangu1ar. Hence the construction. -
60. Through E one extremity of the chord EF, let a line be drawn
parallel to one diameter, and intersecting the other. Then the three
angles of the two triangles may be shewn to be respectively equal to one
another.
61. Let AB be that diameter of the given circle which when produced
is perpendicular to the given line CD, and let it meet that line in C; and
let P be the given point: it is required to :find D in CD, 80 that DB
may be equal to the tangent DF. Make BC: CQ:: CQ: CA, and join
PQ; bisect PQ in E, and draw ED perpendicular to PQ meeting CD in
D; then D is the point reqmred. Let 0 be the center of the circle; draw
the tangent DF; and join OP, OD, QD, PD. The~QD DIlay be shewn
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3&0 GBOKBTBICAL EXERCISES, &0.
proved double of FR. And AQ is double of QF, and the alternate '
angles P AQ. QFR are equal. Hence the triangles APQ, RFQ are
eq uiangular.
72. Let C, C' be the centers of the two circles, and let CO' the line
joining the centers intersect the common tangent F:P' in. T. Le& dae
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ON BOOK VI. 351
line joining the centers cut the circles in Q. Q', and let PQ, P'Q' be
joined; then PQ is parallel to P'Q'. Joiu CPt e'p', and then the angle
QPT may be proved to be equal to the alternate angle Q'P'T. .
73. Let ABC be the triangle, and BC its base; let the circles AFB,
AFC be described in~rsecting the base in the point F, and their
diameters AD, AE t be drawn; then DA: AE :: BA : AC. For Join
DB, DF, EF, EO, the triangles DAB, RAC may be proved to be eimliar.
74. H the extremities of the diametera of the two circletS be joined
by two straight lines, these lines may be proved to intersect at the
point of contact of the two circles; and the two right-angled triangle.
thus formed may be shewn to be similar bl Euc. III.
76. This follows directly from the simdar triangles.
3'.
76. Let the figure be constructed as in Theorem 4, p. 150, the tri-
angle EAD being right-angled at A, and let the circle inscribed in the
triangle ADE touch AD, AE, DE in the points K., L, 11 respectively.
Then AK is e~ua1 to AL, each being equal to the radius of the inscribed
.circle. Also AB is equal to GC, and AD is half the perimeter of the tri..
angle AED.
Also if GA be joined, the triangle AD E is obviously equal to the
dUference of AGDE and the triangle GDE, and this.di1I'erence may be
proved equal to the rectangle contained by the radii of the other two
Circles.
77. From the centers of the two circles let straight lint's be drawn
to the extremities of the sides which are opposite to the right allJtlea
in .each triangle. and to the points where the circles touch these sides.
Eu.c. VI. 4.
78. Let A, B be the two given points, and 0 a point in the circum-
ference of the given circle. Let a circle be described through the points
A, B, C.and cutting the circle in another point D. Join CD, AB, and
produce them to meet in H. Let HF be drawn touching the given
circle in F; the circle described through the points A, B, F, will be
the circle required. Joining AD and CB, by Euc. III. 21, the tri-
angles CBB, AED are equiangular, and by Euc. VI. 4, 16,111. 36, 37 t
the given circle and the required circle each touch the line EF in the
same point, and therefore touch one another. 'Vhen does this solution
fail ?
Various cases will arise according to the relative position of the two
points and the circle.
79. Let A be the given point, BO the given straight line, and D the
center of the given circle. Through D draw CD perpendicular to BC,
meeting the circumference in E, F. Join AF, and take FG to the
diameter FE, as Fe is to FA. 111e circle described pass~ through the
two points A, G and touching the line BC in B is the clrcle required.
Let H be the center of this circle; join HB, and BF cutting the
circumference of the ~ven circle in X, and join EK. Then the tri
angles FBC, FKE bemg equiangular, by Euc. VI. 4, 16, and the con-
struction, K is proved to be a point in the circumference of the circle
passing through the points A, G, B. And ifDX, XH be joined, DKH
may be proved to be a straight line:- the straight line which joins the
centera of the two circles, and passes through a common point in their
circumferences.
80. Let A be the given point, B, C the centers of the two give.
circles. Let a line drawn through B, C meet the circumferences at
the circles in G, F; H, D, respectively. In GD produced, take the
point H, 80 that BH is to CR as the radius of the circle whose cen_
Digitized by Coogle
lSI OBOIIBTRICAL UERCISES, &0.
