Senior Physical Education For Queensland

SENIOR
PHYSICAL
EDUCATION FOR
QUEENSLAND
Cr ystal Hede | K ate Rus sell | Ron Weather by
W ith contr ibutions from Deb Cl ar ke | Danielle Simpson | K aren L amber t |
K im McKeen | Michelle Maher | Peter Henson | Peter Kov ac s
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3
253 Normanby Road, South Melbourne, Victoria 3205, Australia
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Crystal Hede, Kate Russell, Ron Weatherby 2011
First published 2011
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All enquiries should be made to the publisher at the address above.
Hede, Crystal.
Senior physical education for Queensland / Crystal Hede, Kate Russell, Ron Weatherby
978 019 557386 2 (pbk.)
Includes index.
For secondary school age.
Health education (Secondary) -- Queensland.
Physical education and training -- Study and teaching (Secondary) -- Queensland.
Physical tness -- Study and teaching (Secondary) -- Queensland.
Russell, Kate.
Weatherby, Ron.
613.043309943
Edited by Carla Morris

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Indigenous Australians and Torres Strait Islanders are advised that this publication may in-
clude images or names of people now deceased.
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Contents
Focus area ALearning physical skills 2
Chapter 1 Motor learning 4
Skills ................................................................................................................................................. 5
Learning.......................................................................................................................................... 12
Practice ........................................................................................................................................... 23
The information-processing model ............................................................................................... 26
Assessing skill and performance .................................................................................................. 34
Summary ........................................................................................................................................ 41
Chapter 2 Psychology of performance 42
What is sports psychology? ............................................................................................................ 43
Common sports psychology problems .......................................................................................... 44
Techniques for managing sports psychology problems ............................................................... 55
Summary ........................................................................................................................................ 71
Chapter 3 Applying biomechanics to sport 72
What is biomechanics? .................................................................................................................. 73
Motion ............................................................................................................................................. 74
Balance and stability ...................................................................................................................... 78
Force ............................................................................................................................................... 85
Projectile motion .......................................................................................................................... 103
Fluid mechanics ........................................................................................................................... 109
Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 119
Focus area A assessment tasks 120
Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise 122

Chapter 4 The bodys response to physical activity 124
Energy ........................................................................................................................................... 125
Training effects ............................................................................................................................. 146
Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 155
Chapter 5 The fundamentals of fitness 156
The components of physical fitness ............................................................................................ 157
Tests to measure physical fitness................................................................................................ 162
Training methods.......................................................................................................................... 185
Training principles ........................................................................................................................ 214
Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 221
Chapter 6 Designing and evaluating training programs 222
Planning a training program ........................................................................................................ 223
Short-term training programs ..................................................................................................... 239
Program evaluation ...................................................................................................................... 250
Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 257
Contents iii
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Chapter 7 Sports injuries 258
Classifying and managing injuries .............................................................................................. 259
Injury rehabilitation ...................................................................................................................... 276
Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 289
Focus area B assessment tasks 290
Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society 292

Chapter 8 Figueroas framework: An introduction to sociology 294
Sociology and sport ...................................................................................................................... 295
Equity and access ......................................................................................................................... 298
Figueroas framework .................................................................................................................. 299
Applying Figueroas framework: Sports-specific case studies .................................................. 302
Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 305
Chapter 9 Cultural influences on equity and sports participation 306
A brief history of sport in Australia .............................................................................................. 307
Australias sporting identity ......................................................................................................... 313
Socialisation ................................................................................................................................. 313
Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 331
Chapter 10 Structural influences on equity and sports participation 332
Sport and the media ..................................................................................................................... 333
Sport as a business ...................................................................................................................... 338
Government funding and development programs ...................................................................... 352
Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 357
Chapter 11 Institutional influences on equity and sports participation 358
Community and school sport ....................................................................................................... 359
Sports rules and regulations ....................................................................................................... 371
Religious institutions .................................................................................................................... 372
Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 373
Chapter 12 Interpersonal and individual influences equity and
sports participation 374
Interpersonal level ....................................................................................................................... 375
Individual level .............................................................................................................................. 383
Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 403
Focus area C assessment tasks 404
AppendixAnatomy for physical education 406
Skeletal system ............................................................................................................................ 406
Muscular system .......................................................................................................................... 414
Glossary 420
iv PE: Senior Physical Education For Queensland
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Whats new?
Introduction
PE: Senior Physical Education for Queensland is a new text with a fresh approach that is tailored
specically to Queenslands senior physical education course. Incorporating topical research,
up-to-date articles and statistics, striking imagery, ebook on CD-ROM, and the knowledge and
expertise of our author team, Oxfords PE brings physical education to a new generation of
students.
Assessment and revision

Success for your students is ensured thanks to an explicit focus on assessment through features
that include end-of-chapter summaries, revision activities and assessment tasks. An icon in the
text indicates where relevant live-weblinks are available.
For teachers, assessment support, suggested responses, sports drills and guidance for
verication and monitoring processes are available online at oup.com.au/qpe
Personalisation and integration

To achieve success, students need to be able to personalise and integrate their learning, as
the concepts of personalisation and integration are essential in the senior physical education
syllabus. Within the text, innovative teaching notes direct students to examine these concepts
in ways that are contextualised and authentic.
Figueroas framework
The new senior physical education syllabus has introduced Figueroas framework as a tool to
examine sport in society. The chapters in Focus Area C have sections that specically detail how
sport in society can be related to Figueroas framework, and examine access and equity in sport.
Application, inquiry and skills-based

The senior physical education syllabus requires students to demonstrate their understanding,
apply their knowledge practically and to develop critical inquiry skills. Students are also
required to develop their critical inquiry and evaluation skills. They are encouraged to make
decisions, solve problems and justify actions in their chosen physical activities, applying the
theories studied (integration). In Focus Area C, they are also asked to think broadly about
attitudes and opinions towards sport, and the ethics of sport.
To help students develop these skills, a variety of activities are featured in this text:
Acquire
With a comprehension focus, these activities help students understand and remember
information that is essential to their physical education studies.
Contents v
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Apply & evaluate
Students apply what they have learned to particular sports, including the sport or physical
activity they are currently studying. Students will have the opportunity to practise their
decision-making and justication skills through these activities. These activities provide
opportunities for integration and personalised learning experiences.
Practical
Practical activities give students the opportunity to apply or demonstrate what they
have learnt to particular sports, including the sport or physical activity they are currently
studying.
Extension
The optional extension activities provide opportunities for further research and reection.
marking criteria and scaffolding for assessment examples
weblinks for more information and further research opportunities. An icon in the student
text indicates where relevant links are available
podcasts with interviews for further class discussions
guidance for verication and monitoring processes.
vi PE: Senior Physical Education For Queensland
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Acknowledgements
The publisher and authors would like to thank Deb Clarke, Danielle Simpson, Karen Lambert,
Kim McKeen, Michelle Maher, Peter Henson and Peter Kovacs for their original contributions.
Thanks also to Glen Martin, Russell Jackson, Shane Weatherby, Mick Jarroush, Marie Rosier,
Megan Beames and Abby Varley for their review contributions.
Acknowledgements vii
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LEARNING 1001
PHYSICAL
SKILLS
The human bodys ability to process information and program muscles and limbs to move in
particular ways is one important part of how skills are acquired.
For professional athletes, successfully acquiring skills is how they make a living; however, in a
competitive market, practising a skill repeatedly to improve is not always enough. Learning skills
has become a science in itself. Now, to reach the top of their game, athletes need to understand
and consider the nature of skills, the physics of movement and the athletes own physical attributes
and psychology.
The following chapters delve into the science of learning skills that will assist you to develop and
rene physical skills and maximise your sporting potential.
Focus questions
How does acquiring skills affect performance?
What effect can psychological factors have on
performances?
How do biomechanical factors inuence
performance?
COMING UP
Motor learning page 4
Psychology of performance page 42
Applying biomechanics to sport page 72
2 \\\\\ Focus area ALearning physical skills
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a
28/09/10 9:40 AM
1002
1
Motor
learning
BEFORE YOU START CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Have you ever stopped to consider the skills you need to succeed in your chosen Skills 5
activity or sport? Some are simple and seem to require little effort or thought to Learning 12
master; others are more complex and can take years of practice to perfect. Practice 23
Individuals abilities to learn and rene motor skills greatly affect their ability to The information-processing
perform physical activity. As your brain has ultimate control over your bodys model 26
movement, it is important to prepare your brain with as much information as Assessing skill and
possible so it can accurately direct your body to move. performance 34
Also vital for successful and quick skill-learning are answers to questions such as the
following:
What type of skill am I learning?
What stage of learning am I at?
What type of practice is best for me?
How do I know if I am performing the skill correctly?

Skills
In our physical education studies we are particularly interested in motor skills, which are physical skills that
involve the use of muscles to perform a learned pattern of movement. These movements may be small,
involving intricate movements of the hand and ngers only, or they may be large, requiring a forceful effort
or the whole body to complete. Throwing a ball, leaping over hurdles, driving a car, putting in golf, kicking a
goal and writing a letter all require motor skills.
In any sport, successful athletes combine physical skills with thinking skills, such as decision-making,
tactical thinking and strategy. For example, Roger Federers ability to decide where to hit the ball to make it
difcult for his opponent to return is just as important as the strength of his tennis shot.
The word skill is also used to describe the general ability to perform a task well. For example, Roger
Federer demonstrates great skill on the tennis court.
Motor skills
Motor skills, which are the primary focus in physical
education studies, can be classied in several
1003
ways. To classify skills is to group them by the
characteristics they have in common. Classifying
skills can lead to a greater understanding of the
nature of skills and how they can best be practised
and learned.
Motor skills may be classied according to:
the precision of the movementne or gross
the stability of the environmentopen or closed
their beginning and end pointsdiscrete,
continuous or serial
Fine and gross motor skills Figure 1.1 Fine motor skills use small groups of
Motor skills can be classed as ne (using small muscles to perform delicate movements.
muscle groups to perform them) or gross (using
large muscle groups to perform them).
1004
Examples of ne motor skills include:
performing a backhand ick serve in badminton
putting a spin on the ball when bowling
throwing darts.
Examples of gross motor skills include:
running a race
throwing a discus
serving a tennis ball.
Can you think of a skill you have performed that
combines the muscular efforts of the whole body?
Figure 1.2 Gross motor skills use large groups of
muscles to perform large or whole-body movements.
Chapter 1Motor learning ///// 5

Many movements require a combination of ne and gross
1005 motor skills. For example, a softball pitch involves larger gross
motor movements of the shoulder, arm, back and legs; it
also involves subtle movements of the hand and ngers. The
pitching action primarily involves gross motor skills, but the
ne motor skills are also important to direct or add spin to
the ball.
Can you think of examples of fine and gross motor skills
used in the sport you are studying?
Open and closed skills

Factors within a players environment, such as opponents,
teammates and the weather, can affect a players response.
Such factors decrease the predictability of the situation and
increase the need for players to make decisions.
Skills performed in a stable and predictable environment
are said to be closed skills; skills performed in a changing,
unpredictable environment are open skills.
In closed-skill activities, a player can use learned skills or
movement patterns without having to make major changes to
allow for a changing environment. When performing a closed
skill, the athletes determine the pace. They move using their
own desired speed and method. For example, golfers place
the tee and ball where they choose, approach the ball when
ready to do so, take a number of practice swings, look up the
fairway, and then swingall at their own pace. Some examples
Figure 1.3 Weightlifting is a closed of closed skills are those involved in golf, archery, weightlifting
skill, performed in a predictable
environment. and synchronised swimming.
Unlike closed skills, which are self-paced, open skills
are usually externally paced; they are initiated by actions
from an external source or stimulus that players respond to.
The unpredictability of their environment, including their
opponent, forces players to respond in a variety of ways, some
of which might not have been practised in training. Open skills
include batting in cricket, tackling a player in soccer, executing
a set play in rugby union or making a ground stroke in tennis.
Sports can contain both closed and open skills. For
example, the serve in tennis is a closed skill; however, once the
ball has been served into play, the rest of the rally uses open
skills.
When learning motor skills, it is easier to learn closed
1006
skills than open skills. For this reason, in the early stages of
learning a skill or activity, coaches and teachers try to make
the learning environment as stable and predictable as possible.
Figure 1.4 Facing a pitcher makes
hitting a ball an open skill. For example, when playing softball, batting against a pitcher

is an open skillbatters need to consider the height, speed and spin of the ball before they can hit it. For a
beginner, learning how to bat can be made easier by removing some of the variables in the environment and
making the skill more closed. Using a batting tee will allow a beginner to learn the movement of swinging the
bat at the ball, while the balls speed and spin remain stable. Once the swinging movement has been learned,
a beginner can practise hitting a ball hung on a string; the balls height is predictable, but it is moving at
different speeds, allowing the batter to practise timing. Once each part of the skill has been learned, the skill
can be made more open. Eventually, the batter can condently face a pitcher.
Which sports drills have you performed that have increased the predictability of your performance?
Discrete, continuous
and serial motor
1007 skills
Skills can also be classied
into three groupsdiscrete,
continuous and serial
according to where they begin
and end.
If a skill has a clearly dened
starting and nishing point,
the skill is said to be a discrete
motor skill. Examples of
discrete motor skills include
throwing a ball and diving.
If the start or end point of
a skill is unspecied, the skill
is a continuous motor skill.
Swimming and running are
examples of continuous motor
skills. They are classied as
continuous motor skills because
the beginning and end points are
determined by the player, not by
the task itself.
A serial motor skill is when
a series of discrete motor skills is
put together. Examples of serial
motor skills include performing
a dance routine, bowling a
cricket ball and performing
a layup in basketball. In each
example, a specic series of
movements must be performed
in a specic order for the task to
Figure 1.5 Pole vaulting requires the use of serial motor skills. be performed properly.

1008
Classifying motor skills on Fine Gross

acontinuum
Many skills do not t neatly into one category. For
example, long-distance running involves mostly
gross motor skills and very few ne motor skills. Open Closed
Although runners would be affected by external
factors, such as wet, windy or very hot weather,
they would determine the speed of the run, making
it a mostly closed skill. Running does not have a Continuous Discrete
specic start or end point, so it would generally be
classied as a continuous activity; however, running Running a marathon Serving in tennis
a marathon, which has a set distance, does have a
set start and end point. Batting a cricket ball
The combination of skills required can be plotted
on continuums, such as those in Figure 1.6. Figure 1.6 Skills can be classified along continuums.
ACQUIRE
1008_HED_QPE_mod3.indd 1 26/09/10 9:44 PM
1 Define motor skills.
2 Summarise the main differences between open and closed motor skills.
3 Define discrete, continuous and serial motor skills, and give an example of each.
4 Classify the following sports as closed or open, gross or fine, and discrete, continuous or
serial.
a surfing
as per CM email
b playing snooker or billiards
c throwing a javelin
d high jump
e taking a penalty stroke in hockey
f goal-keeping in soccer
g aerial skiing.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 a List all the skills necessary for successful performance in your current sport.
b Plot each skill on continuums such as the ones below.
c What were your reasons for placing each skill in this position on the continuums?
Fine Gross
Open Closed
1009
Continuous Discrete
2 Closed skills are just simple skills. Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Justify
1009_HED_QPE_mod.indd 1 26/09/10 9:41 PM
your response with examples from the sport you are currently studying.

ller
1042
Thinking skills
When learning, motor skills are
often rst experienced in isolation.
For example, a soccer ball will be
stationary on the ground, and
beginners will be asked to run in
and kick it at a goal. This type of
learning builds motor skills, but it
does not help a player understand
when to kick a ball in a game,
which direction it should go or
how hard it should be kicked.
Motor skills will not be
effective unless they are applied
to the game. For example,
a tennis forehand might be
performed with precision but be
hit straight back to a player at the
net; the skill has been performed
correctly, but a poor choice of
direction allows the opponent to
win the point. To play a better
shot and win the point, the tennis
player needs to have practised
and developed decision-making
skills and the tactical aspects of
the sport.
Decision-making
skills
During a game, players often need
to assess their own strengths and
weaknesses, their opponents
strengths and weaknesses, and
the situation of the game. They
Figure 1.7 Sport is not just physical. Thinking skills are needed to
assess these factors and decide make good decisions and play at your best.
how to react.
In many games, as the pressure to score or to prevent the opposition from scoring mounts, poor decisions
are made. In rugby league, for example, a player may try to throw a long pass to a winger in the hope that the
winger will score a try, but this increases the risk of an intercept. In defence, a player may rush up to try to
tackle a player, leaving a gap in the defensive line for the opposition to run through. Specic training for these
situations will help players to make better decisions when they need to.
Coaches can sometimes explain the best way to react to certain situations in a game, but providing
opportunities to practise regularly in a game-like setting is essential if players and teams are to be able to
make good decisions and quickly apply them during a game.

1010
Figure 1.8 Tactics, like decision-making skills, are best learned in a game-like setting.
Strategic and tactical skills

To be able to make good decisions, players need to understand the strategies or tactics of the sport. Tactics
and strategies are plans, methods or actions used to achieve a certain goal, which in sport is usually to
outplay the opponent and win the match or competition.
The tactics associated with game play are similar in many sports. For example, soccer, Australian rules
football and water polo have many tactics in common, such as moving into open, undefended space; leading
towards the ball; marking a player; and moving into position to shoot. These types of sports are called
interceptive sports. Athletes can learn the tactics of one game and apply them to other similar sports.
The earlier a player learns the tactical aspects of the game, the more effective their learning will be.
Tactics, like decision-making skills, are best learned in a game-like setting if players are to understand how
they are to effectively apply the skills they have developed. For this reason coaches use game-like situations
rather than just skill drills. For example, to teach somebody to pass a ball in soccer, you could play a game
of piggy in the middle, where two players try to pass the ball to each other and a third player is trying to
stop the pass. For beginners, the rules can be set to make it easier for a pass to be made, and the rules can be
tightened as skills develop so that the defender has a better chance. By introducing skills in this way, players
quickly realise that passes need to be made to their partner (teammate) and out of reach of the opposition.

Compare this approach to that of having two players learning to pass by passing the ball backwards and
forwards between markers; with no opposition, they are not developing any tactical knowledge.
A tactical approach to skill development has the following benets:
It allows players to understand the complete requirements of the skill.
Players quickly realise how much time they have to complete the skill in a game. They see the results of
errors (such as loss of possession), and they learn how and when the skill will be used in a game.
It allows players to practise decision-making skills.
As skills and knowledge increase, the game-like practices become more complex, and players come
across problems like those they will experience in a real game. Practising responses to these problems
develops decision-making, and players will be more likely to make decisions that improve performances
in a game.
It allows players to develop motivation and condence.
Training in a game-like setting helps players to develop the condence to display their skills when
playing a real game. This approach also provides motivation for players, as it often allows them to work
at their own level of skill; for example, they would not be limited to simple drills if their skills were more
advanced than the rest of the teams.
It improves team coordination.
Playing game-like activities with fellow team members helps improve understanding of how players will
respond in different situations.
Once players have developed an understanding of the games skills and tactics, coaches can begin to
inuence the way the play is conducted on the eld, and plan and implement specic tactics during a game.
Until individuals understand skills and tactics, they might struggle to understand what the coach wants
them to do and why it is important.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 List three examples of decisions that need to be made during a game of:
a tennis
b touch football
c volleyball.
2 List attacking tactics and defensive tactics in the physical activity you are currently
studying.
3 Explain the following, giving examples from the sport you are currently studying.
a Why is it important for coaches to teach players decision-making skills in training?
b What are the benefits of a tactical approach to training?
PRACTICAL
Tactics
Identify a basic tactic associated with a sport of your choice. Design two modified games, as
follows, that will assist learning the tactic you have identified:
1 a simple modified game for a beginner
2 a complex modified game for an advanced player.

Learning
The stages of learning
Once you understand the nature of the skill to be learned, it then becomes necessary to examine your own
skill level to determine the best course of action to master the skill. If you compare Serena Williams tennis
serve with your own tennis serve, is there a difference? What is the difference between your goal-kicking
and Matt Giteaus? How did they get to be so much better at their sports than the rest of us? Did they once
serve or kick like us?
It is generally agreed that learning involves practice and time. Over time, and with practice, someone
who is a beginner will progress through various stages to become a skilled player. Skill-learning is a
continuous and dynamic process without distinct and denite stages. For convenience, however, certain
general changes can be described in skill-learning. For example, over time, improvements in accuracy and
speed are observed, as are greater consistency, a reduction in errors and the development of smooth,
effortless performances. These changes can be broadly placed into three stages, as developed by Paul Fitts
and Michael Posner in 1967. The stages are known as the:
cognitive (or understanding) stage
associative (or practice) stage
autonomous (or automatic) stage.
Most individuals move from stage to stage as they learn skills. However, the time spent at each stage
varies signicantly from individual to individual. Some might never move on to the last stage, due to the
training demands, the complexity of the task or a lack of motivation.
It is also important to realise that it is possible for a learner to be classed in two or even all three stages
of learning in a particular sport. For example, learners might rene their forehand stroke and move towards
the autonomous stage for this skill, but at the same time still be learning and practising (associative stage)
their backhand or volley shots. You need to consider this when classifying your own stage of learning in a
sport.
The cognitive stage

The cognitive stage of learning is characterised by thinkingtrying to understand the skill. In this stage
the learner forms a cognitive picture of the skill and what is required to do it.
Neural pathways for specic movements are still forming, and a large amount of thought is required
to work through the technical requirement of the skill. As a result, the movements in this stage are jerky,
halting and poorly timed. Performance is variable, with a large number of gross errors; learners know that
what they are doing is not producing the desired result, but are unsure how to correct it. While learning
to play a golf shot, for example, someone in the cognitive stage will often hit the ground or miss the ball
completely.
Time spent in this stage can vary. Generally, however, this stage is relatively short and, with regular
practice, thought and feedback, a learners prociency will improve rapidly.
Are there skills in your sport that you find difficult to grasp?
Learners at this stage can become frustrated if some success is not experienced quickly. To increase the
chances of success, the coach should teach simple, fundamental skills by demonstrating and giving clear
instructions. Instructions should be brief and should focus on only a few technique points at a time.

At the cognitive stage, coaches should also:
employ a range of motivational techniques
teach simple and gross motor skills rst
keep instructions and demonstrations short and
simple
break the skill into parts, where possible, rather
than practising a whole skill
use mainly closed drills for practice
have athletes follow an example rst, and then
try the skills themselves with more instruction
and feedback
allow for constant but small blocks of
distributed practice (short sessions with
frequent breaks)
provide feedback frequently
remember that the aim at this stage is a rough
approximation of the required skills.
Feedback at this stage is very important and is
supplied predominantly through demonstrations 1012
and explanations. Learners need specic information
and attention paid to individual skills. It must be
remembered that the learner might not understand
the task, so the amount and speed of information
should be controlled, and the task itself must be Figure 1.9 Coaches should teach simple,
fundamental skills during the cognitive stage.
claried.
In demonstrations, cognitive learners will not always discriminate between important and irrelevant
information. They lack the skills to determine which cues are signicant. For example, when a beginner rst
watches a volleyball spike, they may focus on how hard it was hit and whether it went in or out; however,
the nal result of the spike plays little part in the learning of the skill. It would have been more benecial
for them to look at the position of the body and the sequence of leg and arm movements. Therefore, when
demonstrating, coaches need to direct learners attention to what is being taught. They may also need to
repeat this process, each time directing learners to a specic technical element, to allow learners to take in as
much information as necessary.
The associative stage

The time spent in the cognitive stage is usually brief. Once a learner has a basic idea of the necessary patterns
of movement and can consistently simulate them, even with mistakes, they have entered the next stage
of learning, the associative (practice) stage. It is in this stage that the learner will examine the skill in more
detail and, with practice, rene the movement to perform the skill successfully.
In the associative stage, the fundamentals and mechanics of the skill have already been learned, and
performance is less variable and more consistent. Throughout this phase, errors become less frequent and
smaller because the athlete has developed the ability to detect and correct them.

1013
In comparison with the cognitive

stage, the associative stage is quite
long. In fact, a person might never move
beyond the associative stage.
The associative stage of learning can
be broken into three phases.
1 During the rst phase, learners have
just gained an understanding of
the skill and what the movement
should look like, and established a
basic neural pathway that directs
the muscles with some success. In
this phase, the movement sequence
may not always be accurate, and
much coaching and practice is still
required to organise movements
into the correct order. While players
at this stage can recognise that
errors are being made, they do not
always identify all relevant cues, and
they lack perception and timing to
perform the skill uently. Feedback
must be frequent, and practice must
be controlled and deliberate. Errors
are still prevalent but usually reduce
rapidly.
2 As success and condence build,
learners progress into the middle
phase of the associative stage. Here,
Figure 1.10 A player in the associative phase must spend learners nd that their movements
many hours practising. are beginning to ow more efciently
and they can perform the skill in a variety of drills and modied games. They can identify some relevant
cues and are beginning to create a bank of experiences on which to base decisions. Practice sessions
can be lengthened, but they should include regular breaks and a range of different activities to prevent
fatigue and maintain motivation. Filming group practice sessions and using the footage to explain ways to
improve can be useful to continue rening techniques.
3 The nal phase sees learners approaching the ability to perform a skill with little thought. Neural
pathways are well established and uently control muscles by allowing signals to ow freely from the
brain. It is important to continue guided practice; however, practice should now include more complex
drills and game plays. The player at this stage is procient at identifying relevant cues, but not all
information is processed accurately and the decisions are not always correct. Massed practice, which
is repetitive practice of the same activity, can increase, but caution is needed to ensure fatigue and
boredom do not cause learning to stop or go backwards. While feedback is vital, it should be provided
largely by the players themselves. Coaches should encourage learners to analyse their own errors to
consolidate understanding and nd solutions. Mental imagery can help in the nal step to becoming an
autonomous learner.

The autonomous stage
After much practice in the associative phase, a skill becomes habitual or automatic. The neural pathways
are complete, and no mental effort is required to perform the skill in a game. Most of the skill is performed
without thinking. This is the autonomous stage.
In this stage, players need to focus less attention on basics and can, instead, give more attention to
higher-order thinking, such as planning game strategies and reading external cues, such as the spin on
the ball or the position of the opposition. For example, a volleyball player no longer needs to think about
footwork, body position and arm swing, and can instead focus on the position of the blockers and nding
space on the other side of the court to hit the ball to.
Because players have remembered and learned from previous experience, external information is
processed quickly and opponents moves can be anticipated. Previous experience helps players to make the
correct decision to maximise the chances of success. Players have good timing, and they can detect and adjust
errors, and disguise actions (feint). This develops self-condence and risk-taking. A golfer, for example, will
be able to change a swing to suit the
particular shot required and be able to hit
and direct the ball to allow for external
factors, such as slopes and wind.
In the autonomous stage,
performance is consistently good, but
improvements come slowly. To ensure
the best improvements, practice sessions
1014
need to be well organised and training
should try to simulate competition
conditions. The athlete must be highly
motivated and given expert feedback.
Psychological skills training can be very
effective in this stage, especially when
dealing with anxiety.
Once learners have reached the
autonomous stage, they may nd that
they uctuate between the associative
and autonomous stages. Learning does
not simply stop, and practice must
continue to maintain their ability.
Advancements in techniques and
equipment can mean players have
to adjust their skills to suit the new
technique or equipment. This requires
signicant mental effort and can cause a
short-term decline in performance.
Has your coach ever made you alter
your technique to try to improve your
skills further? How did this affect your
performance in the short term? What Figure 1.11 Once players reach the autonomous stage, their
about in the long term? performance is consistently good.

Even in the autonomous stage, advanced players can begin to pay less attention to the basics and their
skills can decline. Advanced players must continue to be motivated and challenged by ensuring that practice
sessions are varied and new tactics are introduced. When performance slumps, it can be helpful for players to
watch a video of their performance to enable them to pinpoint the cause of the decline.
ACQUIRE
1 List the important features of the cognitive, associative and autonomous stages of learning.
2 How does feedback given to learners change between the cognitive and autonomous
stages?
3 Determine how modified sports, such as kanga cricket, make it easier for beginners to
learn skills.
4 Is it typical to spend longer in the cognitive or associative stage of learning? Will everyone
eventually reach the autonomous stage?
5 Suggest why a person who is at the cognitive stage of learning and who has limited
experience may take longer to progress to the associative stage of learning than a person
who has experienced success with similar sports or skills.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Explain, referring to the sport you are currently studying, the progress you would expect to
see as individuals move through the three stages of learning.
2 Practice makes perfect. Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Support your
response with examples from your current sport.
3 Select two separate skills in the sport you are currently studying.
a What stages of learning are you at in the two skills? Why do you think this?
b What is required for you to quickly progress to the next stage of skill development?
PRACTICAL
The stages of learning
Individually, or in small groups, every day practise a new skill, such as juggling or throwing
with your non-preferred hand at a target. Keep a daily record of your results and comments
(including feelings, frustrations, problems and insights). Over five days, record data for twenty
trials per day.
1 Briefly describe the skill and scoring procedure.
2 Construct a graph of the average scores for each day.
3 Identify which of the three stages of learning you reached.
4 Explain how you moved from one stage to the next.
5 Identify what would be needed for you to progress further.
6 Identify the attributes of a player who has reached the autonomous stage in this skill.
7 Identify the problems, issues and feelings that you experienced at each stage.
8 Compare your results with the online videos.
Click to access the online footage.

1016
Factors affecting
learning
Each human is unique, and a learners
progress through the three learning
stages depends on the individuals
unique characteristics and background,
including physical, social and emotional
factors.
Physical characteristics such as
height, weight and body composition
can predispose learners to acquire skills
at a faster or slower rate than others.
For example, a tall person will nd the
volleyball skills of blocking and spiking
much easier to learn, while a shorter
person might nd other positions on
the volleyball court, such as libero,
easier to perfect. Sports that need
large amounts of power, such as discus,
shot-put and boxing, are best suited to
players who are heavier and who have
a high percentage of muscle. Dancers,
gymnasts and synchronised swimmers
generally perform better with a slighter
frame.
Many physical characteristics are
inherited and out of the control of
athletes. Inherited factors affecting
skill acquisition include gender, height,
muscle-bre composition, information-
processing capacity and aptitude. These
can be described as the athletes natural
ability. Other physical characteristics,
such as body weight and muscle
strength, can be modied through Figure 1.12 Height is a hereditary factor that can determine
healthy diet and exercise. how easily and well an athlete can learn a sport.
Training and previous experience with skills also affect an athletes performance. After training or practice
sessions, an athletes ability to perform usually improves. Prior experience with the task (or with a similar
task) will also affect performance. For example, someone who has learned the skills of netball might nd it
easier to learn basketball, which requires similar skills, than another person who learned swimming, which
requires very different skills. A good example of the transfer of skills from one sport to another is when
athletes are able to change relatively easily between rugby union and rugby league, without any obvious
decrease in performance.
Can you think of a sport that has skills similar to the one you are currently studying? Have you had any
previous experience in that sport?

1040
Even when the skills needed

are quite different, previous
sporting experience can help
players in other ways, such as
by improving tness, strength,
endurance or exibility. For
example, a swimmer who has
developed aerobic endurance
might take less time to learn
another skill or sport that also
requires aerobic endurance,
such as running, and be able to
participate at a higher level than
a total beginner would. Even
knowledge of the rules of the
game, without ever playing it,
can increase a persons ability to
perform.
Skill acquisition can be
inuenced by a persons reasons
for participation, level of
aspiration, degree of enjoyment,
persistence, effort and readiness
to learn. Skill acquisition also
depends on levels of keenness,
condence, self-esteem,
competitiveness and aggression.
Lleyton Hewitt is a good example
Figure 1.13 The characteristics and personalities of athletes affect of someone who exhibits all
their abilities to learn new skills.
these personality traits.
Furthermore, these personality traits are enhanced as involvement in the activity continues. For example,
athletes who are condent about their abilities, or their ability to improve and learn, can develop skills faster
than those who are not. As they develop skills faster than others, their self-condence increases further. Self-
condence is sometimes evident in athletes as ego. Ego can also be a good tool for coping with stress and
for throwing others off their games.
ACQUIRE
1 Identify pairs of sports (such as hockey and cricket) where prior experience in one might
allow a transfer of skills to the other and improve how quickly the second sport is learned.
2 Explain how natural ability assists good performance.
3 Outline the role that personality plays in determining athletic ability and learning.
4 Identify the characteristics of a learner that would have the greatest effect on:
a increasing performance
b decreasing performance.

EXTENSION
1 Read the article about Lleyton Hewitt on pages 1920.
a What character traits do Nadal and Hewitt possess that have served them well in their
careers?
b Are there any ways in which these traits might also cause problems in these athletes
careers? Explain why.
c Compare your own character traits with those of the athletes in the article.
2 The way in which skills are learned, practised and, finally, acquired depends on the
learners characteristics and the nature of the learning environment. Evaluate this
statement, referring to how a novice Australian rules football player might be coached
through the stages of learning.
NEWS
Hewitt ready to come out swinging
Rafael Nadal respects Lleyton Hewitt was 19. It was a Ivo Karlovic and a straight-sets
Hewitt. It stems from the turning point in his career. (64, 63, 61) demolition of
Davis Cup nal between Australias then Davis Cup Kazakhstans Andrey Golubev.
Australia and Spain in 2000. captain, John Newcombe, is yet Nadal has marched to 30
Inside a seething arena named to see a player fight as hard as successive wins in Paris in his
Palau Sant Jordi in Barcelona, Hewitt did over those three days attempt to break Bjorn Borgs
Hewitt scrapped and clawed his in Barcelona. benchmark of four straight
way through two thunderous Hewitt went on to achieve victories at the most physically
singles matches on clay while a the herculean feat of beating and mentally demanding event
14-year-old kid, having carried Pete Sampras at Flushing on tour.
the Spanish ag into the opening Meadows to win the US Open, Nadals career is flying in a
ceremony, sat courtside with his get his hands on the holiest of way the 14-year-old at Palau
jaw to the oor in awe. The kid holies, the Wimbledon trophy, Sant Jordi wouldnt have dared
was Nadal. and become the youngest world dream, while Hewitt is hanging
Hewitt has no recollection of No.1 in history. on for grim life, returning from
Nadal being there, but the current Nadal was only a blip on hip surgery, refusing to concede
world No. 1 watched every point the radar when Hewitt became hes washed up, desperate to
as Hewitt fought his way past king but hes seen first-hand one stick it to all those who believe
Albert Costa in ve sets on day invaluable character trait they hes become a journeyman
one. An injured Pat Rafter quit sharegrit. incapable of winning another
his singles against Juan Carlos Two of the best fighters in major.
Ferrero, Sandon Stolle and Mark sport will slug it out in the third He [Nadal] is the man to
Woodforde lost the doubles, and round of the French Open at beat here, and he has been for
then Hewitt went down to Ferrero Roland Garros today. Hewitt the last four or five years now,
in four gruelling sets for Spain to is coming off a gruelling five- Hewitt said in Paris. So Ill go
win their rst Davis Cup. setter against Croatian giant out there and play my game,

Hewitt ready to come out swinging (cont )
and hopefully I can have one of I have to play well to have especially want everyone to love
my best matches. chances to win. I try and him, just respect him. Like Nadal
Nadal humbled Russian improve every day because does.
Teimuraz Gabashvili 61, 64, next round is going to be Their head-to-head record is
62 to reach his 300 winloss difficult. Lleyton Hewitt is a big 44 but Hewitt is winless since
ratio at Roland Garros, a record opponent. Queens three years ago. There
in the Open era. Already he Perhaps Hewitt has one more is no way of underestimating
sounded combative about his big major in him. Perhaps he can the enormity of the task, for
showdown with Hewitt. When become a modern-day Jimmy playing Nadal on clay is the
reporters started gushing about Connors, the ferocious American toughest assignment of all. But
his winning streak, he replied: who played like an animal in the all through his recovery from hip
So what? Happy for this record, latter stages of his career, most surgery, this is what Hewitt was
but important thing is have memorably storming into the craving, getting back in the ring
good result, play my best tennis semi-finals of the 1991 US Open with the heavyweights.
and try to be there the second on an unstoppable wave of pure Of course, Hewitt might be
Sunday, no? adrenaline. pounded into submission. But
Always its a very tough Hewitt has a bit of the Jimmy theres a good chance he will
match to play against Lleyton. Connors in him. He doesnt come out swinging.
Source: Will Swanton, The Sydney Morning Herald, 29 May 2009
1018
Figure 1.14 Lleyton Hewitt is a good example of someone who exhibits the personality traits needed by
successful athletes.

Learning curves
We often hear people talk about learning curves, especially steep learning curves, a phrase that refers to
situations where a lot has to be learned in a relatively short period of time.
A learning curve is the rate of learning over time plotted on a graph. Learning curves reect the
connection between performance and practice. Patterns of learning vary from player to player, and the shape
of the curve depends on the abilities and experience of the learner, the difculty of the skill and external
factors, such as the environment. However, learning curves share two main characteristics:
As practice progresses, performance improves.
Over time, beginners uctuations between success (beginners luck) and error decrease, and their
performance becomes more consistent.
The four main types of learning curves are the linear curve, the fast start curve, the slow start curve and
the stopstart curve.
The linear curve shows a steady progressive increase in performance that is in proportion with the
amount of time spent practising.
The fast start curve shows a beginner making a large initial improvement in performance. This rapid initial
progress then slows with ongoing practice. For example, learners quickly master the basics, but progress
slows as they tackle the more complex aspects of the skill.
Measure of performance
1019 a-d
Number of practices Number of practices

A The linear curve B The fast start curve
Number of practices Number of practices

C The slow start curve D The stopstart curve
Figure 1.15 Four types of learning curves show different patterns of learning.

1043
The slow start curve shows

little improvement in
performance to begin with;
however, this is eventually
followed by a rapid increase
in improvement. For example,
learners struggle to acquire
an essential skill, but once
they have the knack of that,
later progress is rapid.
The stopstart curve
indicates periods of
advancement interspersed
with plateaus of little or no
improvement. This is one of
the most common patterns
of learning.
A plateau is a period of
learning during which little or
no progress seems to occur.
Sometimes, performance
can even deteriorate before
showing improvement. Plateaus
are caused by many factors,
can occur at any stage of the
learning process, and can vary
dramatically in length. It is
important to realise that a
lack of obvious performance
progress does not mean that
learning is not occurring. For
Figure 1.16 Patterns of learning are not the same for all athletes and example, a plateau may occur
skills.
because you mastered basic skills
quickly at rst and are now trying to tackle more complex skills. It might be that you mastered the skill in
a simple environment but are now faced with the challenge of executing the same skill in a more complex
environment. For example, you mastered digging a volleyball thrown to you, but are not able to do it as
uently when the ball is served over the net.
ACQUIRE
Explain the four main types of learning curves.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

Think of the last time you learned a new skill. What type of learning curve do you think you
followed during that learning process? Justify, referring to aspects of your performance and
success.

new page 1020
Practice
Practice is essential to learning. Perfect practice
makes perfect performance.
Practice methods
An astute coach or teacher organises training that
is appropriate to the task and the athlete, and
ensures that the training remains interesting and
challenging. How a skill is practised will determine
how that skill is acquired and performed. As
sports and learners vary, there is no set routine for
practice or performance. Therefore, it is essential to
understand the applications, uses and limits of each
practice method.
Types of practice include:
speed and accuracy
massed and distributed
whole and part.
Speed and accuracy practice

The terms speed and accuracy are well
understoodspeed is the rate at which a task is
performed, and accuracy refers to exactness and
precision.
Accuracy can be determined by measuring
results, such as the end position of an object, for
example, scoring a bullseye in archery, shooting a Figure 1.17 As learners practise to improve
netball into the hoop or serving a tennis ball within accuracy, they will often find that their speed also
the lines. improves.
The need for speed and/or accuracy varies depending on the sport or activity. When a skill is
predominantly about speed, such as for sprinting, practice will often focus on increasing speed. When
accuracy is needed, it is better to focus practice on accuracy. Even if attention is directed solely to accuracy
during practice, speed will gradually improve. If attention is directed solely to speed, however, accuracy tends
to diminish. Generally, beginners should concentrate on accuracy and then increase speed.
Which is more important in your current sport: speed or accuracy?
Massed and distributed practice

When planning practice sessions, it is important to consider both the length of time spent practising and the
time spent resting.
Massed practice is a relatively continuous type of practice in which the rest periods are either very short
or non-existent, for example, when a netball goal shooter practises shooting continuously for 20 minutes.
Distributed practice occurs when periods of rest, or periods spent practising other skills, are equal to (or
longer than) the time spent practising the primary skill. For example, a netball goal shooter practises shots

1022
from the right of goal for 10 minutes, has a break

for 10 minutes, practises shooting from the left for
10 minutes, and then rests for 15 minutes.
Both methods are effective when learning
basic skills. However, to improve performance,
distributed practice is more effective than massed
practice because it allows time for feedback and
decreases the likelihood of fatigue and loss of
concentration.
Massed practice is preferable for:
highly skilled players
highly motivated players.
The repetitive nature of this type of practice
allows learners to rene techniques and to
automate the bodys movement.
Distributed practice is preferable for:
novices
situations where energy demands are high
tasks that are difcult or boring.
Whole and part practice

Another way of practising is the whole-or-part
method. This method refers to whether skills should
be practised in parts or as a whole. For example,
should a softball hit be taught in its entirety or in
its component parts, such as stance, grip, swing and
follow-through?
When deciding which method will be the most
effective, coaches and players need to consider the:
Figure 1.18 Part practice of a basketball jumpshot stage of learning

might narrow the focus to just stance and grip. complexity of the skill.
Part practice is useful for novices (in the cognitive stage of learning), or when learning a new skill;
however, even during the autonomous (advanced) stage, part practice can be used to rene specic technical
elements.
The complexity of the skill can also determine whether whole or part learning will be more benecial.
A simple skill, such as golf putting, can easily be taught and practised as a whole. Other skills, such as hitting
a softball, can be learned in parts by removing the variables (see pages 67) before being combined to
perform the full skill. When breaking a skill into parts, care must be taken to consider the timing and rhythm
of the whole skills movement.
Because not all skills can be easily categorised as simple or complex, and because learners can fall
into more than one stage of learning, depending on the skill being learned, it is not uncommon to use a
combination of whole and part practice (learning skills as a whole at times, and in part at other times) or
progressive part practice.

1023
Progressive part practice is a term used to describe the type
of practice where parts of a complex skill are learned separately,
before the learned parts are added together to form larger and
larger parts, until the whole skill is practised. For example, a
spike in volleyball can be broken down into run-up, approach,
take-off and strike. Each skill is practised separately, and then
each is added to the others, until the entire skill is practised.
Keys to successful practice

Quality practice time is essential for the successful development
of sports skills. To be successful in any sport, athletes must be
prepared to maximise the type, number and length of practice
sessions.
Practice must be relevant to the activity or game, and skills
should be analysed to look at how they are used in the game,
and practised accordingly. Coaches should try to make training
situations as similar to games as possible, for example, by
requiring athletes to wear playing gear to training. Figure 1.19 Whole practice of a
The time spent practising, resting and focusing on each skill basketball jump shot, such as in a practice
game, practises the whole skill.
needs to vary according to the learners skill level, the stage of
learning and the skills importance in the sport. For example,
a tennis player might practise serving every 510 minutes, as a 1024
player needs to serve every few minutes in a game.
Practice conditions and methods should also be varied.
Athletes will soon lose motivation if the same skills and drills are
repeatedly taught in the same way.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Suggest how to structure a training session in your
sport to best suit your learning. Thetraining session
should consider:
a the purpose of the session
b practice methods
c feedback.
2 Bowling a cricket ball requires both speed and
accuracy. Describe how you would teach abeginner
to bowl.
3 Choose a skill needed in your sport. Identify the
segments that it can be broken into for part learning
or for progressive part learning.
4 Identify three examples of sporting situations in
which massed practice might be more effective, and Figure 1.20 In progressive part practice,
three in which distributed practice might be more a spike in volleyball could be broken down
effective. into run-up, approach, take-off and strike.

<start new page>
The information-processing model

The information-processing model is a useful tool in understanding how players learn a skill and react in
sport. Sports psychologists also use this information when analysing a players psyche, and we will look more
closely at its use in psychology in Chapter 2.
The time it takes for a cricket ball to
leave a bowlers hands and be hit by the Memory and
batter is less than a second; however, in experience
1025
that time the batter must quickly take
in information from the environment
and use it to decide whether to leave the
ball, duck to avoid it, swing hard for a
boundary or block the ball defensively. Processing/
decision-making
To be able to successfully hit the ball,
the batter must process many pieces of
information and decide how to react.
Information processing has four main Input Output
stages, which are explained in the pages
that follow:
input
processing Feedback
output
feedback. Figure 1.21 The information-processing model can be used to
explain how information is stored and used.
1025_HED_QPE.indd 1 26/09/10 10:14 PM
Input
During the input stage, the bodys sensesespecially sight, touch and hearinggather information from the
environment. The human body also unconsciously senses its own position, movement and balance, which is
known as proprioception. Receptors in the body, such as muscles, tendons and joints, relay information back
to the brain about the bodys position.
For example, in cricket, batters use their sight and hearing to receive external information about the
bowlers grip on the ball, the elders positions, and the balls speed, spin and ight path. Internal senses are
also used to determine a batters stance, grip on the bat and position in front of the wicket.
A players ability to detect cues in the environment depends on each cues intensity, the length of time
the cue is present, the amount of noise or distractions, the players senses, and the players experience.
Some cues are more subtle than others; a cues intensity varies depending on factors such as the size or
colour of the ball being used.
The longer a cue is present, the easier it is to detect. For example, a bowler who can bowl at
149 kilometres per hour reduces the time the batter has to detect the balls direction and spin.
Noise is a term used to describe irrelevant information that might be distracting. Cricket batters use a
white screen to reduce the distractions from the crowd. The screen blocks out the crowds colour and
movement, which might catch the eye of a cricketer who is trying to focus on batting. It allows the batter
to better see the ball to determine its direction and spin.
What types of noise might cause distractions in your sport?

1026
Figure 1.22 A batter has only a fraction of a second to process information and decide how to hit the ball.
Some players have sharper senses than others, especially of sight and hearing. Peripheral vision and
depth perception are important tools in many sports, and hearing is used to provide early information to
players. Tennis players often use the sound of a ball hitting their opponents racquets to judge the speed
or spin of a ball. John McEnroe used to string his racquet more loosely than other players racquets to try
to disguise the sound of his shot.
Experienced players will detect cues that novice athletes do not. These players know what cues they
should be looking for; therefore, they can detect them more easily.
How do athletes in other sports try to disguise their intentions?
Processing
During the processing stagewhich is sometimes referred to as the decision-making stagethe information
received externally from the senses and internally from the body is interpreted and organised. A decision is
then made about how to respond, and appropriate movements are coordinated. Reaction time, memory
and previous experience are also critical to the processing stage.
Much of the effectiveness of the nal performance is determined in the processing stage.
Perception
There is a distinction between sensory functioning (seeing the red trafc light) and perception (recognising
that red means stop). The rst part of the processing stage is interpreting and organising the information that
was gathered during the input stage.

For example, at the input stage, an experienced cricket batter would detect that the bowler icked his
wrist as he released the ball. In the processing stage, the batter would interpret this to mean that spin has
been placed on the ball.
Decision-making and movement response

Once all the sensory information has been gathered and interpreted, a decision about the appropriate course
of action must be made.
In this stage, information is compared with similar experiences held in the players long-term memory to
determine the best course of action. The brain then sends a signal to the muscles via the nervous system to
direct and control movement.
As in the input stage, the body continues to unconsciously sense its own position, movement and balance
(proprioception), enabling the player to make slight modications to perfect movement.
Reaction time
The time it takes to interpret environmental cues, decide and respond is known as the reaction time. In
volleyball, for example, a libero players reaction time might be the time it takes from when the player
detects the signs of an attack until he or she moves in the direction of the attacking ball. In the information-
processing model, it is the time it takes to complete the processing stage.
Reaction time is something that can be improved with training, but an understanding of factors affecting
reaction time is necessary. Research has shown that men generally have a slightly faster reaction time than
women. Reaction time also generally improves until the age of about 30, after which most peoples reaction
time begins to gradually decline.
Reaction time is shorter when the cue is made easier to detect and interpret. The greatest effect on
reaction time, however, is the number of choices; when there is more than one cue and more than one
possible response, reaction time slows as the brain attempts to sort through the information to make the
right decision.
Memory
Memory is important for storing and processing information. It plays a signicant role in a players ability to
make correct decisions.
The three types of memory are:
short-term sensory memory, which allows players to scan the environment and remember briey what
has been seen
short-term memory, which is the working information store. It keeps a small amount of information for
up to 60 seconds before either discarding it or transferring it to the long-term store
long-term memory, which stores information passed on from the short-term memory. Storage in long-
term memory occurs when information is rehearsed or used often, and information is more likely to be
transferred to long-term memory if a person experiences something rst hand.
What are some ways that you can ensure you transfer information to your long-term memory?
During the processing stage, long-term memory allows people to make decisions based on experience. It
allows people to recall experiences and compare them with new situations and information. When a person
has no experience of a situation, the brain will take longer to process information and make a decision. This
is particularly noticeable in team sports such as basketball, where many signals are being received from a
variety of sources and the options are abundant. This can make the learning of such sports very difcult,
especially where practice is focused on skill development instead of game play.

Anticipation is another signicant factor in managing reaction time. Players abilities to anticipate are
based on their memories and experiences of similar situations. Anticipation is essential in many sports to
improve reaction time. For example, to anticipate the direction the ball will travel, a soccer goalie will try
to detect cues in a penalty shooters run-up and body position. If goalies were to wait to see where the ball
travels, they would not be able to move quickly enough to reach the ball before it crosses the goal line.
Short-term sensory
memory set on supply of illo 1027 TS
Forgotten pic of brain

Transferred
Rehearsed
Short-term memory
Forgotten
Transferred
Received
Long-term memory
Figure 1.23
Memory has a
significant effect
on information
processing.
Output
The next stage of the information-processing model is the output stage. For sports and other physical
activities, the output is usually a physical response or reaction. Once the player processes the information
(input) and decides how to react (processing), the brain directs the body to move in response (output).
The response time is the total time it takes to sense and process the information and to complete
the movement. Skilled players have faster response times than beginners, which can be attributed to the
difference in their ability to detect cues, process information and move efciently.
Feedback
Feedback provides players with an understanding of whether the skill was performed correctly or incorrectly.
How many times have you stood on the sidelines and heard remarks similar to the following?
Hey, Bill, youre as slow as a wet week.
You couldnt even catch a cold.
Hey, Ref., its a good game. Why dont you watch it?
My grandmother can tackle harder than that!
All of these negative remarks belittle the player or ofcial, and diminish the respect between the speaker
and the person the comment is directed to. Compare them with the following:
Bad luck, Sarah. Just give it a little more air next time.
Good goal, Bok. Now hustle back into position.
Nice pass, Helen. Youre getting better every training session.

1044
These positive comments are

designed to make players feel
good about their performance.
They reinforce the desired
response and improve the
relationship between the speaker
and the player.
Positive feedback is often
helpful as it:
reinforces the correct or
desired response
motivates players to improve
or maintain their performance
informs players how to
correct errors.
Players can come to rely on
feedback and, when feedback is
withdrawn, their performance
can decline.
What type of feedback do you
respond to best?
Sources of feedback
Feedback can come from internal
or external sources. Feedback
from sources within the athlete
is called internal or intrinsic
feedback. Feedback from
external sources is called external
Figure 1.24 Positive feedback helps motivate players to perform well. or extrinsic feedback.
Internal feedback
Internal feedback is information received naturally from the athletes senses. For example, when passing a
basketball, athletes are aware of their own legs, shoulders, arms and ngers moving through the air. They
are aware of the ball leaving their ngers, and can see and hear it being caught by a teammate. In this way,
athletes perceive information about the performance without using equipment or other people.
External feedback
External feedback is information that is provided from sources outside the player. External feedback might be
the coachs voice, the scoreboard, a video replay or the cheer of the crowd.
External feedback supplements the players internal feedback and is particularly important for beginners,
who may not yet be able to detect errors in their performance.
Two important forms of external feedback are:
knowledge of results (KR)
knowledge of performance (KP).

1028
KR is feedback that is
provided externally after
an action is completed. It is
based on the outcome of the
performancethe results. This
type of feedback is particularly
helpful when learning a new
skill, as it allows learners to
correct an action the next
time, to gain condence
when the attempt is totally or
partially correct, and to remain
motivated to try again. A score
in gymnastics, a coachs reaction
to the teams performance, or
a basketball falling through the
hoop during a free throw are all
Figure 1.25 Coaches provide external feedback.
examples of KR.
KP is feedback that concerns
the execution of the movement
1029 or how it looked rather than
its success. For example, a
gymnastics coach might explain
to a gymnast that she had
a good body shape during a
movement or that her feet came
apart. This type of feedback
relates to the movement
and not to the score that the
gymnast will receive.
Timing of feedback
An athlete might receive
feedback before, during or after
a performance, and the timing
of feedback is very important.
Concurrent feedback is
Figure 1.26 Arrows in a target provide clear knowledge of results feedback received during a
(KR)feedback.
performance. Some types of
concurrent feedback share similarities with the input stage of the information-processing model as the
bodys sensesespecially sight, touch and hearinggather information from the environment. Examples
of concurrent feedback include the feel of a ball as it hits a table tennis bat and the sight of the goalkeeper
moving to the left before a penalty stroke. Concurrent feedback occurs during performance, so athletes can
respond to concurrent feedback at the time.
For some beginners, some types of concurrent feedback, such as a coach shouting encouragement from
the sidelines, can hinder learning as the feedback can break their concentration.

1030
Figure 1.27 The feeling of the ball as it hits a table tennis bat is an example ofconcurrent feedback.
Delayed feedback is what most people normally think of when they talk about feedback. Delayed
feedback is provided after the performance and is received too late to affect the players actions. For
example, players jumping to head a ball in soccer cannot react to concurrent feedback and change their
bodys position in the air when the ball is just above their head. An example of delayed feedback in this
situation might be a coachs advice after the game about how to head the ball better next time. Another
example might be the successful goal that later results from the players actionsdelayed feedback that they
headed the ball well.
Do you make any adjustments to your play during your performances?
Useful verbal feedback

Verbal feedback from coaches, teammates and supporters is a type of external feedback. For it to be
effective, comments should:
contain no sarcasm
praise and criticise the behaviour, not the person
be constructive
be meaningful to the individual
contain positive non-verbal communication, such as body language
be communicated effectively
be consistent
use the sandwich approachgive a positive statement, then corrective feedback, then a compliment. For
example, Good run, Juanita. Next time pass the ball. Keep up the great effort.

ACQUIRE
1 a Draw a simple diagram to show the four stages of the information-processing model.
b Describe the role of each process in learning and performing a skill.
2 Explain why feedback plays a major role in learning skills and in sporting performance.
3 Using examples from sport, explain the difference between KR and KP.
4 Explain why the timing of feedback is critical if players are to improve their skills.
5 What is proprioception?
6 Describe how the type of feedback that learners receive changes as they move through the
stages of learning.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Referring to one skill or aspect of the sport or activity you are currently studying:
a describe how the information-processing model can be applied.
b construct a flow diagram depicting this application.
2 You have just been appointed the new coach of the Bayside under-7s soccer team. Most
players are new, but some have played for a season. The team includes boys and girls.
How will you account for the variations in the characteristics of the group, and how will you
develop strategies and tactics?
a Outline your coaching plan for the season, which runs for eight weeks.
b Include examples of suitable practice methods and how you will use feedback during
the stages of learning.
PRACTICAL
Feedback
1 Divide the class into three groups to perform this simple throwing activity. You will also
need supervisors, recorders and subjects. The task is to throw a ball at a bullseye that has
various scoring sections (a bin or crate could also work). The ball is to be thrown ten times,
and subjects receive limited feedback as follows:
Group 1 receives internal KP only.
Subjects perform ten throws blindfolded. Subjects are given no external feedback and
must use only internal feedback to judge the success of each throw.
Group 2 receives internal KP and some external KR.
Subjects perform ten throws blindfolded. Subjects are given the score after each throw.
Group 3 receives KP and KR.
Subjects perform ten throws without the blindfold. Subjects are given the score after
each throw.
2 Record all the results. Graph the average results for each group. Then, complete the
following:
a Describe the group averages and the trends observed in the activity.
b Identify any improvement in performance noted across the ten trials.
c Discuss the influence of KR and KP on performance.
d Outline why groups 1 and 2 needed to be blindfolded.

<start new page>
Assessing skill and performance

Characteristics of skilled players
To be able to assess skill and performance, it is helpful to look closely at what makes a skilled playerthe
observable and measurable characteristics of skill and skilled performance. Sports scientists have identied a
number of perceptual abilities and physical attributes that explain differences between skilled and unskilled
players, and individual variations in skill acquisition.
Skilled players are usually stronger and more exible, and have better body coordination, whole-body
balance and stamina than unskilled players. Skilled players are able to perceive, decide and act in a manner
that uses physical and mental energy, and time, efciently. Skilled players are faster and more accurate, and
have greater consistency than unskilled players. Through experience and practice, skilled players develop and
improve abilities such as anticipation.
Skilled athletes perform better than unskilled athletes in the following areas:
kinaesthetic awareness and proprioceptionskilled athletes have an ability to use the sensory
information from within their body to accurately judge the position of the body and limbs
anticipation and responseskilled athletes are able to correctly interpret external information, and use
memory and feel to respond appropriately
timingskilled athletes have quick and efcient responses (reactions and movements), making them
appear to have all the time in the world
limb coordinationskilled athletes hold their arms steady and have excellent hand and nger
coordination
consistency of performanceskilled athletes make very few errors
techniqueskilled athletes maintain correct technique, despite fatigue or the state of the game
response to cuesskilled athletes are able to identify many cues, but recognise and respond only to the
relevant ones
mental attitudeskilled athletes are more aggressive,
1031 competitive, ambitious, self-assured, adventurous,
condent, determined and committed; they have better
concentration; they are able to self-regulate anxiety and
arousal; and they can understand and use complex skills and
patterns.
In addition, the skilled player:
appears to be smooth and effortless
is composed
is able to adjust to changes in plans
is relatively unaffected by the competitive environment
is able to regulate personal effort
is able to overcome physical demands and pain
is able to cope with poor refereeing
can handle the pressure in the nal stages of a contest. Figure 1.28 Skilled athletes, such as
diver Matthew Mitcham, have learned
How many of the characteristics of a skilled player do you how to achieve their performance goal at
possess in the sport you are studying? almost every attempt.

ACQUIRE
List five characteristics of a skilled performer.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

Watch a number of videos of skilled and unskilled performances in one sport or activity.
Compare the performances. For example, you could film your classmates dribbling soccer
balls and compare that with the soccer dribbling skills of professional soccer players. How
do you explain the differences in performance?
Click to watch footage of professional soccer players.
EXTENSION
Interview a skilled athlete to learn more about the characteristics of skilled players.
1 Investigate what motivates the athlete to train and perform in his or her chosen sport.
2 Identify the characteristics and skills that the athlete believes to be essential for success.
3 Discover how the athlete has developed these skills and characteristics.
Measuring skill and performance

Measurement is an important process that allows skills and performances to be evaluated and compared.
Measurement is the act of assessing, usually by assigning numbers to whatever is being assessed.
Measurement has many purposes, including:
placing athletes into ability groups
diagnosing strengths and weaknesses
predicting results
motivating players
achieving and improving skill levels
evaluating instruction methods.
Objective and subjective assessment

Skills and performance can be measured by subjective or objective assessment, or using a combination of
both.
Subjective assessment (appraisal)

Subjective assessment is an appraisal based on the observers or judges personal opinion of how well the
skill was performed. Their judgement is based on personal experience, opinions and feelings, and can be
affected by their state of mind and temperament.
Subjective assessment is often used to evaluate the quality and style of a performance, such as dance
or gymnastics routines. Gymnastics judges mentally collect data as they watch a gymnast perform, before
making a decision about the quality of the performance.

1045
Figure 1.29 For some sports, goals are a type of objective assessment.
Objective assessment (measurement)

Objective assessment involves an impartial measurement based on certain indisputable facts. It occurs
without bias or prejudice, and is such that all observers will give the same result for the same performances,
such as, when a batter is bowled out in cricket, or when the nal score for a golfer is six strokes under par.
Objective assessment often uses instruments, such as stopwatches, scoreboards and tape measures, to test
and take measurements.
Think about the sport you are studying. Is
your performance measured using subjective
assessment, objective assessment or a combination
1032 of both types?
Combining subjective and objective

115% assessment
Why is it that one person likes a particular lm and
another loathes it? How do we determine whether
Ricky Ponting is the best batsman in the world? Who
decides whether there is such a thing as a perfect ten
in diving?
The answers to these questions lie in both
subjective and objective assessment. Subjective and
objective assessment are not mutually exclusive;
they can exist separately or together. In fact, adding
Figure 1.30 A race time is an example of objective measurement to appraisal will increase a judgements
assessment. objectivity.

1038
Appraisal relies heavily on the judges personal

(and, therefore, subjective) evaluation of the
performance. Their objectivity increases as they
become experienced at judging. The judging can
be made more objective by evaluating players
according to established criteria (prescribed judging
criteria), instead of according to the judges feelings,
emotions, expectations and preconceived ideas
about the performance (personal judging criteria).
By allocating numerical scores to the prescribed
judging criteria, judges are able to compare teams or
individual players.
Similar processes are used whether evaluating
a movie or choosing a player for next weeks game
based on performance at training.
Interpreting performance
measures
While it is important to measure performance, it
is equally as important to be able to interpret the
results. Simply giving athletes a score gives them no
information about the quality of their performance.
Often results are interpreted by comparing an
athletes results with those of other athletes
and with established norms. Norm-referenced
tests, criterion-referenced tests, rating scales and
Figure 1.31 When assessing gymnasts, judges
percentile rankings are some of the tools that allow make subjective judgements based on established
performance to be interpreted, evaluated and ranked. criteria.
ACQUIRE
1 Explain the difference between subjective and objective assessment.
2 a Name two sports where results are objectively scored or assessed.
b Name two sports where results are subjectively scored or assessed.
c In what ways might the sport you are currently studying be assessed in both objective
and subjective ways?
EXTENSION
1 Do some research to identify examples of each of the following:
a norm-referenced tests and criterion-referenced tests
b rating scales
c percentile rankings.
2 Describe what each is measuring.
3 Explain how each measure works.
4 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each type.

Table 1.1Tennis rating scale: forehand and backhand
Rating Player assessment

5 excellent Proper grip, good balance, footwork and near-
perfect form. Demonstrates consistent stroke
mechanics. Anticipates opponents shots.
Placement appropriate for opponents weaknesses
or position.
4 good Proper grip, good balance, adequate footwork, and

acceptable but not perfect form. Demonstrates
above-average consistency of stroke mechanics.
Anticipates opponents shots. Consistent
placement within court area.
3 average Proper grip and acceptable balance, but footwork

is poor. Form is somewhat erratic and inefficient,
resulting in inconsistency in shot placement. Style
of play may be defensive. Little anticipation of
opponents shots.
2 fair Uses improper grip at times, poor footwork, and

basically incorrect form. Inconsistent stroke
mechanics. Defensive style of play, merely trying to
get ball over net. Little anticipation of opponents
shots. Unable to sustain a rally.
1034
1 poor Incorrect grip, off balance, with poor footwork.
Form is very poor and erratic. Inaccurate shot
placement. No anticipation of opponents shots.
Experiences difficulty in getting ball over net. Figure 1.32 Skill-related tests,
like the tennis rating scale in
Source: Larry Hensley (ed.), Tennis Skills Test Manual, American Alliance for Table 1.1, help coaches assess
Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, Reston: Virginia,1989 players performance.
Table 1.2Volleyball rating scale
Critical elements Scale (15) Scale description

A Spiking 5 points Exceptional ability for
i Approach 5 4 3 2 1 the age and gender of the
student
ii Jump 5 4 3 2 1
4 points Above-average ability for
iii Spike placement 5 4 3 2 1
the age and gender of the
B Serve student
i Accuracy 5 4 3 2 1 3 points Average ability for the age
ii Difficulty of return 5 4 3 2 1 and gender of the student
C Passing 2 points Below-average ability for
i Proper use of hands 5 4 3 2 1 the age and gender of the
student
ii Accuracy 5 4 3 2 1
1 point Inferior ability, far below font change
D Team play as per instruct
average ability for the age
i Hustle 5 4 3 2 1
and gender of the student xboxed and
ii Teamwork 5 4 3 2 1 xboxtable set
Total score

Basketball rating scalepassing
Objective
To measure skill in passing and recovering the ball while moving
Equipment
Standard inated basketball, stopwatch, smooth wall surface, marking tape
Procedure
Six squares are marked on the wall and a restraining line is marked on the oor 2.4 metres from the wall.
Three, 30-second trials are administered, with the rst trial considered practice and the last two timed. The
player, holding a ball, stands behind the restraining line and faces target A. On the command Go, the player
chest-passes at target A, recovers the rebound, and moves opposite target B. From behind the restraining line,
the player chest-passes at target B. This pattern continues until target F, where two chest-passes are executed.
Then, the player moves to the left, passes at target E, and continues to move left, passing at each target in
turn.
Scoring
Each pass that hits the desired target counts as two points. Each pass hitting the wall but missing the target
counts as one point. The sum of the two trials is the nal score.
Source: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD), 1984
Click to watch demonstration of this test.
1036 AF
increase to ll
as per JP
6.6m
60
cm
60 60 60 60 60 60
cm A cm cm C cm cm E cm
m
4
2.
B D F
90 cm
90 cm
90 cm
1.5 m
1.5 m
1.5 m
Start Tester
Figure 1.33 The AAHPERD basketball test for passing marks six targets on a wall and is used to test
accuracy and speed.

Skill-related tests
Athletes are not only measured and assessed during competition. During practice and training sessions it is
also helpful to assess players abilities at individual skills.
Skill-related tests can provide objective methods for evaluating the skills required for success in particular
sports. Skill-related tests can also:
evaluate learning
predict performance
classify and compare participants
motivate
determine achievement
diagnose injury
act as a learning tool.
In addition to standard health and tness tests for endurance, anaerobic capacity, strength, and so on,
three types of skills are often examined and measured:
information-processing capacity (for example, memory and reaction time)
general motor ability (for example, speed and power)
specic sports skills (for example, kicking and passing).
Good skill-related tests produce results that are objective, reliable and valid. Most skills tests are
accompanied by a set of norms allowing comparison of performances.
Skills test validity and reliability

In the pursuit of accuracy, credibility and fairness, new and improved techniques have been devised to
measure performance. Eliminating human error tends to increase the validity and reliability of tests in many
sports.
Validity is the degree to which a test measures what it is designed to measure. For example, a sprint test
measures power and speed, not aerobic endurance. A tests validity would be questioned if the results of a
battery of tests indicate that an individual is not suited to basketball, but that person then wins an award for
most valuable player of the season.
Reliability is the ability of a test to be repeated and produce consistent results. Changing variables in
test conditions, such as the athletes levels of fatigue or environmental conditions, can alter test results and
make repeat tests unreliable. For example, comparing a beep test conducted on grass with one done on the
gym oor or on sand would be an unreliable test. Reliability also depends on the accuracy of measuring
equipment and instruments, and the extent of their measurement error.
A test can be reliable but invalid. That is, a test can give consistent results, but not measure what it claims
to measure. However, a test cannot be valid if it is not reliable. That is, if it cannot provide stable, repeatable
results, it is not valid. Therefore, the reliability of a test should be determined before its validity.
ACQUIRE
In your own words, explain the difference between a valid test and a reliable test.

01: SUMMARY
Motor skills may be classied according to the Many sports try to make their judging more
precision of the movement (ne or gross), the objective by using specic criteria against which
stability of the environment (open or closed) scores are awarded.
and their beginning and end points (discrete, Valid tests assess the attribute that the test is
continuous or serial). designed to measure. Reliable tests are those
Fine motor skills require small muscular that are able to be repeated exactly the same
movements. Gross motor skills involve large way and produce similar results each time.
groups of muscles and bigger movements.
NOW THAT YOU HAVE FINISHED ...
Open skills are performed in an unpredictable
and changing environment. Closed skills 1 Describe how making drills more closed can
are performed in a stable and predictable improve the speed at which a skill is learned.
environment. 2 For a sport of your choice, develop a training
Successful athletes combine motor skills with session that improves players understanding of
thinking skills, such as decision-making, tactical thinking skills, such as decision-making.
thinking and strategy. 3 Identify how the nature of a motor skill (whether
The three stages of learning are the: ne or gross, open or closed) inuences an
1 cognitive stagethe beginning stage when a individuals ability to learn it.
learner is working out what needs to be done 4 Distinguish the characteristics that an individual
to perform the skill will display between the cognitive and
2 associative stagewhen learners practise the autonomous stages of learning. Use specic
skill, and begin to apply and rene it examples from a sport of your choice.
3 autonomous stagewhen the skill becomes 5 Outline the key differences between the
automatic. performance of skilled players and beginners.
An individuals characteristics (such as genetic 6 Describe how learners characteristics can

traits, condence and experience) can inuence inuence their progress through the stages of
the speed of skill aquisition. learning.
The most suitable type of practice can be 7 Outline the role of feedback in skill acquisition.
determined by the stage of learning, the 8 Identify technology that can be used to improve
complexity of the skill and the physical effort the feedback given to an athlete.
required. 9 Choose an elite player in any sport, and describe
The information-processing model explains how the characteristics that athlete displays as a
players select information from the environment, skilled player.
analyse it and respond. 10 Explain how USA Diving has tried to make the
Feedback, both internal and external, is essential judging of diving more objective.
for improvement. The type and timing of
feedback needed by individuals changes as their Click to explore the USA Diving website.
abilities develop.
11 Design valid and reliable skills tests that assess a
A players performance can be assessed using
range of skills in a team sport of your choice.
objective or subjective assessment.
01: Summary ///// 41

2
Psycology of
performance

Why is it that a volleyball player can serve faultlessly all match and then, when What is sports psychology? 43
required to serve the ball on match point, miss? What about a tennis player whose Common sports psychology
performance plummets after a couple of errors? What is it about sport that, even problems 44
after years of developing and sculpting the human body for a perfect physical Techniques for managing
performance, when it comes time to compete something elsethe brainhas sports psychology problems 55
ultimate control over the effectiveness of that body?
In all sporting pursuits, the mind is a powerful tool, and it has the ability to make or
break an athlete. As a result, sports psychology is widely accepted as an essential
part of any athletes training. You will see in this chapter how psychology can be
used as a tool to both diagnose and remedy weaknesses in an athletes performance.

<start new page>
What is sports psychology?

Sports psychology is the science that applies the principles of psychology to sport. Psychology is the study
of the mind, mental processes and behaviour.
The principles of psychology are often used by athletes and coaches to improve and rene performance,
and to give athletes and teams an edge over their competitors. Adopting psychological strategies helps them
to perform at their peak when it matters most.
The principles of sports psychology can equally help a novice athlete understand how to best learn a new
skill. They can help beginners to develop strategies to overcome barriers that block their ability to transfer
simple skills learned as drills to their games. For example, beginner golfers might nd that they can hit the
ball cleanly off the tee in all their practice shots, but when performing the same shot in a game they hit the
ground with their club. They have let anxiety and distractions take over.
Few high school students will go on to become professional athletes, but many have aspirations of
becoming a professional. Once athletes have put in the hard yards to gain the physical skills they need,
jumping to the next stage can be difcult. Sports psychology principles can be used to help motivate athletes
to keep going with their sport and to progress to the next stage of their sporting career.
2018
Figure 2.1 Sports psychology can be used to improve athletes performance.
Chapter 2Psychology of performance ///// 43

<start new page>
2002
Common sports
psychology
problems
This section looks at some of the
common psychological concerns faced
by athletes. Strategies to overcome
these concerns are looked at later, from
page 55.
Anxiety
Athletes commonly experience anxiety,
which is feeling uneasy, worried or
apprehensive.
Anxiety is a heightened emotional
state that can cause psychological and
physical discomfort. A psychological
response to anxiety might include fear
(of failing or of being judged), worry,
tension, nervousness or apprehension;
a physical response might be trouble
sleeping. People can also experience
physiological responses to anxiety, such
as a change of heart rate or breathing,
or an increase in perspiration. These
responses are brought about by humans
ght or ight instinct. The physiological
changes seen in anxiety are preparing
Figure 2.2 Anxiety will be felt by a basketball player before an the body to ght or to ee in the face of
important free throw. danger.
Some anxiety is a perfectly normal response to everyday problems, and a small amount of anxiety can be
a benecial and motivating inuence; for example, anxiety about an important game in a few weeks might
cause you to train extra hard in preparation. However, anxiety can sometimes become a problem. When
anxious, athletes might:
feel threatened
be unable to think clearly
seize up
be unable to perform to previous standards or expectations.
It is important for athletes to use relaxation strategies when they feel anxiety beginning to become a
problem.
Can you think of a sporting situation that has caused you to feel anxious? Would everyone in your class
respond similarly in the same situation?

>
Trait and state anxiety

Anxiety is affected both by a persons inherent personality (traits) and by their environment or situation
(state).
Some people are more susceptible or predisposed to feel anxious than others. The way in which a persons
personality traits affect their anxiety levels is known as trait anxiety. Trait anxiety is an athletes general
predisposition to perceive a situation as threatening or non-threatening. Because they have an underlying
tendency to react in a certain way, people who display high levels of trait anxiety usually perceive more
situations as threatening than those who have low levels of trait anxiety.
State anxiety is brought on by an atheletes situation or circumstances. It is an emotional response to a
particular situation or environment.
The interaction of trait and state anxiety determines a persons anxiety. For example, it is common for
athletes to feel some nervousness or anxiety when playing an important grand nal match (state anxiety);
however, the level of this anxiety is determined by each individuals personality (trait anxiety).
Consider your own anxiety levels. Do you think you have high or low trait anxiety?
Two important variables in determining performance anxiety are:
the importance of the situation to the individual
the uncertainty of the outcome of the situation.
Both state anxiety and trait anxiety can be measured using questionnaires. Athletes are scored on a
continuum for each, depending on their responses.
Cognitive and somatic state anxiety

Cognitive state anxiety is anxiety linked with a fear of failure and concerns about being able to meet
expectations. It can lead to negative self-evaluation and be a threat to self-esteem. Cognitive state anxiety
can only be measured using surveys and questionnaires.
Somatic state anxiety is the physiological response a body displays when anxious. Examples of such
responses include increased heart rate, increased respiration, clammy hands, stomach butteries, a dry
mouth, tense muscles and nausea. Somatic state anxiety can be measured using methods such as taking a
persons pulse.
Generally, when a worrying event is
at least a day away, feelings of cognitive Cognitive state anxiety 2003 AF
state anxiety are higher than somatic
state anxiety. The closer to the event
rejig due to
athletes get, the higher their somatic
supplied size
state anxiety. Interestingly, once the Somatic state anxiety
event begins, somatic state anxiety
tends to dissipate, but cognitive state
anxiety will uctuate throughout the
event as the probability of success or
failure changes. 2 days 1 day Start
before before of
Can you relate to this? If you could event event event
separate your nerves before an event Figure 2.3 Initially, cognitive state anxiety is higher than
into cognitive and somatic state anxiety, somatic state anxiety, but somatic state anxiety increases as the
would they follow this timeline? event gets closer.

