Lecture 19: Phylogeny

All forms of life on earth are genetically connected to one another through a vast phylogenetic tree.
This class explores how to interpret, build, and use phylogenies to answer questions about evolutionary
history.

Independent study outcomes

1. How polyploidy can induce sympatric speciation

Through either allopolyploidy or autopolyploidy, a hybrid with >2n sets of chromosome will be
produced, if it also happens to be fertile, the hybrid can establish a population of new polyploidy
species (if it can produce polyploidy gametes) through self-fertilization or fertilization with other
doubled hybrids. (divergence from subpopulations within a population)

2. The meaning of systematics, phylogeny, phylogenetic tree, classification, taxon,

taxonomic hierarchy
Systematics: branch of biology which studies diversity of life and its evolutionary relationships
Reconstructing phylogeny
Reconstructing taxonomy
Phylogeny: evolutionary history of a group of organisms
Phylogenetic tree: A branching diagram depicting the evolutionary relationships of groups of
organisms formal hypothesis identifying relationships among species
Classification: an arrangement of organisms into hierarchal groups which reflect their relatedness
Taxon: All organisms included within any category of the taxonomic hierarchy
Taxonomy: The identification and naming of species and their placement in a classification
Taxonomic hierarchy: a way of arranging organisms into ever more inclusive categories.
(Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species) (Duchess, King Philip came
over for good Sex.)

3. Why similarities in morphology or lifestyle do not necessarily reflect close

relatedness, using examples
Because there is a tendency among organisms living under the same conditions to develop similar
body forms. (Parallel or convergent evolution).
Parallel evolution: phylogenetically more closely related organisms.
Convergent evolution: phylogenetically more distantly related organisms.

4. The two major goals of systematics

Reconstructing phylogeny (evolutionary history) of a group of organisms.
Reconstructing taxonomy. (The identification and naming of species and their placement in a
classification).

5. Principles underlying the Linnaean system of classification (species, family etc)

and which groupings include which other groupings
Largest to smallest: (Duchess, King Philip came over for good Sex.)
 Lecture outcomes

Why most speciation occurs in allopatry (ie why sympatric speciation is rare)
Most of the times speciation occurs due to geographic separation (allopatry,)
Because there is no physical barrier for exchange of gametes in sympatric speciation, the
population is still in the same area. (therefore sympatric speciation is relatively low.

Correct interpretation of evolutionary trees, close and distant relatives, and

where extinct taxa would be placed in a tree
In phylogenetic trees modern species(contemporary) are typically at the tips of the trees
Organisms at branching points (internal nodes) are ancestral forms of species which no longer
exist
The MRCA of frogs and beetles may look like neither species
All 6 phylogenies convey the same info but are shaped differently
FC are more closely related to each other over other species
Time flows from roots towards tips
Roots are either on bottom or left side
All you can tell from phylogenetic trees is relative order of various branching events
No scale bar
The extinct don't reach present day.

Some phylogenies convey more info than just branching order

Scale bars established like a molecular clock

Homology vs. misleading similarities (due to convergence of distantly related

taxa) or misleading differences (due to divergence among closely related taxa),
and examples of each
Homology (inherited from genetics) vs. misleading similarities (convergence): crocodiles and
hippos, both have their eyes above water while slurking, (they are genetically distant, but since
they both inhabit the same environment, they adapt similar traits( the underwater scoobadiving
lurking)
Similar selection pressure lead to similar adaptation.
Misleading differences (divergence) :
Birds, genetically closely related, have variant sizes of beaks, (they look quite different, but they
are really closely related.
Homologies support the correct phylogeny
Homoplasies are misleading.

synapomorphies, symplesiomorphies and autapomorphies on a phylogenetic tree

Cladistic analysis, evolutionary relatedness is reflected by nested hierarchy of similarities
There are three types of traits here:
Synapomorphy (not present in the common ancestor, they are shared and derived)
shared by two or more groups
derived (from a common ancestor)
 MOST common, pay attention (because it reveal evolutionary relationships between groups)

Symplesiomorphy (Present in the common ancestor, they are shared and inherited)
shared by two or more groups
ancestral (trait was also already present before the groups diverged)

Autapomorphy (not present in the common ancestor, they are derived)

unique to a single group
derived within the group

The significance of outgroup analysis

To determine the shared/ unique traits are easy. But in order to differentiate between derived and
ancestral group. We have to do something like this:
Outgroup analysis: Find an outgroup... Close relative known to have branched off earlier than any
of the groups of interest
Use it to determine what traits the common ancestor of a group had