CD, the angles DeB. DCF each equal to the angle CDA or CDB, IDd
meeting the arc ADB in E and F. Join EF, the segment of the circle
described llpon EF and which \&88es through C, will be similar to ADD.
106. The square inscribed m the circle' mar be shewn to be equal to
mce the square on the radius; and five .times the square inscribed ill
.~e semicircle to four times the square on the radius.
107. The three triangles formed by three aides of the square with '
~epents of the sides of the given triangle, may be proved to be similar.
Whence by E UC. VI, the truth of the pr9perty.
108. By constructing the figure, it may be shewn that twice ~e
square inscribed in the quadrant is equal to the square on the radiuS.
and that five times the square inscribed in the semicircle is equal to four
'times the square on the radius. Whence it follows that, &c. !
109. By Euc. I. 47. and Euc. VI. 4, it may be shewn. that four timthel II
the square on the radius is equal to fifteen. times the square of one on ,
equal aides of the triangle. I
110. Constructing the figure, the right-angled triangles SCT. ACB
Digitized by Google I
ON BOOK n.
may be proved to have a certain ntio, and the triangles ACB, CPK ill
the same wal. may be proved to have the same ratio.
Ill. Let BA, AC be the bounding radii, and D a point in the arc of
a quadrant. Bisect BAC by AE, and draw through D, the line HDGP
perpendicular to AE at G t and meeting .A.B, AC, produced in H, P.
From H draw Hll to touch the circle of which BC is a quadrantal arc ;
produce AU, making HL equal to HM, also on HA, take HK equal to
HM. Then K, L, are the points of contact of two circles through D
which touch the boun(ling radii, ABt AC.
Join DA. Then, since BAC is a right angle, AX is equal to the
radius of the circle which touches BAt BC in K, K/; and eimilarly, AL
is the radius of the circle which touches them in L, L/. Also,HAP
being an isosceles triangle, and AD drawn to the base, ADI is shewn
to be equal to AX. XL. Huc. UI. 36; 1I. 6, Cor.
1] 2. Let E. F, G be the cantels of the circles inscribed in the trianglea
ABC, ADB, ACD. Draw ER, FX, GL~rpendiculars on BC, BA, AC
respectively, and join CE. EB; BF, FA; CG, GA. Then the relation
between R, r, r/, or ER, FR, G L may be found from the similar triangl..,
and the property of right-angled triangles.
113. The two hexagoDi consist each of six equilateral triangles, and
the ratio of the hexagons is the same as the ratio of their equilateral
triangles. .
114. The area of the inscribed equilateral triangle may be proved to
be equal to half of the inscribed hexagon, and the circumscribed triangle
equal to four times the inscribed triangle.
116. The pentagons are similar. figures, and can be divided into the
aame number of similar triangles. Euc. VI. 19. .
116. Let the Bides AD, BC, CA of the equilateral
the circle in the points D, E. F, respectively. Draw
triande
ABC toucll
cutting the
circumference in G; and take 0 the center of the circle and draw OD:
draw also HGK touching the circle in G. The property mal then be
alunrn br the similar triangles AHG, AOD.
Digitized by Coogle
INDEX
TO 'lB.
GEOMETRICAL EXERCISES.
ABBREVIATIONS
. . . JIDue Ex. .m.tiaII tor Degrees. St. Catharlne'l College. Cath,
S. H. leaua College. lee.
Imlth'. Mathematical PrIRI. S. p. Christ'. College. Cm.
Bell'. UDlvenlty 8oholarahipe.B. S. St. John's College. loh.
St Peter'. Colle,e. Pet. Xagdalene College. Mag.
Clare Conep. CIa. Trinity eollege. Trl1l.
....broke College. Pem. EmmaDuel College. Emm.
GoDTIlle and CliUI College. Cal. Sidney S11888X College. Sid.
TriDlt)' Hall. T. R. Downing College. Down.
Corpus Chrlltl College. C. C. In the years the centuries are omitted,
XiDg'. CoUege. Xi. aDd the places are supplied b1 a comma
Queen'. College. Qu. prefixed, thus ,45 meanl 1846.
Sf TJ 1. 0. 9..
,36. ,45. Emm. ,37.
ri
81 S. H. ,69.
t 23 Pe ,4 1 h. S.