ACQUIRE
1 a What is anxiety?
b What are some characteristics of anxiety? Will everyone feel anxious in the same way?
Why?
c Can anxiety be beneficial? Give an example.
2 a Describe the difference between trait and state anxiety.
b Identify some causes of state anxiety in sport.
c How can trait anxiety influence the effects of state anxiety?
EXTENSION
1 Complete the questionnaire for a sport competition anxiety test (SCAT).
2 Analyse the questions being asked. Consider why they have asked these questions.
3 What do your results say about your anxiety levels?
Click to access a sport competition anxiety test online.
Personality traits
Personality traits are a critical factor in athletic performance. As discussed in Chapter 1, personality traits such
as keenness, condence, competitiveness and aggression inuence an athletes chances of success. In recent
years, attention has been focused on identifying the specic personality traits that enable athletes to function
well, as individuals or in teams.
Anxiety is not the only psychological factor affected by personality traits and personality type. For example,
one critical factor in success is the athletes aspirationtheir ambition to succeed. Not all people have
personalities that are well suited to ambition; for some people, striving to achieve ambitions only causes high
levels of anxiety.
Different personality types experience sports psychology problems, such as poor motivation, under- and
over-arousal, and anxiety, differently. Personality traits can also determine how athletes respond to the
techniques that are used to overcome these psychological issues.
Stress
Stress is the non-specic response that the body makes to demands placed on it. Stress can be good or
bad, but the physiological reactions in the body are basically the same. When athletes compete, they might
experience too much stress (hyperstress) or too little stress (hypostress), good stress (eustress) or bad
stress (distress).
Have you ever experienced eustressgood stress? In what form did you experience it, and how did it affect
your performance?
Stress is very closely linked to anxiety and, like anxiety, stress can come from internal or external sources,
which might or might not be under the direct control of the player. Some of the sources of stress on players
are listed in Table 2.1. Because individuals vary, what one person nds stressful, another might not.
Can you think of a time when you experienced stress that was related to state anxiety?

ACQUIRE
List the four types of stress and describe an example of each.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Categorise the sources of internal and external stress listed in Table 2.1 into three groups:
those under an athletes control
those not under an athletes control
those partly under an athletes control
With a partner or in small groups, compare your results. Did you disagree on any points?
Why?
2 What situations or problems unrelated to sport or physical activity do you think might also
be a source of stress for athletes? Justify your response.
Table 2.1Sources of stress for athletes
Internal sources of stress External sources of stress

Injury Audience/spectators
Illness Media
Personality traits, such as self-esteem, Expectations of others
self-confidence and coping style Environment (weather, field, referee)
Personal expectations Opposition
Fear and/or memories of success or failure Event planning
Reactions to opposition Stage and level of competition
Skills
Under- or over-arousal
One meaning of the word arouse is to stir into action. When used in sports psychology and sports
performance, arousal refers to an athletes readiness to perform.
Arousalthe physical and psychological state in which an athlete is able to take actionis linked to
the release of hormones, such as adrenaline and noradrenaline, and the body sending signals through the
nervous system.
Like anxiety, arousal is linked to humans ght or ight instinct. As an athlete is aroused and prepares for
action, the body undergoes physiological changessuch as an increase in heart rate, breathing, perspiration,
brain activity and metabolic rate. Blood is diverted from the gut to the muscles, as the body prepares to
use its muscles for action (which causes the feeling of having butteries in your stomach). For this reason,
above-average levels of arousal are essential for peak performance in activities requiring physical strength,
endurance or speed.
Although arousal is not the only factor to affect performance, sports psychologists have linked levels of
arousal to performance. An athlete who is not at all aroused would be deeply asleep; someone who is too
aroused can become anxious. In between is an optimal level of arousalexcitementthat allows athletes to
perform at their best.
The rst theory to try to explain the relationship between arousal and performance was Clark Hulls
1943 drive theory. Drive theory assumed a direct relationship between arousal and sports performance (see
Figure 2.4). The more aroused athletes were, the better they were able to perform. This theory did not allow
for over-arousal leading to anxiety, and was only applicable to simple motor tasks, not complex ones.

Another theory, the inverted-U hypothesis,
suggested that a moderate level of arousal is needed High 2004 AF
for optimal performance; too little or too much Inverted U
Hypothesis
arousal leads to a decline in performance. The name
Performance
of the theory refers to the shape of the line formed
when performance is plotted against arousal and
anxiety on a graph (see Figure 2.4). This theory takes
Drive theory
into account the complexity of the task and the
athletes stage of learning. As a result, different skills
and sports have different optimum levels of arousal. Low
Very low Very high
To achieve optimal arousal, athletes can use Arousal /anxiety
techniques for relaxation, motivation and goal Figure 2.4 Inverted-U hypothesis and drive theory
setting, which are discussed later in the chapter. are used to explain optimal arousal.
High High
Putting Blocking Tackling Bench press Advanced 2005 AF

in in in in Intermediate tennis player
Performance
Performance
golf volleyball football weightlifting Beginning tennis player
tennis player
Low Low
Low High Low High
(a) Application of the inverted arousal U hypothesis (b) Application of the inverted arousal U hypothesis
in athletic events to tennis players at varying levels of skill
Figure 2.5 The inverted-U hypothesis can be applied to allow for the complexity of the task and the athletes
stage of learning.
ACQUIRE
1 Explain how anxiety and arousal differ physiologically and psychologically.
2 Identify the limits of the inverted-U theory.
3 Compare the differences in performance between an under-aroused athlete and an
over-aroused athlete.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

Referring to Figure 2.5, why do you think different sports might require different levels of
arousal for optimal performance?
EXTENSION
A number of other theories predict a relationship between performance and arousal.
Research some other theories. How do they differ from the drive theory and inverted-U
hypothesis? In what ways are they similar?

Distractions
Distractions are an inevitable part of every sporting situation. Players who are distracted must refocus their
attention or concentrate on the task.
In sport, distractions range from noisy spectators or a frustrated coach yelling, to the smell of a
hamburger. Another type of distraction is an opponents deliberate strategy to draw attention away from the
play they wish to make.
An example of an opponent using
distraction deliberately in a game can
2006
be seen in volleyball. Volleyball offence
in the 1960s was very predictable.
Spike attacks were only ever made
from the two outside positions in the
front court. In the early 1970s, Japanese
players revolutionised this by making
spike attacks from any position on
the court. With this new method of
attack, blockers attention was drawn
to opposing players who ran through
a spike motion only to have the ball
sent to another player on the court.
It became necessary for players on
the defensive team to distinguish the
irrelevant cues of the dummy runners
and identify the correct spiker to defend.
Can you think of an example in your sport
where irrelevant cues are used to distract
or confuse the opposition?
Athletes prepare themselves for
distractions by adopting some of the
concentration techniques that are
discussed later in this chapter.
Attention
To understand distractions, it is
necessary to understand the nature of
attention and concentration.
Attention involves taking control
of the mind and, with clarity, focusing
the sensessuch as sight and hearing
on what is important. It might mean
withdrawing concentration from
one thing to focus on another. Terms
commonly used when describing
attention include alertness, focus and Figure 2.6 Focusing attention is important when performing
concentration. under pressure.

Attention can be considered a mental process that is:
selectivewe can focus on some things, but not others
shiftablewe can change it voluntarily or involuntarily
divisiblewe can maintain more than one focus at the same time.
When athletes perform, they are expected to be able to focus their attention on the tasks required of
them (relevant cues) and block out anything that might distract them from their performance (irrelevant
cues or distractions). Sports psychologists call this selective attention.
An example of selective attention at work is when you read a book while playing music or watching
television. As you read, your brain will allow you to selectively attend to the book while still being conscious
of the sound in the background. If you tune in to the music or television, it will become difcult to follow the
message of the book even if you continue reading. When this happens, you will often have to reread a section
of the book to understand what is written.
Dimensions of attention
In 1976, Robert Nideffer identied two different dimensions of attention: width and direction. The width
dimension refers to the amount of information from the environment that an athlete tries to perceive, which
can be broad (a lot) or narrow (a little). The direction dimension looks at how athletes can focus either on
stimuli from sources that are internal (their own thoughts and cues) or on those that are external (such as
environmental cues and their opponent). According to Nideffer, four types of attention are therefore possible,
as shown in Figure 2.7.
The dimension or type of attention required varies depending on the type of sport and the stage of the
game. For example, a broadexternal attention focus is often a requirement in open-skill team sports. In
target sports such as archery, a typical attention focus would be narrowexternal. In many activities, being
able to shift between the dimensions of attention is important.
2007 TS Direction
External
AWARE Broadexternal (aware) Narrowexternal (focused) FOCUSED

Demonstrate peripheral awareness Focus on a specic target
Are able to read and react to the Are able to block out distractions and
environment remain focused on specic cues
Are good at scanning, picking the open Are able to stay focused on a task for
teammate long periods
Width Broad Narrow

Broadinternal (strategic) Narrowinternal (systematic)
Demonstrate analysis, problem- Are able to focus on a single thought or
solving, creative thinking and planning idea and stay with it
Are often the sports strategists and Have enhanced kinaesthetic (body)
thinkers awareness
Show an aptitude for competition Show dedication, and a capacity to
planning, developing an alternative follow instructions and/or stick to a
STRATEGIC plan of attack, and debrieng game plan SYSTEMATIC
Internal
Figure 2.7 Athletes demonstrate different characteristics across the dimensions of attention.

ACQUIRE
1 List four different types of distractions a player might experience.
2 Explain the term selective attention.
3 Describe the four dimensions of attention.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

Copy Figure 2.8 onto a sheet of paper. Referring to Figure 2.7, place the letter or number of
each of the following sports and coaching skills in the appropriate quadrant of the diagram.
Sports skills:
a Tackling in football 2019 <ller>
b Putting in golf
c Psyching up for the game
d Rebounding in basketball (when the ball has hit
the rim)
e Listening to instructions
f Planning a gymnastics routine
g Executing a gymnastics routine
h Running a marathon
Coaching skills:
1 Developing a game plan
2 Helping an athlete correct an error
3 Listening to a player
4 Deciding how to respond to an officials bad call
5 Delivering a speech
6 Analysing your competence as a coach
7 Giving directions at the beginning of practice
8 Resolving a conflict with a player
Direction
External
2008 TS
AWARE FOCUSED
Width Broad Narrow
Figure 2.8
Nideffers model
STRATEGIC SYSTEMATIC can be used
to analyse the
Internal
different types of
attention required
Source: American Coaching Effectiveness Program, Sport Psychology Workbook, by different skills
Human Kinetics: Champaign, Illinois and activities.

2026 Poor motivation
Motivation is dened as the drive that causes people
to behave in a particular way. Motivation can have
a signicant inuence on athletes performance.
Athletes who lack motivation or who have poor
motivation might not attend all training sessions, not
train fully during training sessions and not perform
at their best during competitions. Without some
kind of reinforcement for effort, athletes will nd
it difcult to stay motivated. On the other hand,
motivation is what keeps people striving for success.
Consider swimmers who have to attend early
training sessions most mornings and again in the
afternoons after school or work. Without effective
motivation, they might go to training less frequently
or apply less effort during training. This will cause
their tness levels, skill and performance to decline.
An athletes level of motivation can affect and be
affected by many of the other psychological factors
mentioned in this chapter, such as stress and anxiety.
Figure 2.9 Motivation keeps athletes striving for How would you rate your motivation to improve in
success. the sport you are currently studying?
Poor processing of information

Sports performance can also be affected by athletes abilities to process information. As explained in Chapter 1,
the four stages of the information-processing model are:
input
processing
output
feedback.
During the input phase, the senses detect signals (or cues) that provide the athlete with essential
information. An inability to detect these signals can result in poor performance. Malfunctions can include being
unable to hear, see or understand the cues clearly, or missing vital cues due to distractions. Factors such as
anxiety, over-condence and under-arousal can all lead to cues going undetected.
During the processing phase, information gathered during the input phase is organised and analysed, and
a decision is made about how to act. If cues were missed during the input phase, incorrect decisions might be
made based on incomplete information. In this phase, factors such as anxiety and over-arousal can also impede
a players ability to access and process vital information stored in the long-term memory. Players who are not
focused will often take longer to think and decide, and have slower reaction times and poorer performance.
When a decision is made, over-arousal or under-arousal can affect a players ability to move with precision
in the output phase. Over-arousal can increase the tension in a players muscles and lead to imprecise
movements. Under-arousal can have a lethargic effect on muscles, causing early fatigue and slower, clumsier
movements.

2009
Figure 2.10 Positive motivation, or the drive to succeed, and team cohesion are essential for strong
performance.
Any feedbackinternal or externalreceived by players during the feedback phase will reect the earlier
problems and can perpetuate any feelings of anxiety they may have had. Players who are already lacking
condence may then nd it more difcult to perform well in future. They may also lose their motivation to
continue, unless they are particularly determined or persistent.
Strategies to control poor information processing are often techniques to manage anxiety, stress, arousal
and concentration.
Poor team cohesion

Teams need to develop cohesion to function at their best. Team cohesion is the main factor that changes
a collection of individuals into a team. Albert Carron, a sports psychologist, dened group cohesion as a
dynamic process which is reected in the tendency for a group to stick together and remain united in the
pursuit of its goals and objectives.
Teams and groups that work well together demonstrate two types of cohesion:
task cohesion, which is the ability to identify closely with the groups goals and to experience success
obtaining these goals
social cohesion, which is a bond between members formed through relationships and social interaction
It is possible to have strong task cohesion without the same social cohesion, but teams with both types
of cohesion generally enjoy more consistent success. Research has shown that teams that lack harmonious
relationships will not be as successful as teams made up of players who like and respect each other. For
example, in 2010 the touring Pakistan test cricket team was competing well with strong task cohesion
despite obvious animosity between some players. Eventually, the bickering of the team caused the task
cohesion to wane, and the Pakistan team was defeated by the more cohesive Australian side.
Are you playing a team sport? How would you rate the task cohesion of the team? What about the social
cohesion?

A united team is far more effective than the sum of the individuals who make up that team. For example,
a basketball team might have a number of strong individuals capable of scoring goals. Certain positions on a
teamsuch as the point guard, which has the primary responsibility for creating scoring opportunitieswill
often receive more glory than otherssuch as the centre, whose main responsibility is to gather in rebounds
and defend against the other teams shots. Low-prole positions may not get the individual glory of the goal
scorers, but their role is still vital for the success of the team. In such sports, players need to recognise the
importance of every position in the team, no matter what it is. To minimise any resentment and to safeguard
team cohesion, coaches need to ensure that each player is made to feel equally important.
Figure 2.11 shows the factors that inuence a teams cohesion and the possible personal and group
consequences. Techniques used to manage team cohesion and team dynamics are discussed later in this
chapter on page 70.
2011 TS
Task cohesion
shared goals
AF art favours green

THROUGH OUT
book - green for 2nd
Common identity
color in TS art to team name Social cohesion
keep consistant team uniform strong relationships
regular training friendly social interaction
shared experiences
individual personalities
Leadership
effective coach and team
captain
Team cohesion Communication
open exchange of opinions
and suggestions
Better performance
Figure 2.11 Team cohesion is built on factors that include task cohesion and social cohesion.
ACQUIRE
1 How can athletes motivation affect their performance?
2 How can problems experienced during the input and processing stages of the information-
processing model affect the output stage?
3 Describe the two types of team cohesion.

<start new page>
Techniques for managing sports psychology problems

Many different techniques can be used to manage sports psychology problems. While the techniques are
grouped below according to the problem they are most commonly used to solve, it is important to remember
that each technique can have benets in more than one area. For example, mental rehearsal has effects not
only on anxiety and over-arousal but also on motivation and concentration.
Managing anxiety, stress and over-arousal

When negative feelings, such as anxiety, stress or over-arousal, affect athletes performance, techniques can
be used to help athletes gain control of their emotions.
Mental rehearsal before the event prepares athletes for the pressure of competition; relaxation
techniques, such as progressive relaxation, meditation, biofeedback and hypnosis can be used before and
during an event to help athletes reduce their reaction to stress.
Mental rehearsal
Mental rehearsal is when an athlete practises in his or her mind the physical skills that the athlete wishes to
perform. In this process, there is no visible physical movement; the athlete imagines the performance and
rehearses the activity in his or her mind to try to prepare the mind and body for competition.
Mental rehearsal is particularly used to manage and reduce negative emotions such as anxiety. A key
feature of mental rehearsal is that it can often replicate the feelings of anxiety individuals will experience
during the performance while allowing them to visualise success. This provides athletes with a positive frame
of mind for competition and prepares them for the pressure they could experience.
Have you tried using mental rehearsal before a performance? If so, what difference did it make?
This ability to picture a performance, or aspects of it, is a skill that can improve performance. Mental
rehearsal has been found to be effective when acquiring new sports skills and when performing well-
learned skills. Many studies have found that a combination of mental and physical practice results in better
performances than mental or physical practice alone.
Mental rehearsal allows athletes to:
practise old skills
learn new skills
experience success
train in any conditions
concentrate and refocus
prepare for training or competition
nd motivation
gain condence
develop coping strategies
control anxiety and arousal.
It is believed that mental rehearsal works because imagining an action creates electrical activity in the
muscles involved in the movement, even though they do not visibly move. Mental rehearsal also allows the
brain to work out problems, propose solutions and make decisions. It strengthens the neural connections
between the brain and the muscles, which are needed to create the movement. Good mental rehearsal works
because athletes not only see the image, they also feel it.

2021 P 1/4
As athletes develop and practise their mental

rehearsal skills, their performance, concentration
and attention will improve. They will also gain
greater condence.
Guidelines for mental rehearsal include the
following:
Athletes should try to mentally rehearse in
the environment in which they will perform
or compete so they can better include
environmental cues in their imagery.
Athletes should mentally rehearse the total
performance or the sections that are particularly
difcult for them.
The mental rehearsal should end with an image
of achieving the goal to reinforce success.
To focus the athlete, mental rehearsal should
occur immediately before performance.
Mental actions and imagery should occur at the
same rate as they would in a real performance.
Figure 2.12 To focus the athlete, visualisation can Athletes should imagine how their muscles will
take place immediately before performance. feel as the mental task is being performed.
Visualisation
Visualisation is one mental rehearsal technique that involves creating a mental picture of just one aspect
of a performance or skill. It often happens immediately before performance. It is different from mental
rehearsal, which involves rehearsing a whole performance.
The mental picture created through visualisation might be an internal picture (the athlete imagines what
it looks like from the athletes perspective as the performance unfolds) or an external picture (the athlete
imagines the crowds perspective of the performance).
It is also possible to visualise a picture of something other than the performance, such as the environment
at the event, a safe and secure place, or the moment of victory.
For example, high-divers might picture themselves leaving the diving board in a certain way. It will
improve the divers condence because in their mind the dive has begun successfully. High jumpers may use
visualisation to focus on clearing the bar or correctly planting the take-off foot before the jump.
Anything can be visualised, but not all people nd it easy to visualise. First, the person must believe
that the strategy is effective. Second, it is a skill that requires time, patience and practiceit might require
practice every day.
Clear, vivid visualisation can assist athletes to:
switch on or switch off (become aroused or relaxed)
see and experience success
refocus (before or during an event)
practise and perfect skills
motivate themselves
prepare for a performance.

ACQUIRE
1 Compare mental rehearsal with visualisation. How do they differ?
2 Why would an athlete use mental rehearsal techniques? How do mental rehearsal and
visualisation help improve an athletes performance?
3 When is the best time for an athlete to use mental rehearsal?
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Discuss how mental rehearsal and visualisation could be used by a golfer.
2 Describe how you could use mental rehearsal or visualisation in your current physical
activity.
PRACTICAL
Mental rehearsal
1 Perform this group task as a class.
a Propose a suitable practical experiment, such as the example below, to test the effects
of mental rehearsal on athletic performance.
b Carry out the experiment, recording the scores.
c When your experiment is complete, tabulate and graph the results.
d Discuss any differences in the results.
Example of a suitable experimentbasketball free throws
Three groups perform a number of basketball free-throw trials. The first group uses
physical practice only; the second group uses mental practice only; and the third group
uses a combination of physical and mental practice.
Group 1 (physical practice) performs twenty free throws in a row.
Group 2 (mental practice) mentally rehearses free-throw shooting for 5 minutes, and
then shoots twenty free throws.
Group 3 (mental and physical combination) mentally rehearses for 5 minutes, and
then shoots ten free throws. The group then does another 5-minute mental rehearsal
session, followed by the final ten free throws.
2 Assess your own visualisation skills by completing the following task.
Select a specific skill or activity in a sport you play. With no one else present, imagine
yourself performing the skill or activity at the place where you usually perform it. Close
your eyes and, for 23 minutes, try to see yourself at this place. Hear the sounds, feel the
body movements and be aware of how you feel. On a scale of 15 (with 1 being very poor
and 5 being very good), assess how well you did each of the following:
a saw yourself performing the activity
b heard the sounds of performing the activity
c felt yourself performing the activity
d were aware of your mood
e were able to control your image.

2027
Relaxation
techniques
Relaxation techniques are
often used by athletes to calm
themselves, thereby decreasing
anxiety and controlling
over-arousal. An astute and
experienced player will be able
to relax in stressful situations
and to respond with control and
calmness, without being under-
aroused.
When athletes are relaxed
they are better able to put their
performances in training and
competition into perspective.
They will be less worried about
the results and will be better able
to focus on the performance.
This will make them less anxious
and more motivated, which
ultimately will improve their
performance.
Relaxation can be useful
Figure 2.13 Relaxation techniques help athletes feel less anxious and before, during or after an event
more motivated.
and usually precedes mental
rehearsal. As with mental rehearsal and visualisation, it must be practised so that it becomes a natural
response. The techniques should be performed regularly and frequentlytwo or three times per day in the
beginning, and then as necessary.
Relaxation techniques usually have one or more of the following characteristics:
procedures for tensing and then relaxing muscles
a focus on breathing
a focus on feelings of heaviness and warmth
visualisation.
For most relaxation techniques, the person needs to sit comfortably or lie down. Four other factors are
also necessary for relaxation:
a quiet environment
a positive attitude
low muscle tension
a relaxation device or technique.
The many relaxation devices and techniques include progressive relaxation, meditation, biofeedback and
hypnosis. Each technique is slightly different, but they all produce essentially the same result: calmer, more
relaxed players who feel positive about the next bout of exercise.

Progressive relaxation
Progressive relaxation involves the systematic tensing and releasing of muscles. If all muscles are relaxed, it is
impossible to experience feelings of stress and tension.
The following is one progressive relaxation technique:
1 Make a st with the right hand and squeeze tightly for 57 seconds.
2 Concentrate on being aware of the strain in the back of the hand and up the arm.
3 Let the hand relax completely, and feel the difference.
4 Continue the process using other individual muscle groups.
By concentrating on each muscle group in a similar manner, the person becomes progressively better at
relaxing. Eventually the person is able to relax the muscles without rst tensing them; sometimes a cue word
is enough to produce the feeling of relaxation. This technique is particularly useful for neck and shoulder
tension, tension headaches and tight jaw muscles.
Meditation
Meditation involves totally concentrating on a word, phrase or imageoften called a mantra. Concentrating
on one thing frees the mind from other distracting thoughts that might cause stress. Meditation gives the
body time to relax and recuperate after stress or physical activity.
Biofeedback
Biofeedback uses instruments that measure changes in bodily functions. The instruments give athletes better
control of changes to their bodies because they make them aware that the changes have occurred. The
instruments can measure changes in
skin temperature, sweating, heart rate,
breathing, muscle activity and brain
waves.
For example, a heart rate monitor
alerts a person to a fast heart rate,
and the person then concentrates
on lowering the heart rate by using
relaxation techniques. Players can use
the instruments in training to develop
skills to control feelings of anxiety or
arousal. The same strategies can be
applied in the competitive environment
to relax.
Biofeedback is a very effective
relaxation tool. The main drawback is
the expense of the equipment.
Hypnosis 2013
Hypnosis is the creation of a sleep-like
condition with the help of another
person. It is used to induce a state of
deep relaxation and has some similarities Figure 2.14 Meditation involves total concentration and can
to meditation. relievestress.

2014
PRACTICAL
Relaxation techniques
1 Conduct the following relaxation activity in your
class. The activity should be done in a quiet place
with gentle, relaxing music playing softly in the
background.
a Lie comfortably on your back and close your eyes.
b Deeply relax all the muscles in your body,
beginning with your toes and progressing up to
your face. Make all your muscles feel very heavy
and totally relaxed.
c Breathe through your nose and become aware
of your breathing. As you breathe out, say the
word one silently to yourself. Every time that you
breathe out, say one. Continue for 10minutes.
d When you have finished, open your eyes slowly
and lie still for a few more minutes.
When would you complete a relaxation task such as
this? If you had to play a competitive match now, how
would you feel? How would the relaxation activity
affect your performance? Figure 2.15 Lydia Lassila used mental
rehearsal and relaxation techniques to
2 Read the case study below, and then answer the win a gold medal at the 2010 Vancouver
questions that follow. Olympics.
Case study
John had been in this situation a hundred times before. It is the nal, and he is on the free-throw line.
The scores are equal, with one shot to come and 15 seconds on the clock. Suddenly, everything freezes.
He hears the crowd and sees the opposition. The hoop is far too small for what appears to be the beach
ball that he is now holding. Everything is hazy. He cannot feel his hands. He has 10 seconds to make the
match-winning shot.
a Explain the physiological and psychological responses taking place in Johns body.
b Identify what might have caused this situation.
c Suggest some techniques that John could use to make this shot successful.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

Lydia Lassila won a gold medal in the womens freestyle aerials at the 2010 Winter Olympic
Games in Vancouver. Her sports psychologist, Queenslander Jeffrey Hodges, explained the
struggles Lydia experienced and the techniques he used to overcome these in an interview
with ABC radio. Listen to the interview and discuss the psychological problems Lydia
experienced and the techniques she used to overcome them.
Click to access the interview with Jeffrey Hodges.

Managing concentration
Concentration techniques
2022
It is important that athletes of all skill levels, and their coaches,
develop techniques that reduce the effects of distractions and
improve concentration.
Constructive coaching
Often, during practice or competition, players will hear
someone, often a coach, say to them, Keep your eyes on the
ball, Watch the ball into your hands or If its not in the strike
zone, dont swing. Such comments are intended to make the
player focus attention on the task at hand.
Recognising relevant cues

Not all comments from the sidelines, however, are helpful.
Comments such as That was useless! or My grandmother can
kick better than that! do not help to keep an athlete focused,
and they can instead become a distraction.
An athletes ability to recognise and attend to appropriate
stimuli during competition is called focus or concentration.
Concentration involves giving attention to relevant
Figure 2.16 Not all comments from the
environmental cues, and maintaining that attention. Attention sidelines are helpful.
involves the use of the senses: sight, touch, hearing and smell.
By improving their ability to focus on relevant cues and ignore irrelevant ones, athletes will be able to
improve their performance.
During a competition, players need to be able to constantly adjust their focus to allow for changing
conditions, such as changes in the actions of their opponent.
For example, what cues are relevant when a rugby union goal-kicker is taking a kick for goal? Relevant
cues can include the angle of the kick to be made, the direction and intensity of the wind, and the position of
the ball in its holder on the ground. Irrelevant cues can include the crowd behind the goalposts, the players
running towards the kicker to charge down, and the score. The ability of kickers to focus on relevant cues
and to lter out all extraneous noise and movement is critical to their ability to kick goals.
Have you developed a strategy that can help you to regain concentration when distracted?
Routines
Many athletes take a moment to perform routines before closed skills, such as serves, free kicks and pitches,
to increase their concentration. For example, a rugby union goal-kicker might nd that his usual pre-kick
routine of taking ve steps back, taking two steps to the side, looking at the posts, looking at the ball, tapping
the right boot twice on the ground and then putting the foot beside the ball will improve his concentration.
Performing small routines or tasks periodically can also help athletes to maintain or regain their
concentration. For example, a tennis player might adjust the racquet strings between points; a badminton
player might walk to the back of the court and touch the base line before returning to serve at the T; and a
volleyball player might bounce the ball several times before rolling it back to the opponent.
Such routines can help because they give athletes a few moments to gather their thoughts and because
their bodies recognise the rehearsed movement pattern and know instinctively what to do next.

Six-step routine
One routine that can be applied to most sporting situations is the six-step routine.
1 Consider your tactics and strategy.
2 Check your equipment.
3 Take a deep breath and release any tension.
4 Build a positive mental image.
5 Focus.
6 Go for it!
Case studyroutine
Have you ever played a game where nothing can go wrong? Everything you try works to perfection: the ball
seems to come to you in slow motion; you have time to execute the play just as you imagined; and your
physical responses are condent. Athletes call this being in the zone.
Some athletes are able to consistently achieve this mental state. Very few professional basketball players have
been able to shoot more than fty consecutive free throws during their careers. But Tom Amberry shoots free
throws at a gym near his home in Seal Beach, California, and often sinks 500 in a row. Some days he simply
cannot miss. On 15 November 1993, aged 71, he shot 2750 consecutive free throws.
Instead of worrying about whether the ball will go through the hoop, Amberry shifts his attention. He checks
to make sure his shoulders and feet are properly lined up. Then, he bounces the ball exactly three times, never
taking his eyes off the balls black ination hole. He makes sure his ngers line up on the ball the same way
before each shot. Finally, he looks at the basket and shoots. His trick is to use a routine to remove conscious
control of the shot and let instincts take over.
Click to download practical worksheets and detailed instructions for the six-step routine
and to learn more about Amberrys methods.
Associative and dissociative attention strategies

How does a marathon runner stay focused for several hours while competing? Elite marathon runners have
two possible strategies to maintain concentration: associative and dissociative.
Associative attention strategies involve concentrating on bodily functions and feelings (for example,
heart rate, breathing and muscle tension).
Dissociative attention strategies, on the other hand, require athletes to concentrate on external cues
(for example, people, cars and the course) rather than those occurring in their body. Being a dissociator
one who tunes out body cuesmight cause problems later in the race when the athlete is extremely tired.
ACQUIRE
1 Using a sporting example, explain the difference between relevant and irrelevant cues.
2 What can athletes do to increase their concentration when feeling distracted?
3 How do routines help athletes improve their concentration?
4 Explain the differences between associative and dissociative strategies.

PRACTICAL
Concentration techniques
Design your own experiment to test the effectiveness of concentration techniques.
For example, practise shooting basketball or netball goals. In small groups, try to shoot goals:
1 without external distractions
2 while other group members act as distractions by cheering loudly, heckling or calling out.
Start off without using any concentration techniques. Then, repeat using a variety of
concentration techniques.
Preferred concentration techniques vary. Which technique did each member of your group find
the most helpful?
Managing poor motivation and under-arousal

Motivation and under-arousal can be closely linked, and for this reason the strategies used to remedy one are
often also effective at managing the other.
How are athletes motivated?

What motivates one athlete may not necessarily motivate another, so each athlete needs to determine how
they best achieve and maintain motivation.
To understand motivational techniques, it is important to understand the types and sources of
motivation.
Positive and negative motivation

Motivational inuences can be categorised into two broad types:
Positive motivation is recognition, praise and reward for good performance. Athletes are motivated to
do well to receive the rewards.
Negative motivation is the feedback athletes receive when coaches, parents or friends consider their
behaviour unacceptable or substandard. Athletes avoid unacceptable behaviour for fear of the negative
reactions of others. An example of negative motivation can be a coachs dropping players to a lower grade
when they fail to perform.
Although both forms of motivation are used, coaches need to carefully assess all players and treat each
player individually. Because of personality differences, individual players respond differently to positive and
negative motivation. Motivation techniques used incorrectly can lead to a decline in performance.
Generally, positive motivation is more acceptable to athletes than negative motivation. It is also usually
more successful in improving and maintaining motivation.
Which type of motivationpositive or negativedo you respond to better?
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Motivation can come from one of two main sources:
Intrinsic (internal) sources of motivation come from within the individual.
Extrinsic (external) sources of motivation come from outside the individual.
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation can co-exist, and an important factor in maintaining motivation
is to determine the right balance between the two. Both types of motivation serve to reinforce particular
behaviour.

2015
Intrinsic forms of motivation

come from individuals
personal concerns about their
performance and their own
desire to succeed. Their sense
of satisfaction may come from
having fun or doing well, and
is not necessarily related to
any external measure, such as
trophies or public recognition.
Rather, it is the personal
knowledge that an individual has
done his or her best. An example
of intrinsic motivation is an
athlete who continues to nish a
race despite knowing that there
is no chance of winning; simply
Figure 2.17 Negative social reinforcement can motivate some players nishing satises a personal
to perform at their best. need.
Extrinsic forms of motivation are often associated with material rewards, such as money, trophies and
recognition. Examples of extrinsic rewards are the nancial payments given to professional athletes, trophies
presented at swimming carnivals or, in a sports class, not having to help pack away equipment after the class.
Social reinforcement
One type of external motivating force is social reinforcement. Social reinforcement is any type of
recognition or disapproval that occurs in front of others, such as teammates, parents or spectators.
An example of positive social reinforcement is recognition and approval from the coach in front of
teammates. Negative social reinforcement would be disapproval and rebuke in front of teammates.
Both positive and negative social reinforcement motivate players to do better next time in order to either
earn the recognition or avoid the disapproval; however, mismanaging social reinforcement can cause anxiety
in some athletes.
ACQUIRE
1 Define motivation.
2 Explain the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
3 Describe, in your own words, social reinforcement.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Describe your experiences with positive and negative motivation.
2 Suggest which form of motivationextrinsic or intrinsicwould have the greatest long-
term effects on sports participation. Why?
3 Imagine you are an under-10s soccer coach. Describe the types of social reinforcement you
would give your players.

EXTENSION
1 Federer has won all four major tennis tournaments during his career (a career grand slam)
and has broken the record for the most major tournament wins (sixteen).
Follow the weblinks to watch footage featuring tennis player Roger Federer.
What is Federers motivation? What factors influence his motivation? Are they intrinsic or
extrinsic?
Click to watch online footage of Roger Federer.
2 Investigate the type of motivation used by one professional athlete of your choice.
Techniques for improving motivation and under-arousal

Athletes motivation comes from many sources (internal and external) and in many forms (positive and
negative). For this reason, coaches employ many different techniques to keep players motivated.
Linked closely to motivation is arousal. As explained earlier in this chapter, for all physical activities there
is an optimal level of arousal, below or above which performance deteriorates.
While relaxation techniques are useful for managing over-arousal, a number of strategies can help to lift
the arousal levels of those who are under-aroused.
Under-arousal can occur when athletes motivation is low or when they believe that they need to put
in little effort. For example, when the opposition team is relatively weak and easy to defeat, arousal levels
would be low due to the perceived ease of beating them. It is not uncommon for higher-ranked teams or
players to be defeated by weaker opponents because they were under-aroused and complacent.
When players are lacking motivation or are under-aroused, psyching-up strategies are needed.
Psyching-up strategies known to be effective include:
receiving constructive feedback
listening to fast-beat music
hearing pep talks
reading public notices
being challenged
using self-activation
warming up pre-competition.
Feedback
Feedback from a well-respected coach or teacher can signicantly boost an athletes motivation. Whether on
a team or in a physical education class, all athletes need feedback on their performance to help them feel a
sense of worth.
Feedback is often linked to skill development; it is well known that to acquire new skills, feedback on
technique and performance is needed. Feedback not only teaches athletes new skills but also gives them
motivation to keep achieving small goals.
It is important, however, to ensure that any feedback given is constructive and mostly positive. Athletes
who constantly hear negative feedback can lose condence and motivation.

2023
Music
We often see athletes warming up while listening to their iPods and
other MP3 players. Research over the years has shown a denite link
between music and regulating arousal.
Musics tempo has an effect on athletes movements. If athletes
listen to a fast-tempo song, they are more likely to move quickly in
response to the beat of the song. Under-aroused athletes wishing to
increase their arousal should listen to music with a fast tempo. Over-
aroused athletes can also manage their arousal with music. Research
has shown that by listening to relaxing music with a slow tempo, over-
anxious and over-aroused athletes can reduce their arousal levels.
Music is also believed to reduce perceived exertion during exercise
because athletes attention is diverted by the music. This enables
athletes to train harder and longer.
It is not only professional athletes who can benet from using
music to regulate arousal. High school students have also reported
Figure 2.18 Listening to up-
changes in their effort and performance in lunchtime or class matches
beat music improves arousal and when up-tempo music is played loudly both before and during the
motivation. match.
Pep talks
Motivational talks, commonly
known as pep talks, by a coach,
teacher, teammate or parent
are a popular way of increasing
athletes motivation and arousal.
Pep talks only work, however,
if the athlete is receptive to the
person delivering the speech
the athlete must respect or
admire the person giving the talk.
Pep talks often use personal
2024 or team challenges, stories,
poems, silence, reasoning and
voice inection to encourage and
Figure 2.19 Public notices, such as posters, can be used to inspire
and motivate athletes. spur on players.
Public notices
Public notices, bulletin boards and posters are visual displays that can be used to inspire and motivate
athletes in a way that is similar to pep talks. Placed in prominent places, such as change rooms or training
areas, they can be used to convey positive, motivating thoughts and ideas. Phrases such as experience tells
you what to do; condence allows you to do it and the difference between try and triumph is just a little
umph can be effective.
In professional sports, this sort of psyching-up strategy is often seen in advertising campaigns that spur
on both athletes and their fans.

Personal challenges
Personal challenges laid down by the coach or the opposition can also stimulate athletes to work hard.
For example, a coach might use a players statistics to set goals to motivate that player: You served eight
aces in your last tennis game. Lets see if you can achieve nine in your next game. Using statistics can both
motivate and increase arousal during performance.
Sometimes personal challenges can be accompanied by rewards for good performance: If you can
achieve nine aces in your next game, well go out to celebrate.
Self-activation
Lethargy can be reversed by the mental and physical actions of the athletes themselves. It is common to see
athletes preparing for a big match by talking to themselves and psyching themselves up. Often their self-
activation, or self-talk, is accompanied by actions, such as slapping their thighs.
Tennis player Lleyton Hewitt has a well-known self-activation strategy. His convincing Come on! (yelled
while pointing to his forehead) is effective at increasing his arousal during crucial points in his matches. It is
also seen to possibly increase the anxiety and desperation his opponents feel after losing a point.
Pre-competition workouts
Warm-ups before competition are a vital part of achieving optimal arousal. A player who walks onto a
court cold does not just risk injury but also increases the chance of not being psychologically ready for
the match.
Arousal has been linked to adrenaline, and adrenaline is linked to physical activityso it can be said that
physical activity before competition provides athletes with the adrenaline they need for optimal arousal.
Furthermore, in team sports a high-quality warm-up can amplify the team effect, whereby the increasing
arousal levels of teammates boost an individual athletes energy and arousal. For example, in volleyball a
typical warm-up includes a spiking session by both teams. In this session, if a player on the team performs a
particularly good or intimidating spike, the rest of the team will respond and use it as a precursor to boosting
their performance.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Read the case study below, and propose a range of strategies that could be used to improve
Sarahs motivation.
Case study
Sarah is a very talented hockey player and has received a scholarship to the Australian Institute of Sport.
To retain her scholarship, Sarah must train hard during the off-season to improve her strength and aerobic
tness. Her coach has also suggested that she plays in a summer league to maintain her skills. Since her
return at the start of the year, Sarah has played quite well, but she has not lived up to expectations. She
seems lazy and uninterested at practice, and her school work also has deteriorated.
2 Think about your current level motivation in your chosen sport. Choose one strategy to help
improve or maintain your motivation. Justify how and why it will work for you.

Managing goals
Goals serve a number of purposes and can be effective across a range of sports psychology problems; they
provide focus and direction, and help to produce better results. Goal-setting in sport can assist motivation,
and concentration, while reducing anxiety.
Athletes who have short-term and long-term goals are more likely to be motivated and aroused to strive
for their goals. Their goals will provide a clear aim, and as athletes begin to achieve their short-term goals,
their motivation will further improve. They will become more likely to train harder, which will lead to improved
performance and to achieving further goals.
Goals can be related to the quality of the performance (performance-oriented) or related to the result
or outcome (outcome-oriented). They might be based on technical, tactical, psychological or physiological
factors.
Athletes who set realistic goals often experience less anxiety. Rather than focusing on any one
performance, athletes will be able to reect on each performance in relation to their achievement of the
overall goals.
Short-term goals
Short-term goals are goals that can be achieved over a short period of time. Short-term goals should be
realistic, appropriate and provide immediate performance feedback. They can be set for a single training
session or for days (or weeks) ahead.
Some examples of short-term goals are:
I will train four times per week for the next six weeks.
I will increase weights by 10 per cent every three weeks.
I will work on defence at training tonight.
I will get six rebounds in the game today.
I will mentally rehearse a difcult task at least once each day.
Short-term goals are often stepping stones on the path to achieving long-term goals. Smaller, short-term
goals are used to break up larger, long-term goals into more manageable parts.
Long-term goals
Long-term goals focus on what might be possible in a few months, in one year or even in four years. Long-term
goals often represent the end-point of training.
Some examples of long-term goals are:
I will secure a top-ve position at the competition.
I will represent Australia at the next Olympic Games.
I will achieve an A for physical education this term.
I will receive the most valuable player award at the end of the season.
What long-term goals have you set for yourself?
Successful goal-setting
A number of useful principles can aid both coach and athlete to set effective goals.
Make goals specic, not general.
Set deadlines, write down the goals and set priorities.

Provide clear and regular feedback about progress towards the goals.
Ensure goals are challenging but achievable.
Make goals exible.
Describe goals in behavioural terms.
Use short-term goals to help achieve long-term goals.
Make goals performance-oriented, not outcomes-oriented.
Ensure goals are accepted and owned by the athlete or team.
Athletes need to be able to assess the achievement of their goals over time. For a goal to be successful,
it needs to be SMARTER: specic, measurable, attainable, realistic, timely, exciting and recorded. (For more
information about setting SMARTER goals, see page 240 of Chapter 6.) For example, a goal such as I will
get tter is less specic and harder to measure than By the end of this year, I will be able to do twenty
push-ups.
Athletes also need to be supported in the pursuit of their goals. Goals are most effective if they are
collectively supported by the athletes coaches, parents and friends. However, it is important that goals be
based on the athletes own standards, not on the standards or expectations of others. An athlete must feel
that he or she owns the goals.
ACQUIRE
1 Why is it important to set goals?
2 Distinguish between outcomes-oriented goals and performance-oriented goals.
3 Why are short-term goals useful in achieving long-term goals?
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Follow the principles for setting effective goals and set yourself a long-term performance-
oriented goal towards which you can work.
2 List three progressively more challenging short-term goals that will move you towards
achieving your long-term goal. For each of the three short-term goals:
a Set a date by which you want to achieve the goal.
b Describe two actions you could take to help you reach that goal on time.
EXTENSION
1 Choose a famous sportsperson and gather information about that persons psychological
preparation for competition. Research the persons:
motivation
goals
psychological skills.
2 Compare your athlete with a classmates chosen athlete.
What similarities and differences are evident?
Why are these evident?
How do each athletes psychological skills affect his or her performance?

Managing team
cohesion
Three important strategies to
improve team cohesion include
building a common identity,
choosing a strong leader and
encouraging communication
among team members.
2025 A common identity is useful
to improve team cohesion. To
Figure 2.20 Cohesive teams are often more effective teams.
build an effective team, teams
should have a team name, a
team uniform and have regular team training sessions. Many teams will go on weekend retreats that focus on
teamwork and trust activities to further increase team cohesion.
Appointing a good leader is essential to maintain healthy team dynamics. The leader must be someone
with demonstrated leadership qualities, good skills and the respect of teammates. The leader should be
committed to the team goals and always act in the teams best interests.
Communication is another key factor in creating harmony. A team needs an environment in which all
team members are encouraged to contribute their ideas and have their opinions and suggestions listened to.
Models of coaching
Three different styles of coaching are commonly adopted by sports coaches.
1 Cooperative style
The cooperative style of coaching is the most commonly used style. A cooperative coach shares the
decision-making responsibilities among all members of the group, which allows individual team members
to feel important.
When using this style, care must be taken to ensure that decisions are always the best for the team and do
not only reect the opinions of the team members with the strongest voices.
This style is also called liberal style or teacher style.
2 Autocratic style
In an autocratic style of coaching a coach has total power over the groups decisions. This coaching style
is also known as the command style or dictator style of coaching.
This style is effective when athletes are novices and rely on the experience of the coach to guide and
instruct them. As athletes become more experienced, autocratic coaches may need to consider the
opinions of the athletes more.
3 Democratic style
Using the democratic style of coaching, coaches encourage athletes to lead their own training sessions
and only intervene when they feel it is necessary. The democratic style is also known as the babysitting
style or submissive style.
For this style to be effective, the athletes need to be highly motivated to achieve goals and work hard.
Coaches using this style must be aware of the capabilities of the athletes under their care and ensure that
athletes maintain a high standard in their training.

02: SUMMARY
Athletes can experience anxiety as a result of NOW THAT YOU HAVE FINISHED ...
their inherent personality traits (trait anxiety)
1 What are some common psychological problems
and/or their environment or situation (state
faced by athletes?
anxiety).
2 a Identify some causes of state anxiety in sport.
Arousal is a measure of how enthusiastic or ready
an individual is to perform. In between the two b Describe four coaching strategies that could
extremes of under-arousal and over-arousal is be used to reduce it.
an optimal level of arousal at which athletes will 3 Identify the sources of stress an athlete may face
perform at their best. before and during competition.
The information-processing model can be used 4 Explain why a state of complete relaxation
to explain how athletes abilities to recognise is not always benecial for sports performance.
cues and make appropriate decisions affect and 5 Describe how optimal arousal can enhance
are affected by their state of mind. performance.
Mental rehearsal and visualisation allow 6 Rank the following Olympic sports from the
athletes to practise skills in their mind before one that would benet from the most arousal
performance, improving their ability to physically to the one that would require the least arousal
perform the skills when required. to perform. Then, outline the reasons for your
Relaxation techniques give athletes time to ranking.
calm their mind, focus and improve their archery
performance. tae kwon do
All athletes need motivation to succeed. boxing
Motivation can be positive (a reward for a good
sailing
performance) or negative (a desire to avoid the
consequences of a poor performance). shooting
Intrinsic motivation is a source of motivation football (soccer)

that comes from within the individual. Extrinsic swimming
motivation comes from outside the individual. weightlifting.
Psyching-up strategies are effective at improving 7 Outline the differences between intrinsic and
low motivation and under-arousal. extrinsic motivation.
Goal-setting provides athletes with ongoing 8 Discuss the effect of motivation on performance.
challenges and motivation. 9 Research how athletes from different sports
Team cohesion can be improved by building a use psychological strategies to improve their
common identity, choosing a strong leader and motivation and control their anxiety.
encouraging communication. 10 a Describe the relaxation and goal-setting
Three models of coaching are the cooperative techniques that can be used to manage
style, the autocratic style and the democratic anxiety.
style. b Evaluate their effect on performance.
02: Summary ///// 71

3001
3
Applying
biomechanics
to sport

Have you ever wondered why some players are able to regularly make a skill look What is biomechanics? 73
effortless, producing perfect results every time? What about equipment? Why has Motion 74
the swimsuit evolved to look like something from space? Why do athletes spend so Balance and stability 78
much money on the latest gear? Force 85
An understanding of biomechanics will enable you to answer these questions Projectile motion 103
(and others) and improve your performance. Fluid mechanics 109

start new page
3067
What is
biomechanics?
Biomechanics is the study of the
body as a machine. This study
of the body looks at the internal
and external forces that act on
the body, and the movements
that these forces produce.
By grasping biomechanical
concepts, we can program this
machine, our body, to move
with precision. Furthermore, this
vital study enables us to correct
technical errors, reduce injury
and understand the importance
of equipment design.
Figure 3.1 Biomechanics

is the study of the body as a
machine.
Chapter 3Applying biomechanics to sport ///// 73

3003
Motion
Motion is an inherent part of all sports. The athlete
and the ball or other implement are required to
constantly change their position. The nature of
these changes in position depends on many factors.
Linear and curvilinear motion

Linear motion occurs when an objector, in the
case of sport, a human body, a human limb or an
object propelled by a humanmoves in a straight
line. One example of linear motion is someone
running in a straight line. Linear motion is also called
rectilinear motion.
When the movement follows a curved path,
it is called curvilinear motion. One example of
Figure 3.2 Linear, or rectilinear, motion is curvilinear motion is the path a tennis ball takes in a
movement along a straight line. lob shot.
Velocity and speed

In everyday discussion, most people use the words speed and velocity interchangeably, but they do not
mean exactly the same thing when discussing the laws of physics.
Velocity measures the rate of change of distance with time in a given direction (displacement).
Speed measures the rate of change of distance with time.
3004
Figure 3.3 Curvilinear motion is movement

along a curved line.

3005
Speed describes only how quickly the

distance
body is moving; velocity describes both
displacement
how quickly and in which direction.
Speed and velocity are equal only
if movement occurs in a straight line.
The speed and the velocity of a cricket
batter running one run will be the same;
however, if the batter runs two runs,
the speed and velocity will differ quite
markedly as the batter has returned to
his starting point and the displacement
would be zero.
Figure 3.4 At second base, a baseballers distance and

displacement will be different.
Acceleration, deceleration and momentum

In most sports, athletes need to be able to increase and decrease velocity rapidly. For example, a rugby
league player carrying the ball needs to build up as much velocity as possible to make it difcult to be
tackled. A softballer stealing a base needs to be able to build up velocity before the elders can react; the
softballer needs to sprint to the base, but then slow down to avoid over-running the base.
These are examples of linear acceleration and linear deceleration, which are required in most team sports
and short-distance sprints.
We all understand that a heavy truck travelling quickly will be harder to stop than a small car travelling
at the same speed; this is because of the momentum. We usually think of momentum as the impetus or
force behind a moving body or object. Momentum is the product of the mass and the velocity of an object.
Momentum is looked at in more detail later in this chapter.
Table 3.1Measuring motion
Measurement Definition
Distance The length of the path along which a body travels. (Measured in metres or kilometres.)
Displacement The length between the starting and end points as the crow flies. (Measured in metres or
kilometres, often with compass direction.)
Speed The distance travelled divided by the time taken.

distance
speed
time taken
Velocity The displacement divided by the time taken.

displacement
velocity
time taken
Acceleration The rate at which an objects speed changes over time. (Measured in metres per
secondsquared.)
change in velocity
acceleration
time elapsed
final velocity initial velocity
acceleration
time elapsed
Momentum The mass of the body multiplied by its velocity. (Measured in kilogram metres per second.)
momentum mass velocity

ACQUIRE
1 In your own words, explain the difference between speed and velocity.
2 Give two examples each for linear (rectilinear) and curvilinear motion.
PRACTICAL
Acceleration and velocity
Measure the velocity and acceleration of a person sprinting 100 metres.
Equipment
eleven markers, such as orange traffic cones
ten stopwatches
starting whistle
30072
Procedure
Start Finish
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100m
1 Measure a 100-metre straight line, marking the start line, finish line and 10-metre
intervals.
2 Place a person with a stopwatch at each 10-metre interval and at the finish line.
3 On go, everyone starts their stopwatches. They stop the stopwatches at the moment
thesprinter runs past their cone.
4 Copy the table and complete it to record the results.
Tasks
1 Graph the results for velocity and acceleration.
2 Identify the point at which the sprinter had the:
a greatest velocity
b least velocity
c greatest acceleration
d greatest deceleration.
Give reasons for each of the above.
3 Discuss the variations in the sprinters velocity and acceleration over the 100 metres.
4 Explain the effects these variations could have on the sprinters overall performance in a
100-metre sprint race.
Distance (m) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 finish line
Time
Velocity
Acceleration
Source: P Nicolson and R Whitely, Australian Physical Education Master Series, Eduguide, Victoria

Newtons laws of motion
More than 300 years ago, scientist Sir Isaac Newton developed three laws of motion.
1 Newtons rst law of motioninertia
Newtons rst law introduced the concept of inertia: the resistance of a body to a change in its state of
motion. It states that a still object will continue to be still, and a moving object will continue to move in
the same direction at its current velocity, unless an external force acts on the object.
This seems to be a basic, commonsense theory, but it becomes more important when we examine the
forces that act to change the state of motion of a body.
2 Newtons second law of motionacceleration
Newtons second law of motion is the law of acceleration. It explains the relationships linking force, mass
and acceleration, and is linked to momentum.
This law states that the sum of the force that moves an object is equal to the objects mass multiplied by
the acceleration. This law can be expressed as the following equation:
Force mass acceleration
(F ma) Action
30081
As the mass of an object increases, more force is
required to produce the same acceleration. For
example, to throw a 4-kilogram shot-put as far as
a 3-kilogram shot-put, the force applied must be
greater.
To look at it in another way, more force is
required to increase the acceleration of an
object if the objects mass remains the same. For
example, a golf balls mass does not change, but
a putted golf ball will not accelerate as quickly or
travel as far as one hit with a driving iron because
of the effort (or force) the golfer applies.
3 Newtons third law of motionaction and
reaction Reaction
You may have heard the saying for every action,
there is an equal and opposite reaction. This is
one way of explaining Newtons third law, which
shows that forces act in pairs.
Newtons third law of motion states that for every
30082
force that is exerted by one body on another,
there is an equal and opposite force exerted by
the second body on the rst.
Although forces always act in pairs, the result
on each body or object is not always the same.
For example, when you land after performing a
long jump, you apply a force to the ground and it
applies one back to you. The effect on you is much
Figure 3.5 Newtons third law of motion
greater than your effect on the ground, however, shows that for every action, there is an equal and
because the earth is much bigger and heavier. oppositereaction.

<start new page>
Balance and stability

Every athlete must be able to maintain balance and stability.
Athletes loss of stability can have an adverse effect on their ability to perform the skills of the given sport
with control. A loss of control can affect factors such as force production and accuracy.
The two types of balance are:
static balance, which is balance when the body is at rest (not moving)
dynamic balance, which is balance when the body is moving.
Do you find balance easier when you are moving or stationary? How does this affect your performance in
your current physical activity?
Base of support
The base of support is the area by which the body is supported. For example, when you stand with your legs
apart, the area under and between your feet is your base of support. If you hang from a parallel bar, your
base of support is the area between the outer limits of your hands.
The larger the area of the base of support is, the greater the stability. For example, when doing the
stork stand balance test, people are asked to balance on just the ball of one foot. With such a small base of
support, it is difcult to maintain balance.
Have you ever done the stork stand balance test? Did you find it challenging?
It is important to note, however, that a body may be stable in one direction but not in another. For this
reason, it is essential to consider the orientation of the base of support relative to the force being applied.
For example, a wrestler wanting to prevent being pushed back will brace himself by placing his feet in a wide
stanceone foot behind the other. Just having a wide stance with his feet side by side would not prevent the
wrestler from losing balance backwards.
Figure 3.6 The

base of support is the 3069
area by which the body
is supported.
removed footer as
lost in AW pls
conrm ok

Centre of gravity
3010
All people and objects have a centre of gravity,
which can shift depending on the position or
movement of the person or object. A centre of
gravity is an imaginary point (within or outside the
body or object) around which the body or object is
balanced.
You can often easily nd the centre of gravity
on an inanimate object. For example, take a
ruler and place it across one nger until it stays
horizontal and does not fall to the ground. The
point at which it is balancing on your nger is its
centre of gravity.
It is not always so easy, however, to nd the
exact centre of gravity on a human, particularly in
sport. In some sports, the centre of gravity shifts
very rapidly: for example, during high jump, diving
or gymnastics. Remember also that the centre of
gravity need not lie within the physical limits of an
object or person.
Figure 3.7 With a small base of support, such as
when doing the stork stand balance test, it is difficult Individual body parts, such as limbs, also have
to maintain balance. their own centres of gravity.
3009
Figure 3.8 The centre of gravity is an imaginary point around which a body or object is balanced.

3011 1/3
Centre of gravity
Figure 3.9 A bodys centre of gravity can shift, depending on the bodys movement and position.
Think of a time when you

were performing a dynamic
3012 1/4
movement. When your centre
of gravity fell outside of your
body, what was your natural
movement to try to correct it?
The height of the centre
of gravity relative to the base
of support can affect stability.
An athlete with a low centre
of gravity will tend to be more
stable than one with a high
centre of gravity. For example,
during contact a rugby player
tries to lower his or her centre
of gravity to maintain force, and
raise the centre of gravity of the
opposing player to put him or her
off balance.
Do you think your height has
an effect on your stability?
Figure 3.10 For a period time Centre of gravity

in flight, a high jumpers centre of
gravity can be outside the body.

3070
Line of gravity
The line of gravity can be
represented by drawing a straight
line from the centre of gravity to
the ground.
An object is most stable when
the line of gravity falls through
the centre of the base of support.
This is because it increases
the distance that the centre of
gravity can be moved before
balance is compromised.
Moving the line of gravity
towards the edge of the base
of support reduces a bodys
stability. The further off-centre
from the base of support the
centre of gravity is, the less
Figure 3.11 A rugby player will lower his centre of gravity to increase stable the body.
his stability.
30141 30142
Line of gravity
Centre of gravity Figure 3.12 The line of gravity can be represented

by drawing a straight line from the centre of gravity
to theground.

Mass
Another factor to consider is the mass of an object. The greater the mass an object has, the greater its
stability. It takes more force to move a heavy object. Boxing competitions, in which stability is an important
component, enforce weight divisions to make competition fairer.
Balance, showing Height of Base of Stability

centre of gravity centre of gravity support
above base Line of gravity is
Greatest close to the edge of the
Low base of support
centre of gravity/
large base
Relatively low
centre of gravity/
large base
line/gravity
High
centre of gravity/
small base
line/gravity line/gravity
High
a A high centre of b A low centre of
centre of gravity/ gravity above the gravity above the
small base base of support base of support
less stable more stable
c A low centre of
gravity, but the line
High of gravity is close
centre of gravity/ to base of supports
very small base edgeleast stable
Least
line/gravity
Figure 3.13 Stability is determined by the centre of Figure 3.14 Stability is affected by the position
gravity and the base of support. of the line of gravity and the height of the centre of
gravity in relation to the base of support.
Source: G Schembri, Introductory gymnastics, Australian
Gymnastic Federation, Melbourne 1983
3015 1/2 P 3016 1/3P

3018
Figure 3.15 Swimming blocks are designed to improve a swimmers start.
ACQUIRE
1 Explain the difference between static and dynamic balance.
2 Describe how athletes base of support and line of gravity affect their balance and stability.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Look at Figure 3.15.
Using your understanding 3071
of balance and stability,
justify the sloped design
of the swimmers starting
blocks.
2 What roles do static
and dynamic balance
play in the sport you
are currently studying?
Is good balance
essential for optimum
performance? Describe
some game-play
scenarios where it is
essential.
Figure 3.16 Balance and

stability are vital in martial arts.

PRACTICAL
Balance and stability
Investigate the factors that affect balance and stability by participating in the following
activities.
Equipment
starting blocks
stopwatches
tape measure
Procedure
1 Have one partner time the other for a 10-metre sprint, starting from the following
positions.
a standing in the get set position, with feet close together and legs straight (upright
stance)
b standing in the get set position, with feet further apart and knees bent (more of a
crouched stance)
c squatting in the get set position
Record the times in a table like the one below.
Starting position Time
Tasks
1 Explain, referring to balance and stability, which starting position was fastest and why.
2 Describe the effect of the:
height of the centre of gravity on balance and stability
area of the base of support on balance and stability
alignment of the line of gravity on balance and stability.
3 Discuss how the performance of a sprinter or wrestler is affected by the base of support
and changes to the line of gravity.
3019
Least stable Most stable
Copy the continuum and on it mark the relative stability of each of the six positions.
4 In pairs, have one partner try to push the other off balance when in the following positions.
Ensure that the push is always from the side.
standing on tiptoes with arms above the head
standing normally
standing with knees bent
standing with feet wide apart, side by side
standing with feet wide apart, one in front of the other
kneeling, with hands also on the floor (on all fours)

<start new page>
Force
Line of
Magnitude
Force is anything that causes or has action
the potential to cause the movement,
diversion or slowing of the object on
which it acts. In simple terms, a force
can be a push, a pull, a blow, a collision, Point of application
gravity or friction (when two surfaces
rub together).
Whether an object or body is at Direction
rest or in motion, forces are acting on

it. Whether you are sitting at a desk,
running around a track or jumping out of
an aeroplane, forces are acting on your
body.
Forces can be described as internal
(acting from inside) or external (acting
from outside) to the system. For
example, if we consider the whole 3020
human body, the muscles that contract
to exert a force on bones, cartilage or Figure 3.17 Forces have four properties.
ligaments around a joint are considered
inside the system and are, therefore, internal forces. Any forces exerted outside the body (such as gravity,
friction, contact with the ground or another body, air resistance and uid resistance) are considered external
forces.
All forces have four common properties:
magnitude (the amount, or how much is applied)
direction (the angle at which the force is applied)
a point of application (the specic point at which the force is applied)
a line of action (represented by a straight line through the point of application in the direction that the
force is acting).
Measuring force
Force is measured in a unit called a newton, after Sir Isaac Newton who recognised three laws of motion
(which are explained on page 77).
To speed up, change the direction of or slow down an object, force needs to be applied. The amount of force
(F) required depends on how heavy the object is (its massm) and the desired rate of acceleration (a). This
relationship can be expressed as:
Force mass acceleration
(F ma)
A newton (N), which is the unit commonly used to measure force, is equal to the amount of force from
1 kilogram of mass and 1 metre per second squared of acceleration.
1N (1 kg) (1 m/s)

Contact forces
Depending on whether they involve contact between objects or bodies, forces are separated into two groups:
contact forces and non-contact forces.
Contact forces are forces that involve the actions (push or pull) of one object in direct contact with
another. Examples include a foot hitting the ground, a bat striking a ball or players colliding into each
other.
Non-contact forces involve no contact between objects. The most common non-contact force is gravity.
Weight is also a non-contact force.
Understanding weight and mass

The weight and mass of an object or body are not the same thing.
Mass is a measure of how much matter there is in an object or body. Weight depends on the force of the
gravity acting on the body or object. If you landed on the Moon, which has a much lower gravity than Earths,
your body would have the same mass as it has now, but a much lighter weight.
In science, mass is measured in kilograms, and weight is measured in newtons.
Humans can apply contact forces

to other humans, to the ground and to
implements (such as a bat or a racquet).
For movement to occur, the force
applied needs to be greater than the Fluid
resistance
external forces acting on the human (air)
body. For example, if a footballer does
not step hard into the ground, he or
she will not change direction to swerve
around an opponent. In the same way,
a long jumper will jump further by
accelerating to the board and applying
a greater force to it than by running up Inertial force
slowly and hitting the board with less
force.
Most forces are the result of contact
between objects and bodies. Contact
forces can be any one of six types:
1 In most sports, athletes are in Elastic force Joint reaction
contact with the ground, and the force
force or resistance that the ground
applies to the athlete is called the
ground reaction force. Friction
2 The force that two bones apply to

Ground reaction force
each other across a joint is called the
joint reaction force. Figure 3.18 All six types of contact forces act on a runner.
3021

3 Friction is the force created when one surface is moved across another.
4 In many sports, motion is affected by the uid (such as air and water) in which it is performed. This is
called uid resistance.
5 Inertial force can also affect movement. For example, the ankle swings through when running because of
the force of inertia placed on it by the leg.
6 Elastic force is that where a material changes its length when a force is applied to it. Examples of elastic
forces are those provided by diving boards, muscles, sprung oors, trampolines and some running shoes.
Force production
Force production is the combined result of several factors, including the summation of force, momentum and
impulse.
Most sports require an athlete to be able to generate and control forces. For sports where success is
determined by achieving a maximum distance, it is necessary for the athletes to produce as much force as
possible, such as in a volleyball spike or baseball pitch. While it is not always necessary for the force produced
to be the maximum possible, certain principles can be used to produce the appropriate amount of force for
the skill being performed.
In your sport, can you differentiate between the skills that require maximum force and those that require
control and accuracy?
Summation of force
We already know from Newtons second law of
motion that the greater the force applied to an
object is, the greater the acceleration. But how Hand
do we create the force to produce this rapid
acceleration? To obtain maximum force, it is
Forearm
Velocity
necessary to combine or add up the forces applied

by different body parts. This concept is known as
the summation of force. Upper arm
The summation of force is inuenced by the:

Trunk
number of body parts used in the movement
order and timing of their involvement
Time
force and velocity generated 3023 AF
Figure 3.19 The sequential summation of force
way in which the body and body parts are from body parts is essential to maximise force
stabilised and balanced. production.
To explain how the principle of summation of force works, lets look at the example of a long jumper. The
summation of force principle explains that the force produced during the movement of one body segment
(for example, the lower leg) will be added to the force produced by the next body segment (the thigh), and
the next (trunk, chest and arms), and so on. Long jumpers are able to propel themselves further through the
air by using the combined force of many parts of their bodies: legs, trunk, shoulders and arms.
When a player uses just a few body parts, the force produced will be less than when a player uses many
body parts. This is why the best techniques for throwing, kicking and striking use more than just the obvious
body part that nishes the action.
Also important for force production is the sequence in which parts of the body are used. For best results,
movement begins with the larger, slower body parts and nishes with the smaller, faster body parts.

Case studysummating forces in volleyball
To generate the greatest amount of power when spiking, a volleyball player needs to summate the forces.
A volleyball spike can be broken down into the approach, the take-off, the ight and, nally, the hit.
The approach has two purposes: direction and acceleration. The direction of the approach must respond to
the placement of the set. Accelerating during the approach allows momentum to be transferred into the
ight phase. The approach steps must be powerful and low to allow for the greatest amount of spring.
At take-off, the feet are rmly planted to allow momentum to be transferred up through the body, the
muscles of the legs and buttocks contract, and the arms swing through and up, as the player launches into
the air.
The outcome of the spike depends on two crucial factors during the ight: the back swing of the hitting
arm and the direction in which the hips are facing. Look closely at the placement of the spikers hips in
Figure 3.20. Her hip position is ideal because at the start of the hitting action she will be able to use the
large muscles of her trunk to rotate her hips to a forward-facing position.
The nal stage of the volleyball spike is hitting the ball. After the hips rotate, the arm whips through and
the hand makes contact with the ball. The acceleration of the travelling ball will be relative to the force
generated from the very rst step of the approach.
30241 30242
30243 30244
Figure 3.20 Volleyball spikes can be broken down into four stages: the approach, the take-off, the flight and
the hit.

3022
Figure 3.21 The summation of forces generated by all parts of the body allows long jumpers to propel
themselves further through the air.
ACQUIRE
1 Define force.
2 In your own words, explain the difference between weight and mass.
3 List the six main types of contact forces.
4 a Why is stabilisation an important factor in force summation?
b Explain why the order and timing of body parts is crucial in maximising force
summation.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Explain how the concept of force might apply to the sport you are currently studying. How
could you use it more effectively?
2 Choose one physical skill from your current sport. Which body parts do you use to produce
maximum force? In which order?
3 Discuss why even elite discus and javelin throwers spend so much time concentrating on
developing technique. How is their technique linked with force summation?

PRACTICAL
Summation of forces
To demonstrate the principle of summation of force, try the following exercises.
Procedure
1 Throwing a tennis ball
Measure the distance that the ball is thrown under the following conditions:
a sitting against a wall, legs straight out in front, using only your throwing arm (ensure
your back stays against the wall throughout the throw)
spacing b sitting on the ground away from the wall, legs straight out in front, using only your torso
to pad and arms
c standing with feet shoulder-width apart, facing forward
d standing side-on with feet shoulder-width apart
e with no restrictions (may run or take a crow hop).
Record your findings in a table.
2 Doing a standing long jump
Measure the distance that is jumped under the following conditions.
a jumping off one leg (arms fixed by your sides)
b jumping off two legs (arms fixed by your sides)
c jumping off two legs, using arms freely
d with no restrictions (using both legs, both arms and a run-up)
Record your findings in a table.
Tasks
1 Describe the process that you used to achieve the best distance in the tennis ball exercise.
2 Describe the process that you used to achieve the best distance in the long jump exercise.
3 Discuss the factors that influenced the summation of forces in each of the two activities.
Momentum
The summation of forces allows more momentum to be produced. When a body (or object) is in motion,
whether it is a sprinter running along a track or a bowling ball rolling down an alley, it has a certain mass
and a certain velocity. The product of these is known as the momentum: the quantity of motion the body
possesses.
Differences in momentum are brought about by variations in mass and velocity. For example, if two
people who are tenpin bowling have exactly the same technique and release the ball with the same velocity,
the one bowling the heavier ball is likely to get a better result. This is because the heavier ball, having a
greater momentum, will cause the pins to y around more, knocking down other pins. Similarly, a heavier
racquet in tennis will have greater momentum than a lighter one moving at the same velocity and produce
more force when it hits the ball.
When you sprint, how many steps does it take you to come to a complete stop? How does this compare with
your classmates or competitors? Why?

Velocity also affects momentum. Softball
batters wanting to hit a home run will swing the bat
3025
faster, with a higher velocity, when hitting the ball
to apply more momentum to the ball. By increasing
the velocity of the bat, they can hit the ball further.
If batters want to bunt, they would swing the bat
with reduced velocity so that the ball will not go as
far.
In most sports, mass is constant, so velocity
becomes the main factor inuencing momentum.
So, to increase momentum, simply increase velocity.
Transfer of momentum
Newtons rst law of motion explains that once
a body is in motion, it will tend to stay in motion
unless acted on by another force. The principle of
the transfer of momentum states that momentum
cannot be lostit is just transferred from one object
to another.
In many sports, it is necessary for momentum to
be transferred to another object or body part. The
greater the momentum an object has, the greater its
effect on other objects it collides with.
For example, in striking sports such as tennis,
Figure 3.22 Changing velocity affects a players momentum.
softball and golf, a player will gather as much
momentum as necessary during the swing by
summating forces and then transfer this momentum to the ball being struck. In other activities such as long
jump and high jump, momentum gained in the run-up is transferred to the jump, which allows a greater
distance to be achieved.
Have you ever played pool? Why is it that when the white ball strikes another ball straight on, the white ball
stops moving while the ball that was struck moves forward?
For momentum to be efciently transferred from one object or body part to another, stabilisation
must rst occur. If the object or body part is not stable, then some of the momentum will be transferred to
movements other than those intended.
For example, in tennis it is common for athletes to brace (tense up) their muscles just before the impact
of a forehand. Stopping the rotation of the body by bracing causes a whip-like effect on the armall the
momentum gained in the trunk rotation is sent into the arm for a powerful swing. Not all of the momentum
will be transferred to the ball as the players racquet will continue to follow through after the ball is struck.
However, a full follow-through ensures that at the point of contact the velocity of the swing is high and not
decelerating to a stop.
In volleyball, players completing a spike will take one large, accelerated approach step before propelling
themselves vertically into the air. If players are not completely stable before the jump, they will not be able
to effectively transfer the horizontal momentum of the run-up to the vertical movement.
How high can you jump during a volleyball spike? What could you do to increase your height?

Impulse
The amount of force needed to change the momentum of an object varies depending on the amount of
time that the force is applied. A small force applied over a long period of time can be as effective as a large
force applied over a short period of time. A large force applied for a long time is most likely to increase the
momentum of an object.
The combined effect of force and time is known as impulse.
impulse force time
By considering both force and time, an athlete can maximise the transfer of momentum. For example,
a hockey player performing a push pass generates more momentum on the ball the longer the ball stays
in contact with the stick. Ideally, a sprinter starting a race will push off the blocks and then take a series
of short, fast steps to maximise the time the feet have in contact with the ground, thus maximising the
momentum developed. A discus thrower uses intricate footwork in the wind-up to maximise the distance
and time spent generating force.
In some sports, such as softball and golf, the time of contact with the ball is very brief. In these sports it
is not possible to increase the contact time; the only way impulse can be increased is by increasing the force
applied.
ACQUIRE
1 Define momentum.
2 a Explain the concept of impulse in your own words.
b Explain how an increase in impulse can benefit performance.
PRACTICAL
Momentum
1 a Perform a standing long jump and a long jump with a measured run-up. For each,
measure the distance travelled.
b Explain the reasons for the different distances.
2 a Using a tee-ball bat, ball and stand, hit a ball off the stand with and without force.
b Compare the differences in the force applied and the distance the ball travels.
3 a Run a 5-metre sprint at less than your best pace, pulling up as quickly at the finish line
as possible. Repeat, but this time run at your top speed.
b Compare your ability to stop in both cases. Suggest reasons for the differences based
on your understanding of momentum.
4 Video and analyse the footage of a contact football game.
a Describe what happens to the velocity of a player when tackled.
b Compare the mass of the players running the ball and executing tackles, and suggest
why some players are more successful than others in the game.
5 Using a trampoline, spring high into the air. Describe what happens when:
a you keep your body straight and upright and your arms above your head
b you keep your body straight, but your arms are swung forward and down
c your arms stay above your head, but your legs are swung forward and up.
Source (task 5): P Nicholson and R Whiteley, Australian Physical Education Masters Series, Eduguide, Victoria.

3027
Figure 3.23 To slow a fast-moving ball, cricketers must absorb the force of the ball by moving their arm back
as they make the catch.
Absorbing force
3026 In addition to applying force, the human
body also absorbs force. When we land
from a height, the momentum of the
body causes the knees, ankles and hip
joints to ex. The muscles of these leg
joints give during landing to cushion the
impact. The same is true when catching
a ball that is heavy or thrown very
hardthe muscles contract and give.
In most sports, the momentum
gained during a catch, landing or impact
can often be redirected into the next
movement. For example, a softball
player can take a catch then make a
quick throw to effect a double play.
Do you ever have balls rebound out
Figure 3.24 When catching a ball, the muscles (along with the
of your hand when you think you have
soft glove) absorb the force of the impact.
caught them? What causes this?
Propulsive and resistive forces

A force that acts to cause movement is called a propulsive force. A force that acts to resist the movement
created by a propulsive force is called a resistive force.
For example, the controlled lowering of a barbell requires the barbells momentum to be reduced to zero or
near zero. This is done by the weightlifter exerting a resistive force that acts against the barbells propulsive
force (in this case, gravity).

Safety on impact
Moving objects and bodies often need to be stopped
and controlled, without injury to athletes. Force is
often absorbed by the body during an impact, which
is when one object or body strikes or collides with
another.
Athletes can take a number of simple
precautions to ensure safety on impact.
Use as large a surface area as possible when
landing or catching. For example, land on two
feet, or put the body behind the ball when
catching.
Use as much mass as possible when landing or
catching. For example, land on bigger, heavier
body parts, or put the body behind the ball.
Keep your centre of gravity low and over your
base of support for maximum stability. For
example, bend your knees and place your feet in
3080 a wide, balanced stance.
Absorb the force of the impact with equipment
and not body parts. For example, use gloves,
mitts or headgear.
Protect limbs and avoid using small body parts
Figure 3.25 Safety equipment is used in many such as ngers during impact.
sports to absorb the force of impact and avoid
Give with the impact.
injuries.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Why does a softball player need to invest in a well-padded glove? Justify your response.
2 Suggest how a movie stunt person is able to fall from height and land on solid ground
without injury.
Accuracy
Often force production is not necessarily just about producing the most force possible. For some skills, such
as bowling in lawn bowls, and shooting a goal in basketball, accuracy is critical for success. A player must,
therefore, be able to control both the amount and direction of force produced.
Direction can be controlled in a number of ways. For example, increasing accuracy in a volleyball dig may
involve smoothing out the platform created by the forearms. This can be done by straightening the arms at
the elbows and bending the wrists backwards. The at platform reduces the likelihood of the ball rebounding
off the arms at an incorrect angle. When attempting to shoot a goal in netball, a straight-back linear arm
movement followed by a straight follow-through can increase the accuracy of the shot. In striking sports
such as baseball and tennis, attening the arc can improve accuracy.
Think about your accuracy in your current sport. What can you do to gain greater control?

AWB = add path / pic
different pls mark-advise
Case studyaccuracy and flattening the arc in striking sports

In softball and other striking sports, accuracy in batting can be
increased through a concept known as attening the arc. 3072
If a batter were to simply stand and swing a bat, the bat would
move in a perfect arc. A bat swinging through the air in such an
arc only has a very small opportunity to come into contact with
the ball at the exact moment the bat is positioned to produce
the desired direction.
By rotating the hips as the bat begins to swing and by exing the
wrists through the swing, the bats path is attened for a time,
which gives the batter a greater chance at hitting the ball in the
desired direction.
Figure 3.26 Flattening the arc improves accuracy.
Rotary forces
Concentric and eccentric forces
Concentric force can be described as force that is applied along an imaginary line that passes through an
objects centre of gravity. A concentric force will result in the object travelling along a direct path in the
direction of applied force. This is known as translation: where all parts of an object in motion are moving
with the same velocity and in the same direction.
When force is not applied along the line of 3028 TS
centre of gravity, the object will turn. Force that
is not applied along the line of centre of gravity is
known as eccentric force. Eccentric forces produce
rotation.
Rotational forcetorque
A force that produces a rotating or twisting motion Translation Rotation
is known as torque. Torque is also sometimes

known as rotational force. The amount of torque
(T) produced depends on: Centre of
gravity
the amount of force used (F)
the distance from the centre of the object that
the force is applied (d).
T Fd
More torque, and a greater rotation or twisting Concentric force Eccentric force
movement, will be generated when more force is Figure 3.27 Concentric and eccentric forces cause
applied further from the centre of an object. objects to move along a straight path or turn.

Force couples
A force couple is when two equal forces are applied
in opposite directions, causing an object to spin. This
can be seen when two canoeists try to turn a canoe
180 degrees. To turn the canoe efciently, each
canoeist needs to apply the same amount of force
3029
simultaneouslyone canoeist applying force by
paddling forwards while the other canoeist paddles
backwards on the other side.
Rotational momentum
We already know that momentum is the quantity of
motion an object has, which depends on its velocity
and mass. Momentum explains why heavy objects
that are travelling quickly will be harder to stop than Figure 3.28 An ice skater uses the distribution of
light objects moving slowly. weight to control the rate of rotation.
Rotational momentum is the momentum generated through rotational forces.

Because of Newtons rst law of motioninertiawe understand that a spinning object will continue to
rotate in the same direction and speed until another force acts on it.
Thanks to Newtons second law of motion, regarding an objects resistance to acceleration, we also know
that it will require less force to cause a light object to spin than it will to cause a heavy object to spin at the
same velocity.
An objects mass alters its rotational momentum. Heavy objects will have more momentum than light
objects travelling at the same velocity. In baseball, athletes can apply this knowledge to their sport by
choosing a heavier bat to generate more momentum and a more powerful strike on the ball. A baseball
player often takes the weight of a bat and its distribution into consideration when buying a new bat.
An objects weight distributionwhere the mass or weight is on the objectcan affect its resistance
to rotation. An object that has most of its weight close to the axis of rotation (the point around which it is
spinning) will move more quickly than one that has weight further from its axis of rotation. A simple way
to demonstrate this principle can be done by a person sitting in a swivel chair. After the person has begun
spinning around in the chair, the rate of spin can be controlled by tucking in the legs (to rotate faster) or
extending the legs (to rotate more slowly).
In sport, this concept is most clearly demonstrated in ice skating. When spinning on the ice, skaters can
control the rate of spin by moving their limbs closer to the axis of rotation (to rotate faster) or extending their
arms and legs (to rotate more slowly).
Conservation of rotational momentum

The rotational momentum of an object is based on its mass and acceleration. Newtons rst law of motion
inertiaexplained how this momentum will be conserved unless another force is applied. Unless another
force acts on it, an object will maintain its momentum while rotating; this is known as the conservation of
rotational momentum.
This principle is particularly relevant to physical activities such as diving and gymnastics. Athletes
performing twisting or spinning movements while airborne are not affected by other external forces that will
change their rotational momentum; therefore, their bodies rotational momentum will remain the sameit
will be conserved.

Transfer of rotational
momentum
Closely linked to the idea of
conservation of rotational
momentum is the transfer
of rotational momentum.
On page 91 we looked at the
principle of the transfer of
momentum, which states that
momentum cannot be lost, but
it can be transferred from one
3030A
object to another.
Rotational momentum can be
also transferred from one axis of
rotation to another. This can be
seen when athletes move from
a spinning position to a twisting 3030B
position in diving, trampolining
and ski jumping.
APPLY AND
EVALUATE
Explain how the
conservation of rotational
momentum can be applied
to the following:
1 ice skating
2 hammer throwing Figure 3.29 Rotational momentum can be transferred from one axis
3 hitting a forehand in of rotation to another.
tennis
4 performing a vault (tucked versus layout position).
Centripetal and centrifugal forces

According to Newtons third law of motion, for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. When an
object is rotating around a xed axis in a circular path, two opposing forces are at work: centripetal force and
centrifugal force.
Centripetal force is the force that causes rotating objects to move towards the centre, or axis, of
rotation.
Centrifugal force is the force that causes rotating objects to move away from the centre, or axis, of
rotation.
Both forces working together ensure that an object will remain on a circular path while rotating around a
xed point. For example, when a ball is attached to a line and spun around in a circular path, the line exerts
a centripetal force on the ball, keeping the ball moving in its orbit. To keep the line taut to allow this circular
path, the ball exerts a centrifugal force on the line.

3031
Striking sportsthose that

use a bat, racquet or club, such
as tennis, squash, golf and
softballcan also be used as
an example of centripetal and
Centripetal force
centrifugal forces. Swinging a
bat more quickly will increase
the centrifugal force, causing the
bat to want y out of your hand.
Centripetal force is needed by
the athlete to maintain their grip.
If the rotational momentum is Centrifugal force
too great, the centrifugal force
could cause the athlete to lose
their grip and send the bat ying
off into the distance!
ACQUIRE
What is the difference
between centripetal and
centrifugal force?
APPLY AND
EVALUATE
Describe how centripetal
and/or centrifugal forces
could be appliedto:
1 performing a giant
swing on a high bar in
gymnastics
2 using a golf club that is
too long
Figure 3.30 Centripetal force causes objects to move towards the axis
3 swinging a softball bat of rotation; centrifugal force causes objects to move away from the axis
that is too heavy of rotation.
Levers
We use levers every day. Objects such as scissors, nutcrackers, wheelbarrows and nail clippers all work
because of levers.
Levers are also frequently used in sport. The human body contains many levers made up of bones and
muscle. Our arms, legs and ngers are all levers. These levers allow the body to move and generate force.
Many types of sporting equipment are also levers, such as bats and racquets, which allow us to hit objects
faster and further.
In sport it is necessary to understand the mechanics of levers; understanding how they work allows
athletes to optimise efciency in movement.

1
3032 AT
How levers work Force
Every lever has a point at which force (or power) Weight or load
(offering resistance)
is applied, a point of resistance and a fulcrum (or
axis), but the three different types of levers, all of
which play a role in sport and physical activity,
work slightly differently. Fulcrum
First-class levers have the fulcrum between First-class lever

the force and the resistance. An example of a
rst-class level in action is a rowers oar: the
Force
force is applied by the rower, the fulcrum is the Weight or load
oarlock, and the water offers the resistance. (offering resistance)
Second-class levers have the resistance

between the force and the fulcrum. An example
of a second-class lever is when a person stands
on tip-toe: the length of the foot is the arm Fulcrum
of the lever, the ball of the foot acts as the
fulcrum, and the Achilles tendon and calf Second-class lever
muscle provide the force, lifting the weight of
the body by the back of the heel.
Weight or load
Third-class levers have the force between the (offering resistance)
resistance and the fulcrum. Our forearms act as Force
third-class levers, with the elbow as the fulcrum
or point of rotation of the lever.
Can you think of levers that are used in your
sport?
The rst two types of levers enable heavier Fulcrum
weights to be moved with less force using
Third-class lever
mechanical advantage.
Most of the levers used in sport, however, Figure 3.31 Every lever has a point at which force
are third-class levers. These levers are better at is applied, a point of resistance and a fulcrum.
generating speed than force because of the position
of the fulcrum. Lengthening a third-class lever 3033 AT
increases the speed that can be achieved. The Force
orce (muscle)
additional length increases the range of motion of
the levers end and, therefore, its speed. This in turn
results in more force at the end of the lever. For
example, using a bat or racquet adds length to the
forearm, which acts as a lever, and allows a ball to
be hit with more force.
The principle of leverage states that the Resistance
Fulcrum
velocity at the end of a long lever is faster than
the velocity at the end of a short lever, and that
the end of a lever will move more quickly than any Figure 3.32 Bones and muscles form many
other point on the lever. different levers within the body.

Fulcrum
3035 AF
Chalk line
Figure 3.33 In this activity, students demonstrate the motion of a lever by moving around a fulcrum.
PRACTICAL
Levers
On a hard-paved area, five students stand next to each other in a straight line with their left
hand on the next persons shoulder. (See Figure 3.33.) The person standing furthest left will
be the fulcrum of the lever.
Draw a straight chalk line behind the heels of the group. Then, extend the straight line an
equal length on the opposite side of the person acting as thefulcrum.
While the fulcrum remains in the same place, the other four members of the group, still
linked by their left arms, walk around the fulcrum until they reach the extended chalk line
and are facing the opposite direction. The person acting as the fulcrum will rotate on the spot.
As the group walks, four other students mark each member of the groups path in chalk.
1 Time how long it takes for them to move 180 degrees.
2 Using a piece of rope, measure the total distance each student travelled.
3 Determine the speed of each student, using the following formula:
distance
speed
time taken
a Which student travelled faster?
b If there were a sixth student, would they have travelled faster again?
The principle of leverage means that when using levers in sports to produce force, it is often best to
maximise the length of the lever being used and to strike the object at the end of the lever. For example, in
cricket, bowlers will generate more speed on the ball if they use a straight arm; a straight arm lengthens the
lever. In a tennis serve, too, a fully stretched arm will ensure the racquet head is moving at its top speed at
the moment of impact.
As with most force production, however, it is necessary to balance force with accuracy. There is a limit
to the optimal lever length as increasing the levers length too much can create handling errors. A softball
player would not use a 4-metre-long bat, and tennis racquets are usually less than a metre long. Some

3036
new art / nothing in

markup
now have 2 with

same number
pls conrm
Figure 3.34 Using a bat or racquet increases the length of the lever that is your forearm.
players will shorten their grip on the bat or club to

improve accuracy. For junior players, racquets and
3037 AT
bats are often shortened to match the strength and
height of the player. Beginners may nd they do not
have the strength to produce the correct technique
if the racquet or bat is too large and heavy for them.
Fulcrum
What can you do to use levers more efficiently in
Shortened
yoursport? lever
Lengthened
Force is applied to cause the lever to rotate lever
around the fulcrum. Even so, getting a lever moving
can be difcult as levers have inertia: they have a
reluctance to begin rotation. To make it easier to
move and swing through with speed, players will
often shorten the length of the levers in their body, Figure 3.35 Shortening the lever length can help
such as by bending their arm or leg. For example, overcome the moment of inertia.
in soccer the kicking leg starts in the bent position
before opening out to a straight position just before contact. This same skill is used in other sports, such
as in tennis and volleyball serves and javelin throws. In all these examples it is important that the lever is
straightened at the point of contact to ensure the maximum speedand, therefore, forceis transferred to
the ball or object.
If a lack of speed or force is evident in your performance, it could be that you are not taking full advantage
of levers.

ACQUIRE
Draw three diagrams showing first-class, second-class and third-class levers. Provide a
sporting example of each.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 a Which part of a softball bat would produce the most speed when hitting a softball?
b Would a long bat or a short bat be a better choice?
c Are there any limits with the length? Explain.
2 It is important for a javelin thrower to bring their elbow through first. Justify this statement.
Sweet spots
In sports that use racquets, bats and clubs, you will often hear discussion of the sweet spot. A sweet spot is
the ideal point on the equipment with which to hit the ball to maximise accuracy and force.
The sweet spot is the point that, when struck, causes no backwards nor forwards rotation of the bat.
Sweet spots are also the point at which vibration and jarring are minimised. They are often near the centre of
equipment.
Have you ever felt the effects of hitting a ball outside the sweet spot? What did it feel like?
Hitting the ball with the sweet spot has to be balanced with the effects of leverage. For ideal leverage, the
ball should be hit with the end of the bat (lever). However, if a ball is hit with the end, the tip of the bat will
rotate backwards, driving the handle forwards out of the batters hand. If the ball is struck close to the handle,
the tip will rotate forwards, causing the bat handle to push into the batters hands.
3038
Minimal vibration
Sweet spot
Bat rotates neither

backwards nor forwards
Figure 3.36 The sweet spot is the point on equipment such as bats and racquets where vibration is
minimal.

3073
Projectile motion
A projectile is any object that is launched, hurled or thrown,
such as a bullet shot from a gun or a tennis ball hit by a racquet.
The path of a projectile is called its trajectory.
When we think of projectiles in sport, we usually think
of objects that have been thrown or hit, such as balls and
javelins. However, the human body can also be a projectile
think of gymnasts launching themselves from a beat board or
swimmers mid-dive.
Factors affecting the flight of a

projectile
The trajectories of all projectiles are affected by the external
forces of gravity and air resistance. For example, air resistance
can affect the ight of a javelin and take metres off the total
distance. A shot-put will be strongly pulled down by the forces
of gravity.
In addition, three other factors affect the ight of a
projectile and, ultimately, the distance it will travel:
angle of release
height of release
speed of release.
3040
Figure 3.37 Gravity and

fluid resistance affect the
flight of all projectiles.

3041
Angle of release
Angle of release
All projectiles have two types
of velocity: horizontal velocity
and vertical velocity. Once the
projectile has been released,
its horizontal velocity does not
change; it will continue to move
in a horizontal line until it is
overcome by the vertical forces
of gravity. The combination of
horizontal and vertical velocity
results in a ight path in the
shape of a parabolic curve.
Assuming that a tennis ball
is thrown at the same speed, the
following things would happen,
depending on the balls angle of
release.
If the ball was thrown straight
up into the air, it would stay
in ight for a long time but
travel only a short distance.
If the ball was thrown low
(relatively parallel to the
ground), it would travel
further from the point of
release, but its ight time
would be short.
The optimal trajectory is a
result of an even combination of
forward (horizontal) and upward
Height of release
(vertical) ight. In theory this
equates to an optimal angle of
Figure 3.38 A projectiles flight is affected by its angle of
release, height of release and speed of release. release of 45 degrees.
3043
Figure 3.39
45
The optimal
angle of release
of a projectile
is just less than
45degrees.

In practice, however, the optimal angle of release can varyusually between 35 and 45 degrees. For shot-
putters, for example, the optimum angle of release lies somewhere between 41 and 43 degrees. However,
a biomechanical study at the University of Kansas found that shot-putters release their shots at angles
between 32 and 38 degrees, with few cases reported above 40 degrees.
The difference between theory and practice can be explained by other variables, including the effects of
uid resistance, and the technique and physical attributes of individual athletes. If an athlete can get a higher
velocity at a lower angle, then there is a trade-off between the optimum release angle and maximum release
velocity.
Height of release
The height of release refers to the height at which an object is released relative to its landing point. If the
angle of release and the velocity remain constant, a projectile thrown from a greater height of release will
travel further than one thrown from a lower height of release.
For example, if a tall athlete and a short athlete release a discus at the same speed and angle, the taller
athlete will be releasing the discus at a higher release point. In theory, this would mean that the projectile
thrown by a taller athlete would have more time in the air and that a taller athlete would be able to throw
further than a shorter athlete.
Do you think you have a height advantage when throwing?
3044
Figure 3.40
Projectiles thrown
from a height will
travel further.
The height at which a projectile is released also has implications for the optimum angle of release.
When the height of release is equal to the height of landing, the optimum angle of release is 45 degrees.
This occurs in soccer, when the ball is kicked from the ground and lands on the ground.
When the height of release is greater than the height of landing, as in a hammer throw, the optimum
angle of release is less than 45 degrees.
When the height of release is less than the height of landing, as in a bunker shot in golf, the optimum
angle of release is more than 45 degrees.

3045
3046
Figure 3.42 In a hammer throw, the height of release is

greater than the height of landing.
3047
Figure 3.41 When a soccer ball is Figure 3.43 The height of release is sometimes lower than the
kicked, the height of release is equal to height of landing.
the height of landing.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 With a partner, discuss and list several sporting situations when the height of release is:
a equal to the height of landing
b greater than the height of landing
c lower than the height of landing.
What implications does each scenario have on the optimal angle of release?
2 Two shot-putters weigh the same; however, one is 20 centimetres taller than the other.
Who has an advantage and why?
Speed of release
Once a projectile has been released, its horizontal velocity remains constant for the duration of its ight.
In sports that require projectiles to be thrown a great distance, athletes try to generate as much velocity as
possible by releasing the projectile with the greatest possible amount of force.
Not all sports, however, need distance; in some, accuracy is more important. In those sports, the
speed of release decreases and more emphasis is placed on perfecting the angle and height. For example,
basketball players attempting a free throw would slow down their throwing action, placing all their focus
on techniques to improve accuracy. If the same players had to beat the shot clock from well before the
3-point line, their throwing action would speed up as their need for maximum force outweighs their need
for precision.

The Magnus effect on spinning projectiles
Often, when a projectile is thrown, techniques are used to cause the projectile to spin. For example, bowlers
in cricket often deliberately apply spin to the ball. By causing the ball to spin, bowlers can make the ball follow
a curved ight path, which makes it difcult for the opposing batter to read the balls direction and hit it
accurately.
The Magnus effect occurs when a spinning object is moving through air or water. To understand this, lets
look at a spinning cricket ball. In cricket, as the spinning ball moves through the air, its spinning motion causes
the air pressure on one side of the ball to be less than on the other side. Velocity increases (and air pressure
decreases) on the side of the
ball that is travelling in the
same direction as the air around
it. Velocity decreases (and air
pressure increases) on the other
side of the ball where the spin
is moving against the direction
of the air ow around it. The
effects of the different velocity
and air pressure on each side of
the spinning ball cause it to curve
towards the side with the higher
velocity and lower air pressure.
Bowlers control the direction of
the balls curved trajectory by
3049
varying the balls velocity, its axis
of rotation and the direction in
which it spins.
The Magnus effect has some
similarities to Bernoullis
principle, which is explained on
page 111.
Decreased velocity
3048 AF
Spinning
object
Increased
velocity Direction of
travel of
fluid or air
(e.g. wind)
Figure 3.44 The Magnus effect

explains how a spinning projectile, Figure 3.45 Imparting spin to a ball alters the balls
such as a ball, curves in flight. trajectory.

<
ACQUIRE
1 List the factors that affect the flight of a projectile.
2 a In theory, what is the optimal angle of release to maximise distance?
b Give one reason why this angle might change in practice.
PRACTICAL
Applying force
Watch video footage or demonstrations of the topspin serve in tennis and a variety of
spin bowling techniques. Then, practise the techniques in small groups and rate their
effectiveness. Discuss your findings as a group.
Case studygolf balls in flight

Have you ever wondered why golf balls are covered in small dimples? The dimples on the balls actually
improve the balls ability to travel further. Dimpled balls will y further than smooth balls. As a result, golf ball
manufacturers spend a great deal of effort determining the optimum depth and pattern of golf ball dimples.
The dimples work in several ways. First, they act to reduce the air resistance. As the ball ies through the air, a
boundary layer of air forms around the ball. The dimples on the
ball act like small scoops to push air around and enhance the
effects of Bernoullis principle and the Magnus effect. This helps 3075 1/8 squ
to increase lift and reduce drag.
Because the dimples help to force the air around the ball as it
spins, less air pressure builds up behind the ball, reducing the
backwards drag on the ball.
Dimples on a golf ball cannot be any size. If the dimples are
too deep, they increase the balls resistance through the air
and shorten its trajectory. If they are too shallow, they do not
provide the benets of reducing air pressure and increasing lift.
Dimples
Shallow
Correct
Deep
None 3076 1/4 ls
Ed: AF art
coming in tiny
and not to grid
100 200 300 Rework to t

Metres pls conrm
Figure 3.46 The dimples on golf balls increase the distance the balls can travel.

<start new page> 3050
Fluid mechanics
Fluid mechanics refers to forces
that operate in water and air.
This section will only look at the Gravity (weight)
forces operating in water. These
forces affect how well we can
move through the water, either in Propulsion Resistance
a vessel or as a swimmer.
The forces of uid mechanics
include buoyancy, propulsion
and resistance. Efcient
swimmers are able to alter
their technique in a way that
minimises opposing forces to
gain maximum propulsion.
Buoyancy
Buoyancy
An objects buoyancy determines
whether or not it will oat.
Buoyancy, in turn, depends on Figure 3.47 The forces of fluid mechanics influence a swimmers
motion.
the objects density.
Density is different from mass or weight in that it refers to an objects ratio of mass relative to its
volume. A shot-put and a rubber ball can be the same size (take up the same volume) but because the
shot-put is heavier for the same volume, it has a higher density than the ball. Density explains why, if we
threw the shot-put and the rubber ball into a pool, the shot-put would sink to the bottom, but the rubber
ball would oat.
Specic gravity, also known as relative density, is the ratio used to compare the density of an object
with the density of water. Water has a specic gravity value of one; anything with a specic gravity less than
one will oat when placed in water; anything placed in water that has a specic gravity more than one will
sink when placed in water.
People are not purpose-built for water. Although our bodies are made up of high proportions of low-
density air, fat and water, the density of our bodies is uneven. Also, dense muscle and bone have specic
gravity values of 1.52.0 and have a negative effect on buoyancy. Therefore, when we try to oat, we are
buoyed up by our chest and core, but sink at the legs due to their high percentage of muscle and bone.
A person with a higher proportion of body fat will oat more easily than a heavily muscled person.
Archimedes principle
Buoyancy was rst understood by Archimedes in the third century. Archimedes principle states that a body
d that is partially or totally immersed in a uid will be buoyed up by a force that is equal to the weight of the
uid that is displaced by the body.
Put simply, the buoyancy force of an object is the same as the weight of the water it displaces. Again, using
the example of the shot-put, a mens shot-put weighs about 7.3 kilograms, but would only displace about
500600 grams of water from the pool; therefore, it would sink.

3052
Centre of buoyancy
The centre of buoyancy is related to volume and
displacement. The centre of buoyancy of an object
is at the geometric centre of the submerged volume
of the object. Ball filled
with air
In swimmers, the centre of buoyancy can
change depending on the position and movement Water
of a swimmers body, particularly the legs, and
how much of the body is submerged. Synchronised Ball filled
swimmers, for example, take advantage of the with sand
opposing forces of centre of buoyancy and centre
of gravity to generate subtle and elegant rotation in Figure 3.48 Objects the same size can have
very different densities.
the water, simply by moving their limbs.
The position in which a body oats in water depends on where the centre of gravity (downward force)
and centre of buoyancy (upward force) are situated at any given time. As these two forces work in opposite
directions, the body will rotate and only come to rest when the centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy are
vertically aligned.
The centre of gravity and the centre of buoyancy are not always in the same place. When a swimmer lies
horizontally in water, the centre of buoyancy is located closer to the head than the centre of gravity. This is
because the chest is lled with air, making it the least dense area of the body, and because the legs are the
densest area of the body, with high proportions of heavy muscle and bone.
3054
Centre of buoyancy
3053
Cent
Centre
re o
off gr
grav
avit
ityy
Centre of
gravity
Torque
Buoyancy
Centre of
buoyancy Centre of buoyancy
Gravity
Centre
t off gravit
ity
Figure 3.49 Buoyancy and Figure 3.50 The centre of buoyancy can change depending on the
gravity are two opposing forces. bodys position in the water.

PRACTICAL
Buoyancy
During your next swimming lesson, try to maintain the following positions. Note what happens:
Lie on your back with your feet stretched out and your hands by your side.
Lie on your back with your arms and legs spread far apart, making a star shape in the
water.
1 Did your body respond the same way to both positions?
2 Were you able to maintain your initial position for longer in either one? If so, use the
concepts of centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy to explain why.
Propulsion
Propulsion refers to the force that drives an object or body forward.
In most sports, forward motion is achieved by athletes pushing against a solid surface. For example,
sprinters push their feet against the solid ground to propel themselves forwards. Water, however, provides no
such solid surface. Swimmers, therefore, need to somehow pull or push themselves against the resistance of
the water.
Two types of forces are at work when swimmers propel themselves through water: lift and drag. For all
swimming strokes, both forces come into play at different points in the pulling, pushing and sideways sweeping
actions of swimming.
Bernoullis principle
3055
Bernoullis principle explains that as Lift
the velocity of a uid or gas increases, Combined force
its pressure decreases, and vice versa.
Bernoullis principle is usually used to
explain how the wings of aeroplanes
work, but it can also be applied to sports Drag
such as swimming.
In an aeroplane wing the air has to travel
further across the curved top of the wing Fast flow (low pressure)
than it does underneath the wing. The
slower ow of the air beneath the wing
creates an area of higher pressure. The Lift
Combined force
difference in pressure above and below
the wing is what creates the wings
lift. A curved swimmers hand moving
through water can have a similar effect.
Drag
Bernoullis principle explains how water
pressure will decrease as the speed of the
owing water increases. Furthermore,
Fast flow (low pressure)
water naturally moves from high- to low-
pressure zones. Figure 3.51 Bernoullis principle is used to explain lift.

3056
Lift
Lift is the force that allows swimmers to move themselves forward in the water. Bernoullis principle helps to
explain liftthe difference in water pressure on opposing sides of a part of the body (such as the swimmers
hand) acts to propel it forward.
For example, when a swimmers hands move in a sideways sweeping motion through the water, the ow
over the curved knuckle side of the hand is much faster than on the palm side of the hand, as the knuckle
side has a much larger surface area. The difference in the speed of the travelling water on the two sides of
the hand creates high- and low-pressure systems. A swimmer can manipulate the angle at which they face
the curved side of their hand to change the direction of the lift force.
Another example of lift is
when performing an eggbeater
kick in water polo. Lift force is
created as the legs circle under
the water, creating pressure
differences between the top and
bottom of the leg and foot. The
lift force acts to push the athlete
upwards. Similarly, synchronised
swimmers are able to support High velocity flow
themselves in the water with Low velocity flow
the continuous sculling action
of their hands. The ow of water
over the hands creates a lift force
that pushes the swimmer to the Figure 3.52 The eggbeater kick is often used in water polo to create
surface. lift.
Drag
We usually understand drag as the resistance
3066
to movement that acts on a body or object as it
moves through a uidwater or air. It is the force
that opposes movement. Drag is sometimes simply Combined
called uid resistance. Fluids have an inertiaa force
resistance to motionthat swimmers have to work

against to propel themselves through the water.
This resistance to being pushed aside to allow the
swimmers body to move through the water is one Drag Lift
element of drag. Swimmers try to minimise this
effect of drag by using skills such as streamlining
and pitching the entry of their hands to ensure the Line of flow
water surface is cut cleanly.
However, the effects of drag and resistance
can also have a positive effect on propulsion and
help a swimmer move through the water. It is the
combined forces of drag and lift that determine Figure 3.53 The combined forces of lift and drag
allow swimmers to propel themselves through the
propulsion.
water.

To understand the effects of drag on a swimmer, lets look at its effects on a swimmers arm as it
moves through the water. A swimmers arm goes through ve stages: the pitch (entry), catch, pull, push
and recovery. During the catch phase, swimmers pull (or push, in the case of buttery) their hand back
towards their body. Water builds up on the palm side of the hand, leaving a cavity on the knuckle side that
water rushes into. The trapped water molecules on the palm side of the hand create a high-pressure zone.
Conversely, the water that rushes past the hand and into the cavity on the knuckle side moves at a high
speed, creating a low-pressure zone. In the same way that water ows from high- to low-pressure zones, the
hand, which is caught between pressure zones, is sucked into the low-pressure zone on the knuckle side of
the hand, which allows the swimmer to exert a holding or grabbing force on the water, from which they can
pull and push themselves past.
This suction effect is what differentiates drag force from lift force.
Which swimming stroke is your strongest? What are the relative contributions of drag and lift in that
stroke?
Fluid resistance
Swimming is a relatively unnatural action for humans; our body shape, body density and surface (skin) make
us inefcient swimmers when compared with water animals.
Our ability to propel ourselves through the water is signicantly reduced by three types of resistance:
skin resistance, turbulence resistance and wave resistance. Before looking at these concepts, it is
important to become familiar with the following terms:
water displacementthe shifting or spreading of water in order for an object to move through it
laminar owsmooth-owing water of a low pressure
eddieswater that is moving in a different direction from the main current, usually in a circular
whirlpool motion
streamliningthe act of making the body as thin as possible, reducing the amount of surface area
displacing the water
How do you streamline your body when swimming? How do you lift your head when you have to breathe?
What phases of your stroke could be better streamlined?
Skin resistance
When a swimmer moves through the water, the uid that comes in direct contact with their body forms
what is called a boundary layer. This layer of uid grips on tightly and interacts with the next layer of water,
and so on, creating a frictional force that resists forward movement. There is very little that humans can do
to reduce skin resistance other than keep their skin smooth and wear tight-tting swimwear.
Turbulence resistance
Undisturbed water has a laminar ow, which is disrupted when a swimmer moves through it. As this occurs,
a high-pressure zone develops in front of the swimmer where some of the water accumulates. In addition to
this build-up at the front, some of the displaced water slips past the swimmer, crashing into the space the
swimmer has just left and creating a low-pressure wake full of eddies behind the swimmer. As water ows
from high- to low-pressure zones, the pressure differential causes a suction effect, which resists forward
motion.
Turbulence resistance is often referred to as prole drag, because swimmers proles (shape in the
water) determine the amount of turbulence they create. If a swimmer is streamlinedwith their hands,
shoulders, hips, knees and feet aligneda relatively small amount of water will be displaced; this, in turn,

will minimise the suction effect. On the other hand, when swimmers techniques are inefcientwith the
hips, knees and feet sinkingmore water is displaced in front of them; this increases the eddies formed and
the suction effect.
For example, in breaststroke it is essential that swimmers avoid drawing their knees up towards their
chest during the kicking action, as doing so increases their prole through the water and results in increased
resistance.
Figure 3.54
To minimise
turbulence and
resistance,
good swimmers
streamline their
bodies in the
water.
3064
Figure 3.55
A bigger profile
in the water
displaces more
water and
results in greater
resistance.
Wave resistance
When a swimmer moves through the water, waves build up in front of them, creating a high-pressure swell
that exerts a resistance. This wave is often referred to as a wall of water that acts to block the swimmers
path.
The faster a swimmer travels through the water, the larger the wave generated and the greater the
resistance. With speed, the second factor that increases the size of the wave formed is the amount of water
being displaced. It is essential, therefore, to use streamlining techniques to displace less water when moving
at high speed.
ACQUIRE
1 What determines whether an object will float or not?
2 Why does a shot-put sink when thrown in a pool when a rubber ball floats?
3 What does Bernoullis principle explain?
4 What forces are at work when a swimmer moves through the water?
5 What is drag also known as?
6 List reasons why humans are inefficient swimmers when compared with water animals.

The principles of fluid mechanics and performance
The scientic study of the principles of uid mechanics has inuenced the performances of our elite athletes.
Science has inuenced the design of sports clothing, equipment and competitions, and changed training
techniques.
In swimming, controversy has surrounded the use of fast skin swimsuits and the number of world records
that have fallen since they were rst introduced. The suits revolutionary design decreased drag, increased
buoyancy and resulted in an
unprecedented improvement in
3058
performance for elite swimmers.
After the 2008 Olympic Games,
the international swimming body,
FINA, investigated and regulated
the use of high-tech suits to
ensure the technology provides
no unfair advantage.
The focus of training for elite
athletes has changed too.
Athletes can spend as much as
50 per cent of their time rening
the technical aspects of kicking,
pulling, breathing and positioning
the body to try to reduce drag,
maximise lift and move more
efciently. The ability to video
and analyse stroke count, splits,
turns and take-offs has resulted
in athletes developing a better
understanding of the relationship
between force and their own
performance.
Swimming pools and equipment
have also changed to counteract
the negative effects of uid
mechanics, such as preventing
excessive wave motion. Olympic
pools are now ten lanes wide,
keeping the two outside lanes
free. Pool edges feature gutters
that are ush with the water
surface, and the plastic buoys
that divide lanes are designed to
direct water downward and not Figure 3.56 Australian swimmer Stephanie Rice models the Speedo
outward. LZR Racer bodysuit at the Sydney launch.

NEWS
Swimmers happier in someone elses skin
The body parts that make up Very simply, drag occurs seams, to follow the contours
men and women are a real drag when the water grabs swimmers, of the body, which are bonded
for elite swimmers, slowing their slowing them in their progress. smoothly to the fabric. The zip
performances by fractions of a Its caused by the surface of is also bonded to the suit to
second. the swimmertheir skin or the streamline the swimmers shape.
This especially applies material of their swimsuitand Mason agreed that seams
to girls, said Bruce Mason, a their shape. were important because they
biomechanist at the Australian Thats why the LZR Racer increase turbulence and,
Institute of Sport in Canberra suit was designed to compress therefore, drag if they cut across
and consultant to swimsuit bulging groins, breasts, legs the ow of water.
manufacturer Speedo. and abdomens. Internal panels But as Tim Langrish, a Sydney
The fat layer of the leg moves streamline a swimmers shape University engineer with expertise
like a wave down their leg. One and built-in stabilisers act like a in uid dynamics, noted, no
of the things the suit is intended corset to keep a swimmer in a matter how good a suit looks
to do is cut that movement down more efcient position during a technically, swimmers must be
to avoid the drag, Mason said of race. able to wear it and swim in it.
the new Speedo bodysuit thats Speedo claims its paper-thin Its a trade-off between
causing ripples in swimming designer fabric cuts surface drag. physics and biology, Langrish
circles. So too does the orientation of said.
3077
Figure 3.57 The new fast suits dramatically improve streamlining.

Swimmers happier in someone elses skin (cont )
According to Mason, that reducing drag, increasing turning, are being attributed to the new
was precisely the problem sprinting and start times, and technology, has just begun as
with prototypes of the new enhancing oxygen ow, so-called other leading countries prepare to
supersuit. After testing the fabric, venous return. hold their Olympic trials.
running computer simulations While uncertain of the suits Thompson does not credit the
and trialling the suits with impact on venous return, Mason fast times to the new swimsuits
mannequins pulled through said the suit denitely affected despite thirteen world records
the water, Speedo asked the something vitally important in six weeks since they were
Australian Institute of Sport to attitude. launched.
put them on human swimmers.
Psychologically, a swimmer We are having great
We discovered problems, has on something new, he said. performances here (at the
he said. Australian Olympic Team
Theyre performing with
If (the suit) restricted something different and they Swimming Trials) and, in Europe,
movement around the shoulders, believe that something will give we saw a lot of world records
reducing drag, it also reduced the them an advantage. broken over the last six days,
ability to increase propulsion. Thompson said.
As a sponsor of Australias
Its also no good being so swim team, Speedo has provided I think its a great
tight, it takes two hours to get about 120 Olympic hopefuls with performance of swimming and
into ... these are the trade-offs. this advantage. The remaining I think we have more to look
Thats why it takes so long to stock is on sale to the public for forward to ... this is the Olympic
develop (a suit). $800 each. year and thats what we expect.
But the results, Speedo Australias head swimming
claims, offer a winning edge over coach, Alan Thompson, believes Source: Leigh Dayton and Nicole
previous high-performance suits, the spate of world records, which Jeffery, The Australian, 26March 2008
Have you ever competed in a swimming race? Would it be fair if some competitors could afford high-tech
swimsuits and others could not?
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 The tumble turn is used by all competitive swimmers as it is more effective than the basic
touch and turn method. One of the major reasons for its effectiveness is that it allows the
swimmer to turn well under the surface of the water.
Use your understanding of wave resistance to explain why a swimmer can significantly
reduce their turn time using a tumble turn.
2 With a partner, select one of the sports in Table 3.2 (page 118) and explain how each of the
selected biomechanical principles applies.
3 Suggest biomechanical reasons why swimming world records seem to be being broken at
an ever-increasing rate.

Table 3.2Biomechanical principles, as they most dominantly relate to individual sports
Athletics
Volleyball Softball Swimming Golf Tennis Gymnastics
Track Throws Jumps
Motion Linear (rectilinear)
motion
9 9 9 9 9 9 9
Curvilinear motion 9 9
Velocity and speed 9 9 9 9 9
Acceleration 9 9 9 9 9
Newtons first law
of motioninertia
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
Newtons second
law of motion 9 9 9 9 9
acceleration
Newtons third law
of motionaction 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
and reaction
Balance and Base of support
stability
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
Centre of gravity 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
Force Force production 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
Summation of
forces
9 9 9 9 9 9 9
Momentum 9 9 9 9 9
Transfer of
momentum
9 9 9 9 9 9 9
Impulse 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
Absorbing force 9 9 9
Accuracy 9 9 9 9 9
Rotary forces Concentric and
eccentric forces
9 9 9 9 9 9
Rotational
momentum
9 9 9 9 9
Conservation
of rotational 9
momentum
Centripetal and
centrifugal forces
9 9 9 9
Levers 9 9 9 9 9 9
Sweet spot 9 9 9
Projectile Angle of release
motion
9 9 9
Height of release 9 9 9
Speed of release 9 9 9
Fluid resistance
(air)
9 9 9 9 9
Magnus effect 9 9 9 9
Fluid Buoyancy
mechanics
9
Centre of buoyancy 9
Propulsion 9
Fluid resistance
(water)
9
Note that most biomechanical principles relate to most sports. This table shows only the most relevant and strongest links.

03: SUMMARY
Biomechanics is the study of the body as a NOW THAT YOU HAVE FINISHED ...
machine.
1 Dene biomechanics
Linear (or rectilinear) motion occurs in a straight
2 How might the science of biomechanics have
line; curvilinear motion follows a curved path.
inuenced the sport you are currently studying?
Speed describes only how quickly the body is
3 Describe the difference between linear
moving; velocity describes both how quickly and
(rectilinear) and curvilinear motion.
in which direction.
4 Explain Newtons three laws of motion. How
Newtons laws of motion explain that:
might they be used to explain the action of a
a still object continues to be still, and a long jumper from the start of the run-up to
moving object continues to move in the same landing in the pit?
direction at its current velocity, unless an
5 Give three examples in athletics of action and
external force acts on the object
reaction forces.
the sum of the force that moves an object is
6 Using Newtowns second law, answer the
equal to the objects mass multiplied by the
following question. If a 15 newton force is
acceleration
applied to a 1.5 kilogram discus, what is the
for every action, there is an equal and acceleration of the discus?
opposite reaction.
7 Discuss how a gymnasts centre of gravity may
Balance and stability are related to the base of change throughout a routine.
support and centre of gravity.
8 Outline three ways an athlete can maximise
Force is anything that causes or has the potential force production.
to cause or change movement.
9 Outline three ways the body can apply or absorb
The summation of force principle explains that force.
the force produced during the movement of
10 Explain the difference between concentric and
one body segment will be added to the force
eccentric forces.
produced by the next body segment, and so on.
11 List the two factors that determine rotational
Rotary forces are forces that cause an object to
momentum.
turn or rotate.
12 Identify the principle that causes a rugby union
A force that produces a rotating or twisting
goal-kickers left arm to rotate forward, across
motion is known as torque.
the body when their right foot kicks a ball
Every lever has a point at which force (or power) through the uprights.
is applied, a point of resistance and a fulcrum (or
13 Explain the term sweet spot.
axis).
14 Identify ve factors that affect the trajectory of a
The ight of a projectile is inuenced by the
thrown ball.
angle of release, height of release and speed of
release. 15 Explain how you would nd a persons centre of
buoyancy.
Fluid mechanics is used to explain the forces of
buoyancy and propulsion. 16 Describe the types of resistance that exist in uid
environments.
03: Summary ///// 119

a 3060
ASSESSMENT TASKS
Task 1
Skill acquisition
Genre: Report
3061
Task 2
Sports psychology and
accountability in team
Word limit: 8001000 words sports
Genre: Essay
Word limit: 600800 words
Preamble Preamble
The rate of learning can be plotted as a learning curve. Every time your team played a match in the round-robin
In your study you will create your own learning curve graph, tournament this term, statistics were recorded for a variety
plotting your performance in several skills. You will then of skills. These statistics were collated and you were ranked
evaluate the graph and use it as the basis of a report. based on percentages. At the end of the competition, the
player with the best aggregate ranking received a reward and
Learning requirements public recognition.
To successfully complete this task you will need to:
Learning requirements
participate in the physical activity currently being studied
identify your stage of learning in that activity
set short-term and progress goals for the unit. Your short-
create a learning curve graph to record your learning
term goals should be what you wish to achieve by the
evaluate your learning curve, reecting on what it means end of the unit. Progress goals should detail each weeks
about your progress. desired improvements
participate in a round-robin competition
Click to access learning curve templates.
keep a match journal, in which you discuss performance
strengths and weaknesses, and the effectiveness of any
Task sports psychology methods used during each match
Evaluate your personal learning curve graph and use your record individuals statistics from every match,
ndings to write a report in which you justify your self- documenting the success rate of fundamental skills as a
assigned stage of learning. In your report, use your ndings percentage.
to recommend appropriate practice methods (including the
display match statistics so that students are accountable
timing and frequency of training sessions) that will help you
for their performance
to progress in the activity.
rank students based on overall percentages.
Additional information
Task
You will need to use appropriate headings and
subheadings in your report. Justify which sports psychology method was most effective
to improve your performance. Use publicly displayed
All tables, graphs and other images referred to in the body
statistics and journal entries to support your justication.
of your report are to be placed in an appendix.
You will need to provide a reference list and correctly use Additional information
in-text referencing to acknowledge the sources of your You will need to bring in your journal entries, statistics
information. sheets and rankings from the round-robin tournament.

3062
Task 3
Biomechanical analysis
Genre: Speech and PowerPoint
presentation (multimodal)
Time limit: 6 minutes
Preamble
If you can understand how biomechanical concepts
interrelate and govern physical activity, you will be better
able to analyse your performance and adapt it to improve.
You will video your performance and analyse it to determine
what modications need to be made to your technique.
arrange video recording of the physical activity you are
currently studying
analyse the video footage, using motion-analysis
software, if available
edit the footage (in class).
Task
Evaluate the video footage taken of your performance in your
current physical activity and identify one major weakness in
your technique. Select two biomechanical principles to justify
why this is a weakness. Recommend a drill that would help
to remedy the problem. Explain your ndings in a speech,
accompanied by a PowerPoint presentation.
Both video footage and stills should be used and referred
to during your speech to support your conclusions. Edit
footage to include both normal-speed and slow-motion
footage to support your points.
Any video footage and stills used should be embedded in
PowerPoint slides.
Use palm cards when presenting your speech.
Focus area AAssessment tasks ///// 121

PROCESS AND EFFECTS
OF TRAINING AND
EXERCISE
During physical activity, the body responds physiologically. Most importantly, the body acts to ensure that
the energy supply is adequate for the bodys energy needs. The body uses different energy production
systems depending on the physical activity undertaken. Training for physical tness improves the bodys
capacity to produce and use energy. Other physiological effects or adaptations that result from training
include changes to the bodys cardiorespiratory system.
For training programs to be effective, they need to address the health-related and skills-related
components of physical tness identied to be of most importance to individual athletes, based on their
personal tness capacity and the physical activity in question. Before designing a training program, it is
essential that these components, as well as training methods and training principles, are understood.
The following chapters look at the energy systems used for various physical activities, the physiological
adaptations that result from training and the fundamental elements of training program design. A step-
by-step guide to designing a training program specically for senior physical education is provided. Sports
injurieshow they are classied, treated and managedare also addressed.
Focus questions
How do we get energy for movement?
What energy systems contribute to physical activities?
What are the effects of training?
How are training programs designed?
How are injuries treated and managed?
COMING UP
The bodys response to physical activity page 124
The fundamental of tness page 156
Designing and evaluating training programs page 222
Sports injuries page 258
122 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise

4041
RUS_QSPE_3pp.indb 123
b
28/09/10 9:41 AM
4002
4
The bodys
response to
physical activity

Have you ever wondered how your body creates enough energy to perform its day- Energy 125
to-day tasks, let alone exercise? Is it simply a case of converting the food that you Adenosine triphosphate 125
consume into energy, or is the process a little more complicated than that? Energy systems 127
In this chapter, you will look at energy systems to investigate how the energy Fatigue and recovery 142
needed to fuel physical activity is created in the human body. The chapter discusses Training effects 146
the bodys ability to create energy for different types of activities, taking a practical Immediate physiological
look at several physical activities and their differing needs. It also examines fatigue responses to training 146
and recovery. Long-term physiological
The second part of the chapter investigates the short-term and long-term effects of training 146
physiological effects that training has on the human body.

<start new page>
Energy 4040
We are all familiar with the common use

of the word energy: I have no energy
or This washing machine is energy
efcient. What do such comments
mean?
Energy can be dened as the capacity
or ability to perform work. Without
energy there would be no light or heat,
and everything would be stationary.
Energy is fundamental to everyday living
and is needed for action and change.
Energy can be categorised into
various forms, such as heat, light,
electrical, nuclear, chemical and
mechanical. Each of these can be
converted from one form to another. For
example, a light globe converts electrical
energy into light energy; a gas heater
converts chemical energy into heat
energy.
When discussing energy and human
movement, we are mainly concerned
with the transfer of chemical energy into Figure 4.1 Humans obtain chemical energy from the food
mechanical energy. In this process, the that they eat.
breaking of chemical bonds in molecules
releases energy for the body to use. Humans obtain chemical energy from the food that we eat, and energy
from food is measured in kilojoules.
For example, a football player who converts chemicals in the body (from food) into a mechanical action
(such as jumping to take a mark) is transferring energy from one form to another. During this transfer, heat
energy is also given off, which is why the football player feels warm after training.
The transfer of energy from chemical energy (food) into mechanical energy (action) in the human body
is not direct. Instead, the energy gained from the breakdown of food is used to make a chemical compound
called adenosine triphosphate. Only when energy is released by the breakdown of this compound can it be
used by the bodys cells.
Adenosine triphosphate
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is an energy-rich chemical compound that is found in the bodys cells. It is
almost always the source of energy for the reactions that take place in the bodyespecially for the muscle
contractions that lead to movement.
As shown in Figure 4.2, ATP is made up of a smaller compound (adenosine) and three chained
phosphate (P) groups (hence the name tri-phosphate). The nal phosphate group is held on to the chain
with a high-energy bond.
Chapter 4The bodys response to physical activity ///// 125

When ATP is broken down,
releasing the nal phosphate Adenosine triphosphate
group in the chain, it releases 4003 L1/8 AT
energy. ATP is broken down

into adenosine diphosphate
(ADP)that is, adenosine plus
two phosphatesand a separate
Adenosine Three phosphate
phosphate group (see Figure 4.3). groups
A great deal of energy is
released when this bond is Figure 4.2 ATP is made up of a small compound (adenosine) and
three chained phosphate groups.
broken and this provides the
energy that powers the human
Adenosine diphosphate
body. It provides energy for all 4004 L1/8 AT
processes, from breathing and
digestion through to muscle
movement.

Producing ATP from Adenosine Two phosphate Phosphate Energy
food groups
Food provides the source for

Figure 4.3 When ATP is broken down into ADP, energy is released.
ATP. Stored fuels, such as
carbohydrates and fats, are not changed into ATP; rather, a portion of the energy that is released when these
food chemicals break down triggers the joining of molecules to form ATP.
Food and energy are strongly linked. The three major nutrients found in foodcarbohydrates, fats and
proteinsall work in different ways to help with the production of ATP.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are broken down by the body into glucose. The glucose is then stored in the muscles and
liver as glycogen, which is a ready source of energy. Chemical reactions involving the breakdown of glucose
(glycolysis) or glycogen (glycogenolysis) then produce ATP.
Simple carbohydrates (sugars) can provide energy, but the best sources come from complex
carbohydrates, such as grains, cereals, breads, legumes and vegetables.
One gram of carbohydrate yields approximately 16 kilojoules of energy when broken down.
Fats
Triglyceride, which is found in fatty foods, is the digested form of fat needed for energy production. Fat is
stored as triglyceride in both adipose tissue (fatty tissue) and the muscles. As exercise begins, triglycerides
are broken down into fatty acids and glycerola process known as lipolysis.
Free fatty acids are the primary energy source when fat is used for energy, which is usually during
prolonged lower-intensity work. The body uses the fatty acids to produce ATP and continues to break down
the adipose triglycerides if exercise is prolonged at a low intensity. Free fatty acids produce the greatest
amount of ATP, but they have disadvantages: it takes many more chemical reactions and much more oxygen
to split them to resynthesise ATP.
One gram of fat yields approximately 37 kilojoules of energy when broken down.

4042
Proteins
After digestion and absorption, Fats and simple carbohydrates (sugars)
proteins are broken down into
amino acids. Under normal
conditions, protein is not used
to produce ATP. During extreme
conditions (for example, Protein
starvation or prolonged exercise),
protein will be used as a fuel
source to produce ATP. Protein
is used only when stores of fats
and carbohydrates have been Complex
exhausted. carbohydrates
One gram of protein yields

approximately 17 kilojoules of
energy when broken down.
Figure 4.4 Three major nutrient typescarbohydrates, fats and

proteinsare used for energy production.
Energy systems
ATP does not exist in the muscles and tissues in an abundant supply waiting for activity to occur. In fact,
the small amount of ATP that is present provides only enough energy for a few seconds of intense activity.
The body does not produce ATP continuously, so it must be replenished and recycled in a process known as
resynthesis. The process of resynthesis rebuilds ATP from ADP using one of three energy systems:
the alactacid system (also called the phosphagen or ATPPC system) 4006 TS L1/4
the lactic acid system (also called the anaerobic glycolysis system)
the aerobic system (also
Anaerobic systems Aerobic systems
called the oxygen or oxidative
(without oxygen) (with oxygen)
system).
The major difference
Alactacid system
among the systems is that the
alactacid and lactic acid systems
resynthesise ATP anaerobically
(without oxygen present),
Energy Aerobic systems
whereas the aerobic system
resynthesises ATP aerobically
(with oxygen present).
Which energy system is used by Lactic acid system
the body depends on:
how long the activity will take
Figure 4.5 ATP is manufactured or resynthesised using three energy
the intensity of the activity. systems.

ACQUIRE
1 Describe energy in your own words.
2 a What compound is needed for muscle contractions to occur?
b Where is it found?
c Draw a simple diagram of this compound.
3 Name the three major nutrient groups found in food.
4 Explain what is meant by ATP resynthesis.
5 Define the terms anaerobic and aerobic.
Alactacid system
The alactacid system, also known as the ATPPC system, is used by the body to produce ATP quickly. High-
intensity activities lasting for less than 10 seconds use this system as the primary source of energy. Such
activities include throwing a shot-put, running a 100-metre sprint, making a jump shot and kicking a football.
This process is best described by the principle of coupled reactions, which means that the results of
one reaction are used to drive another reaction. One reaction causes ATP to break down and become ADP,
releasing phosphate and energy in the process. As ATP is being broken down in the muscle, another high-
energy substancephosphocreatine (PC)is also being broken down. The breakdown of PC produces
phosphate and energy. The energy from this reaction is used to join ADP and free phosphate molecules to
produce ATP.
The amount of PC in muscles is limited. After about 510 seconds of strenuous work, it runs out and
another of the three energy systems has to be activated. Although the stores of PC are quickly used up, they
are also quickly restored within 2 minutes of resting. This allows for activity to be repeated in intense, short
bursts, without immediate exhaustion.
The alactacid system represents the most readily available source of ATP for use by the muscles because:
it does not depend on a long series of chemical reactions
it does not depend on oxygen being transported to the muscles
both ATP and PC are stored in muscle tissue.
Energy is used to recombine ADP

4007 L1/3 AT and phosphateto produce ATP
ATP
ADP
ATP breaks
down to form
Phosphocreatine ADP
(PC) and energy
PC breaks down,
releasing energy
ADP remaining phosphate energy

Figure 4.6 The principle of coupled reactions explains how ATP is resynthesised from ADP.

4008 S 1/4
Lactic acid system

The other system that does not
require oxygen to resynthesise
ATP is the lactic acid system.
This system involves the partial
breakdown of glucose to release
energy and lactic acid in a series
of chemical reactions known
as glycolysis. The glucose for
this process comes either from
glucose found in the blood or
from the breakdown of glycogen
in the liver or musclesknown as
glycogenolysis.
This process is again the
Figure 4.7 The alactacid system is used for very short, intense bursts result of a coupled reactionthe
of energy. results of one reaction are used
to drive another reaction. The energy released in the breakdown of glucose is used to fuel the recombination
of ADP and P to form ATP.
However, if the body continues to use the lactic acid system, as the glucose is broken down to form
energy, lactic acid is produced. If lactic acid builds up in the muscles, it can result in a burning sensation and
inhibit the breakdown of glucose. This will usually cause athletes to decrease the intensity of the activity or
stop altogether. To break down and remove lactic acid can take up to 2 hours, and an active recovery will aid
this process. During recovery, the lactic acid is actually converted back to its original form: pyruvic acid.
Interestingly, new research into lactic acid has discovered that its accumulation could, in fact, be a
protective mechanism that prevents too much damage to muscles.
Have you ever experienced lactic acid build-up? If so, how did your body respond and how long did it take
torecover?
The lactic acid system provides a relatively quick supply of ATP, and is an important energy source for
intense, short bursts of activity (usually 3060 seconds, but can be up to 3 minutes). The lactic acid system is
used by the body for activities such as 200-metre and 400-metre running sprints, 50-metre and 100-metre
swimming sprints, and medium-length sprints in sports such as soccer. This system can provide energy for up
to 30 minutes if exercise occurs at a sub-maximal level (no more than 60 per cent).
Glucose breaks 4043

down
ADP P Energy
Lactic
+ + acid
ATP Energy from glucose is

used to recombine Figure 4.8
phosphate with ATP The lactic acid
system uses
Phosphate splits, releasing glucose to
energy for work produce ATP.

4010 TS P 1/4
The lactic acid system

provides more ATP than the Glycogen
alactacid system; however, it
only yields about 5 per cent of
the ATP that would be produced Glucose
by the aerobic system.
ATP
EXTENSION
Investigate some of the facts Pyruvic acid
and fallacies surrounding
lactic acid. Use the Internet Insufcient oxygen
to assist your research.
Click to find out more

aboutlactic acid.
Aerobic system
The alactacid system and the
lactic acid system produce ATP
without the need for oxygen
in the chemical reactions. In
contrast, the aerobic system of Lactic acid
energy production is known as
such because it uses oxygen; Figure 4.9 The lactic acid system involves a series of chemical
aerobic means with air. reactions that break down glucose to release lactic acid.
In certain types of exercise, oxygen is made available to the muscles to use in the chemical reactions
that resynthesise ATP. These reactions take place in specialised structures within the muscles, cells called
mitochondria. Although these reactions cannot take place until sufcient oxygen is in the bloodstream, they
are able to generate more abundant supplies of ATP than either anaerobic systemsometimes ten times
more. For this reason, the aerobic system is the most efcient energy system.
The aerobic system allows the body to use carbohydrates, fats and proteins as the fuel to produce ATP.
Carbohydrates are broken down in a process called aerobic glycolysis. Carbohydrates are the preferred
fuel as their breakdown requires the least amount of oxygen.
The breakdown of fats (oxidisation) requires signicantly more oxygen to produce the same amount of
ATP than the breakdown of carbohydrates. Fats are the preferred fuel only during low-intensity exercise,
when the supply of oxygen is high relative to demand.
Protein will usually be used as an energy store only in extreme situationswhen the previous two stores
have been depleted.
The different ways that the aerobic system uses these fuels in the body explains why athletes
carbohydrate load long-distance events. They are trying to provide their bodies with enough fuel. As the
activity continues, however, carbohydrate stores can become depleted, and fats become the major fuel
source.
The by-products of the aerobic system are carbon dioxide, water and heat, all of which can easily be
eliminated by the body.

ACQUIRE
1 Construct a flow chart of the processes involved in all three energy systems.
2 Describe one of the energy systems to your partner.
3 Describe how coupled reactions allow the release of energy for ATP resynthesis.
4 Discuss the similarities and differences between the anaerobic and aerobic processes of
breaking down glucose (glycolysis).
5 Discuss the ATP yield from each of the energy systems.
6 Why are carbohydrates the preferred fuel for the aerobic system?
Table 4.1A comparison of the three ATP-replenishing energy systems
System Source of fuel Duration of Cause of fatigue Efficiency of ATP

system production
Anaerobic
Alactacid system Phosphocreatine Up to 10 seconds Depletion of PC Rapid but limited

(ATPPC) (PC) stores
Lactic acid system Glucose and Up to 3 minutes Build-up of Rapid but limited
glycogen lactic acid in the
muscles
Aerobic
Aerobic system Carbohydrates, Indefinite at low Depletion of fuel Slow but unlimited
glucose and intensities sources
glycogen, fats and
protein
Source: Adapted from ML Foss and SJ Keteyian, Foxs Physiological Basis

for Exercise and Sport, 6th edn, WCB/McGraw-Hill, Boston, 1998
Anaerobic Aerobic Fat and

glycolysis Fat and glycogen Glycogen glucose
100%
4015 L
Fat
1/3 AT
Capacity of energy system
Glucose
Glucose
Time
10 30 2 5 80
Seconds Minutes
Source: BJ Sharkey, Coaches Guide to Sport Physiology, Human Kinetics, Champaign, Illinois, 1986
Figure 4.10 The duration of activity determines the main energy system used.

Energy systems in
4011 P 1/4 practice
It is important to understand the energy
demands of different types of physical
activities. Once you determine the
energy needs of an activity, you can
adapt your training to suit its needs.
To explain how the three energy
systems work in practice, the next
section looks at four sports with very
different energy demands.
Energy systems for rest:

archers
When the body is at rest, the supply of
oxygen easily meets its demand. As an
archers objective is to remain still and
calm throughout the event, the demands
Figure 4.11 Archers would use the aerobic system to produce
placed on the cardiorespiratory system
the energy needed for their sport. are low. The emphasis on precision,
rather than on strength and speed,
means that the working muscles require
little energy. Each breath taken by the
archer supplies enough oxygen to the
4012 P1/4 muscles to allow ATP to be resynthesised
aerobically. At this low intensity, the
major fuel supply is fat.
Energy systems for short, fast

work: divers
Divers require an explosive burst of
energy for just a few seconds, as they
use all their muscles to propel their
bodies through the take-off, ight
(twists and turns) and entry of the
dive. Because they are doing such high-
intensity activity for just a short period,
divers would use the alactacid system.
The alactacid system uses the PC in
muscles to resynthesise ADP and P.
Energy systems for

continuous work: joggers
When a jogger starts running, the
cardiorespiratory system has not yet
Figure 4.12 Divers would use the alactacid system to had the few minutes it needs to increase
produce brief, intense bursts of energy. the supply of oxygen to the working

muscles. The immediate supply of
oxygen is, therefore, insufcient for
energy production to occur aerobically.
Joggers often feel sluggish for
the rst few minutes of running. This
sluggishness is followed by a sudden
feeling of ease, which usually signies
the takeover of the aerobic system. The
aerobic system will remain the dominant
system at work unless the joggers have
to increase their effort. For example,
when joggers begin to run up a hill, the
muscles need more energy to work
harder. Energy will be produced from
ATP using the anaerobic energy systems
until oxygen levels can be increased
sufciently to once again produce energy
aerobically.
Athletes should be able to pace
themselves to ensure that energy
supplies are not depleted too early.
In a race, athletes who go out too
hard or begin the nal sprint too soon
will accumulate high levels of lactic
acid, become tired and decrease their
4013 P1/4
performance.
Table 4.2 shows the relative
contributions of aerobic and anaerobic
Figure 4.13 Soccer players use the aerobic system for energy systems to the various running
continuous energy and anaerobic systems for quick bursts of distances held in major athletic
extra speed. competitions.
Energy systems working together: soccer mid-fielders

During most physical activities, the body uses a combination of all three energy systems, depending on the
duration and intensity of the activity.
For example, soccer mid-elders use the aerobic system to provide the energy required to keep moving
back and forth on the eldusually at moderate levels of intensity.
Occasionally, they may need to sprint down the wing to assist in attack or defence. These short sprints
usually last 310 seconds and are fueled by the alactacid system. Because the bodys stores of PC are quickly
replenished within 2 minutes, soccer players are able to sprint many times with rests in between.
It is only during a series of continued sprints, without any rest, that a mid-elders lactic acid levels would
accumulate to the point of fatigue.
Click for further case studies on how energy systemscontribute to individual sports.

APPLY AND EVALUATE
Consider the energy systems contributing to the physical activity you are currently
participating in.
1 Describe the contributing energy systems.
2 Justify how and in what order energy is provided for the duration of the activity.
Table 4.2Relative contributions of the energy systems to running events

Duration of event Anaerobic Aerobic Event (run)
10 seconds 90% 10% 100 m
30 seconds 80% 20% 200 m ATPPC/LA
60 seconds 70% 30% 400 m
2 minutes 50% 50% 800 m
ATPPC/LA/aerobic
4 minutes 35% 65% 1500 m
10 minutes 15% 85% 5000 m
30 minutes 5% 95% 10 000 m
Aerobic
60 minutes 2% 98%
120 minutes 1% 99% Marathon
Source: Adapted from ML Foss and SJ Keteyian, Foxs Physiological Basis for Exercise and Sport, 6th edn,
WCB/McGraw-Hill, Boston, 1998 and SK Powers and ET Howley, Exercise Physiology: Theory and
Application to Fitness and Performance, 3rd edn, Brown and Benchmark, Madison, 1997
Table 4.3Various sports and their predominant energy systems

Relative contribution of each energy system (%)
Sport or activity ATPPC and anaerobic Anaerobic glycolysis and Aerobic
glycolysis aerobic
1 Aerobic dance 5 1520 7580
2 Baseball 80 15 5
3 Basketball 60 20 20
4 Hockey 50 20 20
5 Football 90 10 Negligible
6 Golf 95 5 Negligible
7 Gymnastics 80 15 5
8 Rowing 20 30 30
9 Skiing
a Slalom, jumping 80 15 5
b Downhill 50 30 20
c Cross-country 5 10 85
10 Soccer
a Goalie, wing, strikers 60 30 10
b Halfbacks or sweeper 60 20 20
11 Swimming and diving
a Diving 98 2 Negligible
b 100-m swim 80 15 5
c 400-m swim 20 40 40
d 1500-m swim 10 20 70
12 Tennis 70 20 10
13 Walking Negligible 5 95

for Exercise and Sport, 6th edn, WCB/McGraw-Hill, Boston, 1998

ACQUIRE
1 For each of the three energy systems, identify the:
a process
b by-products of energy production
c rate of recovery.
2 Explain which energy system is the most efficient at producing ATP.
APPLY
1 Predict and justify, using Table 4.3 and Figure 4.10, the predominant energy systems for the
following activities: 200-metre swimming, snowboarding, rugby league and lawn bowls.
2 Describe the use of the energy systems in a 1500-metre running event.
Oxygen and the aerobic system

We now understand that the aerobic system requires oxygen to create energy; however, many factors dictate
just how much oxygen is available to an individual during exercise.
How the body obtains and uses oxygen

Breathing, or pulmonary ventilation, moves oxygen from the atmosphere to the lungs. Once oxygen
has been inhaled, it travels through the respiratory systemdown the trachea, through the main left and
right bronchi that lead into the lungs and into the bronchioles, where it nally accumulates in tiny sac-like
structures called the alveoli.
Each alveolus can be likened to a very thin balloon, which is surrounded by tiny blood vessels (capillaries).
Inhaled oxygen passes through the alveoli walls and into the surrounding capillaries using a process known
as diffusion. In the capillaries, oxygen attaches itself to the haemoglobin in red blood cells to become
oxyhaemoglobin. This oxygen-rich blood is then transported from the lungs to the heart along the
pulmonary veins. From the heart, it is pumped out to the working muscles.
When we breathe out, or exhale, carbon dioxide is removed from the body along the same path but in
reverse. Carbon dioxide, a waste product of the aerobic energy system, is transported in the blood back to
the heart from the working muscles. The heart then pumps this blood to the lungs, from which the carbon
dioxide is eventually exhaled.
Highly trained endurance athletes have good respiratory and cardiovascular systems. Their ability to
transport oxygen to the muscles depends on a combination of the following cardiorespiratory factors:
Respiratory factors
the volume of gas inhaled or exhaled in one breath
the diameter of the airways (people with chronic lung disease, such as asthma, have restricted airways)
total lung capacity, which is the total amount of air in the lungs after maximal inhalation
respiratory rate, or the number of breaths per minute
Cardiovascular factors
the volume of blood pumped from the heart with each beat
the number of heartbeats per minute (heart rate)
the cardiac output, or volume of blood pumped to the working muscles per minute (which is a
combination of stroke volume and heart rate)

Strong, healthy hearts and lungs are essential. In addition, well-trained athletes will have a high oxidative
capacity. The phrase oxidative capacity refers to the muscles ability to obtain and use oxygen. A factor in
athletes ability to produce energy using oxygen and the aerobic system is the health and functioning of
their mitochondria, which is where ATP is produced in the muscles. Muscle cells have more mitochondria
than other types of cells in the body, which means that athletes with a high proportion of muscles will be
better able to produce energy from ATP aerobically. This is one reason why training to build up muscle helps
athletes.
4020 L 1/3 AT
Efcient aerobic
system
Mitochondria-rich
Efcient cardiovascular muscles
system
Figure 4.14 A high proportion of muscle cells, which are rich in mitochondria, allows athletes to produce
more ATP aerobically.
Capillary network on
Pharynx
surface of alveolus Pulmonary 4016 A/B
capillaries
Trachea Larynx L 1/2
Primary
bronchus
Lung
Bronchioles
Alveolus
Figure 4.15 Gases transfer between the lungs and the bloodstream through capillaries surrounding the
alveoli.

4019 P 1/4
The circulatory system

1 Oxygen-poor (deoxygenated) blood from
the body collects in the right atrium, which Deoxy
x genated
(oxy
x gen-poor
contracts, filling up the right ventricle. blood) 3
2 The right ventricle contracts and pushes blood Oxyg

x enated
(oxy
x gen-rich
to the lungs. blood) Lungs
3 In the lungs, blood loses carbon dioxide and
picks up oxygen.
7 4
1
4 Oxygen-rich (oxygenated) blood returns to the
5
left atrium, which contracts, filling up the left 2
ventricle.
5 A powerful contraction of the left ventricle Liver
expels oxygen-rich blood into the aorta, 6
from which artery branches distribute blood
throughout the body. Sto
omach (ggut)
6 In the muscles and body organs, blood releases

oxygen and nutrients, and absorbs food and Kid
Kidne
dne
n ys
water from the intestines. The liver processes
nutrients and, together with the kidneys,
purifies the blood.
7 Oxygen-poor blood returns to the heart
Figure 4.16 Blood travels through the body
through the veins. Another cycle begins. delivering oxygen and removing carbon dioxide.
Right and left

Right atrium
pulmonary arteries
ACQUIRE
1 Using Figure 4.16, explain to the
Aorta
person sitting next to you how oxygen is
delivered to the muscles.
Left
atrium
2 Outline why exhaled air contains more
carbon dioxide than inhaled air does.
Steady state
At the beginning of any form of exercise or when
the intensity of exercise increases, the working
muscles are placed under an immediate increase
Right in stress and require a rapid increase in ATP. As
ventricle anaerobic forms of energy will only keep an athlete
going for a few seconds or minutes, the muscles
Left ventricle require a rapid increase in oxygen. To meet these
needs, the cardiorespiratory system begins to work
harder.
Figure 4.17 The heart delivers oxygenated blood
tothe working muscles.

If an athlete works at a constant intensity, such as during long continuous exercise, the oxygen supply
will eventually meet the muscles demand for oxygen. A steady state is when the oxygen supply meets the
bodys demands.
VO2 max
An individuals highest possible oxygen consumption during exercise is known as the volume of maximum
oxygen (VO2 max). It is measured by determining the maximum amount (in millilitres) of oxygen that can
be used in one minute per kilogram of body weight. This measurement is used as it helps to determine an
athletes ability to use oxygen to produce energy.
Universities and research centres such as the Australian Institute of Sport have specialised laboratory
equipment for exact VO2 max measurement. These usually require athletes to exercise, often on a treadmill,
to increase their heart rate and respiration, while their oxygen use is measured. When such equipment is
unavailable, VO2 max prediction tests are used as a guide to determine tness.
Click for more information about VO2 max prediction tests.
The bodys ability to deliver and use oxygen is the main factor determining VO2 max. The
cardiorespiratory systems ability to deliver oxygen is believed to be the most important factor; even the
best-trained muscle cannot use oxygen that is not delivered. However, if oxygen-rich blood is delivered to
poorly trained muscles, VO2 max will be lower.
Other factors determining an individuals VO2 max include:
Genes
Athletes genes, which establish the physical attributes they inherit from their parents, play a signicant
role in determining their VO2 max level. Although genetic inheritance is important, effective training can
still help athletes to improve their VO2 max.
Age
Athletes age affects their VO2 max. For most people, VO2 max decreases from the age of about 20 years.
Gender
Men and women have signicant physical differences in body size, muscle size and blood volume. These
differences explain why a mans VO2 max is on average 20 per cent higher than a womans.
4022 TS L1/4
Oxygen consumption
VO2 max
Exercise intensity
Figure 4.18 Athletes VO2 max is their highest possible oxygen consumption during exercise.

4023 P 1/4
Table 4.4VO2 max comparisons by sport and

by gender
VO2 max
Men Women
Basketball 4060 4360
Cycling 6274 4757
Gymnastics 5258 3550
Rowing 6072 5865
Soccer 5464 5060
Swimming 5070 4060
Track and field running 6085 5075
Source: Brian Mackenzie, UK Athletics Level 4

Performance Coach; www.pponline.co.uk
ACQUIRE
1 Define VO2 max.
2 Outline the role it plays in sports
performance.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

Study Table 4.4.
1 Explain why for each activity, the VO2 max
for females is considerably less than that
of males.
2 Suggest reasons why the VO2 max of a
Figure 4.19 Universities and research centres
rower is greater than that of a basketball have specialised equipment for exact VO2 max
player. measurement.
Anaerobic and aerobic training thresholds

Training thresholds offer an explanation for the complex physiological changes that occur in the body in
producing or maximising the training effect. Training thresholds are usually explained using the maximum
heart rate in relation to the volume of oxygen uptake (VO2).
During exercise, the following three factors increase in proportion to the intensity of exercise.
heart ratethe rate at which the heart beats is usually measured in beats per minute (BPM)
ventilationthe amount of air breathed in one minute
blood lactatethe by-product of the lactic acid system.
It was thought that when athletes exercise at a steady state, or with slightly increasing intensity, most
of the ATP produced came from aerobic sources. However, scientists found that as exercise increases,
the amount of lactic acid in the blood evenly increases. This appears to be related to maximum oxygen
consumption (VO2 max), which is the greatest volume of oxygen used by the cells of the body in a given time.