124 Qu. ,64.
C ., eL..,4. 2 -.ri. ,60. 26 e ,6
36 Sid ,36. 83 S. -n:.,03. flu 22 126 1'r. ,42.
ft
70 Trw. ,29 Sid. 46. I 112 Joh. ,31 159 T-rin 38 Joh.,19
L. ,6 I 13m ., urI ,39. Jee.,4
1 8. 68 1 4 oh 2 B H ,4 Y
12 Ohr. ,48. Sld. ,52. 115 S. H. ,20. Trm.,22.
I
3 ri ,3
74 S.H. ,36 Jes. 67. I
5.
39.-
'8
,3. C I
,63.
J 3. 8. ,3
161 Jes. 44.
6 .H.,O. Pem., 2. I 1 6 . L., 1 . C. ,3
T P' ,4 1 7 'rir ,2 I P t. 2.
76 1'rin. ,45. I 118 Jes. ,64. 164 C. O. ,26. B. S.
7 1-,0 , . 1 9 ai 61 , Ill ..;., .
~8 Pet. 39. Emm. 56. I 120 Cai. 37. 166 Oath ,30
9 h. ,30. '., 6. I~ 1 1 ai. ,42. I 1 Joh. , 6.
f'tl.a. 46 122 Oai 36 Dig Jb J~ ~ ~
380 INDia.
, ,".
,44. Oath. ,34. Chr.
24 loh. ,19.
66 Mag. ,41.
67 Pet. ,26.
68 .Joh. ,1'.
86 Trin. ,.32.
86 Qu. ,81.
87 loh. ,29. Qu. ,43 .
26 Qu. ,30. O. O. ,40. 69 Q.u. ,22"- 88 loh. ,18.
26 loh. ,28. 60 Qa. ,21. 89 Qu. ,21.
27 Qu. ,38. 61 TIm. ,26~ 80 Trin. ,36.
28 Qu. ,34. 62 Pet .a6 . Dl S. H. ,26.
29 Qu. ,24. 63 18k. ,19. 92 :eet. ,33
30 Pem. ,33. 64 Sid. ,30. Emm. ,49'. 93 rob. ,19.
.31 Trin. ,11. ,28. ,43. 66 Pem;. ,30. S'.P. ,42. 94 Joh. ,22. Emm. ,26
, les 19. Qu. ,21. 66 Qu. ,36~ ,36. Pem. 96 Pem. ,34. C.O: ,30,
,23. ,26. O. C. ,26. 37 . 98 Joh. ~38.
i Pem. ,32. ,34. ,43 .. 6'1 Trin.. ,s1. 97 Cath. ,31.
I Oai. ,33. Emm. ,21. 68 Joh. ,36'. 98 Emm. ,46.
,32 Joh. ,26. 69' ~t. ,2&. 99 Joh. ,13. ,21.
133 Qu. ,48. 70 S.H.. ,.18. Qu. ,20. trine ,29. ,84:.
a, Pet. ,28. ,36. . ~1 loh. ,18 . Cath. ,31. Qu. ,43. ,38.
36 loh. ,19. 72 Cai. ,.46. 100C.0. ,28. Pem. ,42.
36 Cai. ,36. 73 Trin. ,35. 101 C.O. ,36. S. H. ,11.
37 loh. ,26. 'f.4 Pent. ,31. ,43. Qu. Pem. 46. T; H. ,46
38 loh. ,16. C. 0.,.87 r- ,19 . ,.26. ,43. Trin. 102 Qu. ,41. ,42.
39 Trin. ,26. ,22.. ,37. CaL ,43. 103 S. H. ,09. B. S.
40 Joh. ,17. Mag. ,32. ,30. ,31.
41 loh. ,42. 70 Chr. ,48. 104 S. H. ,36.
42 Umm. ,47. 'Iff S.H. ,39. Pem. ,43. 106 Sid. ,29.
43 Pet. ,26. 77 Qu. ,41. 106 Pet. ,36.
44 Trin. ,38. . 78 Trin. ,22. Qu. ,39. 107 Cai. ,39.
46 loh. ,21. Chr. ,42. 108 Trin. ,11. ,20. ,32.
48 Pet. ,32. . 79 Qu. ,22. ,38. Trin. ,33. Chr. ,36.
47 loh. ,20. ,42. ,44. 109 Pet. ,37.
48 loh. ,14. 80 Qu. ,29. ,36. ,41. 110 Cai. ,31.
49 Qu. ,36. S. P. ,43. 111 Job. .31. Qu. ,44.
60 Qu. ,26. 81 Qu. ,40. 112 C. C. ,30.
61 Pet. ,64. 82 Qu. ,23. ,36. ,38. 113 loh. ,20.
62 Cai. ,44. 83 loh. ,13. Trin. ,20. 114 Emm. ,37..
63 loh. ,16. Emm. ,24. Ohr. ,37. 116 'J'rin. ,20.