This increase in lactic acid occurs in untrained 4036 S
Strenuous
athletes at around 5060 per cent of VO2 max, and 1/4 AT
exercise
in trained athletes at about 6085 per cent of VO2
Blood lactate concentration

max. The sudden rise in lactic acid represents an
increasing reliance on the anaerobic energy system. Moderate
Figure 4.20 shows the point at which this occurs for exercise
trained and untrained athletes.
The anaerobic threshold can be dened as that
workload intensity (or level of oxygen consumption) Light
exercise
at which anaerobic metabolism is increased; that is,
when lactic acid starts to accumulate in the blood Untrained Trained
and muscles. The threshold is the maximum speed
or effort that an athlete can maintain and have no 25 50 75 100
V02 max
increase in lactic acid. Activity over this limit can
cause a deterioration in performance. Figure 4.20 Lactate concentration changes
with increasing exercise for trained and untrained
Anaerobic thresholds are often studied and athletes.
discussed in exercise physiology. There is argument
over the accuracy of the name. Many suggest that
100
lactate threshold (LT) or onset of blood lactate Anaerobic 4037 S 1/4 AS
accumulation (OBLA) is a more precise term training
90 zone
because anaerobic energy is produced even at rest,
Maximum heart rate (%)
Aerobic
meaning that lactic acid is formed and removed 80 training
zone
continuously. The basic argument against the term Anaerobic
training
anaerobic threshold is that there is uncertainty 70
threshold
as to whether the rise in blood lactic acid is due to
lack of oxygen in the muscles or is a result of other 60
causes. These other causes have been measured and Aerobic
50 training
are valid for describing the inection point.
threshold
They include:
accelerated glycolysis (that is, the conversion
of glucose and glycogen to pyruvic acid in the 50 60 70 80 90 100
lactic acid system) V02 max (%)
increased use of fast-twitch muscle bres Figure 4.21 Aerobic and anaerobic training
(more fast-twitch activity leads to more lactic thresholds indicate the maximum effect possible
without an increase in lactic acid.
acid production)
reduced rate of lactic acid removal (that is, lactic acid is produced and removed from the body, but when
production exceeds the rate of disappearance, lactic acid accumulates in the blood).
It is possible that any one of the above, or a combination of factors (including lack of oxygen), might
explain the LT or OBLA.
It is useful for athletes and coaches to know the inection point at which LT/OBLA occurs. This
information can help to place athletes in specic endurance events. It is a better indicator of aerobic
endurance performance than VO2 max is, and it can determine training intensities for optimal improvements
in aerobic endurance. The major limitations of using LT to improve performance are:
It is difcult to measure.

It requires blood tests and takes a long time.
There is no real proven benet in training at this level.
Athletes differ in their rates of reaching LT.
The aerobic training threshold is the intensity at which an athlete needs to work to produce an aerobic
training effect or a physiological improvement in performance; that is, an improvement in the bodys ability
to use oxygen during exercise. This occurs at about 70 per cent of the persons maximum heart rate, or at
approximately 5060 per cent of that persons VO2 max. As exercise intensity increases, so do heart rate,
ventilation and blood lactate. In fact, aerobic threshold can be dened as the training rate at which the
baseline lactic acid level starts to rise. At this level of exercise, the person can still conduct a conversation
comfortably. To obtain an aerobic training effect, an individual should exercise in the aerobic training zone;
that is, between the aerobic and lactate thresholds as shown in Figure 4.21.
Calculating your ideal heart rate for training
Calculating your heart rate is essential as it can tell you if you are getting the most out of your exercise. By
determining the percentage of your maximum heart rate that you are working at, you can pinpoint whether
you are in the correct training zone.
Equipment 4039 in box P 1/4

S
stopwatch
Procedure
1 Find your carotid pulse. Your carotid artery is located on your neck, just under your jaw line.
2 Count your pulse for 15 seconds. It easiest if you have a stopwatch to record the time while you
count. Otherwise, it is a good idea to work with a friend.
3 Multiply your result by four. You have now calculated your beats per minute (BPM).
4 Calculate your estimated maximum
heart rate (MHR). The general rule
is that your MHR is 220 minus your
age. Therefore, a 17-year-old would
have an estimated MHR of
220 17 203 BPM.
5 Calculate your current BPM as a
percentage of your MHR using the
formula
BPM
100 %
MHR
For example, for a 17-year-old
working at 140 BPM, the percentage
would be:
140
100 68.9%
203
At 68% of MHR, this athlete would
be working within the aerobic
Figure 4.22 Your carotid artery is located on your neck, just
training zone. under your jaw.

4044
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Explain how an athlete with a lower VO2
max than another athlete may produce a
better aerobic endurance performance in
the same event.
2 With reference to Figure 4.21 and your
understanding of calculating ideal
training heart rates, explain why a coach
of a 17-year-old touch player would ask
him to ensure that his heart rate remain
between 170and 180beats per minute
during a training session.
Fatigue and recovery

Fatigue
Fatigue is one of many factors affecting
performance. The causes of fatigue vary and are
usually activity-specic. For example, a 400-metre
runner will experience fatigue differently from a
marathon runner; however, both will feel unable
to continue either at their current pace or with
increased exertion.
Generally three areas of the body can account
for the physical fatigue: the central and peripheral
nervous systems, muscle bres and energy systems.
Fatigue can also be caused by psychological and
Figure 4.23 Athletes performance can be affected
by fatigue. environmental factors.
Central and peripheral nervous systems

How is it that sometimes, when they are totally exhausted and it seems that the last of athletes energy has
gone, they are able to make one last push of strength? For example, marathon runners sometimes manage a
sprint when entering the stadium before a cheering crowd.
Fatigue is a biological protective mechanism operated by nerves in the central and peripheral systems.
Under certain conditions of fatigue, the nervous system tells the athletes brain that the body is exhausted,
while the muscles still have small reserves of energyin case of emergency or danger. Fatigue prevents
people pushing themselves too far and damaging their bodies; it signals that the body needs time to rest
and recover. While the marathon runner may still be able to produce some bouts of intense effort after
the feeling kicks in, if they continued too far past the bodys exhaustion warning system, they could cause
themselves harm.
Muscle fibres
Fatigue can occur when the muscle lacks oxygen due to insufcient blood ow or when it is unable to
contract. For example, an injury could result in early fatigue.

4031 P 1/4
In short, intense activities, the accumulation of

lactic acid in the muscles and blood is often blamed
for the onset of muscle fatigue. However, the lactic
acid does not directly cause the fatigue. Rather,
the fatigue is caused by a change in pH (a measure
of overall acidity), which is brought about by the
breakdown of lactic acid. The change in pH (in this
case, a decrease) affects cell functions and causes
sensations of pain.
Energy systems
Each of the energy systems has its own process of
fatigue.
In the alactacid system, fatigue occurs as the
bodys store of ATP and PC is depleted.
In the lactic acid system, the burning sensation
caused by a build-up of lactic acid can cause
fatigue.
In the aerobic system, fatigue can occur when
the body uses up its supply of fuel derived from
carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
Recovery
Recovery processes are designed to restore the
body to its pre-exercise state. The time taken to
fully recover will depend on the type, intensity and
duration of the activity, recovery techniques and the
athletes accumulated oxygen decit. There are two
types of recovery: rest and active.
Rest recovery
Rest recovery is a period of no movement. Rest
recovery is sometimes employed during sessions
where an athlete has to complete many high-
Figure 4.24 Active recovery helps athletes to
recover after strenuous exercise. intesity repetitions of short duration.
Active recovery
In general, after an all-out exhaustive effort, an active recovery is recommended to restore ATPPC stores
and to remove lactic acid. Active recovery is more benecial than rest recovery in most cases because of its
ability to quickly reduce muscle lactate levels. So, what is an active recovery?
Active recovery includes performing light tasks, such as slow running, walking, stretching and minor
games. Consuming complex carbohydrates after activity also helps to replenish muscle and liver glycogen
stores.
Even athletes who do not exercise to exhaustion should still use active recovery techniques and replenish
food and uids.

Table 4.5Recovery times for various physiological functions
Function With active recovery With rest only
Restoration of ATPPC 2 minutes 5 minutes
Increase in oxygen consumption 3 minutes 6 minutes
Replenishment of muscle glycogen 10 hours (continuous exercise) 46 hours
Replenishment of liver glycogen 5 hours 24 hours
Reduction of lactic acid in muscles 3060 minutes 12 hours

andblood
Restoration of oxygen stores 1015 seconds 1 minute

for Exercise and Sport, 6th edn, WCB/McGraw-Hill, Boston,1998
Table 4.6Fuel depletion and recovery
Predominant energy system Likely causes of fatigue Types of recovery
ATPPC Fuel depletion Rest recovery

ATP and PC
Lactic acid Accumulation of metabolic Non-dietary

by-products Active recovery
H (hydrogen ions) Massage
Pi (inorganic phosphates) Water-based therapies, e.g.
NB: Lactic acid is no longer contrasting via hot/cold baths
thought to contribute to fatigue. In
fact, it is being regarded more as
a positive performance enhancer
rather than a negative.
Aerobic Fuel depletion Dietary

Glycogen stores, then fats High GI foods
Elevated body temperature Rehydration via sports drinks:
leading to : Hypertonic to replace
dehydration glycogen
blood flow away from Hypotonic to replace lost
muscles fluids
Non-dietary
Active recovery
Massage
Water-based therapies, e.g.
contrasting via hot/cold baths
Source: R Malpeli and A Telford, A+ Phys Ed Notes: VCE Physical

Education Units 3 & 4, Nelson Australia, South Melbourne, 2008
Oxygen deficit
Have you noticed that at the end of a run you seem to be breathing in more air than you were during
the actual run? Does your breathing return to its normal resting levels straight away? Most people have
experienced this shortness of breath. With knowledge of energy systems, these physiological changes can be
explained.

<start new page>
At the start of physical activity, the alactacid and lactic acid (anaerobic) energy systems supply the
body with energy; however, this comes at a cost. The lactic acid energy system accumulates lactic acid that
has to be broken down. Both systems break down ATP to produce energy. Breaking down lactic acid and
resynthesising depleted PCboth consequences of the anaerobic systemrequire oxygen. So, even though
anaerobic energy systems do not need oxygen to produce energy, the body does need extra oxygen during
recovery.
We know from experience that our bodily functions do not return to normal immediately after exercise.
Heart rate, body temperature and breathing all remain elevated after exercise. This is especially true after
very intense exercise, when the body requires quite a while to return to resting levels.
The elevated physiological effects of exercise that continue after exercise has stoppedsuch as rapid
heart rate and heavy breathingallow the body temperature to return to normal, assist in removing lactic
acid, and help replenish ATPPC and glycogen stores. Importantly, the rapid heart rate and heavy breathing
deliver more oxygen to the body.
The difference between the amount of oxygen the body uses when truly at rest and the amount of
oxygen used when exercise has just stopped is called the oxygen decit. Oxygen decit is also referred to as
oxygen debt, recovery oxygen and excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC).
4025 L 1/3
Have you ever been short of breath after exercise? What did it feel like? At what level of intensity were you
AF
working?
V02
Rest Exercise Recovery
02 deficit Alactacid/fast
3 component
2
EPOC
Lactacid/slow
component
1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time (minutes)
Figure 4.25 Oxygen deficit, or EPOC, is the difference between the amount of oxygen the body uses when at
rest and just afterexercise.
Source: B Davis et al., Physical Education and the Study of Sport, Mosby, Edinburgh, 2005
ACQUIRE
1 Explain the difference between rest recovery and active recovery.
2 Describe oxygen deficit in your own words.
3 If anaerobic energy production does not require oxygen, what is the function of heavy
breathing immediately after anaerobic exercise?

Training effects
Any time a person places their body under any stress beyond that of a normal resting level, such as
during physical activity, the body must physically adapt to meet the increased demands. When an
athlete does systematic tness training, they intentionally increase the demands over time to promote
long-term physiological changes. These changes are known as training effects. Training effects are the
adaptations made by the body during physical activity, and they can be divided into two categories:
immediate physiological responses and long-term physiological effects.
Immediate physiological responses to training

When people exercise, many physiological changes occur within their bodies. These range from a need
for more oxygen in working muscles to an increase in body temperature.
During training, immediate physiological responses can be observed and measured in each of the
following:
heart rateas exercise intensity increases, so too does the rate at which the heart beats. Heart rate is
measured in beats per minute
ventilation rateat the beginning of exercise, there is an immediate increase in ventilationboth
inspiration (breathing in) and expiration (breathing out)followed by a continuing gradual rise in the
depth and rate of breathing
stroke volumethe amount of blood ejected with each contraction of the heart increases
cardiac outputthe volume of blood that is pumped out of the heart per minute increases during
exercise, forcing more blood out of the heart. Cardiac output is a combined measure of heart rate and
stroke volume
muscular responsesthe muscles contract, and different types of muscle bres are recruited
depending on the type and intensity of exercise. ATPPC stores are depleted. The working muscles
become warm due to increased blood ow
lactate levelslactic acid consists of a solution of lactate ions and hydrogen ions in water. With
intensifying aerobic exercise, the level of hydrogen and lactate ions in the blood increases. This later
evens out as lactate is removed as fast as it is made.
Cardiac output and ventilation increase to ensure that working tissues are supplied with the oxygen
and nutrients they need and wastes are removed. To assist in these processes, the body directs blood
away from non-working areas to working areas.
Long-term physiological effects of training

When people undertake any type of training, their main aim is to change or adapt some aspect of their
body so that their performance improves. Whether they are undertaking strength training, aerobic
training or anaerobic training, or attempting to increase their exibility, the process of training leads to
changes in the body. These changes can inuence future performance.
Many of the changes occur to the cardiorespiratory system, and these lead to an improved ability
to deliver oxygen to working muscles, more efcient energy production and a greater ability to
remove waste products. Other changes relate to the size and use of the muscle bres that produce the
movement required for physical activity.
This section will look at the bodys adaptations following specic types of training and how these
adaptations can lead to improved performance.

4026 P 1/4
Before we begin to examine these changes, a

few terms need to be explained: rest, sub-maximal
exercise and maximal exercise.
Rest is a state where no extra demands are
placed on the body. Energy is required only
to maintain normal bodily functions, such
as breathing, heartbeat and digestion. This
minimum rate of energy consumption is known
as the basal metabolic rate.
Sub-maximal exercise is exercise performed
at a level that leaves the heart rate in a plateau
(a consistent rate for an extended period of
time) below its maximum number of beats per
minute. Generally, this level of exercise can
be maintained for more than 20 minutes at a
time. Jogging, lap swimming and road cycling
are all examples of sub-maximal exercise.
Tests such as the Queens College step test
are also undertaken at a sub-maximal level so
that improvements in tness can be reliably
measured.
Maximal exercise is activity that leads to a
heart rate that approaches its maximum level.
The maximum heart rate is usually calculated
as being 220 beats per minute minus the
Figure 4.26 Jogging is a type of sub-maximal persons age; a typical eighteen-year-old would,
exercise.
therefore, have a maximum heart rate of
202 beats per minute. Sprinting (running less
4027 L 1/4 than 400 metres) and 100-metre swimming are
examples of maximal exercise.
Resting heart rate

When the body is at rest, the heart will beat
enough times per minute to deliver oxygen via the
bloodstream to all the cells of the body. The bodys
minimum requirement for oxygen is reected in the
resting heart rate and is determined by the basal
metabolic rate.
When athletes undertake an aerobic training
program, their hearts will undergo signicant
changes. Training can lead to a reduction in the
number of beats per minute required to meet the
needs of the body at rest. In other words, the resting
heart rate will fall as the body adapts to the training
program. The heart rate will also be lower when
Figure 4.27 Sprinting is an example of maximal
undertaking sub-maximal exercise.
exercise.

The main reason for the fall in the resting heart rate is the increase in stroke volume. This increase allows
more blood to be pumped out for every beat the heart makes. Therefore, to deliver the same amount of
oxygen to the body, fewer beats will be made. For example, a person who has a resting heart rate of 72 beats
per minute before a training program and a stroke volume of 70 millilitres per beat will have a cardiac output
of 5.04 litres per minute. This amount of blood represents the persons basal metabolic rate. Following an
aerobic training program, the individuals stroke volume may rise to 80 millilitres per beat. This would lead to
a resting heart rate of 63 beats per minute, which is a fall of nine beats per minute (even though the persons
cardiac output remains at 5.04 litres per minute).
Resting heart rate and heart rate during sub-maximal work both fall as a result of aerobic training.
However, heart rate during maximal exercise will be the same for both trained and untrained people. The
difference is that the trained person is capable of doing a lot more work at a maximal level than an untrained
person is.
Stroke volume and cardiac output

The total amount of blood to leave the heart has a direct effect on an individuals performance. The stroke
volume of the heart and its cardiac output will determine the amount of blood being circulated and how
much oxygen will reach working muscles.
Stroke volume
Stroke volume is the amount of blood that leaves the left ventricle each time the heart beats. The ability
of the heart to push oxygen-rich blood into the arteries and towards working muscles is the biggest factor
affecting aerobic-based performance. The more blood that the heart can push out, the more work individuals
will be able to do; they will be able to exercise longer and faster.
Stroke volume is determined by a number of factors associated with the heart, including the:
size of the ventricles
thickness of the ventricle walls
ow of blood through the veins back to the heart
volume of blood in the body.
Aerobic training has a positive effect on stroke volume and, therefore, on an individuals potential to
perform aerobically. Training causes the physical size of the heart and ventricles to increase. Additionally,
the walls of the ventricles will become thicker and stronger. These two factors allow more blood to enter the
heart as it is now bigger, and the stronger walls allow much more of the blood to be ejected each time a beat
occurs.
When combined with an increase in blood volume, lower blood pressure and an improved ability to move
blood through the veins back to the heart, a rise of 25 per cent in stroke volume can be achieved through
aerobic training. That is, if stroke volume was 70 millilitres per beat before aerobic training program, it could
be increased to 87.5 millilitres after. This increased stroke volume leads to higher cardiac output, more blood
(and therefore more oxygen) going to working muscles, and improved performance in endurance events.
The effects of training on stroke volume are then evident regardless of whether exercise is being
undertaken. Stroke volume increases at rest too, which causes the resting heart rate to fall while cardiac
output remains steady. During sub-maximal exercise, stroke volume will have increased, resulting in a lower
heart rate (again, cardiac output will remain steady). During maximal exercise, the increased stroke volume
will lead to a large increase in cardiac output and improved performance.

Cardiac output
Cardiac output is the amount of blood leaving the heart each minute. Cardiac output reects the ability of
the heart to deliver oxygen-rich blood to working muscles. This oxygen enables the aerobic energy system to
produce ATP to provide the energy needed for movement.
Cardiac output (Q) is a product of the heart rate (HR) and stroke volume (SV). In fact, this direct link can
be expressed as an equation:
Q HR SV
As already discussed, undertaking an aerobic training program does not change cardiac output during rest
and sub-maximal work. This is because the energy demands are unchanged and the same amount of blood
(oxygen) is required. The biggest change occurs during maximal exercise. As the maximum heart rate will be
the same for a trained or untrained individual (that is, 220 beats per minute, minus age), the greater stroke
volume will lead to an increase in the cardiac output.
Table 4.7 shows us how a trained individual is able to deliver more blood to the working muscles:
17.8 litres per minute after training compared with 14.2 litres per minute before. This change is what has
improved the individuals potential following a training program.
Stroke volume Cardiac output

110 22 4028 L 1/8 AT
90 19
Millilitres per beat
Litres per minute
70 Significant increase 16 Significant increase

Figure 4.28
50 13 Aerobic training
changes stroke
volume and
30 10 cardiac output
Before After Before After during maximal
Training Training exercise.
ACQUIRE
Referring to Table 4.7.
1 Explain why the trained persons heart rate is lower than that of the untrained person.
2 Why is the trained persons volume of blood at maximal work greater than that of the
untrained person?
Table 4.7An example of the difference in cardiac output for trained and untrained 17-year-olds
Heart rate Stroke volume Volume of blood

(beats per minute) (mL/beat) (L/min)
Exercise level Untrained Trained Untrained Trained Untrained Trained

Rest 72 57.6 70 87.5 5.04 5.04
Sub-maximal 152 121.5 70 87.5 10.6 10.6
Maximal 203 203 70 87.5 14.2 17.8

4045
markup: right
image?
Oxygen uptake and lung capacity
jogging?
The ability of the body to move oxygen into the
bloodstream and remove carbon dioxide from
it is not determined only by the heart and its
functioning. The size of the lungs and the ability
of the blood to absorb and carry the oxygen to
the working muscles are also important aspects of
performance.
Oxygen uptake
Oxygen uptake is the amount of oxygen absorbed
into the bloodstream during exercise. If more
oxygen reaches working muscles, they will be able
to work for longer at a higher level. Improving this
capacity is one of the goals of aerobic training.
Oxygen uptake is measured in litres per minute.
Over many years, exercise physiologists (those
who study the effects of exercise on the body)
have determined how much oxygen is required to
perform various activities. By using standard tests,
you can work out your maximum oxygen uptake.
As explained on page 138, an individuals highest
possible oxygen consumption during exercise is
known as the volume of maximum oxygen (VO2
max). The higher your VO2 max, the better your
aerobic system is functioning.
Figure 4.29 Jogging is a type of sub-maximal
Before training an individual may have a VO2
exercise.
max of 2.5 litres per minute. After training this
gure may rise to 3.2 litres per minute. Once again, the rise in the ability to deliver oxygen to the working
muscles causes the improvement in performance after training.
Oxygen uptake improves following a training program for a number of reasons. These include the factors
already discussed (such as improved stroke volume and cardiac output) as well as greater lung capacity and
higher haemoglobin levels within the blood. All these capacities, when combined, allow the increased ow of
oxygen-rich blood to working muscles.
Lung capacity
Lung capacity is the amount of air that can move in and out of the lungs during a breath. Many measures
can be made of lung function, including tidal volume and vital capacity. The basic principle that needs to be
understood is that when more air can be inhaled and exhaled during exercise, more oxygen can be absorbed
into the bloodstream. More oxygen leads to improved performance during aerobic work.
A number of adaptations associated with lung function occur as a result of aerobic training. Three of these
are described below.
1 The number of breaths that can be taken during maximal exercise can be increased. As the muscles
around the lungs become larger and stronger, they can work faster. Maximal breathing rates can increase
from 40 to 50 breaths per second as tness develops.

2 The size of the lungs increases slightly, which allows for a greater volume of oxygen to be inhaled and for
more carbon dioxide to be exhaled with each breath. As the muscles are stronger, more of the air inside
the lungs can be exhaled with each breath, leading to a greater turnover of air.
3 The number of capillaries in the lungs will increase with training, allowing more oxygen to be absorbed
with each breath taken in. In fact, with training, the volume of blood held within the capillaries of the
lungs can rise by up to 80 per cent.
The combined result of these effects of training is that the total amount of air breathed during exercise
can increase. The increase in lung size and the ability to breathe faster and more fully, allows pulmonary
ventilation (the total volume of air moving through the lungs) to increase by up to 15 litres per minute. More
oxygen is available to provide energy.
Table 4.8Predicting VO2 max from recovery heart rate
Percentile Recovery HR, Predicted VO2 Recovery HR, Predicted VO2

ranking female max (mL/kg male max (mL/kg
min) min)
100 128 42.2 120 60.9
95 140 40.0 124 59.3
90 148 38.5 128 57.6
85 152 37.7 136 54.2
80 156 37.0 140 52.5
75 158 36.6 144 50.9
70 160 36.3 148 49.2
65 162 35.9 149 48.8
60 163 35.7 152 47.5
55 164 35.5 154 46.7
50 166 35.1 156 45.8
45 168 34.8 160 44.1
40 170 34.4 162 43.3
35 171 34.2 164 42.5
30 172 34.0 166 41.6
25 176 33.3 168 40.8
20 180 32.6 172 39.1
15 182 32.2 176 37.4
10 184 31.8 178 36.6
5 196 29.6 184 34.1
Source: FI Katch and WD McArdle, Nutrition, Weight Control and Exercise, 3rd edn, Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia,1988
Click for information on how to calculate your heart rate, or refer to page 141.

4046 4047
Haemoglobin level
Haemoglobin is a protein found within red blood cells. Its main
function is to absorb oxygen at the lungs and carry this oxygen
to the working muscles via the bloodstream. The make-up of
haemoglobin allows it to absorb oxygen quickly and efciently
transport it through the body. It also plays a less important role
in the removal of carbon dioxide from working muscles.
During training, cells within the body become short of
oxygen. One of the ways the body adapts to this is to produce
more red blood cells and haemoglobin to meet the oxygen
needs of the cells. While it is not a large increase, it does
improve individuals abilities to absorb and deliver oxygen to
working muscles and, therefore, their performance in aerobic
activities.
Many athletes try to boost their haemoglobin level
through altitude training. Places that are higher above sea
level have less oxygen in the air. As a result, people at high
altitude breathe in less oxygen with each breath. This causes
their bodies to produce more haemoglobin so that any oxygen
breathed can be absorbed. The same effect has been achieved
by some athletes by spending time in special chambers or tents
Figure 4.30 Haemoglobin is found in that limit the supply of oxygen.
red blood cells.
Figure 4.31 Training at high altitudes encourages the body to produce more haemoglobin.

4032 P1/4
Figure 4.32 Lifting heavy weights builds muscle mass (muscle hypertrophy); frequently lifting light weights
tones muscles.
Muscle hypertrophy
Hypertrophy simply means an increase in size, and muscle hypertrophy is the increase in the diameter of
a muscle: bulking up. This occurs as a result of strength or resistance training and, unlike the adaptations
discussed above, not as a result of aerobic training.
Muscle bres enlarge after training for a number of reasons,
including the production of more myobrils (the contractile
part of the muscle). The bres also enlarge due to the increased
stores of glycogen and the energy-supplying compounds of ATP
and phosphocreatine (PC).
Muscle hypertrophy will occur if an athlete lifts medium
to heavy weights during training, such as training for strength,
power or lean body mass. Lifting heavier weights will cause
the muscles to undergo a signicant amount of stress. This 4029 S 1/4
enlarges them so that the next time they work they are better
prepared for the task; that is, they have adapted. As with other
adaptations that occur as a result of training, hypertrophy takes
time to develop, and the reverse (muscle atrophy) will happen
when training ceases.
Muscle endurance training (frequently lifting light weights)
will assist in reducing the level of fat around the muscle. This
will lead to muscle denition but not muscle hypertrophy.
After a resistance training program, muscles are capable
of contracting with a greater force as more myobrils are
contributing to the contraction. This will improve performance
in strength-related and power-related sports, such as throwing Figure 4.33 Muscle hypertrophy is a
and sprinting. result of bodybuilding.

4030
Figure 4.34 Long jump requires the development of fast-twitch muscle fibres.
Fast-twitch and slow-twitch muscle fibres

Muscle bres can be classied into three groups:
red slow-twitch bres, which contain a large number of capillaries and produce a large amount of ATP
slowly
red fast-twitch bres, which contain some capillaries and can rapidly produce ATP but fatigue faster than
slow-twitch bres
white fast-twitch bres, which contain few capillaries and rapidly generate ATP anaerobically.
The amount of each type of bre in a muscle will depend on the muscles usual function and use. A long-
distance runner may have up to 75 per cent of muscles made up of slow-twitch muscle bres, while sprinters
may have up to 80 per cent fast-twitch muscle bre. Undertaking training that is specic to the requirements
of your sport will help to develop and adapt each type of the muscle bre.
Endurance activities, such as running, swimming and cycling, help to develop slow-twitch muscle bres.
These activities encourage capillaries to form inside the muscle cells, allowing a greater transfer of oxygen
into the muscles. Endurance activities can also result in some fast-twitch muscle bres adapting to use
oxygen to provide energy. This then leads to improvements in aerobic endurance and performance.
Sports that require power and muscle strengthfrom weightlifting to jumping and sprintingrequire the
development of fast-twitch muscle bres. These bres can be developed through the same sorts of training
that create muscular power: lifting medium to heavy weights quickly. For example, 100-metre sprinters will
train the fast-twitch muscle bres in their legs by doing power squats that nish with a jump off the ground.
This type of training will not only increase the capacity of the existing fast-twitch cells but will also cause
some of the red muscle bres to adopt the characteristics of white fast-twitch bres. By increasing white
fast-twitch bres, muscle contractions can be made more quickly and anaerobic sources of energy can be
used for longer.

04: SUMMARY
The source of energy for muscle contraction is NOW THAT YOU HAVE FINISHED ...
adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
1 Explain how ATP provides energy for muscle
Three energy systems are used to resynthesise contractions.
ATP:
2 Describe the relationship between the
the alactacid system (also called the ATPPC breakdown of nutrients and the intensity and
system) duration of exercise.
the lactic acid system 3 Identify the by-products of energy production for
the aerobic system. the lactic acid and aerobic energy systems.
Each energy system: 4 Distinguish the energy system contributions
provides energy at different rates for athletes in the following sports, events and
recovers at different rates positions:
creates a range of by-products a hockey mid-elder
can contribute to energy production for b pole vault

different periods of time c equestrian
is suited to different types of activity. d 200-metre freestyle.
A healthy cardiorespiratory systemheart and 5 Outline the factors affecting an individuals
lungsis essential for physical activity. oxygen consumption and delivery.
An individuals ability to take in and use oxygen, 6 Explain the concept of VO2 max.
which drives the aerobic energy system, can 7 a Outline the adaptations that can occur as a
improve with training. result of aerobic training.
The time needed to recover and replenish energy b Explain how these adaptations lead to an
stores depends on the type and duration of improvement in performance.
exercise. 8 Predict three physiological adaptations that
When people undertake any type of training, could occur from long-term strength training.
their main aim is to change or adapt some 9 Explain the difference between sub-maximal
aspect of their body so that their performance exercise and maximal exercise.
improves.
10 Elite athletes are born, not made. Using your
Training has immediate physiological effects on knowledge of muscle bres, justify your opinion
heart rate, ventilation rate, stroke rate, cardiac about this statement.
output, muscular responses and lactate levels.
Training has long-term physiological effects on:
resting heart rate
stroke volume and cardiac output
oxygen uptake and lung capacity
haemoglobin levels
muscle hypertrophy
fast-twitch and slow-twitch muscle bres.
04: Summary ///// 155

5001
159%
5
The
fundamentals
of fitness

Have you ever wondered what determines being classied as t? Do your ideas The components of
about tness differ from the ideas held by other members of your class? Is tness physical tness 157
a broad term, or are there categories that make up overall tness? How is tness Tests to measure
measured and monitored? Finally, what can an individual do to develop their level of physical tness 162
tness? Training methods 185
This chapter explores the different components of physical tness, specically Training principles 214
looking at the difference between the health-related components and skill-related
components of physical tness, and how they are measured. The chapter also
addresses training methods, analysing which types of training are most appropriate
for developing the components of physical tness, and how they should be used.
Finally, the chapter examines why training principles need to be correctly applied for
athletes to achieve the best possible tness.

<start new page>
The components of physical fitness

Fitness means many things to many people. Some believe that tness is an important and inherent aspect
of performing well in sport. Others maintain that tness simply means being able to perform daily tasks
without discomfort. The general denition of tness encompasses both these views. It sees tness as the
ability to carry out everyday tasks without undue fatigue and to cope with unforeseen situations (such as
running to catch the train or bus) and having enough energy to enjoy leisure pursuits, including sport at any
level.
Fitness is often equated with being healthy, but its meaning does not merely include physical wellbeing.
Many benetsto health, and to social and emotional wellbeingare associated with being t. But what
does it really mean to be t? Do you have to train like an Olympic athlete to be tter or healthier? How and
why is tness measured?
There are two main types of components of physical tness: health-related components and skill-
related components.
Health-related components of physical fitness

The health-related components of physical tness are all those aspects of tness that enable us to maintain
our health, perform daily tasks and jobs, perform well in sport and help protect us from sickness. They are
the physical factors that, if we neglect them, may cause us to
become unhealthy or perform poorly.
5068
The health-related components of physical tness are:
cardiorespiratory endurance
muscular strength
muscular endurance
exibility
body composition.
Skill-related components of physical

fitness
The skill-related components of physical tness are related to
the performance of an activity. They are the capabilities that
enable us to perform physical activities with greater skill: for
example, a swimmer with a fast reaction time or a gymnast
with explosive leg power. Elite athletes will have much higher
levels of skill-related physical tness than ordinary athletes.
The skill-related components of physical tness are:
power
speed
agility
coordination
balance Figure 5.1 Elite athletes will have
higher levels of skill-related physical
reaction time. fitness than ordinary athletes.
Chapter 5The fundamentals of fitness ///// 157

5002 L 1/3
Figure 5.2 Cardiorespiratory and muscular endurance are important in activities such as the Tour de
France, where the same muscle group is involved in repetitive movements over a long time.
ACQUIRE
1 Define the term fitness.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 a Based on your definition of fitness, rate your level of fitness on a scale from 1 to 10
(where10 is excellent).
b Explain the reasons for the rating you gave.
2 Describe the factors that influence your current level of fitness.
Improving overall performance

Developing both the health-related and skill-related components of physical tness will improve efciency of
movement and should, therefore, improve overall performance.
Having one component without the other will not be as effective as a combination of both. Consider
the example of a touch football player who has great aerobic endurance; the player can run hard all day but
cannot pass or catch a ball very well. This players overall performance would benet from developing the
skill-related components of physical tness.
Consideration must be given to a particular sports specic physical demands and skills before developing
tness for that sport.

5003 P 1/4
Measuring health-related and

skill-related components of physical
fitness
The measurement of physical tness usually involves the use of
laboratory or eld tests to measure individual components. No one
test will measure all health-related or skill-related components; often
a battery of tests is required for each. These results are then recorded
and evaluated, based on norms or the overall results of previous
participants. Most tness tests will have norms that enable results to
be compared.
The many reasons for measuring physical tness include to:
evaluate progress
make comparisons with others
develop accurate training programs
set realistic, achievable tness goals
identify baseline and follow-up tness levels
Figure 5.3 Balance and muscular endurance
assess individual strengths and weaknesses are essential components of surfing.
identify medical problems
motivate athletes to improve results.
It is important that you understand each component of tness, and 5004 p 1/4
can provide and explain at least one example of a test that measures
that component. Table 5.1 on page 160 denes each health-related and
skill-related component of physical tness and suggests some suitable
tests to measure each. The full description of at least one test for each
component follows the table. The tests listed are not exhaustive. You
may be aware of or have practised others.
When recorded periodically, tness tests can provide valuable data
about an individuals level of tness. They can also highlight where
improvements have been made or deterioration has occurred. As a
bare minimum, athletes usually participate in a series of pre-training
and post-training tests. That is, they record their results in some or all
of the tests before they start to train and they then repeat those same
tests at the very end of the program to see whether any changes have
occurred. In physical education, this process is normally referred to as
pre and post testing.
Table 5.2 on page 161 shows an example of an athletes recorded
pre-training and post-training test results.
Chapter 6 explores tness tests in further detail, by discussing their
importance and application in the development of training programs.
Consider your current level of fitness across the health- and skill-
related components of physical fitness. Does your fitness level help
Figure 5.4 Climbing requires the use of
or hinder you in the physical activity you are studying? agility and power.

Table 5.1The components of physical fitness
Component Definition Suitable test

Cardiorespiratory endurance The ability of the heart, lungs PWC170

and circulatory system to supply Multistage fitness test (beep
oxygen and nutrients efficiently test)
to working muscles and remove AstrandRhyming cycle
waste products. Usually found ergometer test
by measuring the maximum Coopers 12-minute run
rate of oxygen consumed during 2.4-km run or 1.6-km run
exercise, or VO2 max (maximum Step tests
oxygen uptake)
Muscular strength The greatest maximal force or One-repetition maximum test

tension that a muscle group can Dynamometers (back, leg and
exert against a resistance in one hand)
maximal contraction
Muscular endurance The ability to sustain or repeat a Push-up test

muscular effort for a relatively Sit-up test
long period of time Pull-up test
Flexed-arm hang test
Body composition The proportions of various body Body mass index

tissues (fat, muscle, bones, Skinfold tests
organs) and their influence on Waisthip ratio
body mass Girth measurements
Flexibility The range of movement that can Goniometers

be performed in and around a Sit-and-reach test
joint Shoulder rotation test
Ankle extension test
Leighton flexometer
Skill-related components of physical fitness
Speed The rate of change in position Sprint tests (2060m)

Power The product of strength and Standing long jump test
speed: the ability to move the Vertical jump test
body or an object quickly MargariaKalamen power test
Agility The ability to change the direction Burpee test

or position of the body (parts Figure 8 agility run
of the body or the whole body) Shuttle run test
rapidly and efficiently Illinois agility run
Balance When the body is in a stable One-foot balances

position or state of equilibrium. Stork stand balance test
May be static (the body is Static and dynamic balance
stationary) or dynamic (the body boards
is moving)
Coordination A smooth flow of movement Alternate ball toss

when performing a physical task, Hand wall toss
apparent when the nervous and Catch test
muscular systems work together
smoothly
Reaction time The time that it takes to respond Ruler reaction time test
to a stimulus Computer reaction time test

Table 5.2Personal data sheet for measuring physical fitness components
Personal data sheet
Name Marcus Galloway
Age 17
Date of pre- 5 February

training testing
Date of post- 30 March

training testing
Component Test(s) Pre-training test Post-training Evaluation

conducted result and rating test result and
rating
Cardiorespiratory 2.4 km run 11.10 min 10.56 min No change

endurance (Fair) (Fair)
Muscular strength Lower back strength 158 169 Improved

dynamometer (75%) (85%)
Muscular Push-up test 36 41 Improved

endurance (Good) (Superior)
Flexibility Sit-and-reach test 5 4 No change

(Below average) (Below average)
Body composition Waisthip ratio 0.88 0.88 No change

(75%) (75%)
Skill-related components of physical fitness
Power Standing long jump 232 236 Improved

(70%) (75%)
Agility Shuttle run test 9.7 sec 10 sec Deteriorated

(75%) (50%)
Speed Sprint tests over 4.93 sec 5.00 sec No change

2060m (Good) (Good)
Coordination Catch 19 19 No change

(7080%) (7080%)
Balance Stork stand balance 37 sec 39 sec No change

test (Good) (Good)
Reaction time Ruler reaction time 15 cm 17.8 cm No change

test (Fair) (Fair)
Click for an electronic version of this template.

<start new page>
5069 <new>
AWL: 1/2 landscape
Figure 5.5 Does fitness mean the same thing as health?
ACQUIRE
1 Identify six benefits of being physically fit.
2 Outline the health-related components of physical fitness.
3 Describe how performance can improve through training for the skill-related components
of physical fitness.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Discuss how a persons level of physical fitness can affect his or her health.
2 Consider the following activities:
rock climbing
downhill skiing
tennis
golf
soccer.
For each activity, identify two health-related and two skill-related fitness components
required for:
a serious participation
b recreational participation.
3 Justify the need for fitness testing in senior physical education classes.
4 Discuss the topic Fitness equals health. Do you agree? Why? Use evidence to support your
view.

Tests to measure physical fitness
Fitness is a broad concept encompassing many components. As such, the most accurate way to ascertain an
individuals tness level is to evaluate their performance over a range of tness tests from the various tness
components. This section looks at a selection of those tests in greater detail and provides step-by-step
instructions for their completion.
Cardiorespiratory endurance
Multistage fitness test (beep test)
Aim
To measure cardiorespiratory endurance
Equipment
multistage tness test (beep test) CD
CD player/recorder
at 20-metre running surface
Procedure
In the multistage tness or beep test, participants run between two points that are 20 metres apart. They
must time each run between the two points so that they hit the line and turn on the beep. Each completed
20-metre run is one shuttle.
As the test continues, the beeps get closer together, so the 20 metres must be run faster. There are 21 levels,
with variations in the number of shuttles to be completed at each level. Three consecutive beeps sound
between each level.
1 Follow all instructions on the CD and enclosed material.
2 Accurately measure a 20-metre distance, and mark both ends.
3 Begin the test by running the 20 metres after the rst three consecutive beeps.
4 Try to time each runavoid running too quickly and having to wait for the next beep.
5 Continue until you have missed two shuttlesthat is, you have not run the 20 metres by the time the
beep sounds.
6 The score is the last completed level and shuttle.
Results
Match the score with the corresponding maximum oxygen uptake on Table 5.3. The higher the VO2 max, the
greater the cardiorespiratory endurance.
An individuals VO2 max can be predicted by using their heart rate measurement during exercise recovery.
Click for more information on measuring heart rate.

Table 5.3Multistage fitness test results
Level Shuttle Predicted Level Shuttle Predicted Level Shuttle Predicted

VO2 max VO2 max VO2 max
4 2 26.8 11 8 52.5 17 4 71.9
4 4 27.6 11 10 53.1 17 6 72.4
4 6 28.2 11 12 53.7 17 8 72.9
4 9 29.5 12 2 54.3 17 10 73.4
5 2 30.2 12 4 54.8 17 12 73.9
5 4 31.0 12 6 55.4 18 2 74.8
5 6 31.8 12 8 56.0 18 4 75.3
5 9 32.9 12 10 56.5 18 6 75.8
6 2 33.6 12 12 57.1 18 8 76.2
6 4 34.3 13 2 57.6 18 10 76.7
6 6 35.0 13 4 58.2 18 12 77.2
6 8 35.7 13 6 58.7 18 15 77.9
6 10 36.4 13 8 59.3 19 2 78.3
7 2 37.1 13 10 59.8 19 4 78.8
7 5 37.8 13 13 60.6 19 6 79.2
7 6 38.5 14 2 61.1 19 8 79.7
7 8 39.2 14 4 61.7 19 10 80.2
7 10 39.9 14 6 62.6 19 12 80.6
8 2 40.5 14 8 62.7 19 15 81.3
8 4 41.1 14 10 63.2 20 2 81.8
8 6 41.8 14 13 64.0 20 4 82.2
8 8 42.4 15 2 64.6 20 6 82.6
8 11 43.3 15 4 65.1 20 8 83.0
9 2 43.9 15 6 65.6 20 10 83.5
9 4 44.5 15 8 66.2 20 12 83.9
9 6 45.2 15 10 66.7 20 14 84.3
9 11 46.8 15 13 67.5 20 16 84.8
10 2 47.4 16 2 68.0 21 2 85.2
10 4 48.0 16 4 68.5 21 4 85.6
10 6 48.7 16 6 69.0 21 6 86.1
10 8 49.3 16 8 69.5 21 8 86.5
10 11 50.2 16 10 69.9 21 10 86.9
11 2 50.8 16 12 70.5 21 12 87.4
11 4 51.4 16 14 70.9 21 14 87.8
11 6 51.9 17 2 71.4 21 16 88.2
Source: J Schell and B Leelarthaepin, Physical Fitness Assessment in Exercise and Sport Science,
2nd edn, Leelar Biomediscience Services: Matraville, NSW, 1994, pp. 2067

5007 L 1/4
2.4-kilometre run
Aim
To measure cardiorespiratory endurance
Equipment
at course of at least 200 metres
(preferably 400 metres)
stopwatches
whistle
Procedure
1 Form pairs: one is the participant; one Figure 5.6 Timing a run over a fixed distance and comparing
the results helps to indicate cardiorespiratory endurance.
is the recorder.
2 Complete a number of laps of the course equivalent to 2.4 kilometres (12 200 metres or
6 400 metres).
3 Participants start on go, and should be encouraged to do their best until the end.
4 Recorders count laps and record the time.
5 Participants should continue to walk after they have completed the test until their heart rate has returned
to resting rate.
Results
Compare the participants time with the norms in Table 5.4 to determine their levels of cardiorespiratory
endurance.
Table 5.42.4-kilometre run percentile norms (time in minutes)

Age groups (years) 1319 2029 3039 4049 4059 60+
Very poor
Male 15:31 16:01 16:31 17:31 19:01 20:01
Female 18:31 19:01 19:31 20:01 20:31 21:01
Poor
Male 12:1115:30 14:0116:00 14:4416:30 15:3617:30 17:0119:00 19:0120:00
Female 16:5518:30 18:3119:00 19:0119:30 19:3120:00 20:0120:30 20:3121:00
Fair
Male 10:4912:10 12:0114:00 12:3114:45 13:0115:35 14:3117:00 16:1619:00
Female 14:3116:54 15:5518:30 16:3119:00 17:3119:30 19:0120:00 19:3120:30
Good
Male 9:4110:48 10:4612:00 11:0112:30 11:3113:00 12:3114:30 14:0017:15
Female 12:3014:30 13:3115:54 14:3116:30 15:5617:30 16:3119:00 17:3119:30
Excellent
Male 8:379:40 9:4510:45 10:0011:00 10:3011:30 11:0012:30 11:1513:50
Female 11:5012:29 12:3013:30 13:0014:30 13:4515:55 14:3016:30
Superior
Male 8:37 9:45 10:00 10:30 11:00
Female 11:30 12:30 13:00 13:45 14:30

Muscular strength
One-repetition maximum test
Aim
To assess muscular strength by determining the maximum
5008 P 1/8
weight that can be lifted one time, which is one-repetition
maximum (RM)
Equipment
free weights or universal weights
Procedure
The type of exercise chosen will reect the muscle groups being
measured. Do not do similar exercises in the same testing
period, as fatigue will affect results.
Be sure that all participants know how to lift weights correctly.
1 Start by using Table 5.6 to determine your starting weight
for each exercise type. Your starting weight will be estimated
as a percentage of your body weight.
2 Continue to increase the weight gradually until only one
repetition of that weight is possible. Figure 5.7 Free weights or universal
weights can be used for the one-
3 Record the maximum weight that could be lifted. repetition maximum test.
Results
Divide the maximum weight that could be lifted (RM) by the persons body weight, and compare the result
with those in Table 5.5.
one-repetition maximum (RM)
strength ratio
body weight
Table 5.5Relative strength ratios for selected one-repetition maximum tests
Rating Overhead Bench press Abdominal Biceps curl Pull-down Leg press Leg Leg curl
press curls extension
Males
Excellent 1.101.20 1.401.50 0.400.45 0.310.35 1.151.20 2.803.00 0.750.80 0.650.70
Good 0.901.00 1.201.30 0.300.35 0.250.28 1.051.10 2.402.60 0.650.70 0.550.60
Average 0.700.80 1.001.10 0.200.25 0.190.22 0.951.00 2.002.20 0.550.60 0.450.50
Fair 0.500.60 0.800.90 0.100.15 0.140.16 0.850.90 1.601.80 0.450.50 0.350.40
Poor 0.300.40 0.600.70 0.00.05 0.100.12 0.750.80 1.201.40 0.350.40 0.250.30
Females
Excellent 0.650.70 0.850.90 0.200.22 0.200.22 0.800.85 2.502.70 0.650.70 0.550.60
Good 0.550.60 0.700.80 0.160.18 0.160.18 0.730.75 2.102.30 0.550.60 0.500.52
Average 0.450.50 0.600.65 0.120.14 0.120.14 0.650.70 1.802.00 0.500.52 0.400.45
Fair 0.350.40 0.500.55 0.080.10 0.080.10 0.600.63 1.401.60 0.400.45 0.300.35
Poor 0.250.30 0.350.45 0.040.06 0.040.06 0.500.55 1.001.20 0.300.35 0.200.25
Source: Adapted from J Schell and B Leelarthaepin, Physical Fitness Assessment in Exercise and
Sport Science, 2nd edn, Leelar Biomediscience Services, Matraville: NSW, 1994, p. 250

Table 5.6Starting points for weight lifted as a percentage of body weight
Overhead Bench press Abdominal Biceps curl Pull-down Leg press Leg Leg curl
press curls extension
Males 70% 100% 20% 19% 95% 200% 55% 45%
Females 45% 60% 12% 12% 65% 180% 50% 40%
Hand-grip strength dynamometer test
Aim
To assess the muscular strength
of the forearm
Equipment
hand-grip dynamometer
(A dynamometer is a device
used to measure muscular
power.)
Procedure
1 Adjust the dynamometer to
t the size of the participants
hands. Set the pointer to
zero.
2 Using the dominant hand
rst, hold the dynamometer,
keeping the arm locked 5011 P 1/4
straight at the elbow and
not resting against the body
or other objects. The index
nger and thumb should just
touch, not overlap. The hand
being tested can be lifted
above the head. Figure 5.8 Hand-grip strength dynamometers are used to test the
muscular strength of the forearm.
3 Squeeze the bars as hard as
possible for 23 seconds.
4 Lower the dynamometer, and read the measurement indicated with the needle.
5 Repeat for the non-dominant hand.
6 Complete three trials for each hand.
Results
Find the average of the scores for each hand. (Most people will nd that one hand is stronger than the other,
so they should be tested separately.) Compare the results with those in Table 5.7.
For example, a 17-year-old female performs the test three times with her left hand (dominant hand). Her three
scores are 27 kg, 29 kg and 26 kg. The average of these three scores is 27.3 kg, which puts her in the fty-fth
percentile and gives her a rating of average.

Table 5.7Hand-grip strength norms (kg)
Per cent Males Females
University students Adults 2060 yrs University students Adults 2060 yrs
Left Right Left Right Left Right Left Right
Excellent
95 56 57 60 64 35 37 38 40
90 53 54 58 61 33 34 35 37
85 51 51 56 58 31 33 34 36
Good
80 49 50 54 56 30 32 33 35
75 47 49 53 54 29 31 32 34
70 46 48 52 53 28 30 31 33
65 45 47 50 52 27 29 30 32
Average
60 44 46 49 51 26 28 39 31
55 43 45 48 50 24 27 28 31
50 42 44 47 49 23 26 28 30
45 41 43 46 48 23 26 27 29
Fair
40 40 41 45 47 22 25 26 28
35 38 40 44 46 22 24 25 28
30 37 39 43 45 21 24 25 27
25 36 37 42 44 21 23 24 26
Poor
20 34 34 41 43 20 22 23 25
15 33 33 39 42 18 21 22 24
10 31 31 38 41 16 20 21 23
5 28 29 33 36 14 17 19 21
Source: Adapted from J Schell and B Leelarthaepin, Physical Fitness Assessment in Exercise and Sport Science,
2nd edn, Leelar Biomediscience Services, Matraville: NSW, 1994, p. 232
Leg strength dynamometer test
Aim
To assess the muscular strength of the legs
Equipment
back/leg dynamometer
Procedure
Before doing this test, ensure that participants do not have any back problems or back injuries.
1 Stand on the platform with feet shoulder-width apart, knees exed to about 135, while keeping the back
straight and hips positioned directly over the ankle joints. The chest should be forward and the head erect.
2 Move the pointer to zero.

Leg strength dynamometre test (cont )
3 Take a deep breath and, while slowing exhaling, attempt to extend the knees and straighten the legs as
smoothly and forcibly as possible. Ensure that the hips rise vertically.
4 Stop the test when the pointer ceases to move or when the knees are fully extended.
5 After a 2-minute rest, repeat the test a second time. After another 2-minute rest, repeat a third time.
Remember to move the pointer to zero each time.
Results
Record the best score. Compare the score with the results in Table 5.8.
Note that Table 5.8 lists the results for both the leg strength and lower-back strength tests. Please consider
results separately when determining your score. Do not combine/average your scores in both tests to
determine your overall rating.
Table 5.8Leg strength and lower-back norms (kg)
Per cent University students (males) University students (females)
Leg strength Lower-back strength Leg strength Lower-back strength
Excellent
95 525 187 352 130
90 490 175 315 118
85 470 167 273 112
Good
80 450 164 267 107
75 425 159 261 101
70 400 155 255 98
65 385 150 249 96
Average
60 371 146 241 94
55 357 141 233 91
50 343 137 225 89
45 331 132 210 87
Fair
40 318 128 196 84
35 306 123 181 81
30 292 119 171 79
25 278 114 163 76
Poor
20 264 110 156 74
15 250 103 146 72
10 216 97 120 69
5 183 91 107 59
2nd edn, Leelar Biomediscience Services, Matraville, NSW, 1994, p. 234.

Lower-back strength dynamometer test
Aim
To assess the muscular strength 5014 p 1/4 PS
in the lower back
Equipment
back/leg dynamometer
Procedure
Before doing this test, ensure
that participants do not have
any back problems or back
injuries.
1 Stand in an upright position
on the platform with feet
shoulder-width apart, and
arms and legs straight.
The palms of the hands are
placed on the front of the
thighs, and the chain or belt
is adjusted so that the bar is
at ngertip level.
2 Move the pointer to zero.
3 Extend forward at the hips,
with the back straight
from the lower back to the
shoulders and the chest
forward. Grasp the bar with
one palm facing forwards
and one facing backwards.
4 Take a deep breath and,
while slowing exhaling,
try to forcibly extend the
trunk at the hips by pulling
upwards on the bar and
keeping the legs straight.
The nal position should
be just short of the upright
Figure 5.9 Keep the lower back straight when doing the lower back
position.
strength dynamometer test.
5 After a 2-minute rest, repeat
the test a second time. After another 2-minute rest, repeat a third time. Remember to move the pointer to
zero each time.
Results
Record the best score. Compare it with the results in Table 5.8.

5015 L 1/8 PS
5016 L 1/8 PS
Muscular endurance
Push-up test
Aim
To assess the muscular endurance of the
elbow and shoulder muscles
Equipment
at, level surface
Procedure
1 Form pairs: one is the participant; one
is the recorder.
2 Participants assume the correct
position.
Position for a push-up (both
males and females): Hold the
arms straight, with the hands
directly under the shoulders. The
legs should be straight, with the
feet together.
Position for a knee push-up
(females only): Hold the arms Figure 5.10 The body positions for push-ups and knee push-
ups are different as shown.
straight, with the hands shoulder-
width apart and slightly forwards of the shoulders. The knees should be on the oor, and the body
should be straight from the shoulders to the knees.
3 Maintaining the correct positions, lower the nose or chin to the ground, then return to the starting
position. This is one repetition.
4 Recorder count the number of repetitions in 60 seconds.
Results
Compare the results with those in Table 5.9.
Table 5.9Push-up test results
Repetitions
Rating Males Females Females

(push-ups) (push-ups) (knee push-ups)
Superior 40 10 30
Good 3039 69 2029
Satisfactory 2029 35 1019
Fair 1019 12 59
Poor 09 0 04
Source: J Schell and B Leelarthaepin, Physical Fitness Assessment in Exercise and Sport Science, 2nd edn,
Leelar Biomediscience Services, Matraville: NSW, 1994, pp. 2645

Sit-up test
Aim
To measure the muscular endurance of the abdominal muscles
Equipment
level surface
mat
stopwatch
Procedure
1 Form pairs: one is the participant; one is the recorder.
2 Participants lie on the oor with their knees exed to about 90 degrees. The arms are placed across the
chest, and the head is slightly off the ground. A partner supports each participants feet.
3 On go, participants curl upward and forward until the elbows touch the thighs. They then uncurl until the
mid-back touches the ground. Arms must stay across the chest at all times.
4 Recorders count the number of sit-ups completed in 60 seconds.
Results
Compare the number of sit-ups completed in 60 seconds with the gures in Table 5.10.
5017 L 1/8 PS
Figure 5.11 The sit-up test measures the abdominal muscles endurance.

Table 5.10Sit-up percentiles
Percentile Males Females
Age (years) 14 15 16 17+ 14 15 16 17+
Excellent
99 70 69 70 65 57 64 63 65
95 59 59 61 62 51 56 54 54
90 54 55 59 59 48 50 50 50
85 52 52 55 56 45 47 49 47
Good
80 51 50 53 54 43 45 45 45
75 49 49 51 52 42 43 42 44
70 48 48 50 51 40 41 39 43
65 46 47 49 50 39 41 37 42
Average
60 45 46 47 49 38 40 35 40
55 44 45 46 48 37 38 34 39
50 42 44 45 46 35 37 33 37
45 41 42 44 45 34 35 32 36
Fair
40 40 41 42 44 33 33 31 35
35 39 40 40 43 32 32 30 33
30 38 39 39 40 31 31 30 32
25 36 38 38 38 30 30 29 31
Poor
20 35 36 35 37 28 28 26 29
15 33 34 33 34 26 27 25 27
10 31 31 30 31 24 25 23 25
5 27 28 28 25 20 20 20 19

Body composition
Body mass index (BMI) and waisthip ratio
Aim
To calculate the body mass index (BMI)
and waisthip ratio to determine the 5024 L 1/8
likelihood of weight-related health

problems
Equipment
accurate measuring scales
tape measure for recording height
dressmakers tape measure
Procedure
A very high or very low body mass index
is associated with a greater risk of health
problems and disease. The greater the
amount of fat deposited around the
waist relative to the hips, the greater the Figure 5.12 BMI and waisthip ratios help to predict health
and risk of disease.
health risk.
BMI (body mass index)
1 Measure the participants height and weight in light clothing with shoes off.
2 Use the following formula to calculate the BMI.
weight (kg)
BMI
height (m) height (m)
Waisthip ratio
1 Measure around the waist (between the last ribs and the top of the pelvis, just above or on the navel) in
centimetres.
2 Measure the hips (midway down the pelvis at the top of the thigh) at their widest part in centimetres.
3 Express this as a percentage using the following formula.
waist (cm)
waisthip ratio
hip (cm)
For example, a woman with a waist measurement of 78 centimetres and a hip measurement of
102 centimetres would have a waisthip ratio of 0.76.
Results
Consult Tables 5.11 and 5.12.
The desirable range for BMI is between 20 and 24.9. Scores over 24.9 are associated with an increased health
risk. Scores below 18.5 are considered underweight and are also associated with an increased likelihood of
health problems.
A waisthip ratio greater than 0.80 for women and 0.951 for men is associated with a higher risk for disease.
Waisthip ratios are believed to be a better predictor of disease risk than BMI.
In addition, a waist measurement of more than 94 centimetres (for men) and more than 80 centimetres (for
women) is associated with an increased risk of chronic disease.

Table 5.11Body mass index (BMI) percentiles
Percentile Age (years)

Males 1829 3039 4049 5059 6069 7078
5 18.7 19.9 21.2 21.7 22.2 21.0
25 21.4 22.7 23.4 23.5 24.4 22.7
50 23.6 24.8 25.3 26.0 25.8 25.3
75 26.2 26.4 28.2 28.4 28.1 27.0
95 29.2 30.8 32.9 31.7 31.5 31.8
Mean 23.9 24.9 25.9 26.2 26.2 25.4
Females 1829 3039 4049 5059 6069 7078
5 19.1 18.6 19.7 19.6 19.6 19.9
25 20.8 20.8 21.6 22.5 23.0 22.7
50 22.4 22.5 24.1 24.5 25.1 26.4
75 24.7 25.5 27.1 27.4 28.6 29.2
95 32.1 31.8 35.7 33.3 34.5 31.5
Mean 23.6 23.6 25.1 25.3 25.8 26.1
Table 5.12Waisthip percentiles
Percentile Age (years)

Males 1829 3039 4049 5059 6069 7078
5 0.78 0.82 0.82 0.84 0.87 0.88
25 0.82 0.86 0.88 0.90 0.92 0.92
50 0.85 0.90 0.92 0.94 0.97 0.97
75 0.88 0.94 0.97 0.98 1.00 1.00
95 0.98 1.02 1.02 1.06 1.03 1.03
Mean 0.86 0.90 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.96
Females 1829 3039 4049 5059 6069 7078
5 0.69 0.70 0.71 0.71 0.72 0.78
25 0.72 0.74 0.75 0.76 0.79 0.84
50 0.75 0.77 0.79 0.81 0.84 0.88
75 0.78 0.80 0.84 0.86 0.91 0.92
95 0.88 0.91 0.91 0.85 1.00 0.98
Mean 0.76 0.78 0.80 0.81 0.85 0.88

Flexibility
Sit-and-reach test
Aim
To assess the degree of hip and lower back exibility
Equipment
Wells sit-and-reach box, or similar
Procedure
2 Place the sit-and-reach box against the wall.
3 Participants do a light warm-up and stretch, and remove their shoes. They then sit on the oor with their
legs straight and their knees at on the oor.
4 Recorders may need to hold their hands on the participants knees.
5 With the arms straight and the head down, participants extend the hands slowly along the vertical surface
of the box, one on top of the other. They should not jerk.
6 Participants are allowed one practice attempt. They then complete the test three times.
7 Recorders note the maximum distance of each attempt. The score is the maximum distance reached and
held for 23 seconds. It may be a positive or negative value.
Results
Take the average of the three attempts. Then, compare it with the results in Table 5.11.
5019 L 1/4
Figure 5.13 The

sit-and-reach test
looks at hip and
back flexibility.
Table 5.13Norms for 16- to 19-year-olds for sit-and-reach test (cm)
Gender Excellent Above average Average Below average Poor

Male 14 1114 710 46 4
Female 15 1215 711 46 4
Source: B Davis, J Roscoe and R Phillips, Physical Education and the Study of Sport,
5th edn, Mosby, Edinburgh, 2000

Speed
35-metre sprint test
Aim
To determine maximum 5027
running speed over a distance of
35 metres
Equipment
measuring tape or marked
track
stopwatch
cone markers
Procedure
1 Form pairs: one is the
participant; one is the
recorder.
2 Participants start from
a completely stationary
position (no rocking) with the
foot behind the starting line.
3 On the signal, participants
run at their top speed past the
nishing line.
4 Recorders record the
participants time from the
start to the nish line in
seconds.
5 Participants repeat the test. Figure 5.14 A 35-metre sprint helps to determine an athletes speed.
Results
The best time of the two attempts is recorded. Compare it with the results in Table 5.14.
Table 5.14Time to run 35 metres (seconds)
Rating Males Females

Excellent 4.80 5.30
Good 4.805.09 5.305.59
Average 5.105.29 5.605.89
Fair 5.305.60 5.906.20
Poor 5.60 6.20

Power
Standing long jump test
Aim
To measure leg power, specically the legs ability to 5025 L 1/4
project the body forward
Equipment
soft, level surface (for example, gym mats)
tape measure
marked starting line
Procedure
1 Form pairs: one is the participant; one is the
recorder.
2 Participants stand with feet together behind the
starting line.
3 On go, participants bend the knees, swing the
arms up and jump as far as possible.
4 Recorders mark the landing point of the heel of
the back foot closest to the starting line, and
measure the distance in centimetres. (If the
jumper lands with any part of the body closer
to the starting line than the feet, the distance to
that body part is measured.)
Figure 5.15 A standing long jump test measures
5 Each participant should make three attempts. leg power.
Results
Compare the best of the three attempts with the results in Table 5.14.
Table 5.16Standing long jump norms (cm)

Age (years) 14 15 16 17+ 14 15 16 17+
Excellent
95 229 244 249 257 203 201 198 206
90 218 231 241 249 196 191 191 198
85 211 226 236 244 191 185 183 191
Good
80 208 221 229 239 183 183 180 188
75 203 218 228 236 180 178 175 183
70 198 213 224 231 178 175 173 180
65 196 211 221 229 173 173 168 178

Table 5.16 (cont )
Average
60 193 208 218 226 170 168 167 175
55 191 206 216 221 168 167 163 170
50 188 203 213 218 163 165 160 165
45 185 198 211 216 160 160 158 163
Fair
40 180 196 206 213 158 158 155 160
35 178 193 203 208 155 155 152 158
30 173 191 201 203 150 152 147 152
25 168 185 198 198 147 150 145 150
Poor
20 163 180 193 193 145 145 140 145
15 157 175 188 188 137 140 137 140
10 152 168 180 178 132 135 132 132
5 142 157 165 160 122 127 122 125
Agility
Shuttle run test
Aim 9.24 m
To assess the ability to accelerate and ts
change direction rapidly
Equipment
5029
a at area marked with two lines
9.14 metres (30 feet) apart (as shown
in Figure 5.16)
two small blocks (5 centimetres
5 centimetres 10 centimetres),
placed behind the second line (as
shown in Figure 5.16)
Figure 5.16 The shuttle run test measures an athletes ability
stopwatch to quickly change direction.
Procedure
2 On the word go, participants sprint from the rst marked line to the second line.
3 At the second line, participants pick up one block. They then run back to the rst line and place the block
over the line.

Shuttle run test (cont )
4 Participants sprint back to the second line, pick up the remaining block, and sprint over the starting line.
5 Participants can have one practice session and two timed attempts.
6 Recorders record the best time. An attempt is not counted if the block is dropped, thrown, or placed on the
line instead of over it.
Results
Compare the participants times with the results in Table 5.15.
Table 5.16Shuttle run test (seconds)

Age (years) 14 15 16 17 14 15 16 17
Excellent
95 9.8 9.6 9.5 9.3 10.5 10.6 10.6 10.3
90 9.9 9.8 9.6 9.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.6
85 10.0 9.9 9.8 9.6 10.8 10.9 11.0 10.8
Good
80 10.1 10.0 9.9 9.6 10.9 11.0 11.0 10.9
75 10.2 10.1 10.0 9.7 11.0 11.1 11.1 11.0
70 10.3 10.1 10.0 9.8 11.1 11.2 11.2 11.1
65 10.3 10.2 10.1 9.9 11.2 11.3 11.3 11.2
Average
60 10.4 10.3 10.2 9.9 11.3 11.4 11.4 11.2
55 10.5 10.4 10.2 9.9 11.4 11.5 11.5 11.3
50 10.5 10.4 10.3 10.0 11.5 11.5 11.6 11.5
45 10.6 10.5 10.4 10.1 11.5 11.6 11.6 11.6
Fair
40 10.7 10.6 10.5 10.2 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.8
35 10.7 10.6 10.6 10.3 11.7 11.8 11.9 12.0
30 10.8 10.7 10.7 10.4 11.8 11.9 12.0 12.0
25 11.0 10.8 10.8 10.5 11.9 12.0 12.0 12.1
Poor
20 11.1 11.0 10.9 10.6 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.3
15 11.3 11.1 11.1 10.7 12.2 12.2 12.2 12.6
10 11.5 11.3 11.4 10.9 12.5 12.5 12.4 12.8
5 11.8 11.7 11.7 11.8 12.8 12.9 13.0 12.9
Source: Norms derived from administration of modified AAHPER tests by NZ Department of Education (1996),
in J Schell and B Leelarthaepin, Physical Fitness Assessment in Exercise and Sport Science, 2nd edn,
Leelar Biomediscience Services, Matraville: NSW, 1994, p. 470

Balance
Stork stand balance test
Aim
To assess the ability to balance on the ball of the foot
Equipment
none
Procedure
2 Barefoot and with the hands on the hips, participants stand on one foot, with the other foot placed against
the knee of the supporting leg. They then raise their arms to shoulder level.
3 Participants raise the heel off the ground and balance on the ball of the foot for as long as possible.
4 Recorders time how long participants can balance from when the heel is raised from the oor. The
stopwatch is stopped if the:
non-supporting foot leaves the supporting knee
heel of the supporting leg touches the ground
participant hops, swivels or moves the supporting foot.
Participants can have one minute to practise balancing before being timed. They then have three timed
attempts.
Results
Record the best time of three attempts. Compare it with the gures in Table 5.17.
Variation
Try performing the stork stand with eyes closed, or after spinning ve times on the spot.
Now try it with both eyes closed and after spinning ve times on the spot. Consider why balancing becomes
more difcult in these situations.
Table 5.17Stork stand norms
Rating Males Females
Superior 50 27
Good 3750 2327
Satisfactory 1536 822
Fair 514 37
Poor 5 3
Source: J Schell and B Leelarthaepin, PhysicalFitness Assessment in Exercise and Sport Science,

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Coordination
Catch test
Aim
To measure handeye coordination by
throwing a tennis ball underarm into a
target and catching it
Equipment
tennis ball
circular target (30 centimetres in
diameter)
tape measure
masking tape or chalk Figure 5.17 The catch test measures handeye coordination.
Procedure
1 Place the target on a xed wall, with the bottom edge level with the height of the participants shoulder.
2 Use the masking tape or chalk to mark a line 2.5 metres from the target.
3 Stand behind the line and throw the ball underarm with the preferred hand towards the target. Catch the
ball on the full with the same hand. Practice attempts are permitted.
4 Throw the ball ten times with the preferred hand. One point is given for each successful target hit and catch.
5 Throw the ball ten times with the non-preferred hand. Give one point for each successful hit and catch.
The ball is not allowed to bounce before being caught. The ball cannot be caught in front of the line or by
being trapped against the body. A catch is only successful if the ball hits the target (or lines) and is caught
cleanly. The total possible score is twenty.
Results
Evaluate your results by comparing the score, out of a possible twenty, with the data in Table 5.18.
Table 5.18Catch data

Age (years) 15 16 17 15 16 17
Excellent
95 20 20 20 19 19 18
90 20 20 20 18 18 17
Good
80 19 20 19 16 16 16
70 18 19 19 15 15 14
Average
60 17 18 18 14 14 13
50 17 18 18 13 12 12
Fair
40 16 17 17 12 11 11
30 15 15 16 11 10 10

Table 5.16 (cont )
Poor
20 14 14 14 9 8 8
10 12 11 12 7 6 7
5 10 10 9 5 3 4
Source: Adapted from Australian Sports Commission, Sports Search: Norms for Sport-related Fitness
Tests in Australian Students 1217 Years, Australian Sports Commission, Canberra, 1994, pp. 1019
Reaction time
Ruler reaction time test
Aim
To determine the time taken to react to a visual and auditory stimulus
Equipment
a 1-metre ruler
Procedure
2 Participants sit at a desk with forearms across the desk top. Their hands extending beyond the edge of the
desk.
3 Recorders hold a 1-metre ruler between the participants ngers and thumb, which are 2 centimetres apart.
The zero point of the ruler should be level with the thumb and index nger.
4 Recorders say ready. They then drop the ruler within 10 seconds. Participants try to catch the ruler as
quickly as possible.
5 Recorders note the point where the participants thumbs and index ngers grasp the ruler. This is each
participants score. They record this result in centimetres.
Results
Compare the scores with those shown in Table 5.19.
Variation
Vary the conditions by asking participants to close their eyes. The command ready should be followed by the
call go when the ruler is actually dropped. Participants catch the ruler on go.
Table 5.19Reaction time rating
Classification Ruler reading (cm)

Excellent 16
Good 6.510
Average 1115
Source: Adapted from L Fitzgibbon, T Cross
Fair 14.521.5 and R Ruskin, Outcomes: Studies in Personal
Development, Health and Physical Education,
Poor 22
Jacaranda, Milton, 1992, p. 236

ACQUIRE
1 Identify the tests that measure cardiorespiratory endurance. What differences and
similarities do you notice between the tests that measure maximal cardiorespiratory
endurance and those that measure sub-maximal cardiorespiratory endurance? Why do you
think this is so?
2 Accurately describe the procedure for a test that measures each of the following:
a absolute strength
b flexibility
c power
d coordination.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 a Identify the tests that you believe would be the most useful for athletes in the following
sports:
touch football
discus
basketball
100 m sprint
the sport you are currently studying.
b Justify your reasons for choosing each test for each sport.
2 Analyse the statistics in Tables 5.20 and 5.21, which record a basketballers actions during
one basketball game. Use the data to determine the health-related and skill-related
components of physical fitness that are most important for this basketballer.
Table 5.20Movement patterns

Movement Distance covered (m) Average distance (m) Percentage of total movement (%)
Sprint 1560 17.5 29.0
Jog 1280 17.7 23.2
Cruise 1080 18.0 20.2
Walk 480 10.9 9.0
Shuffle 1000 14.7 18.6
Table 5.21Actions
Skill Total
Fouls 3
Rebounds 6
Jumps 32
Bounce passes 7
Chest passes 11
Overhead passes 4
Layups 2
Jump shots 20
Set shots 4

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130%
Figure 5.18 Training methods need to be tailored to suit each individual athlete, as athletes respond
differently to different training methods.
Training methods
This section explores the different types of trainingfrom training methods that improve strength to other
methods that focus on building cardiorespiratory capacity or improving power and speed.
With all training, it is important to recognise that athletes respond differently to different training
methods. Some athletes have a genetic advantage due to inherited factors such as gender, muscle-bre type
and body composition. Other athletes have to train harder to improve their performance by an equivalent
degree.
Aerobic training
Aerobic capacity will be improved by a training program that is designed to progressively overload the
cardiovascular and respiratory systems, and stress the muscles ability to use oxygen.
Aerobic training should be specic to the athletes sport.
The principal training methods used to develop aerobic capacity are:
continuous training,
fartlek training
long-interval training.
Continuous training
Continuous trainingwhich is sometimes called uniform trainingis long, slow, distance training that
involves the whole body or large muscle groups, such as running, swimming or cycling. It involves working
for a minimum of 20 minutes, at a uniform intensity within the aerobic training zone (7085 per cent of
maximum heart rate). Working continuously in this zone will develop an athletes aerobic training threshold,
improving their ability to use oxygen during exercise. This type of training is ideal for people wanting to
develop or maintain their base aerobic tness.

5038 L 1/3
Figure 5.19 Continuous training involves working for long periods at a steady pace.
Higher-intensity continuous training has been shown to improve VO2 max and lactate tolerance. The
exercise intensity required to produce these improvements varies from athlete to athlete but should be
around 90 per cent of maximum heart rate. Work rates equal to or slightly above the lactate threshold
produce the best results. Athletes individual lactate thresholds can be established by determining their heart
rate and ventilation; a blood test is not needed. The duration of the training session depends on the tness of
the athlete, but should be approximately 2550 minutes for best results.
Training methods for improving aerobic capacity should aim to increase VO2 max, improve tolerance to
lactate and make movement more efcient.
Fartlek training
Fartlek is a Swedish term meaning speed play. Fartlek training is a variation of continuous training in which
athletes vary the pace and, in some cases, the terrain.
Fartlek training typically involves some exercise at a uniform pace, interspersed with short sprints. After
each sprint the athlete returns to the steady pace to recover before the next burst of speed. The variation in
pace can be the result of including uphill, downhill or stair work.
Fartlek training is a demanding form of aerobic training and aims to have athletes work both aerobically
and anaerobically. By its nature it helps to improve VO2 max. It is particularly benecial for athletes in sports
that frequently demand a change of pace, such as many team games.
PRACTICAL
Fartlek training
Plan a 30-minute fartlek training session around your school or home. Attempt the course,
ensuring that your heart rate is above the aerobic threshold during the steady sections and
above the anaerobic threshold during the speed sections.

5039 P 1/4
Long-interval training
Like fartlek training, long-interval training
incorporates periods of work interspersed with
periods of rest (light active rest, such as walking).
The intensity and effectiveness of long-interval
training can be varied by manipulating the:
duration of each training period
intensity of the training
duration of the rest interval
number of training and rest intervals in each
session.
Effective long-interval training depends
on identifying the athletes tness level and
appropriately adjusting the variables to suit. The
number of variables available makes it easy to build
progression into a long-interval training program.
To measure and monitor training, it can be
helpful to record duration, intensity and number
of intervals on cards or charts. Using a heart-rate
monitor is one way to measure the intensity of the
exercise.
The key to this type of training is the workrest
ratio. A workrest ratio of 1:1 would mean equal Figure 5.20 What type of aerobic training would
suit a triathlete?
periods of exercise and recovery. For aerobic
training, a workrest ratio of 1:1 would be used, and each exercise interval would typically be 25 minutes at
a sub-maximal pace. Generally, between four and eight repetitions would be completed.
Long-interval training allows exercise of a high quality to be performed as the recovery periods delay
the onset of fatigue. Athletes can complete more work than in an equivalent continuous training session.
However, a period of continuous training may be required to build aerobic tness before long-interval
training.
ACQUIRE
1 Explain how interval training can be used to train for aerobic and anaerobic fitness. What
are the similarities and differences of interval training when used to train for aerobic and
anaerobic fitness?
2 Compare and contrast each of the types of aerobic training.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Suggest a suitable aerobic training session for an athlete in your chosen activity. Explain
how you would combine the types of aerobictraining to improve performance.
2 Design an aerobic training for Quaid Cooper to use during a Queensland Reds training
session? Justify your choice of methods.

5070
Anaerobic training
Anaerobic training involves activities that use the two anaerobic energy pathwaysthe alactacid system
(ATPPC system) and the lactic acid systemas the major supply of energy. Such activities need to have a very
high intensity; most are undertaken with a heart rate in excess of 85 per cent of its maximum level.
Speed, strength and power are all tness components that are developed through anaerobic training.
Anaerobic training for speed

Speed is the determining factor in power sports (for example, sprints, jumps and most team sports) and in sports
that need quick reactions (for example, combat sports, cricket and baseball). The relative contribution of speed to
the sport depends on the demands of the sport, the athlete and the techniques practised by the athlete.
Speed is the greatest velocity at which:
a limb, body part or whole body is moved
an implement is projected
an athlete reacts to a stimulus
a number of repetitions are completed.
Speed needs to be developed, modied and learned. Training has the capacity to improve athletes abilities to:
increase their maximum speed
accelerate to maximum speed
maintain maximum speed
react and respond to signals
make correct decisions.
The development of speed depends mainly on athletes characteristics, such as their muscle elasticity,
muscle-bre type, energy system use and willpower. Aspects of the environment (such as temperature,
footwear, clothing and equipment) will also affect speed development.
In all sports, technical skills and techniques should be mastered before training to develop speed or strength.
Training for speed should be tailored to the technical demands of the sport, which vary according to the sports
need for maximum speed, strength, endurance and joint mobility.
Figure 5.21
Anaerobic training
for speed is
helpful in sports
that need quick
reaction times.

Short-interval training
One of the most effective ways to train for the development of speed is through short-interval training.
Short-interval training uses periods of activity followed by periods of rest. To develop tolerance to the lactic
acid system, the intervals generally range between 10 seconds and 2 minutes, with a workrest ratio of
approximately 1:3. For example, for every 10 seconds you work, you rest for 30 seconds. Other situations
may require work rest ratios of 1:5 or 1:10 to allow for ATP and PC replenishment within the muscle. These
ratios can be seen in Table 5.22.
The rest component of interval training, also known as the relief interval, may mean sitting and stretching
or it may involve some gentle work (such as walking or slow jogging). Recovery is very important when
working at maximum intensity. The recovery periods allow the anaerobic energy systems to refuel and ensure
that every effort is made at 100 per cent.
Intervals of work are performed in sets of repetitions that are designed to overload the anaerobic energy
systems. Maximal effort repetitions (those lasting for 10 seconds or less) are designed to improve the ATPPC
stores within the muscles. Slightly longer efforts (those lasting up to 2 minutes) aim to improve the bodys
tolerance to lactic acid within the bloodstream. There is not enough time for all the lactic acid to be removed
from the body between repetitions and sets. Therefore, the body will be working with higher levels of lactate
in the blood, which will lead to improved tolerance over time.
Many teams use anaerobic intervals in their training to develop the speed component required by their
sport. For example, football teams will spend the early part of pre-season training developing the players
aerobic base. They will then design and use an anaerobic interval program in the weeks leading up to the start
of the season to increase the speed and anaerobic endurance of the players before the rst game. Table 5.22
outlines the way running and swimming can be used to design anaerobic interval training programs.
Table 5.22Short-interval training programs based on training distances
Major energy Training distances Approximate Sets per Repetitions Workrelief Type of relief
system (metres) training time workout per set ratio interval
(min:sec)
Run Swim
Alactacid 50 0:10 5 10 1:4 Complete

100 25 <:20 3 8 1:3 rest recovery
(e.g.walking,
flexing)
Alactacid or 200 50 0:300:45 4 4 1:3 Workrelief

lactic acid 400 100 1:201:30 2 4 1:2 (e.g.light to
mild exercise,
jogging)
Anaerobic: 600 125150 1:452:15 1 5 1:2 Workrelief

glycolysis or 800 200 2:303:00 2 2 1:1 Complete rest
aerobic recovery of
workrelief
Source: Data from EL Fox and DK Mathews, Interval Training: Conditioning for Sport and General Fitness,
Saunders, Philadelphia, 1974
PRACTICAL
Short-interval training for speed
Complete one of the sessions suggested in Table 5.22. How might you adjust the session to
make it more achievable or suited to your alactacid or lactic acid system?

5075
Figure 5.22 Good gyms can tailor strength training programs to meet the specific needs of individual clients.
Anaerobic training for strength

The main goal of strength training is to increase the maximum force that a particular muscle group can
generate. Most strength training requires exercising the muscles regularly at a sufciently high intensity
against some form of resistance.
People choose to begin a strength training program for a variety of reasons, including a desire to:
develop muscular strength or endurance
develop power
lose weight
gain muscle denition.
Some people want to start strength training to build their upper-body strength; others seek lower-body
strength; and some just want a six-pack. Some people need to strengthen a specic muscle or muscle group
that is needed for their sport, so the type of strength training depends on the demands of the sport.
Some athletes wish to develop muscular power. Power is the explosive aspect of strength, and it can be
developed by improving maximum strength and/or the speed of coordinated muscle contractions. Power is
the product of strength and speed of movement. It can therefore be represented by the following formula:
force (strength) distance
power
time taken

The three main types of strength training, which are explained later in this chapter, include:
resistance training, using hydraulic and elastic resistance
weight training, using plates and dumbbells
isometric training, applying a static force.
Although there is much discussion about the nature of strength training and what form is bestfor
example, whether free weights are preferable to machines or elastic resistance band trainingto determine
the best method, an individuals performance requirements should be considered.
Strength training programs can be tailored to the specic needs of the individual. For this reason, it is
helpful to know what exercises are available for specic body parts, and how those exercises are performed
using machines, resistance bands or free weights. Gyms will offer assistance, providing information,
programs and supervision. Strength training books, DVDs, magazines and websites are also available.
Strength training uses a variety of techniques that vary the amount and frequency of the force being
applied. Strength training also employs different types of muscle contractions, depending on the type of
exercise, the equipment and the type of strength development being sought.
The three main types of strength are:
maximum or absolute strengththe ability to lift a maximum weight just once, for example,
weightlifting
elastic strengththe ability to exert maximum force in a short time period. The product of strength
and speed, this type of strength is common in explosive sports involving sprinting, jumping or throwing
endurance strengththe capacity to exert a force repeatedly over an extended time. This type of
strength is required in activities such as swimming, rowing and cross-country skiing.
A muscle will strengthen only if it has been forced to work beyond its customary intensityif it is
overloaded. Muscles can be overloaded by progressively increasing the:
intensity (by decreasing the number and length of rest periods)
resistance or amount of weight lifted
number of repetitions at a particular weight
number of sets of an exercise
speed of an action.
Strength training
Regardless of the strength training program followed, athletes can ensure the program is effective and
safe by:
undertaking a general strength program before specialising for specic movements
performing adequate warm-up and cool-down activities
completing exercises for large muscle groups before those for smaller ones
using progressive overload as the body adapts to the amount of work performed
following an individual program shaped to the athletes level and requirements
focusing on the correct form, technique and breathing patterns for each exercise
allowing an appropriate recovery period between exercises during a session and between training
sessions
monitoring progress through the use of record cards or charts.

Isotonic, isometric and isokinetic contractions
The force exerted during strength training is proportional to the type and force of the muscular contractions.
Three different types of muscular contractions occur during different types of strength training: isotonic,
isometric and isokinetic.
Isotonic contractions
An isotonic contraction exerts a force against an external load that remains constant throughout the
movement. The muscle contracts and changes in length, and there is movement across a joint. An example of
an activity that requires an isotonic contraction is a sit-up; the load is the persons upper-body weight.
Isotonic contractions can be divided into two categories: concentric contractions and eccentric contractions.
Concentric contractions are
those that shorten a muscle, for (a) Isometric (b) Isotonic
5043 P 1/3
example, the upward motion of
a biceps curl.
Eccentric isotonic contractions
are those that lengthen a muscle,
for example, the downward
motion of a biceps curl.
Isometric contractions
An isometric contraction is
performed at a constant angle
Concentric Eccentric
against an immovable load. The
muscle contracts, but it does not
change in length. There is also
Figure 5.23 Isotonic contractions move across joints; isometric
no movement across a joint. contractions do not.
For example, when gymnasts
maintain a handstand position,
the angles of their shoulder and
elbow joints do not change and
the oor is the immovable load.
Isokinetic contractions
An isokinetic contraction
generates movement at a pre-set, 5044 L 1/8
xed speed throughout the range
of motion of the joint. The muscle
contracts and changes in length
at the same rate throughout the
entire joint movement. Hydraulic
machines require isokinetic
contractions as they force the
muscle to contract at a uniform
Figure 5.24 Isokinetic contractions require the use of specialised
rate throughout the entire joint machines that maintain a constant speed of contraction.
range.

Resistance training
Resistance training occurs through the use of elastic resistance methods (bands or tubing) or through
hydraulic resistance methods (specialised machines or exercises performed in water).
Elastic resistance training

Elastic resistance training uses bands or tubes. An elastic resistance band is a at piece of elastic material
(band) that is cut from a roll to the desired length. Elastic resistance bands can be held in the hands or tied to
a stationary object. Elastic resistance tubing is bought as a kit, which contains lengths of tubing with handles
attached. The handles provide a point that can be held in the hand, placed under the foot or attached to a
stationary object.
Elastic resistance bands and tubes have become an effective and portable strength training alternative to
weight training. Elastic resistance exercise has been used for both tness training and rehabilitation for nearly
a century. It works on the simple principle that as the elastic band is stretched, the resistance increases. Due
to the nature of the equipment, exercises can be adapted to suit the needs of individual athletes and their
sports. This versatility, along with its relatively low cost and portability, makes it an ideal form of strength
training.
A variety of elastic resistance exercises have been devised to target specic muscle groups; many are the
same as for weight training. Weight training, using free weights or exercise machines, relies on gravity as the
force to provide resistance. Athletes can be limited to upward movements and one type of exercise on each
machine. Elastic resistance, however, does not rely on gravity for resistance; rather, resistance depends on
how far the band is stretched. This allows for more exibility in the type and direction of movement.
Elastic resistance exercises allow athletes to better mimic the movement patterns required for their sport
as they train. The bands and tubes can be used to replicate movements, such as twisting from side to side
while swinging a baseball bat or tennis racquet, throwing a punch in boxing or passing the ball in netball or
basketball. Athletes can be better prepared, and the training may help to prevent sports injuries.
Tension is present through the full motion, so muscles are exercised smoothly. In particular, since
momentum is not built up, as it is with weights, the smoother resistance increases safety and reduces the
chance of injury. Also, as momentum does not play a role, it is much harder to cheat using elastic bands.
5045 L 1/4
Figure 5.25
Elastic resistance
training uses
bands or tubes.

5071
Figure 5.26 Resistance bands can be used to progressively increase the resistance load.
Exercises performed with elastic resistance bands increase muscle strength and size. Because they can
be performed quickly, they also improve the development of speed and power. Elastic resistance training
can be tailored to work single or multiple joints. Because control is required to stabilise the body in positions
during the exercises, it can help to improve core strength. Additionally, elastic bands can help to strengthen
muscles that are not targeted by weights or machines, such as those in the rotator cuff of the shoulder.
Most training bands and tubes are colour coded so that different colours indicate different amounts
of resistance. Quality band systems also allow for multiple bands to be attached to the handles to further
increase resistance and progressively develop strength to higher levels. However, it can be difcult to
accurately measure the amount of resistance applied. Unlike weights, bands cannot be equated to a specic
weight, and the force produced by a band depends on how much it is stretched.
It is important to regularly check the bands as they can occasionally break. The attachment to either
handles or stationary support should be secure to prevent snap back and possible injury.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

Identify movements in a variety of sports where the use of elastic resistance training may be
of benefit.
PRACTICAL
Elastic resistance training
1 Practise using elastic resistance bands with a range of general exercises, such as squats,
bench presses, upright rows and biceps curls. Describe your experience.
2 Design three exercises (other than the exercises already performed) that use elastic
resistance bands and mimic the movements of your sport. (Before you try your exercises,
have them checked by your teacher to make sure that they are safe.) If you are unable to
work out some of the exercises, check with your teacher for clarification.

5047 S 1/4
Hydraulic resistance training
The word hydraulic means relating to
water. Hydraulic resistance training can,
therefore, involve exercising in water,
where each effort is opposed by the uid
resistance of the water.
When an athlete is immersed in
water, resistance is applied to all moving
parts of their body. As they attempt to
move, water exerts a drag force that
increases as the speed of the movement
increases; thus, all working muscles are Figure 5.27 Hydraulic resistance training can use specialised
required to work at the same rate. equipment.
Not all hydraulic resistance training
occurs in water, however. Hydraulic
resistance training uses isokinetic
contractions, where a joint is moved
through its full range of motion at a xed
speed. With isokinetic contractions, the
resistance varies as the muscle changes
in length and mechanical advantage.
They usually involve exercising using
specialised gym equipment called
hydraulic machines. These machines do
not use weights as such, but are made
with cylinders lled with uid, under
5048 S 1/4
pressure, which constantly adjust to the
force being applied by the user. They
provide a constant resistance and allow
Figure 5.28 Exercising in water is another form of hydraulic
the muscle to contract and shorten at a resistance training.
constant speed.
Hydraulic machines are designed to be safe, simple and effective. The resistance responds to the force
exerted against it; therefore, people of all levels of strength are able to benet. For this reason they are
frequently used for rehabilitation. To increase resistance, you simply push or pull harder, rather than adjust
weights. The result is an effective strength training method that reduces soreness and eliminates the
potential for injury.
Hydraulic resistance training increases muscle strength and size, and decreases body fat in a similar
manner to other types of strength training, and it is able to build speed. One disadvantage is that many
hydraulic resistance training machines only train for specic movements, limiting their effectiveness at
mimicking the movements needed in some sports.
Hydraulic resistance typically makes it possible for a person to perform strength training as well as
cardiovascular training at the same time. Gains in isokinetic strength and endurance have been seen with as
little training as one minute per day on each exercise when completed four days per week for seven weeks.
Interval circuit training using hydraulic machines allows this to be accomplished easily. The gains also appear
to be longer lasting than those of isometric or isotonic exercises. Hydraulic resistance machines are very
expensive, however, so most gyms cannot afford them.

PRACTICAL
Hydraulic resistance training
Visit a local fitness centre to find examples of hydraulic resistance equipment.
1 Find out about how and why these machines are used in strength training programs. Also
ask about exercises that are used to rehabilitate people with sporting and other types of
injuries.
2 If possible, do a workout on hydraulic resistance equipment. Describe the feelings
youexperienced during the workout. Describe both the concentric and eccentric
contractions.
3 Compare the hydraulic resistance workout with a workout using weight training machines
or weights (plates or dumbbells). List positives and negatives of each.
4 From your two work-outs, identify one each of the following types of exercises: isometric,
isotonic and isokinetic. How and why is each used?
APPLY AND EVALUATE

Professional sporting teams, such as AFL and NRL teams, are often seen on television doing
recovery sessions in pools or at the beach. This would be classified as hydraulic resistance
training. Explain the possible benefits of this type of training session.
Weight training
Weight training is the most common form of strength training for athletes, and it has been used for
centuries. Weight training involves using force to resist the effects of gravity.
Nearly all the weight training that people do is isotonic. In isotonic contractions, the muscle changes
length under a constant load. Although the load is constant, the tension produced in the muscle varies as
the muscle contracts.
Various objects (such as bricks or sandbags) could be used as weights or loads. Typically, however, the
athlete will use equipment specically designed for this purpose.
Plates and dumbbells

Rather than just using the athletes body weight, resistance can be provided by free weights or weights
stacked on a machine.
Free weights can include dumbbells, which are designed to be lifted with one arm, or barbells, which
require the use of both arms. The weight of dumbbells and barbells can be varied by adding more plates.
Most bodybuilders and people seeking pure strength prefer free weights. Free weights enable the participant
to completely isolate muscles, and allow the joints and limbs to move along their natural planes.
Weights can also be loaded onto a machine, and different machines are designed to be used to
strengthen different parts of the body. The conguration of pulleys and cables attached to the plates on
weights training machines can allow athletes to perform similar movements to those in their sport.
Weight training is also reasonably cheap and accessible, and exercises can be chosen to match the
actions of a particular sport. However, although weight training allows a muscle to be strengthened through
its full range of motion, a lot of the strength gains occur at the muscles weakest point, rather than evenly
throughout.

The most common weights training program was developed by DeLorme and Watkins in 1948. They
rst coined the term repetition maximum (RM) when they devised a strength training program based on a
maximum load that could be lifted ten times, but not eleven times (10 RM). The program requires the athlete
to perform three sets of ten repetitions as follows:
set 1ten repetitions using a load that is half the load of 10 RM
set 2ten repetitions using a load that is three-quarters the load of 10 RM
set 3ten repetitions using a load of 10 RM.
This type of training is known as progressive resistance exercise (PRE). When more than 10 RM can be
lifted, the weight is increased. This program can be performed over three to four consecutive days, or with a
rest day in between.
Some successful variations to progressive resistance exercise also exist, including :
exercising at 39 RM (best for strength gains)
training at 1 RM for one set (signicantly increases strength until about the sixth week)
varying the percentage of 10 RM in sets 1 and 2 (for example, by changing the rst set to a third of the
load of 10 RM and the second to two-thirds)
performing one or two sets rather than three (but three sets is more effective for strength gains)
varying the frequency of exercising (when using several different exercises, training may be best two to
three times per week, rather than four to ve times per week)
using a faster movement (results in greater strength gains)
Do you think you know enough about correct weight-training techniques?
Table 5.23Weight training exercises for major muscle groups
Muscle group Exercise for the muscle group

Chest Flat dumbbell press, flat dumbbell fly, incline dumbbell press, machine press,
pecdeck machine
Biceps Seated biceps curl (both arms), biceps curl with a twist, alternate arm curl,
double-arm cable curl
Triceps Lying dumbbell extension, seated one-arm triceps overhead extension, one-arm
triceps kickback with a twist, triceps pushdown machine, pulley single-arm triceps
kickback, overhead triceps extension on pulley, dips
Shoulder Lateral shoulder raises, seated dumbbell press, chin-ups, seated shoulder press,
lateral side cable pulley
Back Upright row (dumbbell or machine), single or double bent-arm dumbbell row,
lateral pull-down (in front and behind head, narrow and wide grip), seated pulley
row
Abdominals Knee-raised crunches, alternate knee in crunches, side crunches, static

contractions with crunches, abdominal machine
Quadriceps Variety of squats, leg-extension machine
Hamstrings Hamstring curl machine
Calf Calf raises (standing or seated, weighted or not, toe in or out, machine or free)
This list is not exhaustive as new techniques and exercises are continually being developed.
Click for footage of the correct technique to use when using free weights.

Table 5.24Overload techniques
Technique Explanation
Blitzing Blitzing is the practice of working a muscle or muscle group with different
exercises from different angles on one training day.
Forced repetitions Forced repetitions are exercises in which a partner gently supports the athlete
through the point where the muscles are weakest.
Cheating Cheating is where other muscles are used to assist in lifting the weight over the
weakest point. The aim is to move past the weak point and overload the strongest
part of the muscle. For example, in a very heavy arm curl, the trunk is bent
slightly forward and the muscles of the small of the back are used to lift through
the weakest point.
Negative repetitions Negative repetitions use eccentric isotonic contractions after the muscle is
fatigued. For example, after the biceps muscle is tired from performing biceps
curls, a partner assists by lifting the weight and allowing further lowering
(eccentric contractions) of the weight by the athlete. The extra work is known as a
negative repetition.
Pre-exhaustion Pre-exhaustion refers to exercising to isolate and fatigue a muscle, and then once
more using the muscle (along with other muscles) in a more complex exercise so
that it works further, for example, performing leg extensions to tire the legs and
then doing squats.
Rest pause Rest pause refers to fatiguing a muscle by overloading it to such a degree that
only 1 RM can be performed. The athlete then pauses for 10 seconds before
performing the exercise again and again. Caution is required, and this intense
technique should be used only by experienced lifters.
Pyramid training Pyramid training is the practice of increasing resistance up to the optimal weight,
and then decreasing resistance.
Up and down the rack Up and down the rack is similar to pyramid training. It uses light to heavy weights
arranged on a weight rack. The athlete works up the rack (increasing weights) and
then back down it (decreasing weights).
Compound training Compound training combines exercises of a muscle group and its counteracting
muscle group with minimal rest between. It can be done in:
super setsexercise the muscle, then the counteracting muscle (for example,
a biceps curl followed by a triceps extension), or complete a different exercise
with the same muscle group (for example, a bench press followed by a
dumbbell fly)
tri setswork the same muscle three times (for example, complete three
different exercises for the deltoids)
giant setscarry out super sets with more than two exercises and no rest in
between.
Hybrid exercises Hybrid exercises involve a greater range of motion because more than one joint is
(compound involved. Instead of doing three or four different exercises, athletes can complete
repetitions) just one hybrid exercise that uses many joints.
Triple drop Triple drop involves decreasing the weight of a set of repetitions so that more
repetitions can be done. The weight is usually reduced three times, or until
complete fatigue is reached.

PRACTICAL
Weight training
1 Choose five exercises, each for a different part of the body, from those listed in Table 5.23.
Draw a picture of how you think each exercise should be performed.
2 Practise your five chosen exercises. Before you start practising, check with your teacher to
be sure that you have the correct technique.
3 Identify two other exercises, other than those in the table, for each of your five major
muscle groups.
Overload techniques
As already discussed, a muscle
will strengthen only if it has
been forced to work beyond
its customary intensityif it Set 4
is overloaded. Table 5.24 lists 4 reps
some of the many techniques 75 kg
for achieving overload in weight
training.
Guidelines for weight

training
Weight training can make muscles Set 3
65 kg
sore, place stress on joints and 8 reps
cause injury, so care should
always be taken. Working with
one or more partners (spotters)
is advised. Spotters provide
support and help prevent injury
from fatigue and heavy weights.
Also important when weight Set 2 Set 5
training is allowing the muscles 12 reps 60 kg Max reps
time to grow, repair and recover. A
rest period of about 48 hours will
help to avoid over-training and
muscle soreness. One way to give
muscles a chance to recuperate
is to work the upper body one
day and the lower body the next. Set 1 Set 6
50 kg 5050 TS 1/4
This way each muscle group 20 reps Max reps
has a rest of 48 hours between

sessions. The only exception to
enlarge to ll
this guideline is the abdominal
as per MU
muscles, which can be worked Figure 5.29 Pyramid training is the practice of increasing resistance
up to the optimal weight, and then decreasing resistance, such as this
every day because of their size. example of a squat workout.

Table 5.25Weight training guidelines for different goals
Building muscular strength
Use a resistance of 26 RM
Complete 36 sets of fewer than six repetitions
Use 34 exercises per body part
Use compound exercises most often
Use training cycles that try to maximise strength and power, while minimising the probability of
overtraining
Use a variety of exercises
Building lean body mass
Beginner
Use a moderate weight so as to obtain 812 RM

For each body part, select one isolation exercise and one compound exercise
For each exercise, perform 23 sets of 812 RM in every workout
When more than 12 RM can be performed in the final set, increase the resistance by 2.55 per cent
Use one set of each exercise for the first 24 weeks
Exercise every second day with rests in between
Intermediate to advanced
Use advanced overload techniques

Use split workouts: one half of the body one day, then the other half the next
Increase the number of exercises to work each muscle from different angles
Increase the total number of sets (45) per exercise
Building muscular endurance
Use a resistance that eventually causes fatigue, but allows you to perform many repetitions before you
tireusually a resistance of 1520 RM
Vary each set between 20 seconds and 60 seconds, depending on fitness levels
Vary rest or recovery periods between exercises, depending on the desired training intensity (generally
010 seconds)
Monitor intensity by measuring the heart rate
Building muscular power
Resistance should be 612 RM

Perform 23 sets with 68 repetitions at high velocity
Allow 910 seconds rest between repetitions
Allow 46 minutes rest between sets
Allow 810 minutes rest between sequences
PRACTICAL
Pyramid training and progressive resistance exercise (PRE)
1 Design your own pyramid training and PRE strength work-out for a muscle group of your
choice. Work out your maximum weight (1 RM) first, and then adjust the other weights
around it.
2 Practise and evaluate each of the workouts.

5049 S 1/4
Figure 5.30 To avoid injury, weights training should be carried out with the help of spotters.
Isometric training
Hettinger and Mller revolutionised isometric strength training, which is training applying a static force. Their
study in 1953 showed 5 per cent weekly increases in strength. Their technique was to isometrically contract a
muscle group for 6 seconds, once per day for ve days each week. Repeating the contraction ve to ten times
per day produced greater strength gains.
Their study led to many further studies in which the amount of tension and the duration and number
of contractions were varied. The studies found considerable individual variations; however, they generally
conrmed that isometric contractions can improve muscular strength and endurance.
Although isometric training improves strength and endurance, it is not ideally suited to many sports
because it requires static contractions that very rarely occur in sports.
People with heart or blood pressure problems should take care when performing isometric training as the
exercises can stop blood ow to the muscle and increase blood pressure.
The advantages of isometric exercises are that, as equipment is not required, they can be performed
anywhere. They can also be useful rehabilitation tools.
ACQUIRE
1 a Describe the key features of resistance, weight and isometric training.
b Describe the advantages and disadvantages of each type of strength training.
2 Explain why overload techniques are used in strength training.
3 Identify safety procedures that should be followed when doing strength training.

APPLY AND EVALUATE
1 Interview an employee at a local gym to determine which style of strength training is most
popular for particular groups of people (such as adolescents, competitive athletes, females
and the elderly) and for particular sports, and why.
2 Contact a local physiotherapy centre and ask what exercises are provided for the
rehabilitation of patients with various sporting injuries. Classify the exercises as isometric,
isotonic or isokinetic. How and why does the centre use each?
3 Swiss balls have gained popularity for weight training because they develop the core area for
stabilisation through exercise. Modify three exercises that could be done with a Swiss ball.
EXTENSION
1 Propose a speed-training session for a cyclist, and one for a centre in netball.
2 a Outline the sort of training a surfer requires.
b Recommend some ways for a surfer to improve power and speed.
3 How and why would you use weight training in the sport you are currently studying?
Plyometrics
Plyometrics is a training method used to enhance power and explosiveness. A plyometric exercise is one that
uses an eccentric contraction to stretch a muscle group, followed by a rapid concentric contraction of the
same muscle group. This is often called the stretchshortening cycle.
The basic premise of plyometric training is that when a muscle is stretched much of the energy required
to stretch is lost as heat, but some of the energy can be stored in the elastic components of the muscle. This
stored energy is then available to the muscle only in an immediate subsequent contraction. The energy boost
is lost if the eccentric contraction is not followed immediately by a concentric contraction in the shortest
possible time.
When choosing appropriate plyometric exercises, it is important that the exercise be specic to the sport.
For example, a line-out jumper in rugby union is concerned with increasing vertical height, and a javelin
thrower is aiming for explosive upper-body power to launch the javelin.
When designing a plyometric program the focus should be on the quality of work, not the quantity.
Exercises should be completed with maximal effort, and appropriate rest periods should be allowed. Typically,
there should be 13 minutes between sets and 35 minutes between each exercise.
It is vital that athletes have a good level of basic strength, begin with appropriate exercises, follow proper
progression and perform the exercises correctly. An adequate warm-up routine is essential. A warm-up should
begin with general activity and proceed to specic exercises and dynamic stretches that mimic the exercises to
be performed.
To ensure the athletes safety, the following need to be considered:
the weight and age of the athlete
the plane of the exercisehorizontal is less stressful than vertical
limb involvementsingle or double
additional loading (weights)
the skill and stability of the athlete.

A rating scale, such as the one in Table 5.27, should be used to determine the appropriate training load for
athletes and to monitor their progress.
Appropriate progression is paramount, especially in the teaching phase of the exercises. Stabilisation
tests, such as those in Table 5.26, can be used to determine the level an athlete is capable of.
Some examples of common upper-body and lower-body plyometric exercises are described in the
following pages. These exercises should be given only to conditioned athletes, and should start out low
impact and then increase in intensity.
Table 5.26Plyometric stablisation tests

Static stand (hip flexed) for 10 seconds
Single-leg squat
Hop for distancehold landing for 10 seconds
Hop down off 30 centimetre boxhold landing for 10 seconds
Repetitive jump test (maximum effort)tuck jump for 30 seconds, checking for switch time, movement
from starting position and jump count
Source: Adapted from V Gambetta, Plyometrics: Myths and Misconceptions, Sports Coach, vol. 20, 1998, pp. 712
Table 5.27Plyometric demand rating scale
Rating Recovery time Example

1 Very low stress Very rapid recovery Jump rope or ankle bounces or other
low-amplitude jumps
2 Low stress Rapid recovery: one day required Tuck jumps, heel kicks, 360-degree
jumps
3 Moderate stress One to two days recovery Stair jumps, stride jumps
4 High stress Slow recovery: at least two days required Hops, bounds or jumps for distance
5 Very high stress Very slow recovery: three days required Depth jumps or other shock jumps
Source: Adapted from V Gambetta, Plyometrics: Myths and Misconceptions, Sports Coach, vol. 20, 1998, pp. 712
Table 5.28Plyometric training advantages and disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages
Exercise is performed more explosively than There is an increased risk of musculoskeletal
with traditional weights, leading to a more rapid injuries due to high-impact forces.
development of force, which promotes more
muscular power.
The continual acceleration throughout the A limited range of exercises are able to be
exercise produces high forces during the entire performed.
range of motion, which is more sport specific.
The exercises are able to be performed at Research has concluded that power is
higher velocities than with traditional weight minimised at an approximate load of 3040
training. per cent of maximum; the use of ones own body
weight in plyometrics does not represent this.
The exercises enable the use of elastic energy It is difficult to gain feedback from plyometrics;
and minimise the stretch reflex by training for a for example, the amount of force, speed, weight
specific activity to increase power. and so on are variables and are difficult to
standardise when compared with weights.
Higher velocities of contraction lead to lower
forces and therefore lower muscular strength.

ugly, suggest im strip style
out of time pls advise
Upper-body plyometric exercises

The trunk, being the link between the legs and hips and the upper
body, is extremely important for the efcient and powerful
execution of many upper-body movements. Exercises for the
trunk focus on swings and twists, while the arms and shoulders
are used in thrusts, throws, passes and swings.
Handstand jumps
When performing a handstand, go down on both hands (in the
same manner as doing a push-up), and then immediately spring
back up and down on both hands.
Push-up claps
During a series of push-ups, add a clap in between each push-up.
The pre-stretch occurs when the hands arrive back on the ground
after the clap and the chest sinks, followed quickly by an explosive
upwards action. Keep ground contact to a minimum.
Plyometric push-ups 5052

Kneel on the ground with an almost vertical torso. Use gravity to
fall towards the ground with arms extended (as shown in Figure
5.32). As you touch the ground, allow the force to ex the elbows,
and drop down until the chest almost touches the ground. Then, Starting position
rapidly extend the arms to full length. The extension should be Drop down
forceful enough to propel the upper body close to the starting Bottom of push-up position
position.
Extend arms
This is not a continuous exercise as athletes must always
pls mark up
return to the starting position.
Medicine ball
Lie on the ground face-up and have a partner drop a medicine
ball towards the chest. Catch the ball (the pre-stretch) and
immediately throw it back. This is a good exercise for throwers.
Plyometric sit-ups
The athlete lies on the back with the legs slightly exed and
perpendicular to the oor. A partner stands with his or her feet
on each side of the athletes head, facing the athletes feet. The
partner grasps the athletes ankles and the athlete grasps the
partners ankles.
The partner thrusts the athletes legs towards the ground by
rapidly extending the arms. The athlete provides slight resistance
to the partners push and allows the legs to slightly accelerate
towards the oor. The athlete quickly lifts the legs to the
perpendicular position before they touch the oor.
Figure 5.31 Plyometric push-up

Starting position
Starting position 5055
Leg thrust
Step off platform
Leg lift
Land on both feet,
pls mark up
exing knees
Jump outward and
upward
Extend body
pls mark up
Starting position
5054 Jump over rst
5053
cone
Jump over
second cone
in opposite
direction; repeat
for all cones
pls mark up
Figure 5.32 Plyometric sit-up Figure 5.33 Depth jump Figure 5.33 Depth jump

Lower-body plyometric exercises
The majority of plyometric exercises use hip and leg actions as these are the centre of power for movement
in most sports. Exercises for the lower body involve bounds, hops, jumps, leaps, skips and ricochets.
Depth jumps
From a box 1 metre high, drop down (do not jump) to the ground (the pre-stretch), and then immediately
jump up (concentric contraction). Minimise the length of time on the ground.
Bounds and hurdles

Use oversized strides to stay in the air longer and, on landing, spring off quickly. Two-legged or one-legged
jumps can be used along the at, up stairs or even over a series of obstacles.
Split squat jumps

Stand with one leg extended forward and the other behind the midline of the body as in a lunge
position. The forward leg should be almost fully extended. Start with a countermovement of approximately
1525 centimetres. Jump explosively off the front leg, using the calves (plantar exion) of the back leg.
Double-leg or single-leg zig-zag hops

Place about 10 cones 4560 centimetres apart in a zig-zag pattern. Begin with the feet shoulder-width
apart, arms exed at a 90 degree angle and at the sides of the body. Jump diagonally over the rst cone.
Then, propel the body in a forwarddiagonal direction, while keeping the shoulders perpendicular to an
imaginary straight line through the centre of all cones. Immediately after landing, change direction and
jump diagonally over the second cone. Continue, hopping over all cones. Try to use explosive hops to attain
maximum height.
ACQUIRE
1 a Identify other training methods that are used in sports to develop power.
b Compare and contrast each with plyometrics.
2 Explain the value of plyometric training.
3 Explain why is it important for plyometric exercises to begin at low impact and then
become more difficult.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

Recommend two sports that would most benefit from plyometric training. Justisfy your
response, referring to the skills and physical requirements of the sports.
PRACTICAL
Plyometrics
1 Design two other plyometric exercises: one that is suitable for the upper body and one
that is suitable for the lower body.
2 Try the two exercises you designed and some of the plyometric exercises listed. Evaluate
their difficulty, based on the demands placed on the body.

diagram 5056 P Full
Movement 1 2 3 4 Rating
Arm
Note: left
horizontal
extension here due to
following DPS
Arm
abduction pls advise
Forearm
exion
Forearm
hyperextension
Hand exion
Hand
extension
Trunk exion
Trunk
hyperextension
Trunk lateral
exion
Thigh exion
Thigh
extension
Leg exion
Leg
hyperextension
Foot
dorsiexion
Foot
plantarexion
Figure 5.35 Flexibility screening tests can be used to identify weaknesses and suitability for particular sports.
Source: J Bloomfield, E Bruce and T Ackland, Applied Anatomy and
Biomechanics in Sport, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Melbourne, 1994.

JP to check 5058 L DPS
Hamstring stretch Calf stretch Quadriceps stretch
1 2 3
Static excercises
1 2 3 4
Dynamic excercises
Dynamic excercises
1 2
Triceps and
shoulder stretch Biceps shoulder and chest stretch
Figure 5.36 Various stretches

Flexibility training
Flexibility is limited by the structures in and around joints, such as the bones, muscles, ligaments, tendons
and skin. Most of these are elastic, to a greater or lesser degree, and their ability to stretch can be improved
with practice. Bones, of course, are not elastic, and the exibility of some joints (for example, the elbow) is
limited by the shape of the bones involved and cannot be improved past a certain point.
Static exibility is the range of motion about a joint. It is relatively easy to measure using a exometer.
Dynamic exibility is the resistance of a joint to motion. It is more concerned with the factors that limit
movement than with the range of movement possible. It is quite difcult to measure.
Physiotherapists and sports trainers often use tools such as the exibility screening test to predict
possible sites of injury, weaknesses in the athlete and suitability to different sports.
Regularly stretching for 25 days per week, for 1530 minutes per day, will improve exibility in a few
weeks. Stretches can be held for 1030 seconds and are repeated twice. A stretching regimen can form part
of a warm-up or warm-down, or it can be a training session on its own.
Types of flexibility training

Stretching exercises can be performed statically, dynamically or ballistically.
Static flexibility training

Static exibility training is achieved by the athlete stretching the muscle by moving slowly and steadily into
a position beyond the point of resistance. The stretch position is then held for 1030 seconds. Performed
correctly, without any jerky movements, this is a safe method of gaining exibility.
Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) is a form of static stretching and is the most
effective method of improving exibility. The muscle is stretched, but it is then contracted for 610 seconds
against a resistance, which is often provided by a partner or a xed object. The muscle is then relaxed and
stretched to its maximum. This allows a greater range of movement and improved exibility.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Neck stretches
1 2
Lower back arch and sway stretch Lower back lumbar stretch

5057
Figure 5.37 PNF is a form of static stretching.
Dynamic flexibility training

Dynamic or range of motion (ROM) stretching involves movement. While not generally used to improve
exibility, it is useful in warm-up routines. The movements replicate those required in an activity and make it
easier for the tissues to elongate by increasing their temperature. Examples are torso twists and arm circling.
Ballistic flexibility training

Ballistic stretching involves using momentum to force muscles up to and past their normal range of motion.
The exercises typically involve swinging or bouncing movements, and great care is required as muscles can be
torn. This type of stretching is not recommended as a safe way to improve exibility. If done, it should only
be completed by already exible athletes and after a comprehensive warm-up.
ACQUIRE
1 a Summarise the main points of each type of flexibility training.
b Compare the different types of flexibility training.
2 Identify specific flexibility exercises that are considered potentially dangerous.
3 How would you modify each exercise pictured on pages 208209 (Figure 5.36) to make
them:
a static stretching exercises
b PNF
c dynamic stretching exercises
d ballistic stretching exercises?
APPLY AND EVALUATE

Design a sport-specific flexibility program for a sport of your choice. Justify your program by
providing reasons for each stretch you include.

PRACTICAL
Flexibility training
1 With a partner, conduct the flexibility screening test (shown in Figure 5.XX).
2 Identify possible sites where injury might occur as a result of over-flexibility or
under-flexibility.
3 Recommend sports that might be suitable for you and your partner.
4 For each person, propose a flexibility training program that focuses on developing
weaknesses and maintaining strengths.
EXTENSION
Research different forms of yoga.
1 Describe how they vary.
2 Explain the purported benefits of each.
Skills training
Most sports require the athlete to be competent at certain skills. Training and participation are not always
concerned with aerobic or anaerobic capacity, strength or exibility. Coaches and athletes spend long periods
of time on improving the skills needed in the sport. Even marathon runners need to develop their skills to run
well; it is not merely a matter of increasing their VO2 max.
Coaches need to plan training activities that challenge the athlete. They also need to consider:
the purpose of the drillwhether it is for skill, team strategy or conditioning
athletes ability to perform the drill
the number of people involved
the equipment and set-up needed
the amount of time that will be spent on it
the expected level of performance.
A key point to remember in skills training is variety. Athletes are motivated to perform if training is kept
interesting and challenging. A variety of drills for practising skills will aid this process. Modifying well-learned
drills by adding defence, obstacles or other variables adds variety to the training session and makes it more like
a game. Variety can also be provided by employing a number of different practice methods (such as individual,
team and pairs) under a range of conditions (such as minor games, small games, skills practice and full games).
Before beginning training for a new skill, coaches should explain the activity to the players. Demonstrations
and explanations should be clear and concise, and appropriate feedback about practice and performance
should be given frequently.
Skills training varies according to the:
athletes current skill level
athletes motivation
practice methods used
length of practice session
requirements of the sport.
To revise the essentials of skills practice, refer to pages 2325 of Chapter 1.

5059 L 1/3
Figure 5.38 Drills practice allows a specific skill to be refined.
Drills practice
Drills practice allows skills to be developed through repetition, observation and visualisation.
Drills practice is well suited to sports where individual skills need to be precise, such as gymnastics
or athletics. Drills can be designed to practise a specic movement or technique, for example, kicking or
throwing a ball, or completing a forward roll.
Drills practice can also be an effective training method at times when athletes are unable to practise with
a team or a partner. Examples of this include hitting a tennis ball against a wall or shooting a basketball.
Modified games
Skills training can also occur by using modied versions of the game. Modied games provide variety and are
an important and effective component of training. Modications can include changing the rules of the game,
reducing the size of the eld, playing with fewer players, shortening the play time, varying the games start
position, altering numbers in attack and defence, and so on. For example, a well-designed game on small
elds with fewer players can ensure each player is actively involved.
Modied games enable time-efcient skills practice and provide a valuable opportunity to develop game-
related skills, such as decision-making skills and tactics. Players can be encouraged to focus on specic skills
(such as passing and catching) or specic aspects (such as tness or evasion skills).
In the competitive environment of a modied game, athletes would be placed in situations that require
quick decisions. Modied games can be played to allow attackers to develop and practise deception skills
and, in turn, allow defenders to read the attempts at deception and make appropriate decisions.
Modied games could focus on tactics, such as maintaining possession, delaying the opposition or
manoeuvring to regain possession. Moments of transitionwhere a ball changes possessionare important
as they cause defenders to become attackers and switch tactics. Modied games can also be arranged to
focus on specic set plays or team patterns in certain areas of the eld.

5072
ACQUIRE
1 Compare the different types of skills
training available to a coach by
summarising the differences.
2 Describe the benefits of using a variety of
approaches in skills training.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 To be effective, training methods need
to be suited to each athletes specific
requirements. Justify which methods
would be best suited to the following
athletes:
a a shot-putter
b a hockey team
c a 110-metre hurdler
d a cross-country runner
e a springboard diver.
2 Examine the case studies of two elite
athletes in the same sport to show how
training methods vary within the same
sport. For example, consider two athletes
in netball, rugby league, swimming or
1500-metre running. Analyse the training
methods used by each individual.
a In what ways are the training methods
different or similar?
b Why are the training methods different
or similar?
c How do the specific requirements of Figure 5.39 Coaches and athletes spend long
each sport influence training? periods of time improving skills.
PRACTICAL
Skills training
1 a Choose a skill that is required in your current physical activity.
b Devise three drills that can be used to practise your chosen skill. Make the drills
progressively more difficult or taxing.
c Teach the drills to small groups in the class.
d Evaluate the practice session and recommend changes that you would make.
2 a In pairs or as individuals, devise a modified game for a sport of your choice.
b Teach the modified game to small groups in the class. (Be sure to explain it clearly!)
c Discuss your experience with others in your class.

5060 L 1/2
<start new page>
Training
principles
Once athletes have selected
the tness components to
be developed and chosen the
appropriate training methods,
are they ready to start training?
How often should they train?
How long should they train
for? Jumping straight into
training at this stage could be
harmful, unless athletes apply
training principles.
Training principles are a
set of guidelines that athletes
must follow to ensure that their
training has a purpose, is safe and
helps them to improve. Athletes
increase their likelihood of
improving their performance by
adhering to the following training
principles:
specicity
FITT (frequency, intensity,
time and type)
progressive overload
recuperation
reversibility
variety
diminishing returns
Specificity
The principle of specicity states
that the type of exercise used in
training should be specic to the:
task requirements
energy systems required in
the task
muscle groups and bres
required in the task
Figure 5.40 For training to be effective, it needs to apply the training components of tness
principles. involved in the task.

5073
Figure 5.41 The training principle of specificity says that athletes should train for the sport in which
theycompete.
For example, to be competitive, marathon runners need to develop the aerobic energy system, and they
need to use their leg muscles (not, for example, their shoulders). A discus thrower needs to develop the ATP
PC system while, at the same time, developing the shoulder, back, leg and arm muscles needed for throwing
and power. To put it simply, cyclists need to train for cycling, and rowers need to train for rowing.
Care should be taken when applying this principle. Far too often, athletes believe they are achieving
specicity by working the general muscle groups of their chosen event, but they fail to engage the correct
muscle bres. Fast-twitch bres will be developed with speed, and slow-twitch bres will be developed with
endurance.
Specicity also refers to the training adaptations occurring inside the muscle bres. For example,
endurance training will increase the number of capillaries and mitochondria in the muscle, resulting in a
greater ability to use oxygen. Strength training will increase the quantity of contractile proteins and decrease
the number of capillaries and mitochondria in the muscle, which would harm the performance of athletes
who predominantly do aerobic work.
Although specicity is crucial, there is a place for cross-training: training not specically designed for the
primary sport. Cross-training helps athletes to:
stay motivated
maintain an aerobic base
avoid or recover from injury
maintain or develop muscular balance.
Cross-training is a supplement to specic energy system training, however, and not a substitute.
Have you thought about the specific requirements of your sport? Should you adjust your training?

FITT
FITT stands for frequency, intensity, time and type. To develop an efcient training regime, the overall
program should clearly outline the intended frequency, intensity, time and type of training. Programs that
clearly outline these four factors are easy to follow and modify.
Frequency
Applying frequency to a training program
When considering training programs, frequency refers to how often training should occur. When targeting
the aerobic system, training three to ve days per week is optimal. When working the anaerobic system
only, particularly for strength and power work, three days per week is more appropriate.
This can change as participants progressively overload, or it may vary according to the time of the season.
For example, a rugby league player might aim to develop a good aerobic base during the off-season, and then
aim just to maintain it during the playing season.
Applying frequency to a training session

When considering training programs, frequency refers to how many sets or repetitions the athlete will
complete in a training session.
Intensity
Applying intensity to a training program
The intensity of a training program is the overall level of exercise difculty. Athletes should exercise at a rate
sufcient to tax the energy system being developed:
aerobic systemathletes should aim for an intensity somewhere between 75 and 85 per cent of their
maximum heart rate.
anaerobic systemathletes should aim for an intensity somewhere above 85 per cent of their maximum
heart rate.
For more information about training intensity, refer to the section on training thresholds on
pages 139142 of Chapter 4.
Applying intensity to a training session

The intensity of a training session is the difculty of a set or repetition. It is expressed differently depending
on the training method being applied. For example, the intensity of interval training is expressed as a
percentage of the athletes maximum heart rate. Intensity when referring to strength training refers to a
percentage of an individuals repetition max.
Click for instructions on how to calculate your own maximum heart rate and training
percentages, or see page 141 of Chapter 4.
Time
Applying time to a training program
The time of a training program is its length or duration. Training programs should be at least:
1215 weeks for aerobic gains
10 weeks for anaerobic (speed) gains
5 weeks for strength gains.

Generally, six weeks is considered to be the bare minimum training time needed before physiological
improvements in general tness and health take place, but not all effects occur that quickly. Essentially, the
longer a program can run for, the greater the physiological gains.
Applying time to a training session

The time of a training session is how long the training session should last. Once the correct intensity is
reached, it should be maintained for at least 20 minutes. Best results are obtained from sessions of 3060
minutes.
Type
Type refers to the form of exercise that is undertaken. To improve aerobic capacity, the exercises or activities
should be aerobic, for example, jogging, swimming, cycling or walking. This aspect of FITT relates to the
principle of specicity.
Progressive overload
The principle of progressive overload explains how athletes must exercise at a level beyond the one that they
are accustomed to for training to have an effect. As they improve, the body adapts to the stress exerted on it,
which sets a new benchmark of ability.
It is believed that the principle can be traced back almost 3000 years to the Greek wrestler, Milo of
Croton, who, according to legend, lifted a newborn calf on his shoulders every day in the years leading up to
the Olympic games. As the calf was still growing, he was progressively lifting a heavier weight each day. In
this way he became stronger.
Maintenance
5062 L 1/3
Energy expended during
training sessions
Slow progression
Starter program
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
Weeks of training
Figure 5.42 Progression and maintenance of exercise training.

5063 S 1/8
The term progressive is

used because the amount of
stress placed on the body must
be gradual. This is particularly
important during the rst
four to six weeks of a training
program. However, some stress
must be placed on the system
for improvement to occur.
Light, regular training will not
achieve results. If gains are to
be made, weights must become
progressively heavier, running
must become longer and faster,
or training sessions must become
harder. If there is too much
overload, injuries can occur; if
there is too little, the training
effect will decrease.
Progressive overload can be
achieved by:
increasing the frequency of
training
increasing the intensity of
training
increasing the distance
covered
decreasing the time allocated Figure 5.43 Athletes use a variety of techniques to progressively
to complete repetitions, sets overload and increase the work they do during training.
or sessions
decreasing the recovery time between repetitions, sets or sessions
incorporating more muscle groups into training activities or increasing a joints range of motion.
Recuperation
When you train or exercise, your cells are being damaged and your bodys resourcessuch as ATPPC,
water and saltsare being used up. That is why you feel weaker and more tired (rather than stronger) after a
workout, run or swim. How much weaker you feel after exercise depends on factors such as your tness level,
the intensity and duration of the exercise and your diet.
The bodys cells work to maintain homeostasis, or equilibrium. In other words, the body tends to try to
maintain its internal environment at normal levels. To achieve this, the body has two responses: a repair
response and an adaptation response.
The repair response is self-explanatory: it is the bodys tendency to repair any damage to bring itself back
into equilibrium.

5074
Figure 5.44 The principle of recuperation explains the need for rest between training sessions.
The adaptation response helps the body to adapt and respond better next time, in accordance with the
principle of progressive overload. Adaptation will minimise future damage and ensure that next time the
athlete does not feel as weak or tired.
If athletes do not give their body adequate time to repair and respond to exercise, they run the risk of
over-training and damaging the body. The principle of recuperation explains the need for rest between
training sessions. The amount of rest required depends on the individual and the type of training.
For aerobic training, one to two days each week of rest are recommended. For anaerobic training, two to
four days of rest are recommended.
Reversibility
Regular exercise at the same intensity maintains tness; regular exercise at progressively overloaded levels
improves tness; and long intervals between exercise reverses tness. In other words, the effects of tness
training can be reversed.
Ensuring an athlete gets sufcient rest between training sessions is vital, but too much rest can be
detrimental to the athletes progress. This principle is particularly relevant to injured or ill athletes who are
forced to miss large portions of a training program. When they do return to training, they must do so at a
level appropriate to their new, reduced level of tness.
So, how quickly will an athletes tness levels plummet without training? This depends on the tness
components and energy systems being trained. Athletes developing their aerobic system can expect
signicant decreases in VO2 max about two weeks after they stop training. Reductions in muscular strength
take longer to occur.

5066 L 1/3
Variety
Athletes who do not have a
varied tness regime can quickly
become bored and lose motivation.
Introducing variety into training
such as by varying the training
location, activities and methods
can help to keep an athlete
enthusiastic.
Variety must, however, be
balanced with the need for
specicity. Without careful
consideration, variety might mean
that the training is not geared
towards the athletes event or
position.
Diminishing returns
Improvements in tnesslike
improvements in skill acquisition
occur rapidly at the beginning
of a training program and begin
to slow down as athletes near
their maximum genetic potential.
Improvements become less
noticeable with time. It is important
for athletes to understand this
Figure 5.45 While training should remain specific to the athletes principle so that they do not become
needs, variety can be refreshing and maintain motivation.
frustrated or lose motivation.
This principle supports the need
High for progressive overload. As athletes
Athlete beginning with a high
level of fitness become tter, they require constant
increases in their workload to make
gains. However, as they progress, the
Athlete beginning with a low gains will be more gradual.
Fitness
5067
level of fitness
ACQUIRE
1 List the training principles
athletes should use to guide
Low their training.
Time 2 Why is recuperation an
Figure 5.46 The diminishing returns principle explains how gains important principle?
are rapid at the beginning of a training program, especiallyfor
athletes with low initial fitness.

05: SUMMARY
The ve health-related components of physical NOW THAT YOU HAVE FINISHED ...
tness are cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular
1 Describe a tness test designed to test one of the
strength, muscular endurance, exibility and
skill-related components of physical tness.
body composition.
2 Investigate why some sporting organisations
The six skill-related components of physical
do tness testing in and out of the competitive
tness are power, speed, agility, coordination,
season.
balance and reaction time.
3 Discuss the value of including both aerobic and
Physical tness, health and performance are
anaerobic training in team sports.
closely interrelated.
4 Imagine that you are about to start a twelve-week
The main aim of all training is to change or adapt
personal training program designed to improve
some aspect of the body so that performance
your aerobic capacity. Discuss the methods that
improves.
could be used to measure your improvement.
Strength training exercises the muscles against
5 List sports that would benet from:
some form of resistance, which can be provided
by weights, machines or other devices (such as a isometric training
elastic bands or tubes). b isotonic training
Aerobic training is designed to improve the c isokinetic training
cardiovascular systems ability to deliver oxygen d all of the above.
to working muscles. Aerobic training includes 6 Imagine you have been approached by a friend
continuous training, fartlek training and long- who is going to open a new gym. Recommend a
interval training. range of equipment that would help the gyms
Anaerobic training involves high-intensity, short- customers develop strength. Give reasons for each
duration exercise (such as interval training) 7 Analyse the use of exibility training to improve
that is designed to improve the bodys ability to performance in a team sport of your choice.
obtain energy from anaerobic energy systems.
8 The table below shows a type of training session.
Plyometrics is a training method used to enhance Discuss what training method is being employed
power and explosiveness. A plyometric exercise is and why.
one that uses an eccentric contraction to stretch
a muscle group, followed by a rapid concentric Work 10 x 40 m 5 x 80 m 4 x 100 m
contraction of the same muscle group. Rest 30 seconds 1 minute 1.5 minutes
Flexibility training includes static, dynamic
9 Explain the intensity component of the FITT
and ballistic techniques. One static exibility
principle.
technique is proprioceptive neuromuscular
facilitation (PNF). 10 a Describe the principles of training.
The design of a training program needs to b Analyse how any four of these principles can
include the training principles: specicity, FITT, be applied to a program designed to develop
progressive overload, recuperation, reversibility muscular hypertrophy.
duration, variety and diminishing returns. 11 Explain the dangers athletes are likely to face if
Training principles must be correctly applied for they do not allow for proper recuperation in an
the benets of training (adaptations) to occur. anaerobic training program.
05: Summary ///// 221

6036
6
Designing
and
evaluating
training
programs

What must be considered before beginning a training program? How much time Planning a training program 223
needs to be spent training before you see the benets? Why is it essential to break What to consider 223
down a yearly training program into smaller phases? How does someone go about Planning a training year 226
designing a short-term training program, and what should be included in individual Planning a training session 234
training sessions? How is a training programs success measured? Avoiding over-training 236
This chapter provides a guide to planning and implementing training programs. It Short-term training programs 239
begins by looking at the planning behind training programs, especially long-term Designing a short-term
programs. It looks at the phases of a training year and how to manage training training program 239
sessions to ensure that athletes reach optimal tness in time for competition. The
second part of the chapter discusses the design of short-term training programs. Program evaluation 250
This is a particularly useful section for students wishing to develop a training regime. Monitoring training 250
The nal part covers the purpose of monitoring and evaluating training programs Analysing the ndings 255
and the methods used to do this. Planning for the future 256

<start new page>
6002 1/3 L
Figure 6.1 Coaches are often responsible for planning training programs.
Planning a training program

One of the most enjoyable aspects of sport is developing skills through training and transferring those
skills to a game. This section looks at training for a goal, and how a training program is structured to
maximise learning, enjoyment, tness and skills, and to avoid the burn-out that can come from trying to do
too much.
Most athletes expect their coach to plan a series of activities to develop skills and tness. Most coaches
do this. Whether the coach is preparing a single training session or a program for a whole year, a coachs
ability to plan, organise and implement training programs will often determine the athletes involvement
and commitment. This, in turn, helps to determine the effort athletes put in and the enjoyment and skills
athletes obtain.
What to consider
Careful planning will ensure that athletes are appropriately prepared for competition. Planning needs to
consider all of the aspects that together make a difference to the athletes or teams success: from athletes
performance and tness needs to the competition schedule, the climate and the season.
In most cases, this planning is a coachs responsibility; however, in a school, individual students
participating in the program are often responsible for their own planning, usually with the assistance of a
teacher. In this topic, the term coach is used frequently to refer to the person who does the planning, but it
is important to understand that it is not always a coach in this role.
Performance and fitness needs

It is very important that training programs are planned with the athletes tness, skills and goals (both team
and individual) in mind. An athletes age, motivation, attitudes and expectations should also be taken into
account. This applies equally to elite athletes and to beginner athletes.
Chapter 6Designing and evaluating training programs ///// 223

An effective coach is one who can plan, organise, implement, observe and evaluate a training program to
meet the needs of athletes. Coaches should gather information about the athletes to appropriately address
their needs. This can be done through tness tests or surveys. For example, a survey could be used to ask
athletes about previous experiences and goals for the season.
Have you participated in fitness tests? What areas of weakness would you target in training?
Training sessions
Any planning for training programs must consider training sessions. Coaches must plan training sessions so
that technical, physical, psychological and tactical skills are all developed. While elite athletes can dedicate
a lot of time to training for their sport, other athletes might be restricted in the number of training sessions
that they can attend each week. Coaches and others planning training programs need to plan so that they
efciently use the time that is available and focus on the most important skills.
When structuring training sessions, coaches should also consider the time players have between sessions
for recovery. Elite athletes often train twice a day, and planning their training to allow their bodies time to
recover is important.
Another important consideration when planning training sessions is the availability of resources, such as
specialist equipment, gymnasiums and practice elds.
Training sessions should be structured so that they are:
safe
relevant
well balanced (between training for skills and training for tness)
structured to allow for practice and improvement
structured to a familiar routine while allowing exibility and variety.
Is your current training safe? Does it balance skills training with fitness training?
Examples of how training sessions are structured can be seen in Table 6.1, which looks at models used
by professional football teams. Other professional sports would develop their own models to accommodate
the training components important to their sport. Amateur teams would adjust their training session to
compensate for fewer sessions.
Table 6.1Professional football training models
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
Traditional model
am Rest Weights Skills Weights Rest Rest Recovery
pm Skills Skills Fitness Skills Rest Match Recovery
Funnel model (used by the Wallabies, 19982001; Brisbane Broncos, 19952003)
am Weights and Skills Weights and Rest Run * Rest Recovery

skills skills
pm Skills and run Rest Fitness Rest Rest Match Recovery
New AFL model used by some clubs
am Weights Skills Rest Skills Rest Rest Recovery
pm Skills Skills Rest Skills Rest Match Recovery and

fitness
* brief, intense session

Source: D Jenkins (ed.), Sports Science Manual for Rugby, 2nd edn, The Australian Rugby Union

Competition schedule
Training programs should be planned to produce the best performance at the appropriate time. Most athletes
and teams need to be at their peak for a competition or for a series of competitions.
Many athletes and coaches plan by highlighting important competitions on a calendar. The training
program is then divided into a series of cycles, each with a specic focus, to build up to important
competition dates.
Competition schedule planning is affected by the:
structure of the competition
special events in the season
demands of the sport
climate.
Climate and season

A coach needs to take a sensible approach to training and competition in poor weather. Unfavourable
weather conditions (such as it being too hot or cold) may mean changing the regular training time or the
length of the session, depending on the season.
Planning should allow for variations to training in bad conditions. Some extreme weather conditions,
such as heavy winds and hail, can be unsafe for outdoor sports. A training plan should take into account
the season and anticipate the likely weather patterns. Alternative venues can be considered and booked in
advance. For example, teams that usually play outdoors might book gyms, pools or indoor courts for training
at times of the year when they know conditions outdoors are likely to be unfavourable. Classroom sessions
may also be held to review tactics.
Acclimatisation to conditions can also be part of the planning. Elite athletes often attend training camps
in conditions similar to those in which they will be competing. Athletes competing at altitude will often travel
to high-altitude areas up to a week in advance to acclimatise.
6004 L 1/3
Figure 6.2 Heavy rain or

thunderstorms can be hazardous
and an annoying disruption to a
trainingschedule.

Plans to take into account the climate should also encourage athletes to do all they can to minimise
the effects of poor weather. For example, in hot weather they should wear appropriate clothing (including
headwear), drink plenty of water and choose a level of exertion that prevents them from over-heating.
ACQUIRE
1 Outline four factors an athlete needs to consider when designing a training program.
2 a Why use a structured training program as opposed to just going out and training as
yougo?
b Who would a structured program benefit?
3 Describe an ideally designed training session.
4 How can climate play a role in influencing an athletes training?
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 What types of activities are used during a professional football teams recovery sessions?
Outline their benefits.
2 Consider your current sport and your local climate. In what situations is it likely that you
will need to devise an alternative plan to allow for bad weather?
3 Discuss the acclimatisation needed for a Tasmanian team competing in a Cairns
tournament.
4 Describe how an elite athletes planning for a competition might be different from the
planning of a recreational or amateur competitor.
Planning a training year

When designing a training program for a year of competition, the training year is often divided into periods
or phases. It is not uncommon for athletes to train all year round. Even though the cricket season is in
summer, cricketers train in the winter. Athletes of the winter sportsrugby league, soccer, netball, rugby
union and Australian rules footballtrain during the summer months. This is done to maintain tness and, in
some cases, skill levels.
A long-term training plan is also required so that coaches and athletes can set goals and work towards
achieving them.
Phases of competition
Athletes training programs can often be broken down into three distinct phases:
post-season or off-season (transition)
pre-season (preparatory)
in-season (competition).
Subtle and important differences in training exist in each of these stages. At each stage, the training
volume and the training intensity are adjusted to best suit the athletes needs. Training volume refers to the
length of training sessions and the frequency at which training occurs. Training intensity is the effort put into
trainingwhether is it strenuous or relatively light. Table 6.2 suggests some activities for various training
phases throughout the year.

6005 S 1/4
Figure 6.3 Most professional athletes train all year round.
Table 6.2Suggested activities for the phases of a year-round training program
Activity Post-season Pre-season In-season

Weight training 3 days per week 23 days per week 1 day per week
Running Low intensity: 12 days High intensity: 3 days per High intensity: 12 days
per week week per week
Skills Skills practice Skills practice Skills and drills practice
Other Limited sport-specific Learning strategies Game-like activities,

practice regular competition
Source: Adapted from ML Foss and SJ Keteyian, Foxs Physiological Basis for Exercise and Sport, 6th edn, WCB/McGraw-Hill,
Boston, 1998 and SK Powers and ET Howley, Exercise Physiology Theory and Application to Fitness and Performance, 3rd edn,
Brown and Benchmark, Madison, 1997
Post-season training
Post-season (or off-season) training varies from sport to sport, but has the following general aims:
to prevent weight gain
to maintain a base level of aerobic tness
to maintain strength
to maintain reasonable skill levels
to repair injuries
to recuperate physically and mentally.
Regardless of the sport, variety is the key to post-season training programs. Post-season training is
usually low intensity but high volume (a large number of long sessions). A post-season program might include
competitions in the athletes sport (or a similar sport) and recreational and social activities for fun.

The off-season gives athletes time to concentrate on areas in which they might be weak, without the
pressure of competition. The areas that athletes choose to target in their training will depend on their
individual strengths and weaknesses, and on the nature of the sport. For example, in the off-season,
an endurance runner might focus on maintaining aerobic capacity rather than on developing strength;
a spin bowler might focus on skill development; a tennis player with an injury might concentrate on
rehabilitation and mental strategies; and a netball team might play in a touch football competition to
maintain ball skills.
Pre-season training
Pre-season training usually occurs eight to twelve weeks before the start of the season or competition. In this
time, the energy systems (aerobic or anaerobic) used in the sport are taxed to maximum capacity.
The principal difference between post-season training and pre-season training is the intensity of training.
While post-season training is usually low intensity, but high volume, pre-season training shifts to high
intensity (progressive overload) and low volume.
Time should be allocated to developing physical tness and practising skills in the pre-season.
In-season training
The aim of in-season training is to maintain the tness, strength and skills developed during the pre-season.
Practice sessions should be at a volume and intensity that allows athletes to maintain their strength and
endurance.
It is important to mix conditioning and skills practice through the in-season. The in-season phase is
marked by an emphasis on skill and strategy development, while the specic conditioning for the sport is
continued. Much of this conditioning can be achieved through intense skills practice and small-sided games.
In-season training usually focuses more on game skills and strategic development than either post-season
or pre-season training does. As athletes spend more time doing drills that require game skills and tness,
practising in game-like practice sessions and playing actual games, they can spend less time on aerobic
capacity and strength conditioning. The exception to this is athletes who do not receive much game time;
they might need to do additional high-intensity conditioning or skills practice during the week.
ACQUIRE
1 Why should an athlete or team train differently at different times of the year?
2 Summarise each phase of training, including a brief description of time frames and
possible focus areas for each.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Suggest pre-season training programs for a:
a touch football player
b high jumper.
2 What would happen if a netballer:
a continued a post-season program for the whole year?
b stopped training at the end of the in-season, and then started up again at the beginning
of the in-season of the next year?
3 Study the following article about marathon training. Identify some of this programs
features that make it appropriate for in-season training.

NEWS
Training to compete in a marathon
In the last month before the event training runs and the races. Countdown to the race
you should be focusing on running Proper post-run routines should 13 weeks to go
efciently at race pace. The be worked out, including eating, From now on marathon
important sessions will therefore drinking, bathing and, if possible, training takes preference over
be repetition runs over 24 km at massage. races. First two-hour run.
a pace that varies between your
expected marathon pace and a
pace that is about ve seconds per 6008 P 1/2
kilometre faster. Thus the athlete

who is hoping to run 2 hours 24
minutes will do their repetitions
from 5.30 to 5.20 per mile or, if
working in kilometres, from 3.25
to 3.18 per km. As well as this, you
will be doing timed pace runs
at your marathon speed, up to
10 miles in training, or possibly
in the form of a controlled half-
marathon race.
Whatever you do in training is
no good unless you can reproduce
it in race conditions. It is
important, therefore, to rehearse
as fully as possible the situations
you are likely to encounter.
These include getting up and
breakfasting early for an early
start, practising the pre-race diet
before long training runs, taking
drinks during the run and wearing
the shoes you are going to wear
in the race. The best way of doing
this, of course, is to incorporate
some races into your program,
preferably over distances of 1020
miles (1532 km).
Recuperation
This is an essential part of
the training, which must be
programmed in, to take account Figure 6.4 A well-planned training program is essential for
of the effects of the hardest marathonrunners.

Training to compete in a marathon (cont )
These will be repeated every but you should rest up before Run no more than 15 miles
two weeks. having a serious race or pace with 2 weeks to go.
12 weeks to go run. The last week
Introduce the quality sessions, 5 weeks to go You will have done 810 miles
once a week at rst, increasing This is probably the best with seven days to go, and
to two a week, plus one long time to put in your three- after that it doesnt really
run, pace run or race. A typical hour run. It also gives you an matter. I advise a little running
session would be 6 x 1 mile or opportunity to try out drinking each dayno more than half
5 x 2 km, with 34 minutes before and during the run. an hour. If you are going to
rest between each. 4 weeks to go carbo-load, the right period is
11 weeks to go Your last race. Rehearse the from the Thursday evening to
Assess the training load of the pre-race routines of carbo- the Saturday evening before
rst two weeks. From now on loading in the last two days a Sunday race. It is advisable
you should establish a pattern, before the race, and the to be at the race venue the
based on either a 7-day or a pre-race meal. Decide on the day before to check out the
14-day cycle, which will enable right shoes. During the next exact nish of the race and
you to do the hard work three weeks most of your the arrangements regarding
and recover from it by the serious running will be done at getting to the start.
beginning of the next cycle. marathon pace to get into the Race day
9 weeks to go right rhythm. For a morning race, get up
After four or ve weeks you 3 weeks to go three-and-a-half hours before,
should be running a race to Your last long run, about 20 breakfast three hours before,
measure your progress, and miles, with a few stretches at and bring a drink with you to
also getting up to two-and-a- marathon speed, the rest is take 10 minutes before the
half hours for your long run. easy. start. Make sure that you have
clothing for either a warm
8 weeks to go 2 weeks to go
day or a cold day. Finally, run
At the end of this week From now on you are tapering.
the rst mile as close to your
you should allow yourself a The mileage should be cut
target time as possible. After
recuperation period to absorb to two-thirds of normal and
that? You have done all you
what you have done. you should concentrate on
can so enjoy it!
7 weeks to go feeling good, just doing a bit
Source: Brian Mackenzie,
The next four weeks will of striding out to keep the leg UK Athletics Level 4 Performance
include the hardest training, speed and the stride length. Coach, www.pponline.co.uk
Macrocycles and microcycles

Within each phase of competition (post-season, pre-season and in-season) training programs can be broken
down further into macrocycles and microcycles to allow a coach to plan in greater detail. These smaller
blocks of time allow for the manipulation of training volumes, intensities and recovery.
Macrocycles are blocks of training that usually last for three to six weeks. Microcycles are smaller blocks
of training within a macrocycle. Microcycles usually last for seven to ten days.

Each daily training session in a microcycle forms an important part of the larger macrocycle. Throughout
the year the training type and focus of macrocycles will vary, depending on the phase of the competition and
the desired results of training.
An example of an annual training plan is shown in Figure 6.5. In this example, the unloading phases in
the macrocycle refer to a decrease in volume of training, but an increase in intensity. Transition periods are 6009
times of low-impact activity and regeneration.
Figure 6.6 on page 232 demonstrates how one aspect of training can be given greater emphasis in a
macrocycle. Using a systematic approach to plan the pattern of the cycles within a phase of competition, the
coach is able to nd the correct balance between tness and skill requirements.
Annual training plan
Months Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Competition Competition Finals
Phase Pre-season In-season Post-season
Basic Specic
Macrocycles Unloading Unloading Unloading Peaking Transition Conditioning
conditioning conditioning
Microcycles
Strength General Maximum Maintain Maintain
Speed Develop running speed Develop movement speed Maintain
Endurance Develop aerobic capacity Maintain aerobic capacity Maintain
Flexibility Develop Maintain Maintain
Skill Improve specic skills Develop skills under pressure Improve basic skills
Tactics Implement Consolidate Devise and test
Increase
Psychology Goal setting Simulate competition strategies Goal setting
motivation
100%
Training volume 80%
60%
100%
Training intensity 80%
60%
Testing
% Training time:
Conditioning 50 40 30 20 20 20 20 30 20 60 70
Skill 30 30 40 40 40 40 30 20 20 40 30
Tactical 20 30 30 40 40 40 50 50 60
Source: TO Bompa, Theory and Methodology of Training: The Key to Athletic Performance,
3rd edn, Kendall/Hunt, Iowa, 1994
Figure 6.5 An annual training plan helps athletes and coaches to achieve their goals.

6011 AT
Macrocycle 1 Macrocycle 2
Conditioning emphasis Skills emphasis
High
Medium
Volume
Low
Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Load Increasing volume Intensity reduced with increased volume,
and intensity Recovery until mid cycle when intensity is increased
Intensity
Skill Conditioning
Figure 6.6 Each macrocycle can have a different focus.
Peaking for performance

A peak is an optimal state of athletic readiness aimed at the highest possible performance. An athletes peak
is a temporary state that occurs when the athletes psychological and physical capacities, and technical and
tactical preparation are optimal. An athletes peak is characterised by:
good health
an ability to cope with training workloads and stress
quick recovery
extreme efciency at producing energy for performance
self-condence
high motivation and aspirations.
A training program should be adjusted to achieve peak physical and psychological performance at the
critical stages of competition. For example, rugby league players might need to be at their peak performance
in September for the grand nal. Swimmers might plan their training so that they peak in a few years, in time
for the 200-metre nal at the Olympics.
Peaking for performance does not occur overnight and must be planned. It involves sequential,
cumulative training programs that focus on preparing the athlete for a peak performance. Coaches design
long-term training programs that develop athletes tness, skills and tactics so that these abilities peak at a
particular time.
Have you ever adjusted your training so that you are at your peak for an event? How did your training
program change?
Click for an interview of a coach discussing how he gets his athletes to peak.

6010 P 1/4
Tapering
To achieve peak performance in major
competitions, many athletes reduce
aspects of their training in the weeks
leading up to the event. This allows the
body and mind to have a break from
vigorous physical exertion, and provides
an opportunity to heal injuries and
recharge energy reserves. This is known
as the taper period or tapering.
Tapering often means decreasing
the volume or intensity of training.
Reducing training volume but
maintaining intensity is generally
preferred.
The time to begin tapering varies
from sport to sport. A taper period
of approximately seven to ten days
appears to be appropriate for most
sports. A taper period of at least
two weeks is recommended for
swimmers, and a period of one to
two weeks, for runners. Tapering in
swimming improves performance, with
increases noted in both VO2 max and
arm strength. In running, however,
Figure 6.7 Training programs are designed so that athletes
are at their peak when it matters most: during competition. performance does not change but leg
power slightly improves.
Tapering allows the body to increase muscle glycogen stores in preparation for a match. To help build
energy stores, tapering should be accompanied by rest and good nutrition, including a high-carbohydrate
diet.
Speed, endurance, strength and power cannot be improved within three days of a match. Therefore, any
training session held in the thirty-six hours before competition needs to be brief and intense, so as not to
signicantly deplete glycogen reserves.
Athletes might experience some of the following during the taper period:
VO2 max increases.
Muscular strength increases.
Blood lactate levels decrease.
Minor injuries are healed.
Soreness disappears.
Glycogen stores are replenished.
However, athletes bodies respond differently to tapering; for some athletes, none of these occur.
When do you think you will need to start tapering your training to peak for your event?