64 Chr. ,41 . ,46.Qu. ,36. ,22. ,44. 116 Qkth;. ,.4&.
TUB BND.
Digitized by Coogle
"In my opinien Mr. Potte has made a valUl8ble addition to Geometri..
ftalliterature by his Editions of Euclid's Elements." - W. lYh6fDeU, D.D.,
Master of Trinity College, Cambridge.
" Mr. Potts' Editions of E?cclid', Geometry are characterized by a due
appreciation of the spirit and exactness of the Greek Geometry, and an
acquaintance' with its history. as well as by a knowledge of tpe modem
extensions of the Science. The Elements are giV'en in such a form as to
preserve entirelr the spirit of the ancient reasoning, and. havmg;been ex-
tensively used m Colleges and Public Schools, cannot fail to have the
effect of keeping up the study of Geometry in its original purity." -Jame,
Challis, M.A., Pl'Umian Profe88orof Astronomy-and Er.p~f')UJntal Philosophy
in tke University of Cambridge. . -
"By the pUblication of th('se wOl'ks, Mr. Potts has done very great
~ervice to the cause of Geometrical Science: 1 have adopted Mr. Potts'
work as the text-book for my own Lectures in Geometry, amI I believe
~hat it is recommended by all the Mathematical Tutors and Professors in
~is University." -Robert JYalker, M.A., F. R.S. , RtfUler in E:rperimental
Ifkilosophy i1~ the Unit:8rsit!l, and Mathematical J'tttor of Wadham CoUege,
:Ozjord.
"The plan of this work is excellent." -Speetatcr.
"We '!llust be content with giving a short, but emphatic approval of
the book as a beginner's text-book." -Llthenamm.
"Mr Potts has maintained the text. of Simson, and secured the very
spirit of Euclid's Geometry, by means which are simply Me,chaniaa1. It
consists in printing the syllogism in a separate paragraph, and the mem-
bers of it in separate subdivisions, each, for the most part, occupying a
single line. The divisions, of a proposition are therefore seeD at once
without requiring an instant's thought. Were this the only advantage of
Mr. Potts's Edition, the great convenience which it affords in tuition would
give it a claim to become the Geometrical text- book of England. 'l'his t
however, is not its only merit." -Philosophical Magazine, JantUlry, 1848.
"If we may judge from the solutions we have sketched of a few of
Lhem [the Geometrical Exercises], we should be led to consider. them
admirably adapted to improve the taste as well as the skill of the Student.
A.s a series of judicious exercises, indeed, we do not think there exists
(me at all comparable to it in our language-viewed either in reference to
;he student or teacher."-M-chanics"Magazine, No. 117S.
u The 'Hints' are not to be understood as propositions wor~ed out at
length. in the manner of Bland's Problems" or like those worthless things
:alled 'Keys,' as generally forged and filed,' -mere books for the dull
Uld the lazy. In some cases references only are made to the Propositions
)n which a solution depends; in others, we have a step or two of the
process indicated j_ in one case the analysis is- briefly given to find the
~onstruction or demonstration; in another case the reverse of this. 00-
~asionany, though seldom the entire -process is given as a mode!'; but
IIlOS~ commonly, just so much is suggested as will enable a, student of
lverage ability to complete the whole solution-in short, just 80 much
:and no more) assistance is afforded as would, and must be, a:ft'orded by a
;utor to his pupil. Mr. Potts appears to us to have hit the-' golden mean'
)f Geometrical tutorship." -Mechanics' Magazine, No. 1270.
U We can most conscientiously recommend it [The School Edition] to
,ur own younger readers. as the best edition of the best book on Geometry
nth which we are acquainted."-Mechanics' Magazine. No. 1228.
Digitized by Coogle
OcltlH, 1'1'. G68; pnc. 10.. 6a. in OlotA.
A VIEW
orUE
EVIDENCES OF CHRISTIANITY,
J:N 'EHBEB PA.&TS:.
A NEW EDmON,
uW~b""'BJm
NOTESa AN ANALY8!8,.
ANI> & SELECTION. 0.' Q.'O'ESTION8 FROIl THE 8ENATE-BOUSB.
AND COLLEGE EXAMINATION PAPEB8;
DESIGNED FOR 'JHE \TSE OF STUD&.VfSt'
BY