ACQUIRE
1 Distinguish between microcycles and macrocycles. What is the role of each?
2 Explain when and how a team might plan to peak in a season.
3 Define training volume and training intensity.
4 What value does a taper period have in a team sport?
5 Apart from the physiological changes, what other benefits can be derived from tapering?
APPLY AND EVALUATE

Using an Excel spreadsheet, draw a graph that represents peaking for performance during
the season. What modifications to training might occur as athletes approach the time when
they need to be at their peak?
Planning a training session

Regardless of the age or experience of the athlete, a training session should be broken up into the following
sections.
It is important that training starts and nishes on time so that athletes know exactly what is expected
of them.
Overview
It is important for coaches to give athletes a brief overview or introduction before each training session. The
coach gives a brief explanation of the sessions objectives and activities, which helps athletes to understand
what will be expected of them and why.
During the training session, coaches need to continue to give athletes effective instructions to ensure
athletes are able to perform the tasks well. Effective instructions are clear, concise, relevant, accurate, well
timed, constructive, positive and informative.
Warm-ups and stretching

The objective of a warm-up is to prepare athletes physically and mentally for the demands of the training
session.
A general warm-up should involve a gentle and rhythmic use of the large muscle groups. This will raise
the heart rate. A general warm-up should progressively increase in intensity until the athlete is prepared for
the full demands of training. A slight sweat is a good indication of readiness.
The general warm-up should be followed by a period of stretching. It is essential that stretching occurs
only when the muscles are warm and that each stretch is held (without bouncing) for 1030 seconds.
Dynamic stretching, such as arm circling, has also been shown to be useful in preparing muscles.
The specic warm-up stage involves practising activities and skills that are relevant to the sport. The
heart rate is progressively increased. By incorporating the skills of the sport, the necessary muscles and
ligamentsand even motor neuronsrequired for the performance are activated.
Skill instruction and practice

After the warm-up and stretch, the coach explains the series of drills to follow. Any explanation should be
brief so that the effect of the warm-up is not lost. Alternatively, the coach might give these instructions
before the warm-up, and review them briey after the warm-up.

The practice of skills and strategies is usually the main part of an in-season training session. If a new skill
or strategy is to be learned, it should be taught straight after the warm-up while the athletes are still fresh.
This should be followed by practice. Other skills and strategies from previous training sessions should then be
revised.
As prociency increases, the drills will begin to resemble game-like situations.
Conditioning
General tness conditioning should occur after skills practice so that the practice is not affected by fatigue.
Fitness conditioning should last for about 1520 minutes. The only exceptions are fartlek training and
fatigue-loading, which involve tiring the athlete to practise performing skills when tired. These should occur
after the warm-up.
Games
Games, although optional during a training session, can also be added during the warm-up or cool-down, or
after conditioning. These serve to motivate and to reinforce execution of skills in a competitive setting. They
can be modied to focus on fun or tness.
Cool-down
A cool-down of 510 minutes, plus stretching, helps to remove waste products and gradually bring the body
back to resting levels. It gives the body time to return blood to the heart, rather than letting the blood pool in
the muscles. This allows the oxygenated blood to ush out the waste products that form during activity and
begin to rebuild the energy stores required for the next performance.
A cool-down should include a period of stretching that enables working muscles to be stretched to their
original length, thereby reducing muscle soreness and aiding recovery.
Evaluation
An evaluation of the training session should occur during or after the cool-down. This is an opportunity for
the coach and players to reect on the sessions training objectives and performances. It can be a good time
to talk about intensity and application in training, punctuality, the next training session, player availability
and the coming game. The evaluation should involve the players giving feedback, which can help to guide
future training sessions.
Health and safety

Most importantly, safety must be considered when
planning a training session. To minimise athletes risk of
injury, equipment and facilities should be safe and well
maintained, and coaches should use safe techniques.
Allowing time for each step in a training session encourages 6012
safe training practices. For example, doing appropriate
warm-ups reduces the risk of injury.
As previously discussed, plans should also be adapted to
take the weather conditions into account.
Figure 6.8 Coaching methods should be based on safe

practice.

ACQUIRE
1 Describe the differences between each section of a training session, and explain why each is
important.
2 Explain how poor session planning can lead to athletes losing motivation.
3 For each of the following sports, recommend three training activities that help to improve
fitness and allow skills practice.
a netball
b soccer
4 Distinguish between a skill and a drill.
5 Explain why a training session should be evaluated.
6 Describe why games are used in training sessions.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Choose three sports. For each sport, name a game that can be played at training to:
a develop skills
b warm up athletes
c just have some fun.
2 Divide the class into five groups. Each group must develop a 40-minute training session that
represents a different phase of the annual training plan.
a Discuss how training methods will be used for different phases.
b Discuss how the focus on skill and fitness will vary depending on the phase of training.
PRACTICAL
Planning a training session
In pairs, choose a sport and design a 30-minute training session. Prepare a brief written plan of
your session. Use headings such as main objectives, activities and things to prepare. Then,
take members of your class or another group through your training session. Remember that if
you have young athletes in the group, the instructions and drills will need to take their age into
account.
1 Describe, giving examples, how the activities matched the abilities of the group.
2 Describe the groups reaction to the training session.
3 Explain how your training session could be modified.
4 Describe the hardest part of this activity. Why was it the most difficult?
5 What was the easiest part of this activity? Why?
Click to download a training session template.
Avoiding over-training
Months of training every day, or every few days, has the potential to place considerable stress on athletes,
both physically and psychologically. Over-training occurs when an athlete does more work than can be
physically tolerated. The body is not able to adapt, which results in tissue damage and not enough time to

repair it. This in turn affects performance, which has a ow-on effect on motivation. Athletes who are not
performing at their best can lose motivation.
Over-training occurs when workouts are:
too long and too frequent (excessive training volume)
too strenuous (excessive training intensity)
conducted with inadequate recovery times between workouts.
When planning training programs and training sessions, every attempt should be made to avoid over-
training. With increasing pressure to perform, however, many athletes and coaches push too far. Very few
athletes are under-trained, but many are over-trainedoften in the belief that more is best.
To help prevent over-training:
ensure proper nutrition
ensure adequate rest and recovery between workouts
monitor training loads
vary exercise intensities
monitor physiological changes (for example, increased heart rate, increased oxygen consumption and
blood lactate levels)
use sports psychology strategies (for example, mental rehearsal and relaxation)
keep a training diary that monitors feelings.
The damage done by over-training cannot be undone in a couple of days. It can take weeks, or even
months. Athletes who have over-trained need to dramatically reduce their training or even to take a
complete rest from training.
Over-training 6013 L 1/3 TS

Physical and psychological stress
Decrease in performance
Reduced motivation
Well-planned training program
Appropriate training load
Increase in performance
Improved motivation
Figure 6.9
Well-developed
training programs
avoid over-training.
Signs and symptoms of over-training

Physiological signs, such as lethargy and injury, need to be considered when assessing whether an athlete
is over-training. It is natural for athletes to experience periods of fatigue and tiredness during a training
program, and this is not always an indication of over-training. Many of these periods can be corrected by
more rest, alternative training techniques and a good diet (high in carbohydrates).

Over-training should be suspected when a rapid decline in performance is not remedied by the above
methods after a few days.
A psychological sign of over-training can be lower motivation; however, it is also natural for athletes to
lose motivation for periods. Athletes sometimes lose their desire to train and perform and, in turn, perform
badly.
The signs and symptoms of mental fatigue caused by over-training vary from individual to individual.
An over-trained athlete might exhibit a combinations of signs and symptoms, and over-training should be
suspected when some or all of the listed signs and symptoms are noted and a rapid decline in performance is
not remedied easily.
Are you a determined athlete? What is your motivation like? Should this information have any bearing on
your training program design?
Table 6.3The signs and symptoms of over-training
Physical performance Biological functions Psychological signs
Decline in physical Increase in resting and sub- Staleness

performance maximal heart rates Sleep disturbances
Loss of muscle strength Elevation of heart rate in Increase in feelings of
Loss of coordination recovery after exercise physical, mental and
Decrease in maximal aerobic Increase in blood pressure emotional exhaustion
capacity Increase in oxygen uptake Decrease in self-esteem
Injury and blood lactate during Difficulties in dealing with
sub-maximal exercise others
Loss of weight (or no weight Social withdrawal
loss) Feelings of overall chronic
Muscle tenderness stress
Increased risk of infection Emotional instability
Occasional nausea Decrease in motivation and
Chronic fatigue commitment
Early onset of fatigue when
training or competing
Decrease in VO2 max
Decrease in muscle glycogen
Decrease in appetite and
libido
ACQUIRE
Describe the signs and symptoms used to identify an over-trained athlete.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

Outline strategies that could be used to prevent over-training in the following cases.
1 A sprinter believes she is not improving quickly enough. She increases the number of
training sessions she does each week. After a few weeks she becomes lethargic, finds it
hard to motivate herself, has shown no improvement in speed and complains of a sore hip.
2 During a training session, a footballer, on the recommendation of a friend, goes from doing
interval sprints for improved speed to doing stair drills in the stadium. He complains of
sore shins and is unable to play in his next game.

6015 P 1/3
Short-term training
programs
Athletes who are serious about their
sport and compete regularly develop
long-term training programs. However,
not everyone has long-term competitive
goals; some simply wish to achieve
physiological benets with short-term
training.
Designing a short-term
training program
Physical education students are likely
to participate in short-term training
programs and might even be required
to design one. This section provides a
step-by-step breakdown of short-term
training program design. Figure 6.10 Short-term training has physiological benefits.
As the physical activities being studied as part of this topic will differ from school to school, this section
has been designed so it can be applied to various team and individual sports. However, it is important to note
that this section provides a broad guideline and that your teacher may alter some of the steps to suit your
schools environment and curriculum needs.
Seven steps are involved in designing a short-term training program.
1 Analyse tness and skills.
2 Decide on the duration of the program.
3 Divide the program into periods.
4 Decide on training days.
5 Create a program outline.
6 Plan training sessions.
7 Ensure that the Training Principles have been correctly applied.
Step 1: Analyse fitness and skills

When devising short-term training programs, athletes must have a clear idea of their goal. To determine a
realistic goal, they should know their starting tness level, their tness weaknesses and strengths, and the
skill and tness needs required to achieve their goal. Once athletes know what they have and what they need
to achieve, they can formulate a tness program that bridges this gap.
Lets look at what is required to identify the training gap.
List goals
Each athlete must consider his or her individual goals. For example, a beginner may wish to simply build his or
her general aerobic tness; a highly trained athlete may wish to reach peak speed.

Goals provide an athlete with a purpose and, most importantly, they help to keep an athlete motivated.
For goals to be effective, they should be SMARTER: specic, measurable, attainable, realistic, timely, exciting
and reviewed. Too often, athletes set themselves vague goals, such as I want to get faster. This type of goal
does not provide much of a challenge and cannot be measured.
Table 6.4Setting SMARTER goalsa water polo goalkeepers example
Specific I want to become a better goal keeper by increasing my goal saves percentage.
Measurable A goal is saved each time I successfully prevent the opposition from scoring. I can find this
information. I would like to achieve a 75 per cent success rate.
Attainable Last season, I averaged a 65 per cent success rate. I believe that 75 per cent will be challenging, but
within my reach. I have devised a series of drills to complete each week.
Realistic I believe I am now at the associative level in my sport as I have started playing at club level. I have
spoken with my coach, and she feels that a 75 per cent goal save rate is a realistic goal.
Timely I want to achieve this average by the end of this season, which is five months away (1 December).
Exciting This goal provides a challenge and will help to keep me motivated.
Reviewed I will review this goal on the first day of December.
What are your short-term training goals?
Click for a goal-setting template.

6027
Assess fitness needs
Athletes need to ascertain the tness needs of the
activity they are training for. The tness needs will
depend on factors such as the activity itself, the
position they will be playing in the team and the
event they will be competing in.
The tness requirements will also depend on
the energy systems being used and the components
of physical tness required. For example, does the
activity require training for greater exibility or
improved cardiorespiratory endurance?
Assess current fitness levels

Conducting a series of tness tests provides athletes
with a snapshot of their current overall tness level
before they begin training to improve. Chapter 5
included examples of tests that are commonly
performed to measure physical tness.
Click for templates to record fitness

Figure 6.11 A cyclists fitness needs are primarily
health-related components of physical fitness, such
levels.
as cardiorespiratory and muscular endurance.

6017 P 1/4
Assess skill needs

Athletes must examine the skills needed for the activity or event
they plan to train for. Generally, team events require broad skills,
while individual pursuits require a narrower, more specic skill
focus. For example, a basketball point guard needs to master
the skills of dribbling, passing, catching, shooting and defending;
however, a 100-metre sprinter would need to focus on the
starting and running action.
Skill analysis can be conducted by:
observing the skills required for the game or event. This can
be done by watching a game and observing the skills that
are relevant
recording performance statistics. This provides a more
objective assessment and quickly highlights the skills
needed.
Click for templates to record statistics.
Assess current skill levels

It is important that athletes determine their current skillstheir
technical strengths and weaknesses. In addition to observation
and recording performance statistics, athletes can use skills
tests to rate their performance. Figure 6.12 A netballers fitness needs
include a strong emphasis on skills.
More information regarding learning skills and examples of
skills tests can be found in Chapter 1.
What portion of your training needs to be devoted to skill development? How does this compare with the
amount that needs to be devoted to fitness?
Click for more information about the types of software available to analyse techniques.
Lacrosse statistics 6018 TS 1/2

Name: Prue Jamieson (defender) % of success
Catch 81%
Pass 100%
Stick check 0%
Shot
Analysis: Although I did not make any attempts at goal, I am not concerned. As a
defender, playing correct zone defence means that I should not be in an attacking
Figure 6.13
position on the field. My catch and pass success reflects the amount of training I have Recording
been doing in those areas. Although my stick check success rate is low, I am asserting statistics gives
myself in defence and making attempts to turn over the ball. However, I need to start an objective
converting stick checks into possessions to be of more benefit to my team. assessment of the
skills needed.

6019 L 1/3
Determine the gap

The training gap can be
determined by calculating the
difference between the tness
level needed and an athletes
current tness level. This process
is repeated for each aspect of
tness and each skill.
By analysing the gap between
the skill levels and tness
levels they would like to have
and those they currently have,
athletes know where to place
the emphasis in their training
program.
For example, if an athlete is
training for an event that requires
great emphasis on technique,
such as high jump, and they are
still at the early cognitive stage
of learning, then their program
will have to focus on developing
both technical skills and tness.
Another more advanced athlete,
at the autonomous stage
of learning, might tailor the
training program to focus on
physical conditioning, such as
improving power and speed,
while they ne tune technique.
Would you consider yourself
an untrained, intermediate
or advanced athlete? What
Figure 6.14 Specialised software can be used to analyse footage of an implication does this have on
athletes performance.
your program design?
Step 2: Decide on the duration of the program

It is generally accepted that a training program must run for at least six weeks to achieve any physiological
gains. The duration of a program depends on the dominant energy system needed for the activity:
Aerobic-based training programs need 1215 weeks.
Anaerobic based training programs need 810 weeks.
Some strength gains can be achieved in as little as ve weeks (see Chapter 5); signicant aerobic
improvement requires a minimum of twelve to fteen weeks. A weightlifter, for example, would not be
required to train for the same duration as a netball centre to achieve comparative short-term gains.

The time constraints associated with the demands of a senior physical education course, in addition to
those of being a senior student, may make the above suggestions unfeasible. However, students may be able
to negotiate earlier starting dates with their teacher (for example, by starting during the school holidays) if
they are eager to maximise improvement.
Do you have enough time to complete the program?
Nine-week program
3.5 hours
3.1 hours
2.7 hours
2.6 hours 2.4 hours
2 hours 2 hours
1.8 hours
1.5 hours
First three-week cycle Second three-week cycle Third three-week cycle
Six-week program
6020 TS L 1/3
Medium Hard Recovery Medium Hard Recovery
First three-week cycle Second three-week cycle

Figure 6.15 Short-term training programs in three-week cycles apply the principle of progressive overload.
Step 3: Divide the program into periods

Dividing the program into periods or blocks of time is extremely important as it allows for logical progression
towards goals. In the same way that long-term training programs are broken into smaller blocks of time
phases, macrocycles and microcyclesshort-term training programs can also be broken down.
With a short-term training program, the training phase is not guided by the requirements of the sports
competition. Instead, when designing a short-term program, athletes must consider their current level of
training and experience, and take this as their starting point. For example, athletes with a high level of tness
could pitch their program to reach a peak in performance. Completely untrained athletes would start by
developing their base tness levels.
Most senior physical education programs require students to assume they are in the pre-competition
phase at the beginning of their short-term training program. Their program then consists of a six-to-eight
week build-up.
Once an athlete has established a starting point, it is recommended that his or her program be divided into
macrocycles that last for three weeks each. In each cycle, the rst week is of a medium difculty, the second
is more difcult and the third is for recovery. Remember that recovery should not mean complete rest. The
recovery week should still include training, but the training should be less intense to allow energy supplies to
be restored and injuries to heal. It is equally important not to skip recovery weeks in the false hope that doing
so will improve the effects of training. Skipping recovery will only increase the risk of over-training and injury.

6032
ller
Figure 6.16 Distance swimmers who need to focus on building aerobic capacity would train five days
perweek.
Rather than trying to write the entire program in advance, it is recommended that athletes focus on
the medium weeks in their program rst. Determining what is a medium or average difculty for each
athletes current tness levels will provide a reference point from which changes can be made to other weeks
in the program. A medium week should consist of sessions that are individually tiring but that do not make
the athlete feel physically sore or drained at the end. As the principle of progressive overload needs to be
applied, ensure that each medium week is pitched at a slightly more challenging level than the last. Refer to
Table 6.5 on page 245 for further guidance on how to apply the principles of training.
What would a training session need to consist of to make you feel tired by the end but not feel sore the next
day?
Step 4: Decide on training days

The appropriate number of training days each week is determined by the type of tness that an athlete is
training for and the energy system used. Generally, anaerobic power-based training should occur three times
per week; aerobic training requires less rest and can be done up to ve times per week.
Does your sport or position in the team require mostly anaerobic or aerobic fitness? What implication does
this have on the number of days you train per week?
In the short term, it is not recommended that athletes focus on improving too many tness components
at once; it is better to focus on quality training rather than a large quantity of training. Students devising
short-term programs should select one or two components that take priority. For example, a shot-putter
would focus on strength and power, and would train three days per week because it is an anaerobic activity.
A distance swimmer would focus on aerobic capacity, training up to ve days per week. They would also
incorporate some skills training into their training sessions.
When deciding which days to train, follow two general rules:
1 Vary the overall strain of the training days, never placing two high-stress days in a row.
2 Follow every hard day with an easy day. Easy days can be a great opportunity to work on technical skills
and tactics.

new page
Step 5: Create a program outline

Now that you have determined the type of training you need, and the frequency and intensity with which
you need to train, create an outline of your training program.
Table 6.5Program outline
Name
Sport (include position in team)
Program duration
Program start date
Assessment date / competition
Fitness components in focus
Major energy system(s)
Program goal
Cycle 1 (Weeks 13) Medium week Hard week Recovery week
I will train on the following days
Time spent in each session
Average intensity for the week
I will make this week a little bit harder

than the previous week by
(optional extra cycle)
I will make this week a little bit harder

than the previous medium week by

new page
Step 6: Plan training sessions

Once the program objectives are set, an overview of the training sessions for each week can be devised. A
simple template, such as the one provided here, is easy to follow and modify and, most importantly, allows
progress to be easily seen.
Table 6.6Program training sessions
Name
Week number
(and dates)
Week difficulty medium hard recovery

(circle)
Warm-up and Skill practice Conditioning Cool-down Evaluation

stretching (if included in
session)
Monday Type:
Training day / Frequency:
Rest day Intensity:
Time:
Tuesday Type:
Rest day Intensity:
Time:
Wednesday Type:
Rest day Intensity:
Time:
Thursday Type:
Rest day Intensity:
Time:
Friday Type:
Rest day Intensity:
Time:
Saturday Type:
Rest day Intensity:
Time:
Sunday Type:
Rest day Intensity:
Time:

<start of new page>
6023 L 1/3
Figure 6.17 When planning a training program, include enough variety that you do not get bored and lose
motivation.
Step 7: Apply training principles

Athletes who apply training principles can be condent that their program is purposeful and accurate.
Table 6.7 matches the various tness components with each principle, and shows how each principle
is applied.
Training checklist
When the short-term training program, including a plan for individual sessions, has been written, athletes
should be able to answer yes to the following questions.
1 Are your individual sessions specic to your event and your needs?
2 Are you training often enough each week?
3 Are you doing the correct number of repetitions and sets each session?
4 Are you working at the correct intensity? (Remember, the intensity will depend on the week of your
program: medium, hard or recovery.)
5 Are your intervals, sets or drills running for the appropriate length of time?
6 Are you allowing your body enough rest between sets?
7 Are you appropriately increasing the stress on your body to see improvement?
8 Are you ensuring that you will not get bored? Have you made sure that you have a variety of relevant
activities?
Can you answer yes to all of these questions?


Table 6.7Appling training principles to fitness
Specificity Frequency Intensity Time Overload Variety
Muscular Resistance Untrained Untrained The number of Gradual decreases Machines, free
strength training: Muscle athletes: athletes: 812 RM, sets will guide of 210% of RM; weights, elastic
contractions 12sessions per slowmoderate the time for each the lower the RM, bands, persons
should involve week, 23 sets per speed session. However, the heavier the own body weight,
both concentric session Advanced athletes: the amount of rest weight pulleys and
and eccentric Advanced athletes: 26 RM, slow is constant. levers, and sport-
contractions. 35sessions per moderate speed Untrained specific machines
Where possible, week, per muscle athletes: 23 (for example,
actions should group, split minutes between swimming
mimic those of the sessions, 36 sets sets resistance bench)
sport per session Advanced athletes:
35 minutes
between sets
Muscular power Power is the result 12 sessions per 612 RM for 210 The number of Gradual decreases Machines, free
of applying force week, 36 sets per repetitions, fast sets will guide of 210% of RM; weights, elastic
(strength) quickly; session speed the time for each the lower the RM, bands, persons
it is necessary to session. However, the heavier the own body weight,
have adequate the amount of rest weight pulleys and
strength before is constant: 35 levers, and sport-
one can develop minutes between specific machines
power. Therefore, sets (for example,
it is recommended swimming
that a power resistance bench)
program includes
a maintenance
strength program.
Where possible,
actions should
mimic those of the
sport
Muscular Any activity 3 sessions per 15+ RM for The number of Gradual decreases Machines, free
endurance requiring the week, 36 sets per 1520 RM, sets will guide of 210% of RM; weights, elastic
muscle to session medium speed the time for each the lower the RM, bands, persons
repeatedly session. However, the heavier the own body weight,
contract against a the amount of rest weight pulleys and
resistance, such is constant: 13 levers, and sport-
as plyometrics and minutes between specific machines
weight training sets (for example,
swimming
resistance bench)
Cardiorespiratory Continuous Cardiorespiratory Continuous Continuous Gradual increases Walking,

(aerobic) capacity training, gains can be training: 5085% training: 2060 in intensity jogging, running,
intermediate achieved with as of maximum heart minutes (not (increasing lactate swimming, cycling
long-interval few as 2sessions rate including warm-up threshold) or
training, fartlek per week in Interval training: and cool-down); distance
training beginner athletes; moderate less time for
however, 35 duration, high- beginners; more
sessions per week intensity pace for advanced
are recommended training: 8590% athletes
of maximum heart Interval training:
rate 3060 minutes
in total, bouts of
410 minutes with
active rest

pls ref page 233
notes
Specificity Frequency Intensity Time Overload Variety
Speed (anaerobic) Short-interval Alactacid: 85100% of Alactacid: Gradual increases Track, sprinting,
training, 10 seconds5 maximum heart 10 seconds1:4 in intensity or cycling, swimming,
intermediate- sets per workout, rate workrelief ratio, distance gym machines
interval training 10repetitions complete rest
perset recovery
20 seconds3 20 seconds1:3
sets per workout, 8 workrelief ratio,
repetitions per set complete rest
Alactacid/lactic recovery
acid: Alactacid/lactic
3045 acid:
seconds4sets 3045
per workout, seconds1:3
4repetitions per workrelief ratio,
set workrelief
1:201:30 1:201:30
minutes2sets minutes1:2
per workout, workrelief ratio,
4repetitions per workrelief
set Anaerobic:
Anaerobic: 1:452:15
1:452:15 minutes1:2
minutes1set workrelief ratio,
per workout, workrelief
5repetitions per 2:30-3
set minutes1:1 work
2:303 or complete rest
minutes2sets recovery
per workout,
2repetitions per
set
Flexibility Static stretching, There is no Static and PNF: Static: Held for Gradual increases Individual
PNF, dynamic maximum Low intensity, no 1030 seconds in a in range of stretching, pair
stretching frequency. Stretch bouncing pain-free position movement across stretching, assisted
MUST occur every Dynamic: gentle PNF: Static stretch joint. Be careful (e.g.elastic band),
session after a repetition of held for 1020 not to over-stretch during an aerobics
suitable warm-up the types of seconds, 6seconds using the PNF class (dynamic)
and at the very end movements of isometric technique
of the session associated with the contraction, 1020
sport seconds of further
static, and so on
Agility, These components Cognitive and Cognitive and Drills can become Will depend on the
coordination, will be developed associative stage associative stage more challenging. physical activity in
balance, reaction in the skill training of learning: Every of learning: Usually Examples include question
time phase of a session. session at the start of a performing the
The skills and Autonomous session when the drill for longer,
drills will depend stage of learning: athlete is fresh. performing the
on the physical most sessions Autonomous drill faster or
activity (some may be stage of learning: increasing the
conditioning only) Integrated with success rate
fitness conditioning before completing
andoften when the drill
the athlete is tired
(fatigue loading)

<start new page>
6024 L 1/3
Figure 6.18 Periodic fitness testing can be a great motivating tool.
Program evaluation
Training programs need to take into consideration the individual needs of the athlete, and they need to be
adaptable. It is essential that a program is clearly structured from the beginning; however, those involved in
the planning and participation should take time to regularly reect on the program so that necessary and
timely adjustments can be made.
Monitoring training
It is important to monitor a training program to ensure that athletes are given appropriate feedback and
remain motivated. Most importantly, regularly monitoring training will help to highlight problem areas and
mistakes in the training program and ensure that the program is one that is relevant to the athletes needs
and will help them achieve their goals.
Common mistakes that are often identied when monitoring training programs include:
over-training
under-training
inappropriate training methods
inappropriate intensity
training that is not specic to the athletes goals
failing to taper.
Monitoring progress
An athlete can monitor their progress in one of two ways: by conducting periodic tness testing or by keeping
a training journal.
Both methods provide valuable feedback about the amount, intensity and type of exercise being
performed.

>
Periodic fitness testing

A common way to monitor tness 6025 S 1/8
progress is through periodic tness
testing. All good training programs are
designed to develop particular tness
components, and all tness components
can be objectively tested. Therefore,
plotting test results over a period of time
will inform athletes of the success of
their training regime.
Periodic tness testing can be
motivating for athletes. As they see their
test results improve, they are motivated
to keep training. Periodic tness testing
can also highlight areas in the training
program that need further work. For
these reasons, such tness tests should
be a part of every training program.
The rate of testing will depend on
the length of the training program.
Annual programs should include regular
testing, for example, monthly testing or
testing at the end of each macrocycle.
Short programs, on the other hand, may
only require one set of tests before the
training program begins and another at
its completion.
Keeping a training journal

Every athlete should keep a journal of
every training session. Journal entries
should consist of two sections:
a log of the fundamentals of the
session, such as frequency, intensity,
time and type of training
a section for additional information
and reection.
Figure 6.19 Keeping a regular training journal provides
Have you ever kept a training journal?
athletes and coaches with useful information.
Was it beneficial and, if so, how?
Table 6.8 lists some of the types of information that should be included in a training journal. Although
the items in the optional column are not essential, they can be useful to athletes and coaches who are taking
their training very seriously. For example, if athletes eat an inadequate diet, they will lack energy, essential
amino acids, vitamins and minerals, and will not perform well. Athletes also need rest. Adolescents need at
least eight or nine hours of sleep per night, and inadequate sleep will affect their performance. The optional
information can help to explain anomalies in an athletes physical condition.

Put simply, the greater the quantity and thoroughness of the information recorded, the more valuable is
the feedback provided to the athlete. For example, combining and analysing data such as prescribed intensity,
time, heart rate and perceived exertion from week to week will give an athlete and coach a very good idea
about the appropriateness of the trainings difculty level. Athletes whose heart rates and perceived exertion
levels remain highregardless of whether the training week is medium, high or recoverymay need to adjust
the overall level of their program.
Two elements that should be recorded in a training journal but that can be hard to measure objectively
are perceived exertion and level of fatigue. Table 6.9 provides a guide for athletes to rate their perceived
exertion. A test for monitoring and rating fatigue is given on page 254.
Click for a real excerpt from an athletes training journal.
Table 6.8Information to record in a training journal
Essential Optional
Day: Total calories expended:
Date: Body weight:
Location: Diet:
Warm-up: Sleep (night before):
Fitness and skill development: Feelings during and after session:
Type of activity or activities
Frequency
Intensity
Time allocated
Recovery type and time
Heart rate (taken at the conclusion of a set or

activity)
Perceived exertion levels (recorded at the

conclusion of a set or activity)
Fatigue index (recorded every morning)
Cool-down
Click for an electronic version of the training journal.

Table 6.9Borg rating of perceived exertion (RPE) scale
Borg scale Borg scale Level of exertion Time that exertion can be
descriptor comfortably maintained
6 No exertion at all
7 Extremely light All day
8 Extremely light
9 Very light Very light, as for a healthy person taking a short All day with breaks
walk at his or her own pace.
10 510 hours
11 Light 45 hours
12 2.54 hours
13 Somewhat hard Somewhat hard. It still feels OK to continue. 1.52.5 hours
14 5090 minutes
15 Hard (heavy) It is hard and tiring, but continuing is not 2550 minutes
terribly difficult.
16 1525 minutes
17 Very hard Very hard. It is very strenuous. You can still go 715 minutes
on, but you really have to push yourself and you
are very tired.
18 37 minutes
19 Extremely hard An extremely strenuous level. For most people 30 seconds 3 minutes
this is the most strenuous exercise they have
ever experienced.
20 Maximal exertion 30 seconds
Source: Borg RPE scale, Gunnar Borg. The scale, with instructions, can be obtained from Borg Perception, Se.
www.borgperception.Se
400
B
6029 L 1/4
350
A
Baseline fatigue index (total of HR, below)
Heart rate (beats per minute)
300
250
Fatigue index 60 sec rec
200
Exercise HR Resting HR
150 30 sec rec
100
50
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Days
Figure 6.21 This figure shows data of an athlete during a 3-week competition. The athlete ignored signs of
fatigue at day 8. By day 12, he had developed a serious cold and sore throat, and was unable to compete for the
next two weeks.
Source: BJ Sharkey and SE Gaskill, Sport Physiology for Coaches, Human Kinetics, Champaign: Illinois, 2006

Fatigue test
Aim
To measure and monitor your levels
of fatigue during training
Equipment
stopwatch
Procedure
6016 P 1/4
Do the following after rising in the
morning but before breakfast or
stimulants (tea or coffee).
1 Sit quietly for 3 to 5 minutes
until your heart rate is stable. You
can read the paper during this
time.
2 Take the resting heart rate at
the wrist for 10 seconds. Then,
multiply the number of beats by
six to get the rate per minute.
3 Start the stopwatch and begin
stepping (up with one foot then
the other, then down with the
rst foot and then the other). The
entire sequence of stepping up
and down should take 2 seconds
and be repeated 30 times in
1 minute.
4 After 1 minute of stepping, stop.
While still standing, take the
post-exercise heart rate and then
sit down immediately.
5 Sit quietly and relax. At 30
seconds after exercise, take your
heart rate for 10 seconds. Then,
multiply the number of beats by
six to get the rate per minute.
6 At 60 seconds after exercise, take Figure 6.21 When fatigued, athletes have an increased risk of
the nal heart rate. illness and injury.
Record your results in a table like the one on the next page. Results can then be plotted on a graph each
day. To calculate the fatigue index, add up all of the heart rate measurements. To determine your own
baseline fatigue index, calculate your average index after several days of rest. After a baseline index is
found, the following tests can be used to gauge increased risk of overtraining.

Table 6.10Fatigue test recording form
10-second pulse x6= beats per minute

1 Resting _______ 6 _______
2 Exercise _______ 6 _______
3 30 seconds after exercise _______ 6 _______
4 60 seconds after exercise _______ 6 _______
Fatigue index (sum of above) _______ beats
Click for an electronic version of the test recording form.
Table 6.11Criteria for evaluating the fatigue test
Increase in fatigue index Risk of over-training

0 to 20 above baseline index Not generally a concern unless sustained
20 to 30 above baseline index Slightly increased
30 to 45 above baseline index Increased risk
More than 45 above baseline index High risk (suggest no training)
Monitoring goals
Goals provide athletes with purpose and help to maintain motivation.
On page 240, we discussed how training goals should be SMARTER: specic, measurable, attainable,
realistic, timely, exciting and recorded. It is the second variable in the SMARTER modelmeasurablethat
is the most useful for program evaluation as it enables athletes to determine if their initial goals are being
been met. Setting objective goals, such as In the next six weeks I aim to increase my vertical jump by
5 centimetres, allows for goals to be monitored and measured because the athlete is stating what they want
to improve, by how much and by when.
If realistic goals are set, monitoring them
periodically by measuring progress will allow
6035 s 1/4
coaches and athletes to determine if something
is wrong with the program. It can also provide
insight into an athletes attitude. There is no point
monitoring athletes progress with periodic tness
testing if they have lost motivation and fail to see
the point of their training.
Analysing the findings

Pulled back
to correct
So what does it all mean? Periodic tness testing,
overmatter
keeping a thorough journal and monitoring goals are
from new
all valuable tools; however, they are useless unless
activity copy
the data they provide is analysed. The following
three questions provide an analytical framework to
assist athletes in deciding whether modications
should be made to their program: Figure 6.22 Goals help to maintain motivation.

1 Have any of my periodic tness tests shown a plateau or decline in performance? If so, is there a plausible
reason for this? If not, what modications should I make to my training program?
2 Have any issues arisen repeatedly in my journal reections, such as extreme fatigue? If so, do these justify
modications to my training program or is there another valid reason?
3 Have I been reaching my progress goals? If not, is it due to a lack of application on my part or are the
training sessions insufcient to allow me to improve?
Planning for the future

At the completion of any program, it is vital to take time to reect on its effectiveness and decide whether
any changes need to be implemented in future programs.
To ensure that this evaluation is thorough, a systematic approach should be taken. A popular evaluative
tool used worldwide is the SWOT test, which looks at strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats.
When applied to training programs, the test forces participants to reect on the positive and negative
aspects of the program, with the aim of drawing attention to its aws.
After a SWOT analysis, what modifications would you make to your recently completed program next time?
Table 6.12A SWOT analysis of a training program
Strengths Weaknesses
What were the best aspects of the program andwhy? Are there gaps in the program?
What was done well and why? What did we not do very well and why?
What test results showed improvement and why? What test results showed a decline and why?
Opportunities Threats
How can the program be improved? What may prevent the achievement of short-term and
long-term objectives?
Source: Brian Mackenzie, UK Athletics Senior Coach
Click for an electronic version of the SWOT template.
ACQUIRE
1 What is the minimum duration of a training program to see physiological changes?
2 What steps must an athlete go through when completing a short-term training program?
3 Why should you analyse the fitness and skills gained in athe sport before writing a training
program?
APPLY AND EVALUATE

Answer the following questions, referring to your current sport.
1 Critically evaluate the training program you are following. How does it reflect the phases of
competition? (Highlight features such as training volume, training intensity and the types of
activity performed.)
2 Compare your sports training with that of another sport played during the same season.
What aspects of your training are specific to your sport and not to the other? Are there
aspects of your training that may be relevant to the other sport? What may be the value of
cross-training?

06: SUMMARY
A training session or training program that is NOW THAT YOU HAVE FINISHED ...
effectively planned will take into account the
1 a Explain the difference between the post-
athletes tness, skills and goals.
season, pre-season and in-season training.
In most sports, the competition year has three
b Explain the types of activity recommended
phases: post-season (or off-season), pre-season
for each training phase.
and in-season. These can be divided into smaller
blocks, called microcycles and macrocycles. 2 a Describe the components of an individual
training session.
An effective training program will be one that
builds athletes performance so that it peaks b Outline reasons for including each of these
during critical stages of the competition. components.
Tapering, by reducing training volume, allows 3 Outline the steps you, as a coach, would take to
athletes to maximise physical and mental assist an athlete who is over-trained.
preparation before an event. 4 Design a checklist to recognise the signs and
Each training session needs to have appropriate symptoms of over-training in a 100-metre
warm-ups and stretching, skill instruction swimmer.
and practice, conditioning, cool-down and 5 Explain how breaking a long-term training
evaluation. Health and safety must also always program into smaller blocks of time (phases and
be considered. macrocycles) can help athletes to improve their
Over-training can be avoided by ensuring that performance.
an athletes program has an appropriate blend 6 Compare the focus of the preparation
of training volume, training intensity, rest and (pre-season) phase of an annual program with
variety and that the athlete has a nutritious diet. that of the in-season phase.
Coaches should be aware of the physical and 7 Imagine that you are about to design a
mental signs of over-training. Athletes often short-term training program. Conduct your
mistakenly think that more is better. own individual tness and skill analysis for your
Training principles must always be correctly current physical activity.
applied. 8 How would a short-term training program for
Monitoring a training program provides athletes hurdlers at the cognitive (beginning) stage of
with essential feedback and motivation. Two learning differ from a program for hurdlers at the
forms of monitoring are common: periodic autonomous stage of learning? Compare and
tness testing and keeping a training journal. contrast the priority given to skill versus tness
Training programs should be monitored against development. Justify your response.
the initial goals. 9 Describe the methods used to monitor a training
At the end of any program, it is vital to take time program.
to reect on its overall effectiveness and decide 10 Explain the purpose of a SWOT analysis.
whether any changes need to be made in future.
06: Summary ///// 257

<
7001
7
Sports
injuries

How are injuries classied? How should injuries be managed? When is it safe to Classifying and managing
return to play? What types of activities are best for rehabilitation? injuries 259
Classifying sports injuries 259
This chapter examines the process of classifying sporting injuries. It then focuses on
the assessment and management strategies that are appropriate for different types Soft-tissue injuries 263
of injuries. The process of managing rehabilitation from sporting injury is examined, Hard-tissue injuries 267
and the indicators that show when an athlete is physically and psychologically ready First aid 270
to return to play are addressed. Injury rehabilitation 276
Rehabilitation 276
Returning to play 282

<start new page>
7002
Classifying and
managing injuries
Classifying sports injuries
Sports or performance injuries can be classied by the cause of
the injury or by the type of body tissue damaged. Secondary
injuries are another classication. Secondary injuries are those
that occur as a result of earlier injuries that have not fully
Figure 7.1 A direct injury can occur healed.
when an athlete is struck by an object,
such as a hockey stick. If injuries are classied according to their cause, the three
categories are:
direct injury
7035 new indirect injury

overuse injury.
If injuries are classied according to the type of body tissue
damaged, the two categories are:
soft-tissue injury
hard-tissue injury.
Classifying injuries by cause

Direct injury
A direct injury is caused by an external blow or force. Direct
injuries can be caused by:
a collision with another person (for example, during a tackle
in rugby union)
Figure 7.2 Indirect injuries can be the being struck with an object (for example, a cricket ball or
result of twists or sprains. hockey stick).
Examples of injuries that result from external forces include
haematomas (corks) and bruises, joint and ligament damage,
7004 dislocations and bone fractures.
Indirect injury
One type of indirect injury occurs, like direct injuries, as a result
of collisions with other people or objects. This type of indirect
injury differs from direct injuries because the actual injury is
some distance from the impact site. For example, falling on an
outstretched hand can result in a dislocated shoulder.
Another type of indirect injury does not result from
physical contact with an object or person, but from the actions
of the athlete. This type of injury is often the result of over-
stretching, poor technique, fatigue or lack of tness. Muscle
Figure 7.3 Stress fractures, a type
strains and tears, and ligament sprains are examples of these
of overuse injury, can result from a injuries.
repetitive force.
Chapter 7Sports injuries ///// 259

Overuse injury
Overuse injuries occur when excessive and repetitive force is placed on the bones and connective tissues
of the body. In the early stages of these injuries athletes might feel little or no pain and continue to place
pressure on the injured site. The injury is not given the necessary time to heal. Eventually the damage
accumulates, and the injured site becomes inamed and, therefore, painful.
Overuse injuries often occur when there is a change in training practices (such as increasing training
frequency or intensity), and the body is unable to deal with the new stresses that are placed on it. A large
number of overuse injuries result from poorly planned training programs in which athletes are not given
enough time to recover between intense sessions.
Other causes of overuse injury are using poor technique and poor equipment. Athletes who practise and
compete using poor technique or equipment place extra stress on their body. Examples of this include elbow
injuries from a poor backhand technique or using a heavy racquet in tennis, and ankle or knee pain from an
inappropriate running style or from wearing inappropriate footwear.
Examples of injuries that result from repetitive forces are stress fractures (small cracks in the bone) and
tendonitis (inammation of a tendon).
Have you ever had an overuse injury? What caused it?
Table 7.1Overuse injuries
Injury Symptoms and signs Possible causes Management

Shin soreness Tenderness Increased activity Decrease painful activity
Pain in shins Poor footwear RICER
Pain increases by Posture imbalance Physiotherapy
running and jumping Muscle imbalance Correct footwear
Swelling Orthotic control
Knee pain Pain around knee Increased activity Decrease activity

Pain increased by sport, Posture imbalance RICER
stairs, sitting, hills Poor footwear Physiotherapy
Swelling Muscle imbalance Tape
Discolouration Growth spurt Correct footwear
Orthotic control
Heel pain Tenderness over heel Tight calf muscles Decrease activity
Pain increased by Growth spurt RICER
running, jumping Poor footwear Physiotherapy
Stretching program
Correct footwear
Orthotic control
Shoulder pain Pain on certain Increased activity, e.g. Decrease activity

movements swimming RICER
Reduced movement Poor technique, e.g. Physiotherapy
Local tenderness swimming, pitching, Stretching program
serving Exercises
Modify activity
Elbow pain Pain in and around elbow Jarring Decrease activity

Pain increased by certain Increased activity, e.g. RICER
activities, e.g. shaking, golf, tennis Physiotherapy
lifting, gripping Muscle imbalance Stretching program
Poor technique Elbow brace
Change of grip Modify technique
Lack of control
Source: Australian Coaching Council Inc.

7007
Classifying injuries by tissue type
Soft-tissue injury
Soft-tissue injuries are the most common sports
injuries. They include:
skin injuriesabrasions, lacerations and blisters
muscle injuriesbruises (contusions), and tears
or strains of muscle bres
tendon injuriestears or strains of tendon bres
and inammation (tendonitis)
ligament injuriessprains and tears of ligament
bres.
Soft-tissue injuries can result in internal bleeding
and swelling. Prompt and effective management of
such bleeding aids recovery. Soft-tissue injuries are
covered in further detail on page 263.
Hard-tissue injury
Hard-tissue injuries are those involving damage to
the bones. They range from severe fractures and
joint dislocations to bruising of the bone. A direct
force can bruise a bone and cause bleeding between
the outer layer of the bone and the underlying
compact bone. Bone bruising is common in bones
Figure 7.4 Managing player injuries is a crucial
such as the tibia (shin) where there is little muscle
part of all sports. tissue over the bone to absorb the force.
Bones have a blood supply and internal bleeding can result from a fracture. In major injuries, this internal
bleeding in the bone, together with bleeding from surrounding damaged tissue, can lead to shock and serious
circulatory complications. Hard-tissue injuries are covered in further detail on page 267.
Secondary injury
Athletes returning to activity are also at risk of a secondary injury, which is an injury that occurs as a result
of a previous injury being poorly treated or not being fully healed. Athletes risk injuries recurring if they start
playing before they regain full strength and movement.
What experiences have you had with injury?
Australian rules football and injury

Avoiding injury is important in any sport. By producing an annual report that looks at the injuries that cause
players to miss matches, the Australian Football League recognises the signicant effects of injuries on
Australian rules football.
The league records any injury that is signicant enough that it prevents a player from playing. Table 7.2 is
an overview of injuries and other conditions that prevented players in the sixteen professional teams from
participating in regular season or nals matches.

Table 7.2Injury incidence in AFL (2009 season)
Body area Injury type New injuries per club per season
Head/neck Concussion 0.5
Facial fractures 0.5
Neck sprains 0.1
Other head/neck injuries 0.1
Shoulder/arm/elbow Shoulder sprains and dislocations 1.3
Acromio-clavicular joint injuries 0.5
Fractured clavicles 0.2
Elbow sprains or joint injuries 0.2
Other shoulder/arm/elbow injuries 0.1
Forearm/wrist/hand Forearm/wrist/hand fractures 1.1
Other forearm/wrist/hand injuries 0.4
Trunk/back Rib and chest wall injuries 0.3
Lumbar and thoracic spine injuries 1.4
Other buttock/back/trunk injuries 0.5
Hip/groin/thigh Groin strains / osteitis pubis 3.2
Hamstring strains 7.1
Quadriceps strains 2.2
Thigh and hip haematomas 1.0
Other hip/groin/thigh injuries, 1.0
including hip joint
Knee Knee anterior cruciate ligament 0.6
Knee medial cruciate ligament 0.7
Knee posterior cruciate ligament 0.3
Knee cartilage 1.9
Patella injuries 0.2
Knee tendon injuries 0.5
Other knee injuries 1.0
Shin/ankle/foot Ankle joint sprains 2.6
Calf strains 1.3
Achilles tendon injuries 0.6
Leg and foot fractures 1.0
Leg and foot stress fractures 0.9
Other leg/foot/ankle injuries 1.5
Other Medical illnesses 2.9
Non-football injuries 0.1
New injuries/club/season 37.6
Source: J Orchard and H Seward, 2009 Injury Report, Australian Football League, Melbourne, 2010

ACQUIRE
1 Describe the differences between direct injuries and indirect injuries.
2 Explain how poor technique can cause an overuse injury.
3 Define soft-tissue injury and hard-tissue injury.
4 Identify a variety of sporting injuries that can be classified as:
a soft-tissue injuries
b hard-tissue injuries
c overuse injuries.
5 a Define secondary injuries.
b Outline how they can be prevented.
6 Explain why it is necessary to classify injuries.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Read Table 7.2 (page 262), then complete the following tasks.
a Classify the injuries experienced by Australian rules football players into direct and
indirect injuries on the basis of their most likely cause.
b Discuss how some of these injuries could be both direct and indirect.
c Classify the injuries into soft-tissue injuries and hard-tissue injuries.
d Identify the injury that resulted in the most missed matches in 2009. Discuss possible
reasons why that injury resulted in the most missed matches.
2 a Identify examples of direct and indirect injuries that might occur in the following sports:
field hockey
snow skiing
cricket.
b Classify the injuries identified into soft-tissue and hard-tissue injuries.
EXTENSION
Investigate whether injuries can be classified in ways other than those described in this chapter.
Soft-tissue injuries
Soft-tissue injuries are the most common type of injury in sports. They include injuries to skin, muscle, tendons
and ligaments.
Types of soft-tissue injuries

Tears, sprains and contusions
Three common soft-tissue injuries are tears, sprains and contusions.
A tear is a disruption of the bres of a muscle or tendon. A tear can be tinyeven microscopic; such small
tears are often called strains. A tear can also be more severe and involve larger bres of muscles and tendons
or a complete rupture of all muscle bres. Tears and strains occur when a muscle or tendon is over-stretched or
when a muscle contracts too quickly.

7008
A sprain is a tear of the ligament bres, muscles or tendons

supporting a joint. This can occur when a joint is extended
beyond its normal range of movement. A sprain can involve
just a small number of bres or it can be a complete rupture. In
extreme circumstances, the bres of the ligament, muscle or
tendon can remain intact and rip from the bone.
A contusion, or bruise, is bleeding into the soft tissue. It is
caused by a direct blow from another person, an implement or
an object. A bruise can occur to any of the bodys soft tissues.
Skin abrasions, lacerations and blisters

Injuries to the skin are very common in sport. They include
minor wounds, such as abrasions (grazes), blisters and small
lacerations (cuts). Small skin abrasions, lacerations not requiring
sutures (stitches) and blisters are manageable conditions, and
in most cases these do not require referral to a doctor. More
serious lacerations require suturing.
Skin abrasions occur when the outer layer of skin is
removed, usually as a result of a scraping action. The open
Figure 7.5 Skin abrasions occur when
wound can contain dirt or gravel, which should be removed.
the outer layer of skin is removed.
More extensive, deeper abrasions require medical attention.
When the skin is cut, the depth and location of the laceration will determine whether sutures are needed.
Medical attention is required if the laceration is deep enough to expose tissues such as fat, tendons or
bone. Deep lacerations are also usually accompanied by signicant bleeding. Sometimes even a supercial
laceration will require suturing if the laceration is located:
over a joint (such as the knee) because movement will continually open the wound
in a cosmetically sensitive position (for example, on the face).
Blisters result from friction (rubbing). One layer of skin separates from another and a small pocket of
uid forms between the layers. Blisters can be caused by equipment, shoes, pressure from callus build-up,
increased training loads or simply by restarting training after an extended rest.
Inflammatory response
The acute inammatory phase, during the rst 24 to 72 hours after injury, is the initial stage of repair of body
tissue. The bodys immediate response to injury is to increase the ow of blood and other uids to the injured
site. If blood vessels at the site are damaged, there will also be direct bleeding into the surrounding tissue. The
accumulation of uid in the area causes an increase in pressure, which produces pain.
All these changes produce inammation, which consists of redness, heat, swelling, pain and loss of function.
If inammation is left unchecked and persists for a long time, more inexible scar tissue will form. The extent
to which the formation of scar tissue can be prevented will, in part, determine the time required for injury
rehabilitation and how well normal functioning can be returned to pre-injury levels. Stretching and applying
ice will limit the formation of scar tissue.
During the rst two to three days after an injury, certain actions must be avoided. These include applying
heat (for example, hot liniments, spas, saunas and hot baths), drinking alcohol, physical activity and massage.
These actions all increase blood ow and, therefore, swelling.

7010
Managing soft-tissue
injuries
The immediate management of
soft-tissue injuries during the acute
inammatory phase is very important
for successful rehabilitation. Immediate
treatment aims to:
prevent further tissue damage
minimise swelling
ease pain
reduce the formation of scar tissue
reduce the time needed for
rehabilitation.
RICER
To effectively manage soft-tissue
injuries, the RICER procedure needs to
be followed:
rest
ice
compression
elevation
referral.
Have you used RICER to successfully Figure 7.6 Rest, ice, compression and elevation all help to
manage a soft-tissue injury.
manage a soft-tissue injury?
Rest
The injured area must remain relatively inactive for the rst 4872 hours. The duration of the rest will
depend on the severity of the injury.
Ice
Applying ice causes the blood vessels to constrict, which decreases circulation and results in less
inammation at the site.
Where possible, ice should be applied to the surrounding area, in addition to the direct site. Ice should be
applied in a wet towel for 2030 minutes every 2 hours for the rst 4872 hours.
Do not apply ice, or a plastic bag containing ice, directly onto the skin. Care should also be taken when
applying ice near the eyes.
Compression
Compression, such as applying a wide elastic bandage over the injured site and surrounding area, will help to
reduce the swelling by limiting uid build-up. It also provides support for the injured site.
Care should be taken to ensure that circulation is not constricted by bandaging too tightly.
Click for footage showing correct compression techniques.

7009 L 1/3 AF
Impact
No RICER (24 hours) No RICER (3-6 weeks)
Soft tissue
immediately after injury
Compression
(elastic bandage)
RICER (24 hours) RICER plus rehabilitation

(3-6 weeks)
Figure 7.7 The effects of not using RICER can be detrimental to long-term recovery.
Elevation
Elevating the injury above the level of the heart reduces the volume and pressure of blood ow to the injured
area, thus limiting inammation. Most injuries can be elevated by supporting the injured area while the
casualty is seated or lying down.
Referral
Medical assessment should be sought as soon as possible to determine the full extent of the injury, and to
commence appropriate rehabilitation.
Treating skin injuries

Immediately managing skin injuries helps to prevent infection (for both the victim and the rst aider),
minimise blood loss and tissue damage, and promote healing to reduce recovery time.
For most skin injuries, such as abrasions, lacerations and blisters, seven management steps should be
followed:
1 Reduce the dangers of infection (for example, by wearing gloves).
2 Control bleeding with rest, pressure and elevation.
3 Assess the severity of the wound.
4 Clean the wound using clean water, saline solution or a diluted antiseptic.
5 Apply an antiseptic to the wound (for example, Savlon or Betadine) after ensuring that the person is not
allergic to the antiseptic to be used.
6 Dress the wound with a sterile pad and bandage.
7 If necessary, refer the person to medical attention.
Skin injuries that should be referred to medical attention include wounds that require suturing, wounds
that show signs of infection or cannot be properly cleaned of foreign material and wounds to the head.

All head wounds should be referred to medical attention. Even minor injuries to the head might be
accompanied by concussion. Concussion is a brain injury, which even though it is not usually considered life-
threatening, should always be checked by a doctor.
ACQUIRE
1 Describe the differences between a sprain and a strain.
2 Explain the acute inflammatory response.
3 Outline the aims of immediately managing soft-tissue injuries.
4 Identify the problems that can sometimes occur at the ice and compression stages of the
RICER procedure.
5 Explain what actions should be avoided after sustaining a soft-tissue injury.
6 Identify the common management steps that should be followed with skin injuries.
7 Clarify when a skin injury requires professional medical attention.
8 Identify soft-tissue injuries that commonly occur in your sport.
9 a Is elevation possible for all soft-tissue injuries? Discuss.
b If elevation is not possible, outline other ways that blood flow to the area can be
reduced.
10 If ice is not available, what items could be used as a substitute?
PRACTICAL
Managing soft-tissue injuries
Apply the RICER procedure to the following soft-tissue injuries:
1 sprained ankle ligaments
2 corked or deeply bruised thigh
3 sprained thumb ligaments.
Hard-tissue injuries
Hard tissue refers to bone. Hard-tissue injuries usually involve fractures and dislocations; they can also occur
when bone is bruised.
Types of hard-tissue injuries

Fractures
A fracture is a break in a bone. Fractures can result from a direct force, an indirect force or repetitive smaller
impacts (as occurs in a stress fracture).
Fractures are usually classied into three types: simple, compound and complicated.
If the skin over a fractured bone is intact, the fracture is described as simple or closed. The bone is
fractured but there is no cut or wound at the fracture site, and any bleeding remains concealed beneath
the skin.
If the skin over a fracture is broken, the fracture is described as open or compound. The skin might be
broken either by the force of the injury that caused the fracture or by a piece of broken bone protruding
through the skin. Because the skin is broken, bleeding will be external and visible, and infection may enter
the body and the bone through the cut.

A fracture is described as
complicated if fractured
bone damages nearby tissues
and/or organs. For example,
a lung could be punctured by
a fractured rib. The damage
to other structures usually
7011 L 1/4
causes internal bleeding
and other complications.
Complicated fractures
require immediate medical
assistance.
In some cases, a simple
fracture can be difcult to
detect. The signs and symptoms
of a fracture include:
pain at the site of the injury
inability to move the injured
part Figure 7.8 Fractures are classified into three types: simple (left),
unnatural movement of the compound (centre) and complicated (right).
injured part
deformity of the injured part
swelling and discolouration
grating of bones.
Dislocations
Dislocations are injuries to joints
where one bone is displaced from
another. A dislocation is often
accompanied by considerable
damage to the surrounding
connective tissue. Dislocations 7013 S 1/4
occur as a result of the joint being
pushed past its normal range
of movement. They commonly
occur at the ngers, shoulders
and patellae (kneecaps).
Signs and symptoms of
dislocation include:
a loss of movement at the
joint
obvious deformity
swelling and tenderness
pain at the injured site. Figure 7.9 Dislocations can be clearly seen in X-rays.

Managing hard-tissue injuries
Medical treatment
Immediate medical treatment is required for hard-tissue injuries because they can be accompanied by
signicant damage to muscle, blood vessels, surrounding organs and nerves.
For serious hard-tissue injuries, the person should not be moved, and an ambulance should be called.
Immediate management in this situation is as follows:
Immobilise and support the injured site with a splint or sling.
Check for impaired circulation and other possible complications.
Arrange for transport to hospital and professional medical assessment.
Implement the RICER procedure if it does not cause pain.
Immobilisation
The treatment of hard-tissue injuries aims to minimise movement of the injured area. This is achieved by
immobilising the joints above and below the site of the injury. If the injury site is the shaft of a long bone (for
example, the femur or humerus), the injury can be supported with a sling or splint.
A supporting splint should be long enough to extend beyond the joints nearest to the injury. A splint can
be another part of the body, such as another limb, or any rm, straight object.
It is essential to correctly apply a splint. When correctly applied, a splint is secured at all of the following
six points:
1 above the joint above the
fracture Figure 7.10 7012 P 1/4
2 below the joint below the Fractures can require
splints to keep the
fracture injury immobile while
3 at the joint above the fracture medical treatment is
sought
4 at the joint below the
fracture
5 just above the fracture
6 just below the fracture.
In some types of fracture, a
rigid splint is unnecessary, and a
sling is adequate.
Immobilisation is also the
immediate aim for dislocations.
Under no circumstances should
a rst aider attempt to relocate
a dislocation. Dislocations can
cause other damage to the
bones and to ligaments around
the dislocated joint. An X-ray is
usually needed before relocation.
A rushed attempt by a rst aider
to relocate a dislocation might
result in further damage.

7014
ACQUIRE
1 Differentiate among the three types of
fractures.
2 Identify the signs and symptoms of a
fracture and a dislocation.
3 What is the immediate aim when
managing a fracture or a dislocation?
How can this best be achieved?
4 Explain why a first aider should not
attempt to relocate a dislocation.
PRACTICAL
Managing hard-tissue injuries
Using a variety of materials, follow the six
steps to apply a splint to fractures of the:
1 tibia
2 femur
3 radius
4 finger. Figure 7.11 A sling can be used to immobilise some types of
fractures and dislocation.
EXTENSION
It is important to be able to discriminate between injuries that require immediate medical
attention and those that do not. Using what you have learned so far, write a policy called
Guidelines for Medical Referral that gives injury guidelines for your current sport. The policy
should list situations when immediate medical attention needs to be sought.
First aid
It is important to follow correct procedures when assisting an injured athlete. The initial stages of assessment
and rst aid can play a large part in the long-term successful recovery of an injury.
When attending to an injured athlete who might be unconscious, the DRABCD action plan must be
followed. If the athlete is conscious, the TOTAPS method of injury assessment can be used.
Table 7.3Approaching injured athletesa summary
Step Action
1 Danger Control dangers, then assess injured athlete
2 Life threat Use DRABCD
3 Initial injury assessment Use STOP
4 Detailed injury assessment Use TOTAPS
5 Initial management Manage appropriately
Refer to health professional
Source: Safer Sport Program

DRABCD
The abbreviation DRABCD (pronounced doctor ABCD) is used by rst aiders to help them remember the
steps needed to treat unconscious casualties. The six letters of the abbreviation stand for:
danger
response
airway
breathing
compressions
debrillation (if available).
Danger
Before assisting anyone, it is important to check that there is no danger to yourself, the injured person or
others. Only when you are sure that it is safe are you able to help the injured person.
Response
The next step is to check for a response from the casualty to tell if the person is conscious or unconscious.
This is usually done by introducing yourself (if the person is unknown to you), gently squeezing their
shoulders or hands and asking the following questions:
Can you hear me?
Can you open your eyes?
What is your name?
Can you squeeze my hands? (Place your hands in theirs.)
If there is no response, the person is unconscious and an ambulance should be called immediately while
the remaining steps are carried out.
If the person is conscious, the next steps are not necessary.
Airway
The next step is to check that the injured person has a clear airway. Gently open the persons mouth and
check for obstructions, such as broken teeth, blood or vomit. Even a persons tongue can be an obstruction if
a person is unconscious. Use your ngers to carefully move or remove anything in the mouth that might be
blocking the ow of air.
Breathing
Once the airway is clear, check for signs of breathing. With a hand gently placed between the casualtys navel
and ribs, and an ear by the casualtys nose and mouth:
look at the hand on the casualty to see if it is moving due to the rise and fall of the casualtys breathing
listen for breathing sounds
feel for signs of breathing by sensing motion in the hand or breath on the ear.
If the person is breathing, he or she should be gently moved into the recovery position: on the side with
the head tilted back and face towards the ground.
Compressions
If the casualty is unconscious and not breathing, they will require chest compressions or CPR.

7015 L 1/4
Figure 7.12 A critical step in assessing injury is determining consciousness.
Defibrillation
The nal stage, debrillation, is only possible when an automatic external debrillating machine is available.
Such machines are being made available more often, but they do require specialist training to use.
Click for more information about first aid and first aid training.
STOP
STOP stands for stop, talk, observe and prevent, and is a fast method of assessing injuries on the eld.
TOTAPS
The TOTAPS procedure is used to provide information about the extent of the injury. It also helps to indicate
whether the person should be permitted to continue the game or should be given professional medical help.
TOTAPS stands for:
talk
observe
touch
active movement
passive movement
skills test.
It is important to note that controlling bleeding takes priority over TOTAPS.

Talk
Ask the athlete questions to gather information about the cause, nature and site of the injury. For example:
How did the injury happen?
Where does it hurt?
Did you hear any snaps or cracks?
Do you have any pins and needles?
Is the pain sharp or dull?
Did you continue to play for any time?
A rst aider might also seek information on the injury history of the athlete (for example, previous injuries
to the body part) and might talk to witnesses who saw the injury occur.
For suspected concussion, the questions should be directed at discovering the athletes alertness and level
of consciousness.
If the athlete shows signs of serious injury (that is, a spinal injury, a fracture or a dislocation) the person
should be immobilised and professional help should be sought immediately.
Observe
After questioning the athlete, examine the site of the injury. Look for deformity, swelling and redness. If the
injury is to a limb, compare it with the corresponding area on the opposite limb. If there is obvious deformity,
there is likely to be a fracture or serious ligament/tendon damage, and medical assistance is needed.
Touch
If there is no obvious deformity and the athlete is not especially distressed, feel the site of the injury. Using
your hands and ngers, gently touch the site without moving it. If possible, feel the corresponding site on the
other side of the body and compare the two sides. Note any differences in bone shape and skin temperature.
Observe the athletes level of distress as you touch the injury. If touching the injury causes the athlete
intense pain, the injury might be serious and need medical diagnosis. If touching the injury causes only slight
pain, move on to the active movement stage.
Active movement
If there is evidence of a fracture or dislocation, do not proceed. Specic management for a fracture should
begin.
If there is no evidence of a fracture or dislocation, ask the athlete to try to move the injured part. Observe
the degree of pain. Also observe the range of movement that is achieved. If possible, compare it with the
other limb. As the athlete moves, feel the injured site for any clicking or grating. If the athlete cannot move
the injured site or has only minimal range of movement, the RICER procedure is used, and medical assistance
is sought. If the athlete can move without intense discomfort, proceed to the passive movement stage.
Passive movement
If you have reached the passive movement stage, it is likely that the injury is not serious.
The passive movement stage requires the rst aider to move the athletes injured body part and
determine how much pain-free movement is possible. If the athlete cannot have the injured part manipulated
through the normal range of movement without pain, the rst aider should not continue. RICER treatment
should be administered. If the range of movement is normal, the athlete should be asked to stand.

7016 L 1/3
Figure 7.13 Touch the injured site to help determine the seriousness of the injury.
Skills test
A decision needs to be made about whether the athlete can continue to play.
If the athlete can stand, have the athlete place pressure on the injured site by performing movements
similar to those required in the activity to be resumed. If these actions can be completed, the athlete
may resume the activity. For example, a touch football player being assessed for an ankle injury might be
asked to run forward and backward and change direction quickly as these movements are fundamental to
the game.
ACQUIRE
1 Discuss the value of following the TOTAPS procedure.
2 In the touch stage, identify what the first aider should be feeling for.
3 a Compare the differences between active movement and passive movement in the
TOTAPS procedure.
b Discuss why passive movement follows active movement.
4 Describe some of the signs at each stage of the TOTAPS procedure that require you to seek
immediate medical treatment.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

If you were playing sport and a friend fell over saying that they had rolled their ankle, what
action would you take?

7033
PRACTICAL
TOTAPS
For each scenario below, apply the
TOTAPS procedure to determine
the nature and extent of injury.
Remember that medical help is to
be sought when a serious injury is
suspected. Prepare and complete a
table such as the one below.
1 A hockey player goes in for a
tackle and is involved in a heavy
collision with another player.
The player remains on the
ground in intense pain, grasping
the lower leg.
2 At a cross-country event, a
participant cannot continue and
is in obvious discomfort with a
Figure 7.14 How would you act to help an injured athlete?
leg injury.
3 At a rugby union game, a player remains lying on the ground after a ruck. The player is
conscious and complains of pain near the spine.
4 You arrive at the scene of a cycling accident. The cyclist is trying to remount the bike and
continue the race, but has severely limited movement in one arm.
5 A 100-metre hurdler pulls up in the middle of the race and grasps her knee.
Table 7.4TOTAPS
Step Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Scenario 4 Scenario 5

Talk: What questions would
you ask the injured person?
Observe: What are some of

the injuries you would be
looking for?
Touch: Would you touch the

injury? If so, how?
Active movement: What

things would you look for
as the casualty moves the
injury?
Passive movement: Would

you move the injured part? If
so, how?
Skills test: What skills

would you require the
athlete to perform?
Click for an editable version of the TOTAPS activity.

7018 L 1/3
Figure 7.15 One of rehabilitations aims is to allow athletes to safely return to competition.
Injury rehabilitation
Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation after injury can take some time, depending on the type and severity of the injury. A qualied
doctor or physiotherapist should supervise the process.
The aims of any rehabilitation program are to:
restore optimal function of the injured area
return the athlete to competition quickly and safely
prevent re-injury.
Athletes who are not completely rehabilitated and who favour the injured part in an attempt to protect it
increase the risk of re-injury to the same site or a new injury at a different site.
The injury management procedures that follow will assist rehabilitation.
Progressive mobilisation
Any injury involving the muscles or connective tissues surrounding a joint will restrict the movement of that
joint. Joint mobilisation is the freeing of hindered joints to allow improved motion.
Joint mobilisation can be achieved by the athlete carefully exercising the injured joint or by another
person manipulating the injured part. This process is known as progressive mobilisation because the range
of movement is gradually increased over time until the full range of movement is restored.
Mobilisation of the injured part should begin soon after the injury because inactivity can increase the
formation of scar tissue.

To ensure the safe
7019 L 1/3
mobilisation of injured body
parts, the following precautions
should be taken:
Thorough checks should be
made to ensure that there is
no fracture at the sitean
X-ray may be required.
Mobilisation should not
begin during the acute
inammatory phase.
Circulation to the injured area
should be increased before
commencing mobilisation, for
example, by applying heat to
the injured area.
The athlete should be
relaxed before and during
mobilisation.
Movements should be slow
and progressive, rather than
sharp and rapid.
Movements should remain Figure 7.16 Static stretching is very common in sports rehabilitation
within a pain-free range. as part of physiotherapy.
Graduated exercise
Part of any rehabilitation procedure includes graduated exercise, which incorporates stretching, muscle
conditioning and maintaining total body tness.
Stretching
Loss of exibility occurs as a result of injuries to muscle and connective tissue, and because of the scar
tissue that forms. A degree of exibility will be returned to the injured site through progressive mobilisation;
however, attention needs also to be paid to stretching exercises. If completed correctly, stretching exercises
improve rehabilitation by:
reducing muscle tension
increasing circulation
increasing muscle and tendon length
increasing the range of motion.
Flexibility, like mobilisation, is restored gradually to the injured area through the use of slow static
stretches and PNF stretching early in the repair phase. The advantage of PNF stretching is that it does
not require the injured site to be moved extensively. The stretching is gradually made more active, and is
increased from 510 seconds to 2030 seconds. Stretching should be performed regularly after a warm-up,
and should always remain within the pain-free range.

Static stretchingwith machines, a partner or a physiotherapistis very common in sports rehabilitation.
The patient, physiotherapist or machine controls the direction, intensity and speed of the contraction.
Stretchings purpose is to lengthen soft tissue beyond its normal resting length by applying an external force.
Due to their injury, patients may need assistance with stretches, and stretches may need to be explained and
demonstrated carefully to ensure safety.
Muscle conditioning
Restoring muscle strength is essential for injury rehabilitation. Active muscles will increase in size and
endurance; passive muscles will decrease in size. Even if the injured area is immobilised (for example, in a cast
or brace) a program should be designed to prevent muscle atrophy (wasting of muscle tissue).
Isometric exercises can be used as they develop strength without requiring movement at the joints. In
this way they can help to prevent muscle atrophy until movement is possible.
As swelling and pain lessen, exercises
involving pain-free movement can be introduced.
As strength is slowly regained, further resistance
can be applied. The introduction of weight-bearing
exercises can be considered if the injured area
is thought to be capable of support. Isokinetic
exercises are considered benecial at this stage
because they develop strength through the full
range of movement using uniform resistance and
speed.
When conditioning muscles, it is important
to monitor the increase in strength of both the
muscle being treated and the muscle that moves
in the opposite direction. This will ensure that an
appropriate ratio of strength is being developed.
Total body fitness

A program of rehabilitation involves not only
restoring the injured part to full function, but
also maintaining overall body tness. With some
injuries this can be difcult as the injury requires
immobilisation; however, maintaining exibility,
strength and endurance can be promoted with
activities that that do not endanger recovery.
The choice of exercises to maintain total body
tness will depend on the type and severity of injury
and the athletes sport. Examples of activities that
can be used to promote total body tness during
rehabilitation include:
7020 P 1/4
using rowing or cycling ergometers
swimming and water-resistance activities
Figure 7.17 Walking or light jogging can be used

weight training
during rehabilitation to promote total body fitness. walking or light jogging, including on treadmills.

APPLY AND EVALUATE
Develop a total body fitness program for each of the following athletes:
1 a water-skier with a torn calf muscle
2 a softballer with a rotator cuff strain (a strain of the shoulder joint)
3 a gymnast with a lower-back injury.
Consider strength, flexibility and aerobic endurance of non-injured parts.
Retraining for skills

Athletes who have nished medical treatment and rehabilitation are still not ready to return to full
competition. Even though they might have a full range of movement and exibility, strength and tness, if
athletes were to return to competition at this stage they would risk re-injury because their movement skills,
game skills and condence have not been re-established. Timing, speed and coordination are affected by
rest. To prepare for the physical and psychological demands of competition, the athlete must undertake
active retraining.
The nal stages of rehabilitation involve restoring muscle coordination and speed to full capacity.
A graduated, progressive and sport-specic program will allow athletes to develop the physical and
psychological skills required for competition. Athletes must rebuild their skills to their pre-injury
performance standards, including their abilities to delay fatigue and to perform skills under pressure. To
determine their readiness to return, most athletes will undergo sport-specic testing. Only when athletes
can display full tness, coordinated movements and procient skills should they be permitted to resume
competition.
Retraining must be aimed at re-establishing all skills in an environment that is as close as possible to
competition conditions. Some athletes may play at a lower level before going back to the level they were
competing at before their injury. For example, an AFL player may play on the reserve side before re-entering
the senior team.
Heat and cold

Applying heat, cold, pressure and electrical stimulation are treatments used in sports rehabilitation. These
treatments can be as simple as applying ice or hot packs, or they can require specialist equipment and
machines, including ultrasound. They are used to break down the bodys responses to an injury and increase
the bodys healing responses.
In general, after the acute phase, the choice between applying heat or cold depends on the type of injury
and, often, the patients preference.
Heat
Heat is applied to increase circulation, either in the body generally or in a particular area.
The bodys general physiological responses to heat are:
decreased pain
increased ability to stretch
relaxation
increased blood ow
reduced joint stiffness

decreased muscle spasm
increased inammatory response
(more blood and uid ows to the
area)
increased tissue healing.
Heat is applied using heat packs,
hydrotherapy, infra-red lamps and
hot baths; it can also be applied using
ultrasound, shortwave and microwave
7022 P 1/4
machines.
Heat should not be applied to acute
injuries.
Figure 7.18 To assist rehabilitation, heat can be applied using
ultrasound machines.
Cold
The term used to describe the use of cold
for treatment is cryotherapy. The most
common ways of applying cryotherapy
during rehabilitation are by using an ice
pack (frozen gel), an ice bag (ice-lled
plastic bag wrapped in a towel), an ice
massage, ice immersion, a cold bath or a
topical cold spray.
Cold is commonly applied to an
7023 P 1/4 injury:
during the initial phase of injury
treatment
after therapeutic exercise of
injured sites.
Cold applied to an injury has the
physiological effects of decreasing:
swelling
circulation to the injured site
acute inammation
pain and discomfort
muscle spasm
tissue metabolism.
When used with rest, compression
and elevation, cold treatment is
especially effective at treating the
swelling and pain associated with acute
injuries. It also reduces the pain and
swelling related to chronic and overuse
Figure 7.19 Ice is often applied to injuries to reduce pain and injuries. Cold treatment also cools over-
swelling. heated athletes.

Cold should be applied at regular intervals during the rst 2448 hours of an injury, but for no longer
than 30 minutes at a time. Stiffness is increased after cold treatment, and care should be taken to avoid
frostbite and other skin and nerve damage.
ACQUIRE
1 Outline the important factors to remember when mobilising a joint.
2 Describe the benefits of maintaining total body fitness while injured.
3 Clarify the circumstances in which cold and heat treatments are used.
4 Explain the safety considerations that need to be observed when using heat and cold to
treat injuries.
PRACTICAL
Rehabilitation program
1 Plan a rehabilitation program for each of the following:
a a soccer player with a hamstring tear
b a tennis player with tendonitis of the elbow
c a gymnast with a fractured tibia and fibula
d a rugby league player with a shoulder dislocation.
Your rehabilitation program should consider:
appropriate initial treatment
surgery options
progressive mobilisation
graduated exercise (stretching, muscle conditioning and total body fitness)
time required for a full recovery.
2 Justify the program you have planned.
EXTENSION
1 Contact a local physiotherapist to determine the current techniques and practices for
using heat and cold to treat different types of injuries. If it can be arranged, visit a local
physiotherapist or invite one as a guest speaker.
2 Discuss how techniques have changed over time.
3 With assistance from your teacher or a physiotherapist, conduct a practical session that
uses a variety of heat and cold treatments. Assess each based on:
its cost
its effectiveness
the patients feelings
its ease of use.
4 Summarise your findings in an article that could be used in a sport magazine as a feature
story.

7024 P 1/4
Returning to play
Returning to play or competition
increase to pad after injury is not just a matter
see page 284 of waiting for the required time
to pass. Active rehabilitation will
ensure that an athletes injury
has recovered and that tness
and skills are close to pre-injury
levels.
It is important that the
athlete, medical staff and coach
agree on the athletes readiness
to return. If athletes believe
that they are not ready, they
should not be pushed; a lack of
condence in the injured site
will hinder psychological and
physical performance. Equally,
athletes should not push coaches
or medical staff to make hasty or
inappropriate decisions.
Have you ever returned to
play before being ready? What
were the consequences?
Assessing readiness
to return to play
Athletes, coaches and medical
staff should all feel condent
in athletes physical and
psychological readiness to return
to play.
Physical readiness
Two indicators of physical
readiness to return to play
are being pain free and having
Figure 7.20 An athlete returning frominjury should be put through a mobility restored to the injured
sports-specific fitness test.
area.
Physical tests can assess an athletes readiness to return to play after injury. Many of these tests are basic
tness and skills tests that are used throughout the season. They measure an athletes ability to resume play
in a specic sport. They can also provide a point of comparison. For example, an athletes post-recovery test
results can be compared with the results of the same test before the injury.
An athlete returning from injury should be put through a sports-specic tness test. For example, a
netballer returning from an ankle injury would be tested on her ability to sprint and her agility using a variety

of drills that include dodging and side-stepping. Some general skills that might be tested include sprinting,
tackling, side-stepping, throwing, passing and jumping. The netballer would then be tested under pressure
with an opponent in a one-on-one situation, such as breaking for a centre pass. Her match tness would also
be tested in a practice game. Any weaknesses that are detected during such testing can then be worked on
and improved. The athlete will also be monitored after training and testing to determine pain and degree of
mobility.
If an athlete returns prematurely after injury it might cause the injury to become worse. This will extend
the recovery time, and the athlete ends up spending more time out of action.
Before being allowed to return to training or competition, three questions should be addressed:
7029 in box
Is the injured area free of all pain? S 1/8
Is it possible to move the injured area through a full and normal range of motion?
Has the injured area regained full strength?
In many cases, an experienced medical practitioner is needed to answer these answers.
Serious injuries, such as those affecting the head, require assessment by a medical practitioner before an
athlete is allowed to compete again. In particular, athletes who lose consciousness, or who are suspected of
being concussed, should not be allowed to participate until medical advice is sought.
Pain-killers
The use of pain-killing drugs is becoming more common in many sports. As the pressures on athletes to return
to performance increase, so too does the use of pain-killing medications.
Using pain-killing drugs to mask the pain of an injury and allow them to play before they are fully t can be
attractive for athletes, and for the sporting clubs who nancially rely on them. However, while an injury is still
painful (even if the pain is partially hidden by the effects of the drugs) it has not fully healed.
As drug technology continues to advance, the use of medications to allow athletes to return to play before full
recovery is an increasingly important medical and ethical issue.
Figure 7.21 Pain-killing drugs are sometimes used to mask the pain of an injury before it is fully healed.

EXTENSION
Research pain-killers that may be used in sports to mask pain associated with injury.
1 For each pain-killer, identify what it is, how it works, the reasons it is used in sport and any
side effects associated with its use.
2 Clarify your stance on athletes using pain-killers to compete when injured.
Psychological readiness
The psychological readiness of athletes to return to play can be measured by less formal means, such as
discussing with athletes their readiness and observing their behaviour.
Anxiety can be monitored to ensure athletes do not feel pressure to return to play before they are fully
ready to do so. Such pressure can come from internal or external sources: from their own desire to return to
play or from the expectations of others such as teammates and coaches.
Taping the injured area, if appropriate, can both provide physical support and act as a psychological form
of treatment long after the injury is recovered. Athletes might feel more able to play with the support of the
tape.
Pressure to participate
Determining when an athlete returns to training and competition can be difcult. The decision can have
short-term and long-term health consequences. Athletes who do not allow an appropriate recovery period
after injury place themselves at risk of further complications. Unfortunately, some athletes are tempted to
return to competition before they are ready.
Athletes can feel internal pressure to return to their sport because of:
boredom
a drive for success
a fear of losing their position in the team
a sense of letting down the team.
Amateur athletes can be pushed to return before they are ready because of the expectations of other
players, their family or their coach. Professional athletes can also be put under external pressure from:
nancial considerations (their need to earn an income)
the media
sponsors
spectators.
ACQUIRE
1 Discuss the factors that will determine an athletes readiness to return to play after injury.
2 Outline examples of progressive mobilisation for a basketball player after an ankle injury.
3 Identify the internal and external pressures that an injured athlete may experience when
deciding whether to return to play.
4 Outline measures athletes should use to determine when they are ready to return to play
after an injury.

APPLY AND EVALUATE
Consider the following scenarios:
a soccer player with a hamstring tear
a tennis player with tendonitis of the elbow
a gymnast with a fractured tibia and fibula
a rugby league player with a shoulder dislocation.
1 For each athlete, design three suitable field tests or drills to gauge the athletes readiness to
return to play.
2 Evaluate the physical tests that could be used to indicate each athletes readiness to return to
play.
3 a Debate the following topic: Athletes should be allowed to use pain-killers to compete with
an injury.
b Summarise the discussions and opinions presented during your debate using a PMI chart.
(PMI charts use three columns: P for pluses or points for, M for minuses or points against,
and I for interesting or controversial points.)
Monitoring progress
Athletes physical and psychological condition should be monitored when they return to play. This might
involve:
observing the athletes performance
discussing progress with the athlete
conducting ongoing testing (comparing test results pre-injury with current results)
using performance-evaluation techniques.
Athletes will benet from appropriate feedback about their progress.
Visits to medical professionals to monitor the injury are also advisable. Athletes should continue to follow
the advice of coaches and medical staff until their recovery is complete, and their performance has returned to
pre-injury levels. Ongoing therapy is advised until such levels are reached.
Warm-ups after injury

Athletes who have been injured might need to go through a longer, harder or more specic warm-up and
stretching routine than other athletes. Extra time and care might be needed at the injury site and surrounding
tissues to ensure adequate exibility, blood ow and readiness to perform. Many athletes develop their own
specic warm-up, or have one designed by a coach or physiotherapist, to minimise the chance of re-injury.
Return-to-play policies
Coaches, sports administrators and sports medicine practitioners play an important role in establishing
guidelines for athletes who are managing injuries and deciding when to return and whether to play with injury.
Priority must at all times be given to the welfare of athletes, and decisions should be guided by medical
advice.
Return-to-play policies, procedures and guidelines vary depending on the sport. Decisions about readiness
to play may be determined by a particular sports governing organisation or be left to the discretion of individual
sporting clubs. The nature and severity of the injury may determine who makes return-to-play decisions.

Return-to-play policies: concussion
Boxing Australia
Repeated head injuries can lead to long-term complications and reduced brain function. One example of a
sports governing body setting rules about when it is appropriate to return to play after concussion can be
seen in boxing. The sports governing body, Boxing Australia Inc., includes the following in its competition
rules:
A boxer unconscious for less than 1 minute shall not be permitted to take part in competition boxing or
sparring for a period of at least 3 months thereafter.
A boxer unconscious for more than 1 minute shall not be permitted to take part in competition boxing or
sparring for a period of at least 6 months thereafter.
Before resuming boxing after any medically recorded non-competition period, a boxer must rst be
certied by a qualied medical practitioner holding a current licence to practise medicine as being t to
take part in competitive boxing.
Source: Boxing Australia Inc., Competition Rules, 2009, p. 10
7025 L 1/3
Figure 7.22 Boxing Australia Inc. has policies about athletes who lose consciousness.

Return-to-play policies: concussion
Australian rules football
We often associate concussion with boxing, but concussion is also a common injury in many other sports.
Medical ofcers of the Australian Football League prepared a document, The Management of Concussion in
Australian Football, specically to look at this issue. Part of the summary of this document follows.
Concussion refers to a disturbance in brain function caused by trauma.
Complications can occur if the player is returned to play before having fully recovered from injury.
The key components of management include:
a Suspecting the diagnosis in any player with symptoms such as confusion or headaches after a knock to
the head
b referring to the player for medical evaluation
c ensuring that the player has received medical clearance before allowing a return to play or a graded
training program.
The cornerstones of medical management include rest until symptoms have resolved, cognitive testing
to ensure recovery of brain function, and then a graded return-to-sport program with monitoring for
recurrence of symptoms.
In general, a more conservative approach
(i.e. longer time to return to sport) is used in 7028 P 1/4
cases where there is any uncertainty about the
players recovery. If in doubt, sit them out.
Difcult cases, such as those involving prolonged
symptoms or decits in brain function, require
a more detailed, multi-disciplinary approach to
management.
A player with suspected concussion must be
withdrawn from playing or training until medically
evaluated and cleared.
Table 7.5Concussion rehabilitation
Early rest (do nothing!)
Graduated return to activity (to commence

2448hours after resolution of symptoms)
1 Light aerobic exercise, e.g. stationary bike
2 Running
3 Non-contact training drills
4 Full-contact training
Figure 7.23 The Australian Football League
5 Game play has guidelines regarding concussion and players
readiness to return to play.
Source: AFL Medical Officers Association, The Management of Concussion in Australian Football,
Australian Football League, 2008, p. 3

Injury
First aid
DRABCD
TOTAPS
STOP
Preventing injury Professional medical attention

Maintain tness, strength Surgery
and exibility Immobilisation
Improve skills and techniques Physiotherapy
Rehabilitation
Progressive mobilisation
Graduated exercise
Retraining for skills
Heat and cold
Returning to play
Assessing readiness
Monitoring progress
Figure 7.23 Good injury rehabilitation is one step to preventing further injury.
EXTENSION
1 Read Boxing Australias loss of consciousness guidelines on page 286.
a Outline why the guidelines are in place.
b Justify their appropriateness and suitability.
2 Read the summary from the Australian Football Leagues document The Management of
Concussion in Australian Football on page 287.
a Assess how the guidelines will affect player welfare.
b Compare the guidelines to those published by Boxing Australia.
3 Collect return-to-play policies, procedures and guidelines from sporting clubs and
organisations. Compare them, looking at aspects such as timing and the decision-making
process for return to play. Summarise your findings in a table.
4 Should there be a universal return-to-play policy across all sports after a head injury?
Discuss.
5 Discuss who should have ultimate responsibility for deciding when an athlete competes
after injury.
Click for more articles and discussions of concussion in sport.

07: SUMMARY
Sports injuries can be classied by cause: NOW THAT YOU HAVE FINISHED ...
indirect, direct or overuse injuries. They can also
1 Describe practices that should be avoided after a
be classied by tissue type: soft-tissue or hard-
soft-tissue injury.
tissue injuries.
2 Outline the procedure for the immediate
Soft-tissue injuries are the most common sports
management of skin injuries.
injuries.
3 Explain the difference between the rst aid
Hard-tissue injuries are injuries to bone.
assessment of sporting injuries and their long-
The inammatory response is the bodys term management.
immediate response to injury.
4 Do some research to discover the most common
Soft-tissue injuries are managed using the injuries that occur in your chosen sport.
RICER procedure, which recommends rest, ice, Create an informative brochure for athletes
compression, elevation and referral. and coaches. In your brochure, you should
Hard-tissue injuries are managed by immobilising summarise the:
the injured site. a latest injury statistics
Sports injuries, where the injured person is b classication of injuries sustained
conscious, are assessed using the TOTAPS
c primary causes of injury
procedure: talk, observe, touch, active
movement, passive movement and skills test. d preventative methods.
Rehabilitation aims to safely restore full Your brochure should include diagrams and
movement to an injured area and return athletes graphs to represent the statistics you nd.
to the playing eld. 5 Compile a media le of articles about injuries
When deciding whether an athlete can return to sustained by elite athletes. For each injury:
play, the priority should be the athletes welfare a classify it by cause and tissue type
and safety. b outline relevant management procedures.
Physical indicators of readiness to return to play 6 Create a short lm of the management
include being pain free and having full mobility procedure for soft-tissue injuries and hard-issue
restored to the injured area. injuries.
A players physical readiness to return to play can 7 Contrast the management methods used to
be assessed using sport-specic tness testing. treat soft-tissue injuries and hard-tissue injuries.
A player needs to be psychologically ready to 8 Describe the inammatory response and the role
return to play. it plays in injury rehabilitation.
Athletes are sometimes under pressure (both 9 Discuss each step of the TOTAPS procedure and
internal and external) to return play before they the role it plays in assessing a sporting injury.
are physically and psychologically ready to do so. 10 Justify the four rehabilitation procedures
Many sporting teams, clubs and governing commonly used after sporting injuries.
organisations have policies, procedures and 11 Outline what may determine whether a player is
guidelines regarding athletes returning to play psychologically ready to return to play.
after injury. They vary depending on the sport
12 Discuss the possible consequences for an athlete
and the nature and severity of the injury.
who returns to play prematurely.
07: Summary ///// 289

b ASSESSMENT TASKS
7030 P 1/4 Task 1
Personal fitness profile
Genre: Essay
Task 2
Prescribed training
program evaluation
Word limit: 600800 words Genre: Report
7031 P 1/4
Preamble Preamble
It is essential that athletes maintain a personal tness prole To adapt and improve, athletes participate in structured
to monitor their progress. training programs. You have recently participated in a training
During long-term training programs, athletes periodically program for a physical activity, during which you were
update their tness prole to guide their training. During required to keep a personal tness prole.
short-term programs, athletes record results before the
program begins and at its conclusion. Learning requirements
During your physical education class, you recently completed To successfully complete this task you will need to:
a series of training sessions in a particular physical activity complete a prescribed six-week training program
and were required to keep a personal tness prole. complete two sets of tness tests: before and after
training
record test results
keep a training journal
complete two sets of tness tests: one before training and
another after
Click for an example of a training journal.
record test results
analyse test relevancethat is, which tests indicate Task
tness attributes that are relevant to the physical activity
In your report, evaluate your training programs effectiveness
at improving your performance. Justify your conclusions by
Click for a data sheet used to record physical referring to journal entries, tness results, training principles
fitness components.
and training methods.
Task Additional information

In your essay, evaluate the appropriateness of the training You will need to use appropriate headings and
methods used in class, and their relevance to your position subheadings in your report.
or sport. Justify your conclusions using evidence from your
personal tness prole (improvement and/or deterioration)
and your knowledge of the tness requirements of your
position or sport. You will need to provide a reference list and correctly use
in-text referencing to acknowledge the sources of your
Additional information information.
You may bring your personal tness prole.

Task 3
Determining position
based on fitness profile
Time limit: 6 minutes 7032 L 1/2
Preamble
In sport, different athletes are likely to be more suited to
a particular sport, event or position in a team. You have
just completed a unit in a given physical activity and were
given the opportunity to try the activitys various positions,
disciplines and events.
participate in the various positions, disciplines and events
analyse the energy system contributions to the various
positions, disciplines and events
complete two sets of tness tests: one before training and
another after
record test results
analyse how the components of physical tness relate to
the bodys energy systems.
Click for an example of a data sheet used to

record physical fitness components.
Task
Evaluate your suitability to your chosen position or event.
Justify your decision by analysing the energy needs of that
position, discipline or event and considering your own
physical strengths and weaknesses. Explain your ndings in a
speech, accompanied by a PowerPoint presentation.
Prepare PowerPoint slides to accompany your speech.
Focus area BAssessment tasks ///// 291

0815
SPORT AND 160%
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
IN AUSTRALIAN
SOCIETY
Australians pride themselves on their sporting prowess and success. Most Australians could easily
name ten famous Australian athletes, but struggle to name half that number of Australians who
are acclaimed for humanitarian achievements. Although not all Australians feel passionately about
sport, sport is undeniably linked to the Australian psyche.
The following chapters use Figueroas framework as a tool to investigate how decisions to
participate in sport are affected by socio-cultural inuences such as our history, our values, the
media and the allocation of sports funding.
Focus questions
How has Australias sporting culture developed?
What is the medias role in promoting equality in sport and recreation?
Do all Australians, regardless of race, religion, gender, socioeconomic status or education, have
equal opportunities to participate in and enjoy sport?
Does providing access ensure participation?
Coming up
Figueroas framework: An introduction to sociology page 294
Cultural inuences on equity and sports participation page 306
Structural inuences on equity and sports participation page 332
Institutional inuences on equity and sports participation page 358
Interpersonal and individual inuences on equity and
sports participation page 374
292 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society

RUS_QSPE_3pp.indb 293
c
28/09/10 9:42 AM
8002
8
Figueroas
framework:
An introduction
to sociology

Have you considered the relationship between sport and society? Is sport inuenced Sociology and sport 295
by society, or does society inuence sport? Equity and access 298
Figueroas framework 299
What factors determined your sporting choices? Were your choices shaped by
family, friends, teachers and the media, and by opportunities you had as you Applying Figueroas
were growing up? Have you stopped to consider what ultimately inuenced these framework: Sports-specic
opportunities? Do all Australians have equal opportunities to participate in sport? case studies 302
This chapter will provide a brief overview outlining the relationship between
sport and society, and introduce Figueroas framework, a sociological tool used to
study the factors that affect equity in and access to sport. Each level of Figueroas
framework is studied in the chapters that follow.

8003 1/3 l <start new page>
Figure 8.1 Sociologists study sport as it reflects societys behaviour and beliefs.
Sociology and sport

Sociology is the scientic study of how human society and culture are developed and organised. Sociologists
try to nd the relationship between signicant features of societysuch as money, politics, law, education,
access and equityand analyse how these features affect social groups. Social groups can be classied based
on factors such as gender, class, ethnicity and race.
Sports sociologists analyse social and cultural inuences through a sports perspective. Sports can be a
microcosm of society: the relationships and behaviour that happen in society are also present in sport. Sport,
in one form or another, is a part of societies and cultures throughout the word. So, as a branch of sociology,
sociologists scientically study the social and cultural structures, patterns and organisations within sport.
Sociology can be used to:
identify and understand social problems and issues associated with sport
understand sport as not just a physical performance but also as a social phenomenon, which affects
peoples feelings, thoughts and lives.
learn about sport, to help individuals make informed choices
think about how to challenge the ways in which sport disadvantages some people and offers privileges to
others.
As we will discover in later chapters, sports sociologists can sometimes create controversy because their
conclusions call for institutional changes in society. Many people are against such changes, as they would
threaten those in power or upset what people see as the natural order of sport.
EXTENSION
Read the article Caged Fury on page 296 and discuss how changes in society have increased
the popularity of this sport.
Chapter 8Figueroas framework: An introduction to sociology ///// 295

NEWS
Caged fury: brutal sport a hit with fans
Yesterday afternoon Australian Australian event and discussions Lorenzo and Frank Fertitta bought
Anthony Perosh was beaten to a were held several years ago. the rights for just $US2 million.
pulp by Croatian Mirko Cro Cop. But the Boxing and Combat The new owners threw
He was punched, kicked and Authority (the state governments money at UFC and by 2005 had
wrestled to the ground, his nose regulatory body) decided they standardised the rules to make
broken and his forehead split open didnt want caged ghting in it safer. They then developed a
by an elbow blow before nally, Melbourne. reality TV show.
mercifully, the ght was stopped. Sports Minister James The Ultimate Fighter was like
Bloody and violent as it was, Merlinos ofce was unable Big Brother meets Fight Club: 16
this was no bar-room brawl. It to conrm any approach, but men in a house, competing for a
was the opening bout in the 110th reluctance to give the sport contract to ght in the UFC. We
tournament of the Ultimate ofcial sanction would not be call it the Trojan horse, said Mr
Fighting Championship in Sydney, surprising. While there is now
which claims to be one of the a push to include it in the 2012
worlds fastest-growing sports. London Olympics, UFCs extreme
All 16 500 tickets for the violence prompted US senator
event, priced from $50 to $450, John McCain to label it human Figure 8.2 Cain Velasquez
cockghting in the late 1990s. moves in on Minotauro
sold out in four hours, before the Nogueira in their heavyweight
bill had even been announced, Thats a view shared by Steven bout in Sydney.
before tickets had gone on general Hambleton, vice-president of the
release and before any ads had Australian Medical Association.
been run. It is simply not a sport. Its
Channel One HD, which not about skill, its not about
carried it live, expected a viewing strength, its not about handeye
audience of about 300 000. co-ordination. Its about how you
And in July last year, a record inict damage most effectively.
1.6 million people paid $50 each Mr Zelaznik said the sport
to watch UFC 100 on pay-per- had come a long way since the
view TV. rst UFC tournament in Denver,
This is the rst time UFC has Colorado in 1993, when boxers,
come to Australia and despite wrestlers and ju-jitsu champions
serious concerns about its safety held free-for-all scraps in the
and impact on impressionable octagon, a caged, eight-sided
viewers, it almost certainly wont ring. There were no rules, no time
be the last. Well be back, no limits, no weight limits, he said.
question about it, said Marshall There was clearly an audience
Zelaznik, UFCs managing director for the sport but it was a
of international development. regulatory nightmare and had
According to Mr Zelaznik, been tossed off TV by 2001, when 8005 1/4 l
Melbourne was considered the boxing promoter Dana White
logical place to stage the rst and Las Vegas casino billionaires

Caged fury: brutal sport a hit with fans (cont )
Zelaznik. At rst people didnt Sol Spitalnic, secretary of Boxing violence is out of step with
realise they were watching a show Victoria. Theres a lot of people reality. Its easy to use words
about UFC. out there who want boxing like barbaric, but these guys
The show was a hit and is banned and this doesnt help. go to extraordinary lengths to
now in its 12th season. UFC and The AMAs Mr Hambleton make sure its safe, said Gus
its spin-offs are broadcast in 36 is among those calling for a Seebeck, program manager at
countries. Last year, the owners ban: People are desensitised to One HD. Its not for everyone
reportedly rejected a takeover violence all over the place. Kids but this sport is growing
offer worth more than a billion are playing graphic video games faster than pretty much any
dollars. and doing violent things to each other. I think there is room for
other and boxing is part of that more product like this in the
But though UFC is growing,
culture. schedule.
there are concerns even among
ght fans. Its not boxing, its just But the sports defenders Source: Karl Quinn,
The Sydney Morning Herald,
a gimmick to make money, said say the perception of extreme 22 February 2010

8012 1/3 l
Equity and access

Two concepts that are important
to sociology are the closely
linked ideas of equity and access.
Equity is studied to determine
whether resources are distributed
fairly to all members of a society.
Sociologists also study whether
all individuals within a society
have access to resources or
whether barriers or obstacles are
Figure 8.3 Studying equity and access helps us to recognise the in place to prevent certain groups
unreasonable barriers that restrict sports participation. of people from accessing them.
In sport, studying equity and access helps us to understand why some people are less likely than others to
participate in sport and physical activity. Different types of barrierswhich can vary from the nancial cost
of sporting equipment to cultural attitudes about the types of activities that are appropriate for males and
femalescan restrict individuals access to some sports and physical activities.
Have any barriers prevented you from participating in a particular sport or activity? What opportunities do
you need to succeed in your chosen sport?
Many would argue that it is impossible to provide exactly the same opportunities and access to all
members of society. For example, is it realistic to expect that a teenager living on a remote cattle station will
have the same access to surng as another teenager living in a coastal town? While some barriers, such as
distance, cannot easily be overcome, many barriers that relate to peoples beliefs and attitudes about sport
and physical activity can be removed. The study of equity and access in sport is primarily about reducing and
removing the unreasonable and irrelevant barriers to participationsuch as discrimination, prejudices and
stereotyping. This may require a shift in current attitudes.
For these reasons, the sociological study of access and equity in sport looks primarily at social attitudes
and expectations that create barriers to participationin particular, how such barriers are formed, how they
are reinforced, how they inuence individuals behaviour and how they can be changed. Such barriers to
equity and access exist at all levels of society.
ACQUIRE
Look up the meaning of the words equity and access in a dictionary. Then, discuss the
following:
1 Why are the concepts of equity and access to sport and other physical activities considered
important?
2 What might be reasonable barriers to equity and access?
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Which types or groups of people in our society might not have equal access to sport and
physical activity? Why?
2 How might having limited opportunities and access to sport and physical activity affect
these individuals?

<start new page>
Figueroas framework
Many social factors directly or indirectly shape opinions and inuence an individuals decision to participate
in physical activity. These factors change throughout an individuals life. For example, some children start
playing sport because it is fun; others may join a sporting group because their older brother or sister plays
that sport. A new sporting complex may open nearby and provide a chance to try a new sport. Coaching
clinics might inspire some people to give a sport a go. Teachers can provide both positive and negative
sporting experiences. At school, peers can change adolescents attitudes about a sport that was previously
enjoyed. Even students who are talented at a particular sport may quit it because a sporting career is not
realistic or because of the social expectations of their gender. Work commitments, nancial costs and
equipment costssuch factors can have a negative effect on sports participation.
Peter Figueroa, a sociologist, developed a framework to analyse racism within society, particularly to look
at how equity and access to societys resources are affected by a persons race. This framework can also be
applied to other aspects of sociology, including equity and access in sport.
Figueroas framework explored equity and access through ve levels in society:
1 cultural level
2 structural level
3 institutional level
4 interpersonal level
5 individual level.
The levels look at all aspects of society, beginning with the big picture of society and working down to
the individual. They provide a starting point to analyse how Australian society affects Australian sporting
participation.
It is important to remember that sports participation is a complex issue and that each person is affected
differently. The level of Figueroas framework that has the greatest inuence on an individuals sports
participation will vary. A simplistic response might say that only one level has affected an individuals
participation; a deeper analysis will reveal that factors from each of the ve levels have played a role.
Each of the ve levels is summarised briey below. They are all looked at in greater detail in the following
chapters.
Cultural level
History, cultural identity, socialisation, social construction of gender stereotypes, hegemonic masculinity,
ethnic background
Structural level
Policies, funding, media, development programs, marketing, sponsorship
Institutional level
Community, school, facilities, rules, religion
Interpersonal level
Peers, family, teachers, coaches, role models
Interpersonal level 8006 ts 1/3 l

Peers, family, teachers, coaches, role models
Individual level
Values, attitudes, personality, genes
Figure 8.4 Figueroas framework can be used to evaluate the influences on sports participation.

ACQUIRE
Consider Figure 8.4.
1 Suggest reasons why the five levels of Figueroas
framework have been depicted in this way.
2 Why do the levels decrease in size, from cultural to 8013
individual?
3 Draw another concept map to depict Figueroas

framework.
The cultural level

The cultural level of Figueroas framework includes a
societys values, beliefs and attitudes, which are the product
of factors that include the social groups history, culture and
ethnic background.
Societys values, beliefs and attitudes shape and inuence
equity in and access to sport. For example, consider the cultural
attitudes to masculinity, femininity and sport. Traditionally,
sport has been seen as a male domain; women have been seen
as supporters or as people without interest in sport. Sports
that are appropriate for men and those that are appropriate
for women have been clearly differentiated. As these cultural
Figure 8.5 Cultural beliefs affect
barriers are slowly removed, women are gaining greater access attitudes to sport and the types of sports
and opportunities in sport. we play.
A societys history and culture also affect sporting culture in other ways. Cultural factors can inuence
the type of sports that individuals within that society participate in. For example, consider the sports that are
regularly watched or played in Queensland. Are they different from the sports preferred in Western Australia
or somewhere further away, such as Canada? Such differences are the results of different sporting cultures.
The structural level

The structural level of Figueroas framework includes the inuence of government, business and the
media. Applying this level of Figueroas framework to sport means investigating the relationship between
the media and sports promotion, the allocation of government funding for sports programs, and how the
corporate sector affects sport and sports participation through sponsorship and other funding.
For example, the Australian government funds and operates several organisationssuch as the Australian
Sports Commissionthat aim to improve sports participation, promote equity and access to sport for all
Australians, and improve Australians sporting performance.
It is the structural level that provides many insights into how funding is allocated to sport.
The institutional level

The institutional level of Figueroas framework level examines the institutions within society that affect
sport and physical activity. Institutions such as schools, community groups, sporting clubs, and religious
groups are able to help shape positive attitudes to sport and physical activity.

Schools feature prominently when discussing how peoples early attitudes towards sport are shaped.
Some schools with strong sporting traditions reinforce participation in sport. The sports that students are
encouraged to participate in can depend on the schools history and traditions, the facilities and equipment
available, and the expertise of the teachers.
The institutional level is not just about the inuence of schools; it also looks at the availability of facilities
and the structure of organised sport within a community.
The rules of different sports are also considered as part of an analysis of the institutional level. Sporting
rules, which are determined and standardised by sports governing organisations, can restrict access to
certain groups and individuals.
The interpersonal level

The interpersonal level of Figuerous framework is used to investigate the relationships that affect
whether an individual will develop a lifelong association with sport.
Most of us are inuenced, directly or indirectly, by the people around us. Whose role is the most crucial?
Parents? Peers? Siblings? Teachers? Coaches? Sporting role models?
Which three people have had the greatest influence on your sports participation?
The individual level

The individual level of Figuerous framework examines why individuals choose to participate in physical
activity. The reasons vary from person to person. For many people, the word exercise is associated with
images of unpleasant, vigorous activity that just makes them dirty, sweaty and uncomfortable. Others see
exercise as something they must do to improve tness or as a normal part of their daily life. For others,
exercise is something that they do for enjoyment.
While each of the other levels has some bearing, decisions about sport and physical activity are
ultimately made by the individual. Genes, values, attitudes and personalities are specic to each individual.
This is reected in differences between family members.
How have Figueroas levels affected how you participate in sport?
8007 1/3 l
Figure 8.6 The interpersonal level is used to explain how relationships with family, friends and others
influence sports participation.

Applying Figueroas framework: Sports-specific
casestudies
The following articles show how the levels of Figueroas framework have an inuence on athletes
participation in sport.
Speaking with Torah Bright NEWS

Because of Australia may not be the rst place wearing the Australian uniform and happy
snowboardings
many people think of when it comes to to run around and watch all the other events
soon to be
increased prole snowboarding, but Down Under is where and the other Aussie athletes competing. The
and Torahs halfpipe specialist Torah Bright calls home. A Olympics is a special thing, I was just happy
gold medal, 2006 Olympian, the 23-year-old is a strong to be there and be a part of it.
Torah will have
more marketing medal contender in Vancouver. Yet while she What are your memories of seeing your
possibilities to makes her living on snow, Bright feels she was sister compete in Alpine skiing at the Salt
endorse products. born to live by the beach and she nds her Lake City Games?
(Structural and
competitive juices ow most when driving a
interpersonal level) I was living in Mammoth (California) that
go-kart.
year of the Olympics and I came across to be
Australia loves
winners. Would the
Going back to the 2006 Games, what are with the family and go watch Rowena at the
media coverage some of your memories? Olympics. We were so excited that she got
have been the
The main thing I remember about Torino is there cause Mum had told us stories that
same if Torah had
won silver instead just how patriotic I felt. I was so proud to be she was four years old and looking at the TV
of gold? (Cultural
level)
When Torah says 8009 1/4 p

how proud she
was to represent
Australia in the
Torino Winter
Olympics, she
is showing the
inuence of her
culture and her
personal feelings.
(Cultural level and
individual level)
At the Olympics,
Torah likes to
support and
encourage
other athletes.
(Interpersonal level)
Figure 8.7 Torah Bright hails from a small town in Australia, but she now spends most of her
winters living and training in Salt Lake City.

<start new page>
not font change

Speaking with Torah Bright (cont )
as per oup
Torahs involvement and telling Mum she wanted to go to the What are your favourite things to do for
in snowboarding
Olympics. And in 2002 she did, and we were fun off the mountain?
was initially
inuenced by all there to support her. Its really hard to Off the mountain I love to surfI absolutely
her parents get all our family together because we all love surngtennis, pretty much any type of
and siblings.
live all across the world these days, so the sport. I discovered this summer I dont really
(Interpersonal level)
Olympics just seems to be a time when we like hiking and camping. But everything else
come together and be a family, in 2002 and pretty much I enjoy to do. Just be with friends
in Torino. and family being goofy.
Whats the dynamic like between you Does snowboarding share any of those
and your brother, Ben, having him as your same qualities that you love about
coach? surng?
Torah has the Weve always been great friends. Ben and I think I love surng so much because Im a Torah identies
support of her
I have been working together since before beach girl at heart. Coming from Australia, Australian culture
coach, who is with surng.
also her brother. the last Olympics and he has denitely I should be a surfer. But its something I (Cultural level)
(Interpersonal level) made me the rider I am today. He sees my didnt grow up doing at all; its something I
potential and my ability more than I do in picked up in the past four years or so. And
some cases, so hes been pushing me ever its just being out in the water sitting on the
since he started working with me. And we board and the sun and turquoise water, its
are brother and sister, so yes we have our absolutely beautiful. I think the only thing
moments. Theyre far and few between but similar with snowboarding is the way you
pretty much the most it is, I get frustrated stand on the surfboard.
with him on the hill and hell be talking
We read that if you werent a snowboarder
to me and telling me something to do.
youd want to be a rally car driver?
Ill pretend I didnt hear it and just keep
I love to drive cars and Ive always wanted
walking.
to learn how to drive and would love to race
What are some of the biggest differences
cars. So any chance I get, I love to go out to
between where you grew up and now
the [racetrack] and race go-karts.
living part of the year in Salt Lake City?
Do you get competitive on go-karts?
Living in Cooma Cooma has a population of about 8000
in the Snowy Oh my goodness, I am a different person
these days, so its not the smallest town in
Mountains when I get in that go-kart. No mercy. Its Torah says that
provided plenty of the world but its quite spread out because she is extremely
like people will ask me if Im competitive
opportunities for its a rural area. The biggest highlight of the competitive,
skiing, so skiing snowboardingnot at all compared to the relating to her drive
town is McDonalds, thats the hangout.
became her sport of go-kart. I will play dirty, anything. I will knock and commitment
choice. (Individual
And the local snowboard and skate store for
you off that track. to excel. Torahs
level) sports, theyre the main attractions. Im glad ambition and drive
I learned to drive in Salt Lake City rather What is it that brings that out of you? to succeed reect
her values and
than learning in a small country town with I dont know what it is but I really feel that Im
beliefs. (Individual
no stoplights and only roundabouts, then a totally different person. I get competitive level)
heading to the city and learning to drive. So and I want to win. But its not really that way
really theres no comparison; Salt Lakes a with any other sport Ive participated in.
decent-sized city and Cooma is a little dot Source: Compiled by Matt Stroup,
on the map. NBCOlympics.com, 9 February 2010

NEWS
Jharal Yow Yeh: Future state great
Jharals physical Every time my mother sees
capabilities and
me run out for the Broncos,
determination were
necessary to help I know the pride she feels
him achieve his and the immense gratitude I
goals. (Individual have for the sacrices she has
level)
made to help me get there.
Jharal had 8011 1/4 p
Despite being a single
opportunities to
represent his state
parent, my mother worked
in various sports. tirelessly to support me and
Support to do this my brother and two cousins
was provided by the
Queensland School
throughout our schooling
Sport programs years. I know that without
and his schools. her support and also the
(Structural level
support of the Queensland
and institutional
level) school sports system, my
chance to play with the
Living in
Queensland
Broncos may never have
provided a greater been realised.
opportunity
Like thousands of kids
for Jharal to be
recognised by the throughout Queensland,
Bronco scouts. my childhood dream was to
(Institutional level)
play for the Broncos. Now
Jharal says that whenever I pull on the jersey,
a goal of his I feel that I not only represent
was to play for
a great football team but also
the Broncos. In
Queensland sport, my mother, my family, my
the Broncos have culture and the thousands of
a huge following.
other kids that havent been
(Cultural level)
as fortunate as me.
Jharal states how
Im truly lucky, but it was Figure 8.8 Jharal Yow Yeh is a Brisbane Broncos player
proud he is to
be representing tough growing up seeing who credits the support of his family and the Queensland
School Sport Foundation for his success.
Aboriginal culture mum beg and borrow for the
through sport.
funds we needed to take my
(Cultural level)
positions in Queensland school representative I strongly support the Queensland School
His mother, family teams, while at the same time witness the Sport Foundation new initiatives and the
and coaches Future State Greats program. The funding
many great coaches, teachers and the school
provided support
and inspiration sports system all play their part in working generated will relieve the pain and suffering
for Jharal to reach with mum to help me to compete. on the families of less fortunate kids kids
his potential. whose dreams can now become a reality with
(Interpersonal level) I did compete while my mother
conscientiously repaid our debts this placed your corporate support.
great stress on us all especially mum. Source: Queensland School Sport Foundation

08: SUMMARY
Sociology is the scientic study of human NOW THAT YOU HAVE FINISHED ...
society.
1 a Sociologists study human society. List
Sport affects society and society has an effect on features of our society that can have an
sport. effect on sports participation.
Figueroas framework can be used to analyse b Of the features you listed above, which
society, particularly access and equity. It can also might have a negative effect on an
be applied to sport. individuals decision to participate in sport?
Figueroas framework breaks society into ve Suggest ways to reduce these barriers.
levels of inuence: 2 List the ve levels of Figueroas framework.
The cultural level includes a societys cultural 3 Explain why Figueroas framework is a useful tool
values, beliefs and attitudes. to analyse sport in society.
The structural level includes the inuence of 4 Read the following statements and:
government, business and the media.
agree or disagree
The institutional level includes community
identify the relevant levels from Figueroas
facilities and organisations such as schools,
framework
clubs and religious groups.
list the social aspects that make these
The interpersonal level looks at the effects
statements difcult to solve.
of relationships with others, including family,
friends, teachers and sporting role models. a Problems in sport have steadily increased
since more athletes turned professional.
The individual level includes factors that are
unique to each individual, such as a persons b Parents are the real role models, not sports
genetic make-up and personality. stars! Sports stars are just talented athletes
and should not be placed on a pedestal for
Sports participation is a complex issue and each
children to emulate.
person is affected differently. The level that has
the greatest inuence on an individuals sports c The easiest way to reduce obesity and
participation will vary. inactivity is to provide more sporting
facilities in each community.
d The media should provide equal coverage
when representing male and female sport.
e Change can only occur when it begins at the
cultural level.
5 Discuss how the following social determinants
have inuenced your opinions, beliefs and
values.
family media
peers ethnic
school background
gender
08: Summary ///// 305

9001
have 2 with this

number pls
conrm
9
Cultural
influences
on equity
and sports
participation
s
Have you considered how society has affected your opportunities to participate A brief history of sport
in sport? How has Australias sporting success shaped Australian culture? What in Australia 307
sporting stereotypes exist and how do they affect participation? Is there equality
Australias sporting
between the sexes in the sporting arena? How does sport give identity to groups
identity 313
from different ethnic backgrounds within our society?
Socialisation 313
In this chapter, we will examine how the cultural level of Figueroas framework can
Gender roles and
be used to understand how socialisation has shaped the role of sport in Australia.
stereotypes 314
The idealistic notion that every Australian has the same opportunity to pursue the
Ethnic identity 324
physical activity of their choice is unrealistic because society puts up barriers. These
barriers can be strengthened by cultural attitudes that reinforce existing practices,
limiting equal opportunities. As more people become aware of the barriers that
exist and how they have been created, opportunities can be developed to bring
about change. This chapter will look at a range of factors that have shaped the
opportunities to participate in sport in Australian society.

<start new page>
A brief history of sport in Australia

Australias sporting culture is heavily inuenced by our history as a former British colony. Early settlers from
Britain and Ireland brought with them attitudes and beliefs about sport, and they also brought with them the
games that were popular in Britain.
Building manliness and character

In nineteenth-century Britain, sport was viewed as a manly pursuit. It was believed that participating in
physical activity fostered the ideals of the English gentleman. British public schools (which are the equivalent
of private schools in Australia) encouraged boys to play team games to learn the masculine qualities of
leadership and courage. Schoolmasters viewed games as a way to distract pupils from youthful sexual
experimentation and rebellion against school authority.
Games were incorporated into boys public schools because it was believed that participating in sport
built social character and provided discipline. These attributes and skills were prerequisites for upper-class
social life, which the sons of the socially privileged must acquire. In contrast, physical activity for girls was
promoted largely for health reasons.
It was also accepted that playing games, particularly cricket, could develop Christian values. Cricket
provided a social education for its participantsa concept that became known as muscular Christianity.
Anglican priests of the Christian socialist movement encouraged working-class boys to participate in sport
as a means of moral and physical salvation. The concept of the body as the temple of the Holy Spirit was
important and, as such, young boys were encouraged to remain t and healthy.
9002 p 1/2
Figure 9.1 Australias sporting culture originates in our colonial history.
Chapter 9Cultural influences on equity and sports participation ///// 307

Colonial sportsmanship
Most of Australias early settlers were neither gentlemen nor public schoolboys; they were convicts and
working-class people seeking opportunity in a new country. Even in the early days of European settlement,
however, sport was a popular pastime in colonial Australia.
Sport in nineteenth-century Australia was organised by publicans around public housesplaces reserved
for males. As a result, gambling, drinking and violent behaviour became associated with sport. The typical
Australian in the colonies was male, heterosexual and Anglo-Saxon, and a sporting version of mateship
developed. Mateship included loyalty to teammates and playing hard but within the rules.
The colonists were believed to be, and often proved themselves to be, more physically robust than
their British counterparts. This could be attributed to the rugged physical environment they were forced to
deal with in Australia, the hardships they endured and the courage they showed to survive. Consequently
Australian working-class sportsmen became admired for their physical strength, and the qualities associated
with this imagephysical toughness and resiliencewere highly valued.
Being successful at sport was very important to the colonies. International cricket matches, which were
rst held in 1877, were considered tests between nationslong before Australia was an independent
nationand the outcome signicantly inuenced Australias developing national identity. The emerging
nations success was often measured by the result of a sporting match.
International victories in cricket, football, rowing and foot-racing were inuential in rectifying the
colonists feelings of inferiority to Britain. The victories fostered national pride and brought Australia
increased recognition and status.
EXTENSION
Research a variety of sports that were played in Australia during the colonial years. For each
sport you research, identify who the sport was played by (age, gender and social class) and
describe its purpose.
Amateurs and professionals

Sport has historically meant different things to different social groups. The British class system was mirrored
in Australias colonies; people who had social and economic power were the dominant class. Sports pursued
by those with a private school education, a respectable profession and an established family reputation
included cricket, tennis, golf, rowing, yachting, hunting and horse racing. Such sports were ruled by
appropriate codes of behaviour and were the pastimes of the upper class, who had time for leisure.
Until the middle of the nineteenth century, working-class people worked six days a week and were
expected to attend church on Sundays, leaving little time for sport or other leisure activities.
Athletes were also divided according to amateur or professional status, reinforcing the class divide.
Professional athletes were paid for their participation. Amateurs were those who participated as a hobby and
who did not seek or need payment. An amateur athlete was dened as a person:
who has never competed for a money prize, staked bet, or declared wager, or who has not
knowingly and without protest competed with or against a professional for a prize of any description
or for public exhibition, or who has never taught, pursued or assisted in the practice of any athletic
exercise as a means of livelihood or for pecuniary [monetary] gain.

9004 l 1/3
Figure 9.2 The working classes were excluded from amateur athletic association competitions.
Working-class athletes did not have the leisure time of the wealthy and were only able to take time off
work if their sport offered a prize or payment. These payments compensated them for the wages lost while
away from their jobs.
The concept of amateurism was developed to protect the middle and upper classes from a working-class
invasion of their leisure activities. Many sporting clubs restricted membership to amateurs to exclude the
working classes from the clubs and games of the upper classes. Those who used their athletic skill for prot,
or as a source of income, were considered unt for membership and undesirable by the pillars of society.
Sport was not seen as an appropriate way to earn a living; it was not a proper job. Excluding professionals
was also believed to guarantee the codes of conduct and playing conventions associated with gentlemanly
behaviour. Amateurism was associated with moral superiority.
For example, in cricket matches, players were labelled gentlemen or players, depending on their social
status. Players were those who had poorer social origins and who used their physical skills to gain a prize;
gentlemen were amateurs who played as a hobby. On tour, the two groups lived in separate accommodation
and entered the eld from separate gates. In England, clubs employed players to bowla task considered to
be manual labourwhereas the gentlemen batted.
It is important to note that loopholes existed so that gentlemen could receive some payment for their
participation but still maintain their amateur status. It is clear, then, that the term amateur was related
more to a persons social status than to a strict interpretation of whether or not the person was paid.
Another method often used to exclude the lower classes was to increase ticket prices for spectators. For
example, the Western Australian Turf Club raised the gate fee during the depression of the 1890s. The leisure
pursuits that called for wealth, time and space became the possession of the upper and middle classes.
Membership of the ruling bodies of clubs or associations (such as the amateur athletics clubs) was also
socially restricted. Without sufcient social standing it was impossible to become a member of a club board.
The social stigma associated with professionalism and sport lingered until late in the twentieth century.
For example, the International Olympics Committee only relaxed its rules barring professional athletes from
competing in the 1970s.

ACQUIRE
1 Compare the meanings of amateur and professional in the nineteenth century with their
meanings today.
2 Describe how the upper class manipulated the term amateur to protect their games from
working-class intrusion.
EXTENSION
A puritan sporting ethos claimed that a gentleman played only for the love of the game.
1 Conduct a class debate on the topic Athletes today should play purely for the love of the
game.
2 After your debate, construct a PMI (positives, minuses and interesting points) chart to
summarise your thoughts on the discussion.
Womens sporting history

In the nineteenth century, womens participation in sport was based on social class, as it was for men. Upper-
class women, who had the luxury of time for sport, still had to adhere to appropriate codes of conduct and
maintain their femininity. They participated in physical activity as a source of recreation and relaxation,
rather than for competition and performance.
It was not until the middle
of the nineteenth century
that women were allowed to
accompany their male relatives
to watch some sporting events
such as horse races and baseball
games. Late in the nineteenth 9005
century, women were given the
opportunity to participate in
organised sports. Golf, archery,
and croquet were the rst sports
to gain acceptance among
women because they did not
involve physical contact or strain.
In the nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries, golf was one
of the few sports that women
undertook competitively. Clubs
were established throughout the
colonies by 1895. Ladies could
only be associate members,
however, because club members
believed that women were
supposed to be socially minded,
not competitive. As they were Figure 9.3 Lawn tennis was a social activity that was seen to
associate members, not full encourage grace.

members, women had little power in club politics
9006 p 1/4 and few club privileges. Womens play was limited
to certain days, and women were often excluded
from the clubhouse. This practice still continues at
some golf clubs today.
Women participated in sport for the social
contact. Activities such as tennis, golf, croquet,
archery, rowing and sailing were undertaken by
those with sufcient time for recreation, access to
the necessary equipment and the social contacts
for participation. For example, tennis courts
were privately owned and located at homes in
fashionable suburbs, so women played tennis by
invitation only.
Although physical activity was seen as a
masculine pursuit, women did participate in a
range of sports. If they did play, however, they
did so without any displays of exertion. Because
perspiring, physical contact and competition were
not socially acceptable or ladylike behaviour,
womens physical recreation activities and
opportunities were limited. Gentle exercise was
seen to benet womens health and help them to
develop other feminine qualities such as graceful
movement. Womens restrictive clothing, such as
long dresses and ornamental hats, also limited their
participation in strenuous activity.
The all-male medical profession of the time
fostered the belief that strenuous exercise would
be detrimental to the health and reproductive
organs of women. In contrast, light exercise was
considered to be healthy and assist in childbirth.
Figure 9.4 Fanny Durack was a pioneering Unlike men, women were not believed to be strong
Australian sportswoman.
enough to withstand vigorous activity.
Baron Pierre de Coubertin, the founder of the modern Olympics, was a proponent of this notion and
strongly campaigned against women participating in the Olympic Games. The rst time Australian women
competed at the Olympic Games was in 1912. At the 1912 Stockholm Olympics, Australians Fanny Durack
and Mina Wylie won gold and silver medals respectively in the 100-metre freestyle swimming event.
Bathing was seen as an acceptable sporting pastime for women because men and women were
segregated. Beginning in 1839, community baths were established throughout the colonies, and women
were able to attend swimming classes. A fee of sixpence was charged to visit the baths, so women from the
lower classes were less likely to attend. Even with the conservative swimming costumes of the nineteenth
century, at the beach both men and women could use bathing machines to ensure privacy from observers.
Bathing machines were covered carriages that were towed into deeper water, allowing swimmers to remain
concealed from onlookers as they descended a ladder into the water.

Physical activity for working-class women was often athletics, because it involved no nancial outlay. On
public holidays, picnic races were common, and pedestrianism (walking races) was contested for nancial
gain. In 1881, the Bulletin journal reported that for a womens tournament, prizes of 50, 25 and 10, as
well as a gold locket to the neatest and best-dressed, were offered. Working-class women also competed in
boxing for prizes.
Girls in government schools were taught drills and callisthenics, which aimed to improve their ability to
follow instructions and become compliant workers. For daughters of the socially elite, participation in team
games at school was meant to teach the modest qualities required of young women. Dancing was considered
an appropriate activity because it was a social skill required for later life.
The rise of competitive female sports trespassed on the previously male domain of sport. The media
trivialised womens sport by reporting on the fashion and social aspects of the event, rather than on the
womens performance and results. Moralists also preached about the evils of women who concentrated on
sport instead of devoting themselves to their homes and families.
ACQUIRE
1 Outline how participation in sport in the nineteenth century differed for women and men.
2 Compare the opportunities for nineteenth-century women to participate in sport with the
opportunities available to women today.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Set up the class in a carousel formation by making two circles (an inner and an outer
circle) of students facing each other. One circle assumes the negative viewpoint and the
other circle assumes the positive viewpoint. Begin a debate on the topics below. After one
minute, the circles rotate three places in opposite directions, the viewpoints change and
the debate continues.
a Sporting opportunities for women have not changed in the past century.
b Women who play sport neglect their family duties.
c Sport is a male domain.
2 a Discuss the barriers that exist to discourage women from participating in sport in
todays society.
b Propose a variety of strategies to overcome these barriers to participation.
EXTENSION
1 Do some research to answer the following questions about sport in Australia in the
nineteenth century. Share your findings with the class. Present it in a format that would be
suitable for use as revision or summary notes, such as a mind map or a podcast.
a Identify the sports in which women participated.
b Explain the purpose of physical activity for women.
c Discuss the ways in which sport and physical activity were different for the different
social classes, and different for men and women.
d Identify the strategies used to discourage women from participating in sport.
2 Create a timeline outlining womens participation in the modern Olympic Games.

Australias sporting identity
Australians are proud when Australia is identied as a sporting nation. Sport has long been a central feature
of Australian cultureso much so that enthusiasm for sport has been widely described as a characteristic of
Australians.
The Australian public has a culture of recognising and supporting winners. Our achievements in sport
have helped shape the value that Australians now place on sport. Australians identify with national sporting
successes, including wins in Davis Cup tennis, medals at Commonwealth and Olympic Games, quali cation
for World Cup soccer and wins in the Ashes tests. Australia IIs victory in the Americas Cup in 1983 united
the nation with a sense of pride; the US team was defeated for the rst time in the events history. Success in
such competitions is particularly outstanding as Australias population is considerably lower than many of its
competitors.
Australia celebrates ongoing success and continues to upgrade and reinforce its international standing
by hosting events such as the Olympics in Sydney in 2000 and the Commonwealth Games in Melbourne in
2006.
Australias pride in sporting achievement and sporting identity also explains the priority that Australian
governments place on funding and promoting sport. Governments have directed billions of taxpayers dollars
to support the place of sport in Australian society. Schools have government-funded compulsory sport and
physical activity for all children.
Australias sporting identity is closely linked to the cultural level of Figueroas framework. Our social and
cultural attitudes and beliefs affect the sports we choose to play. For example, Australias sporting history
and culture has led to the high status of sports in which we excel, such as swimming, cricket, Australian
rules football and rugby league, while other sports such as orienteering, squash and badminton have been
marginalised.
Socialisation
9007 Has Australians belief that we
are a sporting nation increased
equity and access to sport and
physical activity for all members
of our society? To determine the
effects of our culture on equity
and access, we need to look at
how socialisation builds and
reinforces cultural barriers to
some individuals participating
in sport, while encouraging
participation by others.
Socialisation is the process by
which individual beliefs, opinions
and values are shaped by
society. The factors inuencing
socialisation are known as social
Figure 9.5 Australians love winners and identify with the success of
sporting heroes. determinants and can include

family, peers, schools, governments, media, religion, ethnic background, gender, socioeconomic status and
age. At the cultural level of Figueroas framework, the main socialising inuences are societys beliefs about
gender roles and ethnic identity. These social determinants can inuence whether individuals participate in
sport, their choice of sport and their level of achievement.
Gender roles and stereotypes

An individuals gender is determined biologically; however, there is far more to being a male or female than
reproductive organs. From birth, boys and girls are treated differently. Girls are dressed in pink, given dolls
and soft animals to play with, and are described using words such as soft and delicate. Boys, on the other
hand, are dressed in blue, given soldiers and trucks and referred to as strong and alert. Society expects males
and females to adopt, believe in, and full specic gender roles and conform to established stereotypes.
Stereotypes are oversimplied characterisations of groups of people. Stereotypes are opinions about a
persons race, nationality or gender that assume that all people who belong to a particular category or type
of person will think and behave in the same way. One example of a stereotype is Americans are loud, fat and
obnoxious. Stereotypes are often used to foster discrimination.
Gender stereotypes in sport

Gender stereotypes have long been a contentious issue in sport. Sport requires participants to be
competitive, courageous, determined, muscular, powerful and strong. These qualities are largely associated
with male gender stereotypes. Men have been expected to show these characteristics to be truly masculine.
On the other hand, female gender stereotypes expect women to be quiet, passive and nurturing; these
are not qualities ideally suited to sport. Traditionally, women were encouraged to participate in physical
activity for the benet of their health only when the activity required minimal exertion, did not prevent them
from maintaining their feminine body shape and did not interfere with their motherly duties.
Historically, the medical profession reinforced female gender roles by promoting the myth that females
had nite physical and mental energy. It was falsely believed that women had only enough energy for daily
activities and childbirth, and not for extraneous activities such as sport. Women were commonly described
as permanently weak. Doctors discouraged women from participating in strenuous physical activity because
it was believed that it would damage their reproductive organs.
Although our society no longer accepts these beliefs, some lingering prejudices about women in sport
remain. Women who actively participated in sport have often been regarded as masculine and unattractive
as their bodies became more muscular and lost their femininity. To be attractive, women were meant to be
dainty, graceful and elegant, not active and muscular.
Because of these traditional and cultural gender roles, sport has been primarily a male domain with
women as supporters.
Gender stereotypes and roles are reinforced at all levels of society. For example, experiences during
school physical education classeswhich are part of the institutional level of Figueroas frameworkcan
contribute to traditional notions of masculinity and femininity. Boys and girls at school are offered different
sports. Boys will be offered more vigorous sports such as rugby league and Australian rules football; they are
unlikely to be offered netball or dance. Girls choices, on the other hand, are often limited to traditionally
female sports or physical activities, such as netball and dance. Both boys and girls have limited access to
sport based on their gender.
Gender stereotypes and appropriate behaviour can also be reinforced by teachers assuming stereotypical
roles: a female physical education teacher might teach dance and a male physical education teacher might
teach rugby league.

9008 l 1/3
The cultural inuence of socialisation

Pls comrm
also has ow-on effects in the individual
Male netball or level of Figueroas framework. Because
similar <sports of the socialisation process and desire to
gender swtich> t in, both males and females are more
likely to choose activities that are seen
to be appropriate for their gender.
As attitudes to gender roles and
stereotypes change, there has been an
increase in the variety of sports offered
to girls and boys that would previously
have been reserved for the opposite
sex. It is becoming more common, for
example, for girls to participate in rugby
league and Australian rules football and
for boys to play netball.
Does your school offer you an
opportunity to play sports that
have traditionally been considered
appropriate for the opposite sex? If so,
why have you or have you not taken up
the opportunity?
Gender stereotypes are unlikely to
disappear completely, but challenging
the notions of what it means to be
masculine and feminine allows a new set
of less restrictive stereotypes and roles
to emerge. This will allow both boys and
girls greater access to sports that have
previously been seen as off limits.
It is important to remember that
gender stereotypesin all aspects of
society, including sporthave been
Figure 9.6 Playing sports traditionally reserved for the formed over many centuries. The process
opposite sex challenges the notions of gender stereotyping.
of changing gender stereotypes and roles
has begun only relatively recently. Even
in todays more equal society, many of the lingering assumptions about how men and women should behave
still restrict the types of activities that are acceptable for men and form barriers to womens participation in
sport.
Men who participate in sports that require more feminine qualities, such as gracefulness or the ability
to express emotions, are subjected to scrutiny and criticism. Men who do not uphold societys ideals of
masculinity in sport have also been marginalised. For example, this is evident in the sport of dancing. Dancing
is an athletic and powerful sport that requires incredible physical tness. Within Australian culture, however,
men who dance can be labelled sissy, wussy or gay. Boys and young men are dissuaded from taking up the
sport for fear of being considered feminine or homosexual.

Case study
Ballet, me and the world
I started dancing at the age of thirteen.
It was not a personal choice, but a decision made on my behalf by my mother because I had shown some
talent at playing the drums and a young man (who had made a commercial and was thus considered to be an
expert in the eld of the arts) said, If you want to make it in show business, you need to be able to sing and
dance.
Strangely, I found that I could do ballet really well. I was not only able to do the steps required, but I could
also remember them. This meant that I was the recipient of praise from my dance teacher. For once in my
life, I was able to be good at something. I had found my calling. Unfortunately, also at this stage of my life,
students at my school had found out about my hitherto unknown ability.
I had started dancing at the age of thirteengrade eight. By grade nine, I was found out. A ballet dancer?!
What the hell was ballet, and why is it in a language we dont understand? So, who suffered because of my
now well-known ability? Me. Then my friends and familythe people who mattered most to me. For over a
year I was the guy who was bashed on the oval. I would go to the teachers on parade ground duty, and they
would say between sips of coffee, Well? You do ballet, Weatherby. What do you expect?
I would go to the principal and he would say, You have a few options, Shane. Honestly? I suggest leaving
school. This is not a career option the school can help you with.
I would then go to the only people I thought could help, my brothers, only to nd out that they were
getting picked on too because of me.
9009 l 1/3
pls advise
Figure 9.7 Ballet dancers are some of the fittest athletes in the world.

Ballet, me and the world (cont )
Faggot: a bunch of sticks tied together, but to the typical guy on the oval, obviously a guy who likes guys.
Poofter: same again (but without the sticks).
Gay: once meant to mean happy and carefree, now same as above.
I can keep going. Anyone reading this could add a dozen more terms. It doesnt take intelligence, simply
ignorance. My choice is to let you decide.
My father said to me, You can ght back, Shane, or not. Its your choice. I am not worried that you like to
dance. Once you hit someone though, you cant take it back.
It all turned sour when my mind spoke before logic could save me.
It was a typical sunny daylunch time (to set the scene). I was the target of more than ten boys near B
block. Several boys had pushed me too far and were calling me every homosexual word their small minds
coiuld think of. They were very good rugby league players so I said, I dance with really cute girls. Theres only
one of me and twelve girls, and they all like me! You chase after other guys, with other guys, grabbing at hairy
legs trying to grab a little ball! Whos probably more gay?!
Thats when the ght started.
Unfortunately for everyone, including me, I had no idea of how strong the dance training had made me.
Somehow, I picked up and threw a few guys through a door and hurt a few more. I was very angry and upset,
and anger and adrenaline was certainly fuelling my body. I had never before known how strong I was. Later,
in my dancing career, this strength was a singular skill and ability that helped me to become a principal
dancer and create moves that deed most other professional dancers. Then and there, it only helped me to be
expelled the very next day from high school. Grade ten. No senior certicate.
In retrospect, I wish I could have been smarter and found a way to overcome my anger, avoid the pain I
caused the ve boys I hurt, and be a better person. But that is what happened. As dad had said, You cant take
it back.
From then I worked at a shopping centre, shelving stock. I also worked as a milk boy. I paid my way
through dancing. Then, at fteen, I received a scholarship to the Queensland Dance School. I joined the
Queensland Ballet Company in 1987 as a dancer in training, and by 1991 I was the youngest principal dancer in
Australia. In 1991 I was awarded the Young Queenslander of the Year award in the Arts. I have travelled quite a
lot of the world and done it doing a career that offers only pain, truth and the need to be honest with yourself.
I trained from 7.30 am to 6 pm six days a week, and I loved every moment.
ShaneW eatherby
EXTENSION
1 Read the case study Ballet, me and the world. The events that Shane Weatherby
experienced in high school happened in 1983. Would he receive the same treatment
if he were at school today? Do the stereotypical views about dance and dancers still
exist?
2 Consider Jason Akermaniss advice to gay players in the AFL in 2010 to stay in the closet.
Why did Akermanis make these statements? Should players stay in the closet?
Click for more information on the stay in the closet controversy in AFL.
inside activity? Chapter 9Cultural influences on equity and sports participation ///// 317

9010 p 1/4
9011 p 1/4
Figure 9.8 Some female athletes emphasise Figure 9.9 Female athletes who possess the
their feminine qualities with hair, make-up and skills of power, strength and speed can be seen as
fashionable outfits. unladylike because of gender stereotypes.
Although a stigma is attached to some types of sports participation for men, as men have far more
opportunities to participate in sport without being subjected to stereotyping, studies on this topic focus
primarily on women. Women participating in most sports require aggression, strength and muscular
physiquestraditionally masculine characteristics. Women who play sport and show masculine traits often
have their sexuality questioned; they can be labelled as butch or lesbians. The lesbian stereotype exerts
pressure on athletes to demonstrate their femininity and heterosexuality.
Societys perception of gender norms is that men should be more muscular and powerful and that
women be smaller, weaker and beautiful. The perceived unattractiveness of muscular women can deter
heterosexual female athletes from continuing in some sports and cause them to question their body image.
Some female athletes attempt to display their femininity through the use of make-up, pretty hair, and
uniforms.
Some people may think that men who nd big, muscular women attractive could be gay because
they are attracted to a trait that is typically masculine. To enable men to continue to nd sportswomen
attractive without their manhood being questioned, athletic women will often be portrayed in the media
using photos that show feminine, passive poses, and accompanying stories and captions that reinforce their
femininity.

APPLY AND EVALUATE
1 Explain why it is difficult to identify one level of Figueroas framework that is responsible
for societys construction of gender stereotypes and roles.
2 a Brainstorm ways that each of the following could act to reduce the effects of gender-
role socialisation and overcome gender barriers in sport.
parents
peers
schools
media.
b Who or what has the greatest potential to overcome gender barriers? Justify why.
3 Only cultural change will see the removal of barriers caused by stereotypical views. Do you
agree or disagree? Justify your position.
4 What cultural beliefs would need to change so that dancing could become a more socially
acceptable sport for men?
5 a What effect does the success of television programs such as So You Think You Can Dance
and Dancing with the Stars have on the cultural stereotyping of dancers?
b How has featuring typically masculine mensuch as professional Australian rules
football and rugby league stars, and televisions home-renovation tradesmenon
Dancing with the Stars changed societys views about men who dance?
6 Are some types of dance more socially acceptable for males? What are they? Justify why.
7 Consider dancing classes you have taken at school.
a Did you:
offer token resistance (that is, pretend a lack of interest while secretly enjoying the
experience)?
think it was a great way to meet and get close to your peers?
hate every minute because you think you cannot dance well?
put up with the single line dancing (such as to Nutbush) because you were on your
own?
enjoy having an activity that was not competitive?
like the idea that dancing allowed more creativity?
b Would your responses have been the same in primary school? If not, what socialisation
processes occurred between primary school and high school?
8 Australian dance will always struggle to enlist male participants based on the dominance
of more rugged sports. Do you agree or disagree with this statement?
Justify your response in 400 words or less, referring to relevant levels of Figueroas
framework.
9 Female dancers are incredibly athletic but are still also seen as incredibly feminine. Why
do they not suffer the social stigma of being called butch or lesbian that some other female
athletes do?

<start new page>
9012 p 1/4
Hegemonic masculinity
Before we discuss hegemonic
masculinity, it is important to
understand the meaning of the terms
hegemonic and hegemony. Simply
put, hegemonic means ruling, and
hegemony means leadership.
Our societyboth inside and outside
the sporting arenahas traditionally
been one of hegemonic masculinity. In
other words, men have held the power
and authority to inuence society and
Figure 9.10 Womens sports, including netball, receive less
set the rules that govern behaviour,
media coverage and less funding than mens sports.
including the behaviour of women.
Stereotypically masculine qualities of competitiveness, courage, determination, power and aggression have
been seen as those to aspire to and necessary to gain respect in our society.
Hegemony is often studied and discussed when discussing how one group maintains its authority over
another; for example, how a ruling class maintains power. The group in power uses a variety of tactics to keep
their authority, including manipulating social attitudes to encourage those without authority that the current
order is the natural and best way.
In our history and culture, gender roles in everyday life have reinforced male power in society. For
example, women were educated differently; they were discouraged from working outside the home and
becoming nancially independent; and until 1896, they were not allowed to vote.
Sport is another area of our society that has been dominated by men. Sport reinforces hegemonic
masculinity by celebrating stereotypically masculine activities and attributes, and restricting the behaviour
of women. Women have been ghting for equality, and we have certainly seen improvements, but the
subordinate role of women in sport continues to be reinforced by practices such as:
giving womens activities less government funding than mens
providing less media coverage for womens sports than for mens
offering less prize money for womens sports than for mens
identifying womens competition by their gender to differentiate them from the mens (for example,
WNBL and NBL)
restricting womens membership of sporting clubs and associations, such as golf clubs.
Hegemonic masculinity has been reinforced at all levels of Figueroas framework. For example, at
the institutional level, individual sporting institutions have set rules and regulations restricting womens
participation. Men maintain control through their positions of power within the organisations that make the
rules. It is common, for example, for the chief executive ofcers of sporting associations to be male.
Today, the most visible tool used to maintain hegemonic masculinity in sport is the media. Media
coverage of sport continues to reinforce gender stereotypes and marginalise women and their sporting
activities. For example, television stations and newspapers have limited coverage of womens sport. Media
coverage targets a mostly male audience. When female athletes are featured, they are treated differently:
they are often sexualised and their achievements are trivialised. Women athletes sometimes feel they need
to resort to sexploitationpromoting their sports through sexy calendars and underwear sponsorshipsto
gain a portion of market share.

9015
Bringing about change

Although women have come a long way
in their bid for fair recognition in sport,
restrictions on womens participation
in sport still exist. For cultural change
to occur, historical barriers and
assumptions need to be breached.
In 1999, the Australian Sports
Commission prepared a document with
the title National Policy on Women and
Girls in Sport, Recreation and Physical
Activity 19992002. The document
outlined the governments policy to
change the culture so that women
and girls would be encouraged and
supported in all sports and physical
activities. Figure 9.11 It is hoped that an increase in womens
participation in sport at a grassroots level will have a knock-on
The policy document advocated effect.
removing participation barriers and developing greater opportunities for women to participate in sport.
Its recommendations included having more women in policy-making positions in sporting and media
organisations, and using media promotion of inuential role models to increase opportunities for women.
Furthermore, a government committee was formed to redistribute funding and resources.
It is hoped that an increase in womens participation in sport at a grassroots level will have a knock-on
effect, and open more doors for women to move into positions of power. It is also hoped that increased
government funding will improve community facilities and womens sporting options in the community.
With greater access, more opportunities and better support, it is hoped that more women and girls will
appreciate the role that physical activity can play in their lives.
Although changes are taking place in government (structural level), and the media (institutional level)
has begun to gradually alter its portrayal of women during the last ten years, hegemonic masculinity is still
evident, and the portrayal of female sport through the media is still inequitable. Changes to the cultural
perception of sport in Australia will dictate the rate of change. The process of social change will be slow,
however, as changing the long-held cultural beliefs and attitudes of more than 22 million Australians will take
time.
Click to read more articles about women in sport.
EXTENSION
Read the article Call for Funding Link to Equality on page xx. In small groups, discuss the
following questions.
1 Why are women under-represented in positions of authority in sport and business?
2 How do you think having more women in positions of influence in sporting organisations
would influence womens participation in sport?
Click for information on Australias Olymic history.

9014 l 1/8
NEWS
Call for funding link to equality
Taxpayer funding of national sporting bodies should
be linked to increasing the representation of women
on their boards, according to Elizabeth Broderick, the
Sex Discrimination Commissioner.
Broderick, who will speak at an international
conference on women in sport that starts in Sydney
today, argues the failure of sporting organisations
to have adequate numbers of women at the top
means they miss out on female participation at the
grassroots level because the stereotype of women as
sporting inferiors gets perpetuated.
You cant be what you cant see, Broderick said.
Young women need to be able to see sportswomen
at every level of amateur and elite sportsfrom Figure 9.12 Although only 21 per cent of the board
members of national sporting organisations funded
the best and fairest and most valuable player, right by the Australian Sports Commission are women,
through to sport management and governance. outside of sport the figures are even worsein all
[Sports] bodies are failing to use the expertise and business across Australia, women account for less
than 9 per cent of board directors.
experience of more than half of the population.
She believes the lack of women in the senior little progress has been made over the past decade
levels of sports administration also exacerbates the in advancing gender diversity on sporting boards.
problems that have been seen in the attitudes some
Only two of the 15 members of the executive
sportsmen have towards women.
board of the Australian Olympic Committee are
The four-day event is the fth conference of women despite an IOC recommendation of 1997
the International Working Group on Women and that national Olympic committees achieve a 20 per
Sport, and its chairwoman is Johanna Adriaanse, cent target for womens representation by the end of
who lectures in human movement and sports 2005.
management at Sydneys University of Technology.
Olympic sports receive the vast majority of
Increasing the number of women in sport federal sports funding. Mike Tancred, a spokesman
governance is critical for advancing womens sport for the AOC, said the organisation was acutely aware
because it is at this level that important decisions of the need to increase female representation on
are made for hundreds of thousands of physically its board and on the boards and among the senior
active Australians and those that want to be active, management of its member sports.
Adriaanse says on the conferences website.
At the AOCs executive board meeting last week,
National sports bodies receive signicant president John Coates demanded sports get their act
funding from the public purse, and while women together and get more women in senior positions.
make up more than half of the population they
Broderick also called on the federal government
continue to be underrepresented on sports boards.
to be transparent and show how much sports
Adriaanse says only 21 per cent of the board funding went to males and how much to females.
members of national sporting organisations funded Source: Daniel Lewis, The Sydney Morning Herald,
by the Australian Sports Commission are women, and 20 May 2010

PRACTICAL
Hegemonic masculinity
Organise a game of touch football with mixed teams of boys and girls.
1 For each gender, collect data on factors such as:
the total ball time
who plays in which position
selection order.
2 Discuss the results. Compare assumed outcomes with the actual data.
Were there any surprises?
Which gender dominated the games?
Were there any exceptions? What enabled them to overcome gender barriers?
3 Use your findings to predict possible outcomes for a game of netball, volleyball or
soccer.
Discuss the similarities and differences.
What changes could be made to allow equal involvement of everyone in the class?
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 As a class, discuss how the cultural level of Figueroas framework affected sports
participation in your physical education class.
2 Develop a set of guidelines to remove some of the barriers to participation. You may like to
consider aspects such as:
the games rules
the method of team selection
who is in positions of authority and team leadership roles, such as coach, referee,
selector, manager and trainer.
EXTENSION
1 Do some research into Australias Olympic history. Before you begin your research, use
your general knowledge to guess the answers to the following questions. Then, compare
your guesses with your research.
a List five gold medal winners (individual and team).
b List Australias top five most successful Olympic medal winnersthe individuals and
teams who have won the most medals.
c For each of the following eras, which gender had greater success?
18961936
19481976
1980present
Were you surprised by any of your findings?
2 Which gender has had the greater Olympic success? Why?

<start new page>
Ethnic identity
In earlier sections, we looked at how Australias sporting culture has been strongly inuenced by the
countrys British and colonial heritage. However, Australia is an incredibly multicultural society. Our sporting
culture has been inuenced by Indigenous Australians and by the many migrants that have come to Australia
from all parts of the world.
Click for more information on the influences that different ethnic groups have on Australias
sporting culture.
Australias Indigenous sporting culture

We now take a particular look at the Australian Indigenous culture, investigating Indigenous sporting history
and the way in which sport helps to promote Indigenous identity.
Indigenous sporting history

Before European colonisation, Indigenous Australians participated in a variety of games, dances and physical
activities that mirrored their daily activities of hunting and shing, and their afliation with the land.
Physical activities often included elements of play and rehearsed skills that were needed in everyday
life. Games included throwing spears and boomerangs at targets, and movement activities, such as running,
jumping and climbing. Elders organised competitions to test these skills, such as tree-climbing races and
throwing spears for distance. Physical skills were essential for the peoples survival and, as such, were highly
valued and encouraged. Tracking was another necessary skill learned by all children, and games centred on
identifying the correct track or noise. As a means of solving intertribal disputes, wrestling competitions were
organised. Young boys participated in practice ghts to improve their wrestling skills.
Dance was both a form of entertainment and a teaching tool. It played a major part in the initiation of
young boys, and tribal corroborees were performed to celebrate good fortune through dance, music and
song. Dancers replicated the movements of people and animals to tell stories, both of the past and of daily
activities.
9016 l 1/3
Figure 9.13
Sport and physical
activity has
always been a
part of Indigenous
Australian culture.

>
9017 s 1/4
Games involving catching, throwing and kicking using

various types of balls were played. Balls were constructed of
materials such as possum hair, kangaroo intestine, beeswax and
seeds. Games were informal, often lasting many hours or days,
with few rules and no need for umpires or referees. Both males
and females played these games, which promoted interaction
between tribal members and encouraged participation.
Indigenous Australians living close to lakes or beaches
took part in water activities, such as shing, canoeing and
Figure 9.14 Adam Goodes is a role swimming. Indigenous Australian children were encouraged to
model for young athletes.
learn to swim from an early age.
Indigenous Australian games and activities were closely
linked to teaching survival skills and respect for tribal elders.
The major focus of organised games was enjoyment rather than
9018 p 1/4 a result, and Indigenous Australians developed pastimes that
demonstrated clear links with their family, tribe and land.
Click for more information about traditional

Indigenous Australian games that you can try.
Sport and Indigenous cultural identity

In 1962 a sporting event for Indigenous Australians was created:
the Yuendumu Games. The Yuendumu Games are a mixture
of cultural events and sports, providing remote Indigenous
Australian communities with the opportunity to participate
in contests such as boomerang throwing and Australian
rules football. These games reect the cultural identity of
participants, and assist in unifying communities.
Boxing has provided an avenue for a number of Aboriginal
men to nd fame. One notable Indigenous Australian boxer
is Lionel Rose, who became World Bantamweight Champion
in 1968. In the same year, Rose was awarded the honour of
Figure 9.15 Cathy Freeman draped
herself in the Aboriginal flag after Australian of the Year, becoming the rst Indigenous Australian
winning the 400metres. to receive this award.
Australian rules football is very important to Indigenous Australians and their communities. The
successes of teams in the regional competition and having local boys targeted by AFL teams assist in bonding
local communities and establishing an identity for Indigenous Australians and their regions. Players such
as dual Brownlow medallist Adam Goodes and premiership player Michael OLoughlin from the Sydney
Swans are seen as positive role models for young Indigenous children. The AFL recognises the signicant
contribution of Indigenous athletes to its sport, and since 2002 it has commemorated their contributions
with the annual Marn Grook Trophy game between the Sydney Swans and Essendon Bombers. Marn Grook
was a game played by Indigenous Australians in western Victoria that is believed to have inspired Australian
rules football.
Indigenous Australian track and eld athletes include Kyle van der Kuyp, Nova Peris-Kneebone, Cathy
Freeman, Patrick Johnson and Joshua Ross. These athletes have been positive sporting role models for

Indigenous Australian communities. At the 1994 Commonwealth Games and the 2000 Olympics in Sydney,
Cathy Freeman draped herself in the Aboriginal ag after winning the 400 metres. This demonstrated her
identication with her community and culture. Her Aboriginal heritage is an important aspect of her identity,
and her achievements in sport have assisted in establishing an identity for Indigenous Australian people.
The Australian Sports Commission, through its Indigenous Sport Program, is aiming to improve the
participation rates of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders in sport and recreation. The focus of this program
is on community development.
EXTENSION
Read the article All Stars Instigator Within Sight of Proudest Moment and answer the
following questions.
1 Predict the effects this event will have on young Indigenous Australians and their
involvement in sport.
2 Will sporting events that recognise and embrace a culture increase sporting opportunities
for more people?
NEWS
All Stars instigator within sight of proudest moment
Preston Campbell came up with Thats something I was happy to continued. Youve got Princey,
the All Stars concept in the hope nd out. who knows hes from Mt Isa, but
it would encourage Indigenous Titans teammate Scott Prince hes actually from the same tribe
Australians to learn more about is another learning about his as [former Panther] Sid Domic,
their identity. What he didnt heritage. the designer of our jerseys.
expect was to discover so much It was pretty interesting to
A lot of blokes dont know
about his own. know that. Hes excited about
where they come from, Campbell
Ill be honest and say I
didnt know anything about
my [Aboriginal] background,
9020 l 1/3
Campbell told The Sun-Herald.
Its great to catch up and learn
what tribe youre from, know
what areas your family come
from.
I always thought I came
from the Kamilaroi tribe from
the north-west of NSW. Actually,
the clanthe nation that I come
fromis a big area with tribes
within it. I always thought I
was the Kamilaroi clan but Im
Figure 9.16 Proud ... Preston Campbell believes leading the
actually from the Nucoorilma Indigenous All Stars on Friday will be the high point of a glittering
tribe from within that nation. career.

All Stars instigator within sight of proudest moment (cont )
knowing a bit more about his The superstars in our team are South Sydneys Beau Champion
background. very highly respected. Youve got and the Titans Greg Bird have
It is appropriate that a few of those players that are been rushed into the squad.
Campbell will captain the Indigenous and it would be hard For Cronulla forward Anthony
Indigenous All Stars in next to take them out of the Australian Tupou, his selection in the NRL
weekends inaugural clash team. team is signicant for other
against the NRL All Stars on the I dont think wed want to reasons. The former NSW and
Gold Coast. The concept was see the people in the Australian Australian back-rower hopes his
Campbells brainchild and, with a team lose some of those selection will be a springboard
bit of help from Gold Coast CEO superstars. back into the representative
Michael Searle, his dream is about The Skilled Park clash is a sell- arena.
to become a reality. out. More than 30 of those seats It makes me feel pretty
Campbell has won a will be taken up by Campbells good after missing out on those
premiership and a Dally M medal extended family. teams last yearit was a bad year
but has no doubt that next This has got some more for me in terms of rep footy, he
weekends xture will be his signicance for myself; Im feeling said.
career highlight. The pint-sized like Im playing for a bit more than When you have something
playmaker is less sure about how two points, he said. Im pretty and you dont have it, you miss it
hell cope with the emotion of much playing for my family so its so much more.
representing his people when he pretty important. Campbell said he was
leads his side onto Skilled Park. There will be all of my condent the All Stars game
Will he shed a tear? immediate family and a few would be a permanent xture in
If I shed a tear, I wont be cousins there. I havent really sat the calendar.
angry at myself, Campbell down to take it all in and its only People are excited about this.
said. I wont think any less of a week away. Weve had the cricket, the tennis,
myself. I wont think less of my This is the rst time anything all the sports, but people are
teammates. like this has ever happened. Its itching to watch football now. This
If they shed a tear, its good. coming around so quick, I dont being the rst game of the rugby
It just shows its from the heart know what to think or feel. I just league calendar, being televised,
that they are passionate about know Im excited. its great, he said.
playing for their people. The match has created Its going to hang around for
Some of Campbells All unprecedented interest from a while hopefully. If youve got
Stars teammates have called footy fans, who helped to the calibre of players in this game
for an Indigenous side to be assemble the NRL All Stars side. available for every game, youll
represented at the next World The game will also double as the get plenty of interest.
Cup. However, Campbell didnt farewell for cult hero Wendell
Asked for his nal words
want the likes of Greg Inglis, Sailor, while NRL All Stars coach
before the game, the 32-year-old
Johnathan Thurston and Sam Wayne Bennett has agreed to be
replied: I havent really thought
Thaiday to be torn between wired for sound.
about it. I just hope they really
representing their country and The Indigenous sides enjoy themselves.
their people. preparations were disrupted by
It would be great but I dont the loss of Golden Boot holder
Source: Adrian Proszenko, The Sydney
see it happening, Campbell said. Inglis (injured hip) on Friday. Morning Herald, 7 February 2010

9021 l 1/3
Multicultural
influences
Almost one-quarter of
Australians were born overseas,
and more than 40 per cent of
Australians have at least one
parent who was born overseas.
Approximately 16 per cent of
Australians speak a language
other than English at home.
Sport and physical activity
can be an extremely effective
vehicle to break down cultural
barriers and strengthen
community multiculturalism.
Physical activity can provide
an excellent way for new
migrants to build friendships and
assimilate more easily into new
communities.
Cultural groups within the
Figure 9.17 Sport and physical activity can be an effective way to
break down cultural barriers. community organise activities
that enable people to meet other
members of their culture. They also provide people with the opportunity to participate in activities that
are traditional or popular in their country of origin. Examples of such activities are cultural dance (such as
amenco), bocce, table tennis and badminton.
Migrants have introduced activities such as tai chi and yoga that have helped Australians gain an insight
into other cultures. They have also contributed signicantly to the prole of sports such as diving and
gymnastics. Sporting success by people of a particular ethnic background can foster pride in that ethnic
community and culture.
Australians from different cultural backgrounds choose to participate in different sports and have
different attitudes and beliefs about sports and physical activities. Cultural stereotypes based on ethnic
background can either promote participation in particular sports and physical activities or reinforce barriers
that prevent participation.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 How might local governments provide community sporting facilities to promote
multiculturalism and assimilation through physical activity?
2 Suggest examples of barriers to sports participation that a new migrant from a non-
English-speaking background might face.
3 The Australian Bureau of Statistics found that people born in Australia had a higher sports
attendance rate (50%) than people born overseas in mainly English-speaking countries
(42%) and people born overseas in non-English-speaking countries (21%). Suggest reasons
for these differences.

9023 l 1/3 OM
The world game

It is impossible to discuss
multiculturalism and sport in
Australia without looking at
soccer. Dance is not the only
sport where stereotyping has
generated cultural barriers to
sports participation in Australia.
Johnny Warren, one of Australias
greatest soccer players, named his
autobiography Sheilas, Wogs and
Poofters: An Incomplete Biography
of Johnny Warren and Soccer in
Australia. In his book, he looked
at how soccer had once been
marginalised and stigmatised as
a sport that only sheilas, wogs
and poofters played. Over the
decades attitudes to soccer have
progressed, yet it still does not
receive the support or recognition
that other football codes such
as Australian rules football and
rugby league receive.
In recent years, Australia
has fallen in love with the
world game. In 2006 and 2010,
Australia rejoiced as a nation
when the Socceroos won their
way to the World Cup. In 2006,
spectator numbers supporting
the Socceroos were similar to
televised AFL and State of Origin
matches. The Australian public
howled in protest over the
disgraceful theatrics and injustice
Figure 9.18 Professional soccer still does not receive the level of that resulted in Australias loss to
support or recognition that other football codes do.
Italy in 2006.
The Australian Soccer Federation has put great effort and millions of dollars into securing sponsorships
and overseas players to develop a quality national league within Australia, yet attendance gures remain
signicantly lower than the other football codes. In 200506 the Australian Bureau of Statistics found that
while 16 per cent of Australians attended one AFL match during the year, only 4 per cent went to a soccer
game.
At the same time, soccer has the highest participation rates for boys aged 514 years. Soccers popularity
as a participation sport in Australia owes much to the dedication of the migrant communities who came to
Australia during the 1950s and 1960s.

9025
APPLY AND
EVALUATE
1 Suggest reasons why
soccer has the highest
participation rates for
boys aged 514 years.
2 Why, when so many
young people play soccer,
is it not a dominant
professional sport in
Australia?
a List (in order of
importance) social
and cultural factors
that explain why
soccer does not have
the audience and
fan support of other
sports.
b Link each factor listed
to its appropriate
level in Figueroas
framework. Which
level has created the
dominant barrier(s)?
Why? Figure 9.19 Soccar is a very popular sport with young people.
Table 9.1Number and percentage of people aged 514 years and main sportsparticipated in by sex
Males Females
Main sports participated in Number % Number %
Swimming 240 100 17.20 262 800 19.8
Football (outdoor soccer) 277 800 19.90 82 700 6.2
Netball 3500 .03 225 0 00 17.0
Australian rules football 223 700 16.00 11 400 .9
Tennis 131 600 8.00 83 200 6.3
Basketball 118 700 7.40 83 200 6.3
Gymnastics 23 700 1.70 101 200 7.6
Rugby l eague 97 200 7.00
Athletics (track and field) 42 400 3.00 47 000 3.5
Futsal (indoor soccer) 59 400 4.30 17 500 1.3
Hockey 25 600 1.80 31 800 2.4
Other 221 200 15.80 160 900 12.1
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2009

09: SUMMARY
Australians attitudes to sport have been NOW THAT YOU HAVE FINISHED ...
inuenced by the historical development of sport
1 Explain why Australia has been identied and
in European and Indigenous culture.
identies itself as a sporting nation.
Historical barriers to womens participation in
2 Describe how sport has been used to help
sport have included:
establish Australian pride.
beliefs that excessive exertion was bad for
3 Outline the types of sports that were deemed
womens health
suitable for women during the late nineteenth
womens clothing and the need to conceal century and explain why womens sporting
their bodies choices were limited.
standards of ladylike behaviour. 4 a Dene socialisation.
club membership rules. b List the factors that inuence the
Sport has long been a central feature of socialisation process.
Australian cultureso much so that enthusiasm 5 a List qualities that are associated with
for sport is often described as a characteristic of stereotypically male and female gender
being Australian. roles in Australian society.
Socialisation is the process through which b Explain how these gender roles and
individuals beliefs and values are shaped by stereotypes are reinforced, using at least
society. The factors inuencing socialisation can one example from each of the ve levels of
include family, peers, schools, governments, Figueroas framework.
media, religion, ethnic background, gender,
c Briey describe how societys perceptions
socioeconomic status and age.
of gender affect individuals sporting and
Socialisation inuences and reinforces attitudes physical activity choices.
about gender roles and stereotypes, and
6 a Dene hegemonic masculinity.
shapes what it means to be male and female in
Australian society b Briey explain how the cultural, structural
and institutional levels of Figueroas
Hegemony is the dominance of one social group
framework reinforce hegemonic masculinity
over another. In sport, hegemonic masculinity
in Australian sport.
refers to the dominance of masculine (male)
sporting culture. 7 Explain the link between sport and the
promotion of Indigenous Australians identity.
The cultural inuence of hegemonic masculinity
is reinforced through socialisation at all levels of 8 How are elite athletes able to use their status
Figueroas framework. as role models to promote discussion and
change attitudes about culturally entrenched
Sport and physical activity can be an avenue for
stereotypes within Australian society? Is such
communities to embrace multiculturalism.
change possible? Justify your response.
Cultural stereotypes based on ethnic background
can either promote participation in particular
sports and physical activities or reinforce barriers
that prevent participation.
09: Summary ///// 331

10001
178%
10
Structural
influences on
equity and sports
participation

How does the media and its portrayal of sport and athletes affect our perceptions? Sport and the media 333
Are men and women treated equally in media coverage of sport? How is language Reinforcing stereotypes
used to describe male and female athletes? How is the medias representation of through the media 333
sport linked to male domination of positions of power? How has the commodication Sport as a business 338
of sport inuenced attitudes about sport in the community? Which athletes are seen The commodication of sport 338
to be marketable? Does the government ensure equitable access to sport to increase
Sports marketing 341
participation rates for all Australians?
Sponsorship 344
This chapter will examine how the media uses its promotion and marketing of Sexploitation 349
sport to reinforce gender stereotypes. The chapter also covers how individuals are Government funding and
inuenced to participate in physical activity through the commodication of sport. development programs 352
Finally, it looks at how the allocation of government funding has affected individuals Elite versus participation
opportunities to participate in sport and physical activity. funding 353
Development programs for
the grassroots 355

<start new page> 10030 p 1/4
Sport and the

media
Sport is highly valued in
Australian society, and large
amounts of time and space
are dedicated to sport in both
the print and electronic media.
Sport and the media have a close
relationship, from which both
benet.
The media has increased
Australians access to many
sports. Unfortunately, the
medias coverage of mens and
womens sports is far from
equal. Most media attention is
Figure 10.1 The media has increased Australians access to many sports.
given to mens sport and male
sporting teams. Although female sports coverage is on the increase, the change has been very slow and equal
coverage in the near future seems unlikely.
Reinforcing stereotypes through the media

How sport is represented in the media has the ability to affect our emotions and shape our values. A
commentators remarks, the wording used in an article or headline, the position of an article and the focus of
a photograph all communicate messages. In addition to the obvious messages, such as the results of a game,
they also subtly convey cultural attitudes and beliefs. The medias portrayal of sport and athletes is often
criticised for its uneven coverage of mens and womens sports and for the way that it reinforces masculine
and feminine gender stereotypes.
EXTENSION
Movies are a form of media that have the ability to influence our opinions. Study a film about
the struggles of an athlete or sporting team (such as Remember the Titans, Million Dollar Baby
or Bend it Like Beckham) and answer the following questions.
1 What issues of equity and access are addressed in the movie?
2 Which levels from Figueroas framework created the barriers that the athletes portrayed in
the film had to overcome?
3 Did the film suggest any solutions to the barriers?
Female athletes in the media

Female athletes often nd that their athletic ability is reported as secondary to their looks, fashion sense and
emotional response. They are more likely to be criticised for their looks than male athletes.
Female athletes are often portrayed in passive or supportive roles. Photographs show them in alluring
poses, where camera angles are used to focus on the shape of their body. Their sport is not always obvious at
rst glance.
Chapter 10Structural influences on equity and sports participation ///// 333

10005 l 1/3
In print media, action shots of female athletes

participating in their sport are rare; such images
tend to be small and allocated space towards the
back of the sports section. Television channels
broadcast a relatively small number of womens
sporting events. Those that do make it to air are
usually televised outside of prime viewing times,
when audiences will be small.
Language is another powerful tool used by the
media, and it has the ability to inuence audiences
perceptions. Descriptions of female athletes in the
media emphasise their physical attractiveness,
appearance and other non-sporting attributes,
rather than their sporting achievements. It is a
stark contrast to the language more typically
associated with competitive sport: language relating
to aggression, courage, perseverance and physical
Figure 10.2 The Matildas received very little news size. Phrases such as hammered the opposition
coverage leading up to their Asian Cup win in 2010. and bone-crunching tackle, and team names such
Glamour Ana
as the warriors, the broncos and the titans all
relate to highly valued masculine attributes and are
10003 ts p 1/3
unlikely to be used to describe female athleticism.
Sexy Ivanovic
Chapter 9 discussed how Australias success
in sport has been important in building national
pride, and gaining international recognition and
charms Sydney status. This train of thought has survived the past
century and can still be seen today. As women
Water babes
were latecomers to competitive and representative
sport, most of the early successes were mens. As
a result, the success of our female athletes today is
Courting battle
often considered to be a bonus on top of the mens
achievements.
of the babes
The media perpetuates the idea that womens
sports are not the main event. An example of this
can be seen in the reporting of swimming during
Champions put emphasis the 2004 Athens and 2008 Beijing Olympics. These
events should have cemented Australias female
on clothing swim team as a superpower in the pool; instead,
their achievements were devalued when the media
Sartorial stunners continued to focus on the mens performance. The
womens success was initially celebrated in both
Figure 10.3 Newspaper headlines focus on female
print and electronic media, but this well-deserved
tennis and water polo players appearance.
coverage was short-lived. The focus soon turned to
Click for the full text of these articles. the deemed failure of the mens swim team who,
in comparison, achieved a limited medal haul. The
perceived failure of the men was more newsworthy

as it threatened the identity of Australia as a
successful sporting nation. 10004 ts p 1/3
Similarly, in 2010 the Matildas won Australias
rst ever major soccer trophythe Asian Cup. They
received very little news coverage until the day
of their win. Just a few weeks later, the Socceroos <do not typeset these yetjust leave space. Head-
played in the World Cup in South Africa. Every line text will be replaced with headlines from a more
movement of the mens team was reported in recent QLD newspaper>
extensive detail.
<start of labels for 10004>
Male athletes in the Merciless Maroons Bury Bumbling Blues in State
media of Origin II
Male athletes are generally represented in the media Bruising, Brawling, Bravo!
as active, determined and successful. Images of Lions Mauled
rugby scrums, mles (ghts) on the eld and male
Gritty Cowboys Go Down Fighting
athletes with gritted teeth and bloodstained brows
Titans Plot to Tame Beast
are common.
<end of labels for 10004>
The language used to describe the athletes in
commentary, articles and headlines reinforces the
JP: nothing in markup through out circs to set or
idea of an association between mens sport and
advise
warlike behaviour.
Click for the full text of these articles. Figure 10.4 The language used to describe mens
sports often focuses on warlike qualities.
10006 l 1/3
Figure 10.5 Male athletes are often portrayed, and spoken of, in warrior terms.
Chapter 10Structural influences on sports participation ///// 335

NEWS
Just how uneven is the coverage?
Consistent and positive media coverage is one of the How the media portrays a particular sport or
prime goals of all sports administrators and players. athlete can also impact on both the sports or the
The reason for this is simple. Sport and the media athletes credibility.
are two of the most powerful inuences that affect With that in mind, we need to ask ourselves what
how society works. They are also intertwined in that sort of images of female athletes are commonly
both affect how people think and shape ideas and presented to readers, viewers and listeners. And how
emotions. much space and time do newspapers, magazines,
Consistent media coverage can benet a sport television and radio devote to womens sport?
in a number of ways. It can provide a visual prole, Research by the Australian Sports Commission
create positive role models and, by increasing into mass media coverage of womens sport began in
spectator appeal, help attract lucrative sponsorship 1980, and has been carried out every four years since
opportunities for the sport. to gauge any changes in media coverage.
Figure 10.6 The media spends considerably more effort and time covering mens sport than womens.

Just how uneven is coverage? (cont )
An Illusory Image: A Report on the Media Table 10.1Media coverage of womenssport

Coverage and Portrayal of Womens Sport in Australia
Year 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996
1996 shows that although the nations sportswomen
Womens 2% 1.3% 2.5% 4.5% 10.7%
are playing harder, faster and more professionally
sport
than ever, and have a proven international record,
they still struggle for consistent, long-term The above figures do not include any mixed sport coverage
coverage.
The reports author, Dr Murray Phillips, said
The 1996 survey took a snapshot of media
womens sport also suffered from its positioning
coverage of womens sport from newspapers,
in newspapers, with womens stories often placed
magazines, radio and television stations during
at the bottom of pages or at the inner, most
a two-week period, establishing a measurement
inaccessible pages of the sports section.
of coverage and additional information about
Only 5.6 per cent of womens stories and 2.6 per
the portrayal of womens sport in the media.
cent of mixed sport made the male domain of the
The results showed that media coverage of
back page, and the language used in the stories often
women in sport is treated very differently from
differed from gender to gender.
that of men.
Women were often described in ways that
An Illusory Image showed television coverage of
stressed weakness, passivity and insignicance, in
womens sport for the period sampled was just 2 per
ways that deected attention from their athleticism.
cent of total sports broadcasting. Radio coverage was
Women were frequently portrayed as girls, no matter
surveyed for the rst time and showed a total gure
what their age. Readers were informed of their
of 1.4 per cent of total sports broadcasts while sports
physical traits such as the perky blonde or powder
magazines, which were also surveyed for the rst
puff, or their emotional state was the focus. We
time, registered 6.8 per cent of coverage devoted to
frequently saw phrases such as dissolving into tears,
womens sports.
but when men confronted stressful situations, they
There was some good news, with newspaper
were applauded for their toughness.
reportage of womens sport doubling since the
Dr Phillips explored reasons for these appalling
1992 report and recording just over a 500 per cent
statistics and offered recommendations to improve
increase from the rst survey in 1980.
the quantity and quality of portrayal of womens
However, results showed only 10.7 per cent
sport in the media. These recommendations were
of newspaper sports pages was devoted to
directed at government, the media and sports
womens sport, compared with the mens at
organisations.
79.1 per cent.
Source: Australian Sports Commission
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Discuss how the media determines what we see and read.
2 Examine how the media influences our understanding of a sporting event.
3 Compare your local paper, the Courier Mail and The Australian to determine which paper
presents a more balanced view of the diversity in Australian sport. Identify significant
features (number and size of articles, language, images and headlines) used to portray
male and female sport. Discuss the results in class.
4 Compare magazine and newspaper portrayals of sports stars. Discuss which format
creates greater opportunities to positively portray sport in Australia.

10031
Sport as a business
Since its conception in ancient times,
sport has been used as a tool by people
to acquire prestige and prot. In recent
times, mass media has elevated sport
into big business. For example, the
ownership of teams and the rights to
televise sporting events are now bought
and sold for vast sums of money. High-
prole athletes and teams have huge
support crews that include managers,
sponsors and marketing advisors.
As sport has increasingly become a
business, we have seen the prole and
salaries of some sports stars skyrocket,
and spectator (customer) expectations
become increasingly sophisticated.
We have also seen rapid changes and
developments in technologyboth in
sports research and in how the media
is able to broadcast and communicate
sport.
The commodification of
sport
A commodity is anything that can be
bought or sold. The process of turning
something, such as sport, into something
that has commercial value is known as
commodication. The commodication
of sport can be described as the process
of developing sport into a marketable
business
Figure 10.7 Sport today is big business.
Changing sport into a commodity has seen the formation of companies that manage large sporting
competitions, such as the NRL and AFL. Individual sporting teams within such competitions are also big
businesses.
The commodication of sport has also caused some sports to change so that they better suit the needs of
business. Today, sport is both big business and a form of entertainment. As a form of entertainment, sports
can be changed to become more appealing to larger numbers of fans. More fans means more prots for the
businessfrom increased sales of tickets, sporting merchandise and television rights, and from an improved
ability to attract sponsors.
How many items of sporting merchandise do you own?

The media is an essential part in the commodication of sport; it enables the product being sold to be
delivered to the people buying it.
One example of the commodication of sport can be seen in the changes that have occurred in cricket
in recent decades. Cricket went through a revolutionary change in the 1970s when Kerry Packer created a
modied form of the sport that was designed for television. One-day cricket was developed with a focus
on entertainment and attracting large audiences. Matches were shortened from ve days to one day so it
was more feasible to watch a whole game, and they started later so people could attend after work. Cricket,
which had previously been played during the day, was now played into the evening under oodlights. Even
the uniforms were made more colourful and exciting. Signicant amounts of money were made in this
popular, consumer-friendly form, and cricket was changed forever.
Now Twenty20 cricket is the latest-and-greatest sporting spectacle, and spectators are voting with their
feetand wallets. More than 280 000 people watched the 200910 KFC Big Bash championships live during
the Australian domestic season. This attendance is signicantly higher than any previous attendance gure
for domestic cricket and can be attributed to the fast-paced, exciting nature of the game.
Cricket is not the only sport that has seen changes made through the commodication process.
Basketball introduced the shot clock to speed games up; rugby league introduced two referees, alterations to
the number of interchanges and referrals to the video referee; and golf has made changes to equipment to
make it easier for average golfers to play like their heroes. The commodication of sport has seen signicant
changes to Australian attitudes towards sport and physical activity.
How has the commodification of sport influenced how you watch and participate in sport?
ACQUIRE
1 a Define the word commodity.
b Give an example of how sport has become a commodity.
2 Outline who benefits from sport being represented in the media.
3 Describe the economic considerations that are associated with media coverage and
sport.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Consider the changes that have been made to cricket over the past decades. What changes
could be made to the sport you are currently studying to make it a more marketable
product?
2 Participants or spectators? Which group of people has the commodification of sport
increased the most?
3 Which sports have had the opportunity to become big business? Discuss why this has
happened in some sports and not in others, referring to the cultural and structural levels
of Figueroas framework.
4 a Predict what would happen to the media if it were banned from presenting sport.
b Conversely, what would happen to sport if the media did not support it? (Consider sports
that do not have media support.)
5 Select one sport (other than cricket) and outline the changes that have taken place in the
sport to suit the needs of the media.

NEWS
Twenty20 bashing for Test cricket
Cricket Australia is looking to The peak body and the states ratings are up by 37 per cent in
clear a window in the calendar have poured a massive effort into the rst weeks of the competition.
so Test players will be free to join this years KFC Big Bash and are Sutherland is keen to push the
the high-priority Twenty20 Big delighted to see fans ocking to expansion of the league with the
Bash competition and not have to the rst games of the year, excited aim of setting up eight franchises
worry about commitments to the by the form and the big names on around the country sometime
ve-day game. show. down the track.
With the Champions League More than 17 000 people He is determined to put
pushing for clear space in the turned up for the game in Perth every effort into the Twenty20
calendar and the Indian Premier between Western Australia and game and wants his star Test
League doing the same, Adam South Australia4000 more than players involved in the domestic
Gilchrists claim two years back any one day of the Test at the competition.
that one-day Test cricket would same ground.
If you were living in Twenty20
be looking for a window in the The big hitting of imported utopia, you would have the Big
Twenty20 calendar is looking stars such as Chris Gayle and Bash competition being played at
more correct every day. local heroes such as Dave Warner a time where it had clear oxygen
The revolution is at hand. has proven so popular television and also allowed the international
Mao Zedong said political
power grew from the barrel of a
gun, but Cricket Australia believes
it comes from the power of
blunderbuss batting so beloved by
fans of the shortest game.
The people that run cricket in
this country know that Test cricket
is a blue-chip stock that provides
a steady return, but can be boom
or bust depending on who tours,
while the T20 game is a start-up
with limitless potential.
Most importantly it can
provide cricket with a new
revenue stream, new fans and an
independence from the Indian-run
competitions such as the IPL and 10010 l 1/3
Champions League.
Cricket Australia chief
executive ofcer James
Sutherland believes the Big
Bash can be Australias version
Figure 10.8 Twenty20 cricket has drawn greater crowds than previous
of the IPL. forms of the game.

Twenty20 bashing for Test cricket (cont )
players to be available for past two or three decades and I national team that is a driving
selection for their teams, think Twenty20 is doing that again force for our business, but there
Sutherland told The Australian. and we make no secret of the fact is also real potential to have a
I think the Big Bash is that we want cricket to be more major and signicant domestic
going to genuinely ask us the popular. People are increasingly cricket league provided the
question about when and how time poor and Twenty20 is a entertainment proposition is valid
we do create clear oxygen for vehicle to bring people to the and works for the public and all
Twenty20 cricket. It is going to game and arguably the other the signs are that Twenty20 is that
be a successful tournament, but forms of the game are going to and something that we want to
for it to go to another level it struggle to do that, Twenty20 is a roll out over the next three or four
may need that extra little bit that great introduction to the game. years.
comes with not competing with Sutherland also believes Twenty20 is becoming
international cricket and also Twenty20 will create a revenue the highest priority for state
having the best Australian players stream from a league-type organisations with NSW and
available. competition which has been Victoria both scooping big prizes
Sutherland believes Twenty20 denied cricket in the past. from the Champions League
can bring new fans to the game in One of the things that competition. The nalists from the
the way one-day cricket once did. differentiates us from other sports 200910 Big Bash are eligible to
is that we dont have a league compete for $US12m ($13.3m) in
What we have always said
concept that generates revenue the next Champions League and
about Twenty20 is we see it as a
in any regular way, he said. In the prospect has seen domestic
way to bring new people to the
an Australian context thats what teams shopping for big-name
game, he said.
drives AFL and other sports. stars.
One-day cricket has done that
in the past, it has broadened the We have got a distinct Source: Peter Lalor, The Australian,
spectrum of cricket fans over the advantage of having a high-prole 1 January 2010
Sports marketing
The way in which a commodity is soldthe process and the methods usedis known as marketing.
Marketing also refers to the activities that businesses undertake to increase awareness of their product in the
marketplace.
Marketing techniques are used to inuence individuals decisions about which sports to support and
watch as spectators, and which to participate in. Often the two are closely linked.
However, there are differences between the ways professional sports are marketed and the marketing
that occurs at school and grassroots levels.
Marketing in professional sports

Many businesses and athletes rely on sport for their livelihood. These sporting businesses and professional
athletes use a wide variety of marketing techniques to increase their income and prots.
Many marketing techniques involve promotional strategies to increase awareness, such as costly
advertising campaigns and media exposure. Another marketing technique is changing the productthe
sportto suit the customer. Professional sporting bodies also promote their sport through other means, such
as public appearances by high-prole stars and merchandise.

Advertising
Because sport has become a marketable product, sporting
10011 p 1/4 businesses use advertising campaigns to sell their product
to consumers. For example, consider the campaign every
year leading up to the State of Origin rugby league game
advertisements on television, on the radio and in print, and
aims to increase:
awareness of the game so more people go to the match
the games prole to attract sponsors
sales of supporter merchandise.
Merchandising
Sports merchandise, such as team jerseys and calendars,
help professional sports in two ways. The sale of such items
brings in additional income. Also, such merchandise acts as an
advertising tool. For example, when people see a professional
teams jersey worn by a fan, it shows that the team has
supporters and increases the teams public prole.
Media exposure
Figure 10.9 Sports merchandise helps When television and print journalists report on sport, this is one
teams income and advertising.
form of media exposure providing audiences with sports results
and commentary. Each time the media reports on a game, community awareness grows and the sports
marketability improves. Popular sporting events that are most likely to be televised and given wide coverage
in other media include:
nals matches, such as the AFL and NRL grand nals
big racing meetings, such as the Melbourne Cup
international competitions, such as the Australian Open Tennis and the Olympic Games.
The media can also determine which sports are popularised. By devoting spacein the form of headlines,
photographs, articles and airtimeto a lower-prole sport, the media have the ability to change the publics
view of the sport and to increase its popularity.
Product changes
As discussed earlier, changes to the rules and processes of sport have signicantly affected sports marketing
in Australia. In many sports, play has been compartmentalised to meet the needs of television commercial
breaks. For example, an umpire in AFL waits for a ashing light signal before bouncing the ball after a goal,
indicating that the television channel covering the game has completed its run of advertisements. Changing
the time of games to the evening (such as when the NRL moved its grand nal) so that they are played under
lights allows greater exposure to a wider range of viewers at prime viewing time, which assists in securing
corporate product endorsement.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

Propose changes that could increase the marketability of your favourite sport or physical
activity.

Televisions influence on sport
Sport is an attractive product for
television because ratings are
often guaranteed and it provides
an opportunity to entice sponsors
for advertising. In return,
television coverage offers sports
publicity, attracts corporate
sponsorship and increases
10012 in box
popularity.
l 1/4
Certain sports, including the
football codes, have become
more popular due to media
exposure and strategic marketing.
Broadcasts of games are
supported by television programs
dedicated to certain sports, such
as The Footy Show.
Television is able to manipulate
our understanding and
interpretation of sports coverage. Figure 10.10 Sport on television is both entertainment and a
By selecting which sport viewers marketingtool.
see and deciding how the sport
is represented, television has an effect on viewers perceptions. Violent episodes in sport are often highlighted
and replayed, and commentators act as interpreters of the action on the eld. Camera angles focus viewers
attention and provide a selective view of the event.
The demands of television have also changed the nature of sporting competitions to suit televised coverage.
Sports have been modied to increase the tempo and excitement so they become more attractive to
television audiences.
Examples of such modications include:
changing cricket to the Twenty20 format
using the Hawk-Eye computer system to simulate the path of the ball in cricket and tennis
having a 30-second shot clock in basketball
using two referees, and introducing the 4020 rule and the golden point in extra time in rugby league
featuring penalty shoot-outs in soccer and hockey
replacing the advantage system in tennis with tie-breakers.
With increased technology, especially in the form of satellites, television has also internationalised sport.
Australian audiences are now able to watch a wide variety of sports from all parts of the globe.
Television now offers dedicated sports-only television channelsboth free-to-air and pay. Network Ten
recently launched One HD, which is a digital-only free-to-air sports channel. Foxtel has three dedicated sports
channels. Other channels focus on certain sports: Sky Channel provides racing coverage while ESPN shows a
variety of US sports, such as the NFL (gridiron) and the NBA (basketball).

Marketing in school sports
While the marketing techniques used in professional sport can have a direct inuence on sports choices at
school, schools often employ their own strategies to encourage participation in certain sports at the school.
Such methods include:
assembly presentations
notices and posters
lunchtime competitions
sign-up days.
The inuence of popular peers can also sway students opinions about which sports to participate in.
As students talk among themselves at lunchtime and recess, they communicate and spread attitudes and
opinions about sports.
Presenting the results of competitions or information about the sport itself will ultimately increase the
exposure of the sport to students at the school. In particular, if a team has demonstrated success and this
success is publicly acknowledged through the presentation of certicates or trophies, the popularity of that
sport will increase. Often this is one of the best forms of marketing in schools.
What has your school done to market the sport you are currently studying?
Sponsorship
Linked closely to marketing is the notion of sponsorship. Sponsorship in sport is usually provided by
businesses, which provide athletes or teams with funds, resources or services. Sponsorship might be in the
form of nancial payments, uniforms, equipment, scholarships or competition fees. For example, Adidas
sponsored the casual attire of the 2008 Australian Olympic team.
The business providing the sponsorship benets too; in exchange for its support, its name is positively
associated with the athlete or team. For the corporate sector, sponsorship aims to generate further business
as the athletes or sporting clubs endorse the businesses products.
The association between the sponsor company and the athlete or team is demonstrated by displaying
logos and signs at venues, and through media advertising.
This corporate marketing strategy is sometimes linked with community programs, such as the NAB
AFL Auskick program for junior Australian rules football players. The program gets much-needed funds to
encourage children to take up Australian rules football, and the NAB gets good publicity as it is seen to be
helping children.
The allocation of sponsorship is closely linked to the amount of exposure that sports receive through
marketing and media coverage. The prime objective of companies who sponsor sports and athletes is to
market their own product. This can only be effectively achieved if the public have opportunities to view the
sponsors product. If the media does not give a sport or athlete exposure, sponsors are less likely to invest
money in the sport or athlete. As a result, it is common for athletes and sports to use crowd-pleasing tactics
in an effort to improve their public popularity; this in turn increases their media exposure and provides more
incentive for sponsors to invest in them.
Have you ever witnessed a sports star engage in on- or off-field antics that have gained them notoriety?

Sponsoring teams
Sponsors are attracted to sports
and teams that receive prime media
exposure. An example of a sponsorship
partnership is Wow Sight and Sound and
10014
the Brisbane Broncos.
Sport relies on the media to
popularise it and attract sponsorship,
and the media gains advertising revenue.
There are mutual benets for both the
sport and the media.
As the prole of a team increases
and more money is made by clubs,
players and sponsors, this money can be
invested back into the marketing of the
team to further increase its prole and Figure 10.11 Many athletes are paid to endorse products.
make it even more marketable.
Sponsoring individual athletes

Being an elite athlete is a full-time commitment that requires rigorous training and competition. These
demands allow athletes little time for other paid work, but they still must somehow meet the costs of day-
to-day living, equipment, travelling to competition venues and paying coaches. As a result, elite athletes
must seek sponsorship.
An athlete and his or her sponsor have a two-way relationship. The sponsor provides the athlete with
resources. In return, the athlete provides exposure for the sponsor and its product. This relationship can be
very lucrative for both athletes and sponsors.
Associated with sponsorship are corporate expectations; a sponsored athlete is expected to continue at
an elite level and be a positive and successful role model for the business. Corporations try to establish an
emotional tie between their product and the selected athlete. Success breeds success, and peoples
perceptions of successful athletes can be transferred to products the athlete endorses.
One example of an athlete fullling corporate expectations of him is US swimmer Michael Phelps. Phelps,
crowned the greatest Olympian of all time when he won eight gold medals at the 2008 Beijing Olympics,
had as one of his sponsors the global corporation Visa. He left Beijing before the end of the Olympic Games
to complete sponsorship commitments in London. Another of Phelpss sponsors during the Beijing Olympics
was Speedo. After Phelps won eight gold medals, Speedo gave him a $1 million bonus.
Selecting marketable athletes

The value of an athlete in marketing a sponsors products improves with an athletes sporting
achievements.
An example of this relationship is Australian swimmer Stephanie Rice and underwear manufacturer
Davenport. Rice became an overnight success during the 2008 Beijing Olympics when she became a triple
gold medallist and world record holder. She had signed a sponsorship deal with Davenport before the
Olympics, but the value of this partnership boomed due to her Olympic achievements. Her sporting success
and her association with the Davenport brand were reported to have increased Davenports annual sales by
48 per cent. Just a few months after the sponsorship deal was signed, Rice was believed to have generated
$3.2 million in media coverage for the brand.

Corporations need to ensure that they select the right athlete to use as a role model or marketing tool.
Stephanie Rice is very marketable due to her achievements at the 2008 Olympic Games. Her good looks are
also an advantage.
Having someone like Rice as the company face of Davenport works because consumers express a desire
to identify themselves with their idols success by wearing the same types of clothes as their idol. Consumers
desire to be like their role modelswhether it is by wearing the same clothes, buying the brands they support
or playing the same sportsis an example of how the interpersonal level can affect decisions to participate
in physical activity.
Another strong example of the interpersonal relationship between fans and athletes can be seen in Nikes
long association with basketball star Michael Jordan. Nike developed a range of shoes and sportswear worn
by Jordan. The positive association between the brand, the athlete and the fans can be very simply stated as
follows: Nike likes Mike, the fans like Mike, therefore, fans like Nike.
Public scandal and disgrace can have a dramatic effect on athletes marketability. Tiger Woods is one
of the most recognisable faces in sport today, and he has made millions of dollars through endorsements.
However, his recently disclosed indiscretions have seen Tiger lose many sponsors. People now question
whether he should remain the public face of golf. Nike has declared that they will stay by him despite the
controversies in his private life. Will Tigers tarnished image affect participation in golf?
Corporations can use the FRED principle to determine which athletes are more marketable than others:
FamiliarityThe athlete must be perceived as friendly and trustworthy.
RelevanceSomehow the athlete must be seen to be relevant to the company or its product. This
explains why sports equipment and clothing are the items most heavily marketed by elite athletes.
EsteemSimilar to familiarity, the audience needs to have respect for the athlete to ensure the
promotion of the product is credible.
DifferentiationTo ensure interest is generated, corporations need to select an athlete who stands out
from the rest, or is somehow different from the others.
ACQUIRE
1 Provide two examples of sports marketing techniques.
2 Define sponsorship.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Suggest reasons why Nike chose to stand by Tiger Woods.
2 List other athletes seen as highly marketable role models.
3 What common characteristics do marketable sportspeople have?
4 Use the FRED principle to select a student from your class or school to use as the face of
a marketing strategy. The marketing strategy should aim to increase participation in your
selected physical activity at your school.
a When selecting the role model, which personal qualities did you look for?
b Which physical activity is your role model involved with? Would the physical activity be
afactor in the success of your marketing strategy?
c What marketing methods will you use to successfully promote your physical activity?

Sponsorship and womens sport
Securing sponsorship from large corporations is a relatively new phenomenon in womens sport. Traditionally
male sports, such as cricket and Australian rules football, have consumed much of the corporate dollar.
Because many mens sports already have a high media and marketing prole, men have more lucrative and
realistic pathways available for a full-time career in sport.
Womens sports have suffered from a lack of sponsorship and inadequate resourcing. Without the
nancial support of corporations, womens teams have been limited in their ability to gain media recognition.
Media coverage directly affects athletes and/or teams ability to gain sponsorship and their ability to be
singled out as positive role models.
Because of the barriers within both the structural and institutional levels of society, the opportunities
to pursue a full-time career in sport are limited for women. This can affect the value that people place on
womens sport and can force women to nd other methods of gaining recognition.
EXTENSION
1 Read the article The Undeniable Marketability of Torah Bright below and discuss the
effects that her success might have on sponsorship for snowboarding and snowboarders.
2 Predict how effectiveTorah Bright would be as a role model to increase female participation
in sport.
NEWS
The undeniable marketability of Torah Bright
As soon as Torah Bright claimed the womens wholesome values which companies look for when
halfpipe in Vancouver on Thursday, it was clear to endorsing a client. She is a member of the Church of
see that her prole was sure to rise. The 23-year-old Latter-day Saints, and although she enjoys to party
Australian literally has the world at her feet. from time to time, holds this very close to her heart.
Torah is far from a household name in Australia, With Torah, you know you are getting a level-headed,
with many winter athletes failing to attract any focused athlete who strives for success and wont get
exposure unless they bring home a gold. Aussie caught up in the hype.
gold medallists Steven Bradbury and Alisa Camplin Despite enjoying success in the past, including
have carved out nice careers in the media, but never an X Games gold medal, Torah is listed as only
garnered the raft of endorsements they deserved. having a few sponsors. Roxy is her biggest sponsor,
However, Torah is different, as her appeal spans which includes her own range of snowboards. Her
globally because snowboarding is the hottest winter other sponsors include the Solomon Group, which
sport going around. manufactures snowboard-related equipment and
With the popularity of snowboarding comes Boost Mobile. With minimal industries covered, this
the money. Take gold medallist Shaun The Flying leaves a lot of room for opportunity.
Tomato White, for example, who pulls in around So how does one tackle an opportunity like this?
$9 million a year from a wide variety of sponsors. Firstly, her website needs a massive overhaul.
So what is it about Torah that makes her a Many areas of the site have not been updated in
marketers dream? Firstly, shes gorgeous and a while, and with Torah Bright being Googled by
photogenic, which means her face on any product everyone during the games, her website needs
is going to attract attention. Secondly, she has to entice fans. The website doesnt list all of her

The undeniable marketability of Torah Bright (cont )
sponsors, and with new media providing a wealth her own range of video games, including in the
of opportunities, this is an outlet that cant go increasingly growing mobile market.
unnoticed. Another area to look at is the electronics sector,
Continuing with new media, Torah Bright may do and I wouldnt be surprised if Hewlett-Packard try
well to set up a Twitter account. Being as personable to snap her up as they already have Shaun White on
and likable as she is, this outlet will provide an their roster. Having the two best snowboarders with
avenue to interact with her fans and develop a strong one company can provide them with a wealth of
fan base. exposure.
She has many industries from which she can Torahs snowboarding apparel and related
garner endorsements, in particular the food and sponsorships are covered, so the only opportunities
beverage sector. Torah currently has a deal with I can think of would include instructional DVDs,
health food drink Fuze, so a new beverage deal snowboarding movies, public appearances, interview
may be against her current contract. In regards columns and other media-related items.
to food, Torah could strike a deal with a health/ Armed with a knockout smile, Torahs other
protein bar company or other foods associated opportunities may include cosmetics and non-
with performance. Alternatively, if desired, she sporting fashion, such as watches or jewellery.
may choose to go down the route of companies
There is no doubt that her agent will be inundated
associated with extreme sports, such as fast-food
with phone calls and offers over the next few weeks,
companies like Pizza Hut, Doritos, etc.
so expect to see this gorgeous blonde from Australia
Torah has previously appeared in the Amped the next time you open a magazine.
range of video games, but may choose to release
Source: Chris Lesley, Sports Agent Blog
10016 l 1/3
Figure 10.12 Torah Bright is a marketers dream.

Sexploitation
Sexploitation is a term used to describe
any form of marketing or attempt
to gain media attention that focuses
10017 s 1/8 on the sexual attributes and physical
attractiveness of athletes.
Although sexploitation can affect
both male and female athletes, it is
more often seen in the marketing of
female athletes. Both sexploitation and
a need for sponsorship are not limited
to female athletes. However, the issue
is less contentious for mens sport as
it has far greater media coverage and
sponsorship, and society in general still
views sportsmen in a different light from
sportswomen.
10018 This creates a difcult situation for
athletes. To attract media and sponsor
interest, many female athletes resort
to marketing themselves or their
sport for their voyeuristic potential.
However, if this approach is successful,
the increased interest is not on their
athletic performance but on their sex
Figure 10.13 The difference between mens and womens beach
volleyball uniforms is an example of the sexploitation of female appeal. Using sexploitation to market
athletes. female athletes can result in their
sporting ability and achievements being overlooked or played down. Judging female athletes for their sexual
attractiveness instead of their athletic endeavours has the potential to devalue them both as athletes and as
women.
One method of sexploitation is to use body-hugging and revealing sports uniforms. However, many
sports require closely-tted uniforms. For example, in athletics, track and eld athletes of both sexes wear
body-hugging outts of lightweight material. These costumes are designed, and understood to be designed,
for technological and functional purposesso athletes can go faster and higher with minimal restriction and
wind resistance. In swimming, which is known for tight and revealing costumes, the uniforms are a necessary
tool of the sport. Ironically, the new trend to streamlined fast-suits has led to tighter and more revealing
costumes that expose less skin.
However, not all uniforms are designed to help athletes with the needs of their sport. Womens beach
volleyball, for example, has introduced uniforms that intentionally focus attention on the athletes bodies.
The design has not been inuenced by technological, practical or performance-enhancing reasons, but
simply to draw attention to the sport. Women must compete in sports bras, and their bikini bottoms must
not exceed six centimetres in width at the hip; men, however, compete in shorts and singlets. The skimpy
womens uniforms draw attention away from their skills and the physical demands of the sport.
Click for interviews with beach volleyball playersboth male and femaleregarding
sexploitation.

Revealing uniforms are
not the only method used to
sexualise women in sport, and
sexploitation is not simply a
matter of skimpy uniforms
on female bodies. It is also
the inappropriate portrayal of
athletes on and off the sports
eld.
Photographs of athletes
posing in swimwear are common
in many sports magazines. For
example, Inside Sport and Sports
Illustrated feature a female
model in swimwear on the
cover of each issue. These cover
models are usually not athletes
and are simply used to promote
the magazine and increase
sales to its predominantly male
readers. The covers of such
magazines reect the driving
force behind sexploitation.
The calendar produced by the
Matildas, the national womens
soccer team, presents another
10020
example of sexploitationalbeit
a voluntary one by the athletes.
The team organised and posed
for a nude calendar. They were
primarily motivated by the
Figure 10.14 Jessica Bratich is as well known for her looks and for teams need to gain more media
being the girlfriend of cricketer Mitchell Johnson as she is for her
coverage and increase their
karate skills.
public prole.
Intentionally sexualising athletes to increase media coverage requires careful consideration to ensure
that the safety and long-term credibility of the athletes are protected. Focusing on an athletes physical
attributes in an overtly sexual manner can create anxiety and embarrassment. In younger athletes, whose
self-condence may be less secure, the increased focus on the body can lead to a poor body image. There is a
wealth of research linking poor body image with an increased risk of disordered eating behaviour.
Sexploitation also puts athletes at greater risk of harassment, from people within and outside their sport.
The overt sexualising of athletes undermines efforts to ensure no athlete, of any age, gender or level of
participation, is subject to behaviour that is unwelcome, inappropriate or harmful.
Using sexploitation as part of a promotional strategy can also backre. It may limit the potential of a
sport to attract a diverse range of talented girls and women. Some girls and women nd such promotion
sufcient reason to choose another sport or no sport at all.

10021
10022
Figure 10.15 Male athletes, such as Mitchell Johnson (shown in these two photos), may also be subject to sexploitation.
ACQUIRE
1 Define sexploitation.
2 Sexploitation is linked to which level(s) of Figueroas framework?
3 What are some examples of sexploitation in sport today?
4 What are some of the consequences of intentionally sexualising athletes to increase media
coverage?
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Discuss how male athletes might perceive the new trend in extremely tight-fitting rugby
league jerseys.
2 Over the decades, the shorts worn by professional Australian rules footballers have
become shorter and their jerseys have become tighter. Is this an example of sexploitation
being used to increase female spectators? Discuss.
3 Sex sells! Should sexploitation be banned as a marketing tool? Discuss.
4 Predict the reaction if male and female athletes switched sports uniforms. Males would be
required to wear skimpier, tight-fitting uniforms and females would wear the mens looser,
more comfortable style. For example, consider the reaction if males had to wear Speedos
for beach volleyball. Collect images of sports uniforms for both genders to support your
point of view.

10024 <start new page>
Government
funding
anddevelopment
programs
Sport is highly valued in Australian
society. This is reected in the high
esteem with which Australians view
their sporting heroes, as well as in the
amount of media coverage, sponsorship
investment, and federal and state
10025 s 1/4 government funding sport receives.
Sports ability to raise Australias
international prole results in
governments building infrastructure
to support sports development and
supporting Australias bid to host major
events such as the Commonwealth and
Olympic Games.
Government funding and
development programs for sport in
Australia are initiatives that began in
the 1970s. Before this, athletes were
generally expected to fund their own
Figure 10.16 The 2000 Olympics were declared the best games
participation in international contests,
ever by IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch. This statement
boosted national pride. and to develop their own talent. This
practice stemmed largely from the
British ideal of amateur sport. Sport was a pastime and, like any other hobby or pastime, people covered
their own costs to participate. The rewards of competitive sport were not nancialpeople played for the
enjoyment and for the glory if they won. Clubs were responsible for nancing their teammates, based on the
principle of esprit de corps (group morale).
In 1914 the Australian Olympic Committee (Federation) was founded; its primary role was to raise
funds for future Olympic Games. Hosting the 1956 Melbourne Olympics then spurred the federal and state
governments to assist in supporting the infrastructure required for an international competition.
In 1972, with the election of the Whitlam Labor Government, various initiatives were undertaken to
increase Australian involvement in sport. These measures included promoting community tness, providing
nancial assistance to national sports associations and improving sporting facilities. Local governments
supported the establishment of swimming centres, parks and playing elds in their communities.
Australias failure to win a gold medal at the 1976 Montreal Olympics was attributed to the fact that
many other nations had increased funding for sports training and had developed talent-identication
programs. Because of this perceived failure of Australian athletes and the tarnishing of our international
sporting image, the government felt compelled to act. It believed it could not risk athletes and coaches
moving overseas where there were superior facilities and support. As a result, the Australian Institute of
Sport was established in 1980 in Canberra to raise the standard of Australias elite athletes.

10026 p 1/4
EXTENSION
Can the establishment of the Australian
Institute of Sport be considered a success?
Discuss whether the amount of money
poured into elite sport can be justified
based on Olympic and international results.
Has this success improved Australias
international status as a sporting nation?
Since the 1970s, federal governments have

continued to support sport by providing funding for
training facilities and technology, and employing
experienced coaches and support personnel, such as
nutritionists and sports psychologists. The Australian
Sports Commission was established to assist in
coordinating sports development in Australia.
More recently, governments have funded
facilities for high-prole events, such as world cups,
Olympic and Commonwealth Games and grand
prix events. For example, in 2009, the Victorian
government announced that it would spend $2
million to upgrade the Rod Laver Arena to ensure
that Melbourne retains the Australian Open tennis
competition. The upgrade is anticipated to cost
approximately $300 million. Governments support
high-prole events and the facilities they need to
Figure 10.17 Long-jumper Robbie Crowther
create employment and tourism opportunities, and undergoes biomechanic testing, using Vicon Motion
in the hope that they have a ow-on effect and Capture Cameras at the AIS indoor running track in
Canberra, 2009.
improve sports participation rates.
Click to read more about the Rod Laver Arena upgrade.
Elite versus participation funding

The development of the Australian Institute of Sport saw an improvement in sporting achievement from elite
Australian athletes, but how has it affected sports participation for everyday Australians?
To determine the future direction of Australian sport, the federal government commissioned a panel to
review all aspects of Australian sports. In November 2009 the panel reported their ndings in a report The
Future of Sport in Australia, commonly known as The Crawford Report. The allocation of funds to elite sports
programs versus grassroots sports played by ordinary Australians was one area closely analysed, and a
signicant recommendation was that the federal government direct more resources to the sports that have
high participation rates. Under these recommendations, sports to benet from more funding would include
netball, soccer, rugby league, cricket and tennis. The panel also recommended that funding for elite Olympic
sports stays the same due to the continued success of Australian athletes at elite competitions.
The question about how funding for Australian sport and recreation should be allocated is complex.
Essentially, the question that needs to be answered is this: how do we measure sporting success? Is it by
participation rates or Olympic medals?

NEWS
The future of sport in Australia (The Crawford report)
At the start of this review, the panel asked some overwhelmingly to Olympic sports. In 200708, for
simple questions about the amount of money example, the ASC distributed nearly $90 million in
being spent by all Australian governments on grants to national sporting organisations. Around
sport, recreation and physical activity, and its 80 per cent of this went to Olympic sports and
impact. It was surprising to discover there is no over 90 per cent of this amount went to high
current reliable information available to answer performance programs...
those threshold questions. The bias towards funding Olympic sports leads
The only data found was derived from 200001 to outcomes that make little strategic sense for
Australian Bureau of Statistics material. It conrmed Australia. For example, more government funds are
that approximately $2 billion was spent on sport at provided for archery than cricket which has more
that time across the three tiers of government. Only than 100 times the number of participants according
10 per cent came from the Australian Government, to unpublished ASC data. Water polo receives as
40 per cent from state and territory governments, much high performance and Australian Institute of
and the remaining 50 per cent from local Sport (AIS) funding as golf, tennis and lawn bowls
government. State, territory and local government combinedeven though these sports can rightly
spending was predominantly directed to facilities and claim to be whole of lifetime sports and signicant
their upkeep. contributors to the Australian Governments
Olympic medal counts seem to be the one area preventative health agenda.
where success is being dened and measured...
The Australian Government funding for Source: Independent Sport Panel, The Future of Sport in
sport that is distributed through the ASC goes Australia, Australian Government, 2009, pp. 56
Because of the rising incidence of obesity among young Australians and declining sports participation
rates, many people would agree that redistributing funding to sports resources that benet more Australians
is common sense. The panel suggested that an additional $250 million of government funds be allocated to
community infrastructure investment, on top of the $1.02 billion already committed. The redistribution of
funds would allow greater opportunities to access sporting facilities and sports development programs.
However, most government funding goes to building and maintaining sports facilities. Will simply
providing more sporting facilities increase physical activity participation rates? Even when equal access to
sporting facilities is provided, many people choose not to use the facilites.
The panel of people who prepared the report also recommended that the Australian Sports Federations
administration of the funding and application process be simplied so that more sporting clubs and groups
could apply for fundingnot only large sports organisations that had the resources to prepare complicated
submissions.
In addition to infrastructure projects, many federal and state programs help individuals and sporting
associations access available funds. Examples of these are:
Young Athletes Assistance Program
Club Development Program
Local Sport and Development Program

10028 p 1/4
Figure 10.18 The Auskick program has been successful in encouraging children to play Australian rules football.
Major and Minor Facilities Program

Sport and Recreation Development Program
The Australian Sports Commission also runs the Indigenous Sport Program that aims to increase the
sport and recreation participation rates of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Will the proposal to increase funding to grassroots sporting clubs and disadvantaged
communities deny elite Australian athletes the opportunity to win gold medals at
international sporting events like the Olympics? Justify your answer.
2 Describe how the government might react to a lower-than-predicted gold medal tally in the
next Olympic Games.
3 Organise a class debate on the topic Providing more sporting facilities will increase sports
participation rates.
4 Discuss how the commodification of sport can affect the distribution of resources. Which of
Figueroas levels does this link to?
Click to read Lleyton Hewitts blog about the controversial allocation of funds to elite tennis
instead of to the grassroots.
EXTENSION
1 What was the aim of the 2009 report The Future of Sport in Australia (The Crawford Report)?
2 What recommendations did the reports authors make to increase access and opportunities
to participate in physical activity?
Click to read a summary of The Crawford Report.

Development programs for the grassroots
Many sporting associations and programs have targeted hundreds of thousands of Australian children to
communicate the positive message about participating in sport for physical tness and fun. Most sports
have created modied versions of their game to allow children of all ages and abilities the opportunity to
experience sport. Examples of these programs include:
Auskick
Aussie hoops
Hot shots tennis
Kanga cricket
Kids to kangaroos
Little athletics
Milo soccer
Netta netball
Oztag
Try rugby
What experiences have you had with modified sports? Did these experiences encourage you to continue your
participation in this sport?
These community programs are examples of how organisations in the structural and institutional levels
of Figueroas framework can work together to provide community services. Through such programs, children
get an opportunity to develop physical and social skills, play in modied games, but best of all, have fun!
Making the programs accessible to all children can be difcult and requires many individuals and
organisations working together. Sports development ofcers are often in charge of promoting and
coordinating the programs. Schools are also often involved. Money generated through the national sporting
associations helps fund the promotion and resource packs that are given to participants. Higher-prole
sports with greater sponsorship opportunities, such as Australia rules football, cricket and rugby league, have
larger budgets and so have opportunities to reach a wider population.
Which sporting associations in your community work to increase participation in sport?
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Does your chosen physical activity have development programs in your community?
2 Choose one sports development program for your community. What is needed to begin,
continue or extend the program to cater for more students?
3 Explain how sporting organisations (structural level) have tried to influence junior sport
participation levels.
a Which sports have obtained the:
most publicity?
most funding for resources?
biggest increase in junior participation?
b How have these sporting organisations achieved this? Explain how their results can be
linked to each of the levels from Figueroas framework.
c Why is increasing junior participation a goal of sporting organisations?

10: SUMMARY
The language used by the media to portray NOW THAT YOU HAVE FINISHED ...
sportspeople reinforces social stereotypes.
1 a Provide three reasons to explain why the
Female athletes are portrayed in the media as media dedicates an increasingly large
passive and supportive. In contrast, male athletes amount of time and space to sports
are generally represented as active, determined reporting.
and successful.
b Use your response above to justify how
Female athletes and womens sports receive societys attitudes and beliefs about sport
considerably less media coverage than male (cultural level) are being reinforced through
athletes and mens sports. the media (structural level).
Sport is a multimillion-dollar business. 2 Which sports dominate the following?
The commodication of sport has changed the a nightly television news broadcasts
nature of some sports. It has also allowed some
b newspaper articles
athletes to make sport their full-time career.
3 List the factors that determine which sports
The media, in particular television, and sports
receive greater publicity.
marketing techniques have the ability to
inuence which sports become popularas 4 Would the Broncos receive more or less publicity
spectator sports and as sports to play. through the Townsville media? Can this be
explained using Figueroas levels? How?.
Sponsors provide athletes and teams with funds,
resources and services in exchange for positive 5 Discuss how sex appeal can be used by both
publicity and product endorsements. male and female athletes to gain sponsorship.
Companies use the FRED principle to identify 6 a Dene commodication.

which athletes are marketable. b Which level of Figueroas framework can be
Womens sports suffer from a lack of media linked to commodication?
exposure, which leads to fewer sponsorship c List ve ways in which commodication has
opportunities. This in turn limits the resources occurred in sport.
and facilities available to womens sport. 7 The Twenty20 Indian Premier League is
Sexploitation describes any form of marketing extremely successful in India. Could this type of
or attempt to gain media attention that focuses competition be as successful in Australia? Justify
attention on the sexual attributes and physical your response using elements from Figueroas
attractiveness of athletes. framework.
Australias federal, state and local governments 8 What is the acronym that is used to select
provide funding and infrastructure for sport marketable athletes? What does it stand for?
in Australia, both for elite athletes and for 9 What factors prompted the government to
grassroots community sporting groups. develop the Australian Institute of Sport?
10 Governments spend enormous amounts of
money to secure sporting events. Why? Link
your answer to relevant levels from Figueroas
framework.
10: Summary ///// 357

11001
11
Institutional
influences on
equity and sports
participation

Does your community have enough sporting venues and do the venues cater for a Community and school sport 359
variety of sports? Which sporting organisations are the most proactive in promoting Sport in the community 359
their sport or activity through coaching clinics? How do physical education classes Sport in schools 360
at school inuence sports participation? How do the rules and regulations of the School and community
sports and activities themselves inuence peoples decisions to participate? Also, inuence on sports
can religious institutions affect sporting opportunities? Can some religious beliefs be
popularity 369
barriers to physical activity? What can be done to reduce these barriers?
Sports rules and regulations 371
In this chapter, we examine how Figueroas framework can be used to study Religious institutions 372
community institutions effectiveness in providing access to physical activity.
The chapter looks at the role that schools and community organisations play in
developing attitudes towards sport and physical activity. It also investigates the
funding and resources available to community and school sport programs to
improve sports participation.

<start new page>
11003 l 1/4
Community and
school sport
Many people consider
participating in sport a wonderful
way to have fun and to develop
the positive qualities associated
with sports participation, such
as self-condence, discipline and
team spirit. Another commonly
expressed benet of sport is
that it keeps the kids off the
streets! The Australian Bureau of
Statistics found that in 200506
almost one in three people aged
15 years or older participated in
sport or physical activity at least Figure 11.1 Sporting clubs can become like second families to their
members.
twice per week.
Two types of institutions that offer sporting opportunities are community sporting groups and clubs, and
educational institutions including schools, colleges and universities.
Sport in the community

Community sports clubs
Of the people who regularly participate in sport and physical activity, many choose to do so through local
community sporting groups and clubs. Slightly more than one-quarter of the population aged 15 years and
over, approximately 4.4 million Australians, participate in sports and physical recreation activities that are
organised by a club, association or other organisation.
Although the level of organisation and type of sports clubs can vary between communities, most
communities have some form of organised sport. Most of these sporting organisations are run by parents
and volunteers who wish to put something back into the sport and provide sporting opportunities for their
children.
Sporting clubs in the community encourage volunteer participation, which builds community spirit. More
people volunteer their time to sports and physical recreation groups than to any other type of organisation.
Is your family involved in a local sports club or association?
The role of the sporting club should not be underestimated. For many people, the friendships and sense
of belonging provided by sporting clubs can mean that they become like a second family. Players, coaches,
family, management and sponsors provide role models and become a closely-knit social network.
Research has found that the two main reasons children stay in a club are:
1 the social aspects of membership, including the friendships they form
2 a sense of belonging to the club.
Sporting clubs that develop positive and encouraging cultures often attract new families to join the club
and increase sports participation in the community. Having a healthy sports club culture within a community
also enriches a communitys sense of pride. The development of club pride often becomes stronger over a
period of years.
Chapter 11Institutional influences on equity and sports participation ///// 359

Community sporting facilities
Communities value sport and will often invest money to ensure that facilities meet local peoples needs. The
money can come from fundraising by local sports clubs or from local, state and federal governments.
The types of facilities available within a community vary from region to region and are inuenced by
factors such as the physical environment (weather and landscape), location and community traditions.
The type of facilities available in a community can have a signicant effect on local peoples opportunities
to participate in particular sports. For example, a person growing up in a regional town that does not have a
squash court is unlikely to take up squash.
Local community sporting facilities can both affect and be affected by the success of local athletes.
For example, earlier chapters looked at Torah Bright, who was able to develop her snowboarding potential
because she had snowboarding and ski slopes near Cooma where she grew up. Conversely, when a local
person becomes a successful elite athlete in a particular sport, it can raise the prole of the sport in the area
and can inuence the funding received to develop facilities in that community.
What sports facilities are available in your community?
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Community sporting organisations rely heavily on volunteers. If your family volunteered to
help a community sporting organisation, do you think this would have had an influence on
your participation in sport? Explain.
2 Discuss the link that can be seen in community sporting groups between the institutional
level and interpersonal level of Figueroas framework.
3 List environmental factors that give some Queensland communities opportunities to do
sports that others do not.
Sport in schools
In Australia, schools play a signicant role in young peoples lives. During their time at school, students
acquire the knowledge and thinking skills needed for the adult world. Schools are also a powerful socialising
agent. Possibly the most important skills developed while at school are social and personal skills that prepare
young people to become active members of the community.
Physical activity is seen as another essential skill. Needed for good health and wellbeing, it improves
students academic performance, supports their personal development and promotes a lifelong active
lifestyle. For these reasons, in schools across Australia sport and physical education are taught alongside
other skills such as English, maths and science.
The government values the benets of sport and physical activity. The Queensland Government made
it compulsory for all junior high school students (Years 8 and 9) to participate in two hours of moderate
physical activity each week. Primary school students should participate in at least 30 minutes of moderate
physical activity each day during class time. The government also developed a program called Smart Moves,
which aims to improve childrens health and reduce obesity by one-third.
For many Australians, school sports and physical education classes in primary school are their rst
introduction to organised sport and physical activity. Many adults attitudes to sport and physical education
are heavily inuenced by the experiences they had while at school. The types of sports that they are
introduced to and the sporting culture of their school can have a long-term inuence on their attitudes and
beliefs about sport and physical activity, and on their participation.

NEWS
Grab them while theyre young, says sports chief
The obesity epidemic will not be solved until do it well but our anecdotal evidence is that the
all primary school students are compelled to majority of schools dont do it or if they do, the kids
participate in sport, which had drifted away from are running around the oval 15 times, he said.
the curriculum over the past 10 years, the head of the If you talk to the education department, theres
Australian Sports Commission has said. just a crowded curriculum, theres so many messages
A crowded curriculum and pressured teachers being delivered teachers are struggling to do what
who lacked physical education training had resulted they have to do, he said.
in many schools either dropping or neglecting If you had compulsory physical education
compulsory sport, said the commissions chief delivered by trained teachers back in all primary
executive, Mark Peters. schools, then thats the beginning to addressing the
Mr Peters was speaking yesterday at a Sydney obesity issue.
conference, Tackling Childhood Obesity in Australia, Ninety-two per cent of schools thought it
about the commissions after-school sports program. helped children with fundamental motor skills
The Active After-School Communities Program and 76 per cent said the children are now better
is free for students and operates in 3250 schools at physical education, he said. Eighty-three per
about 550 of which are in NSWwith 150 000 cent said the program led to more physical activity
students participating two to three times a week in school time because it had boosted teachers
from 3.30 pm to 5.30 pm. condence.
It has become so popular it has a waiting list of A spokesman for the NSW Education Department
1000 schools. said there had been no change in the amount of
The program has been at Lakemba Public time primary students spent on physical education
School since rst term for an hour on Tuesdays and which is a mandatory 60 minutes a weekover the
Thursdays and includes such activities as soccer, past 10 years.
cricket and skipping for about 30 children. Schools are required to submit their timetables
The schools principal, Laraine Rylance, said to their school education director to conrm
physical activity is linked to learning. If children are compliance with mandatory requirements, he said.
engaged and expel their excess energy then they are Source: Natasha Wallace and Bonny Symons-Brown,
The Sydney Morning Herald, 13 December 2007
more ready to concentrate and learn.
The children are given a
healthy afternoon tea, such as a
piece of fruit.
Rida Naeem, 10, said: We play
games and we get healthy, and at 11006 l 1/4
the end we get a meal, too.
Outside the conference, Mr
Peters said theres been a general
drift away in most schools from
compulsory sport.
Its been a gradual thing over Figure 11.2 Good sports a fast game of tag keeps active students at
the last 10 years. Some schools Lakemba Public School on their toes.

APPLY AND EVALUATE
1 a What percentage of students at your school would be happy with a government decision
to increase the time spent in compulsory physical education each week?
b Brainstorm reasons why some students would be unsatisfied with such a decision.
2 The Queensland Government has only made it compulsory for junior high school students
to participate in 2 hours of moderate physical activity each week. Should the policy include
students in senior school? Justify your response.
3 Read the article on page 361 and, in small groups, discuss:
a whether the NSW after-school activities program will lead to an increase in physical
activity during adolescence
b the steps that might be needed to help schools bring physical activity back into the
regular curriculum.
School facilities
Schools offer a wonderful opportunity for students to try a wide range of sports. The sports available to
students at each school depend on the schools sporting facilitiesits playing grounds, gymnasiums and
equipmentand its staff.
Schools allocate funds to purchase sporting equipment and ensure their curriculum has sufcient time
for physical activity. The development of sporting facilities is determined by each school. Some schools are
fortunate to have a wide range of facilities, which can provide greater exibility in their sports programs and,
therefore, allow them to promote
more sports. Some schools even
have specialised facilities such
11007 s 1/4
as indoor rock-climbing walls,
fully equipped gymnasiums and
indoor swimming pools.
Many schools also use
community facilities to increase
students access to a wider
range of sports facilities. This
can increase the number of
sports from which students can
choose, but it can also mean
that some of the costs of using
community facilities must be
met by the students and their
families. On the other hand,
many community organisations
are only able to run competitions
because they have access to
school facilities.
If money was available, what
sporting facilities would you
Figure 11.3 Good sporting facilities at schools provide students with like to see developed in your
opportunities to participate in a wide variety of sports.
school?

APPLY AND EVALUATE
1 If you attended a school with limited facilities, how would it affect your motivation to
participate in school sport?
2 Would the development of better facilities at your school provide you with more motivation
to train? Explain.
School traditions
The famous opening scene from the 1981 British lm Chariots of Fire shows students of Trinity College,
Cambridge, competing in the traditional Trinity Great Court Run where students have to complete the 341
metre run around the courtyard before the clock strikes twelve (approximately 43 seconds). Events such as
these are a part of some schools sporting traditions.
The University of Queensland has its own version of this event, the Great Court Race, where students
race around the sandstone cloisters of the universitys great court. The race over 636 metres was established
in 1984 and continues to attract many competitors vying for their place in the universitys record books.
Not all institutions have a great court to send athletes charging around, but many are steeped in sporting
traditions. For some Australian schools, their sporting traditions date back to their origins in the late
nineteenth century.
In Victoria, the Head of the River Regatta is an interschool rowing regatta that has taken place every year
since 1868. In Brisbane, the Head of the River Regatta is a similar, ercely competitive event that began in
1918. Schools are very proud of being founding members of such longstanding and prestigious competitions.
When their teams win at local, state, national or international competitions, the culture of excellence and
success is further entrenched.
11008 l 1/3
Figure 11.4 The Great Court Run is a sporting tradition of Trinity College.

11009 l 1/3
Figure 11.5 Doing well at interschool sports competitions fosters school pride.
For many schools, sport plays a large role in developing and sustaining the schools culture and pride.
Schools that have a successful sporting history often promote their sporting achievements to future students
and their parents, as well as to current and former students. Schools use their websites to advertise their
successful sporting history. A culture of winning and competing at the highest level is extremely marketable
and increases the schools prestige in the community.
Individual students within schools can also gain prestige by being a member of the rst team. Students
from many schools have their sporting representative honours embroidered on their school blazers. The
honour associated with being part of such teams and sporting traditions can encourage students to take up
these sports and try out for the teams.
However, equal recognition of all sports within a school is rare. Individual students can become frustrated
by a school culture that promotes some sports at the expense of others. Students who play the marginal
sports can often feel ostracised and resent that the students who play the dominant sports receive special
treatment. Resentment about the perception of unequal treatment and recognition can lead participation
numbers in marginal sports to decrease. Marginal school sports will remain marginal, while the dominant
sports obtain all the recognition and promotion.
Even so, school cultures can change and once marginal sports can become dominant. One way for this to
occur can be through the efforts of teachers to promote a sport. A school with one teacher who is passionate
about a particular sport can create a culture of success for that sport. Two teachers with the same drive can
create more support. Teachers can raise the sports prole in the school by developing a squad of players
and creating opportunities to participate. Some initial success is achieved, and this creates more motivation
for everyone to become involved. From here, the sports credibility gains momentum and it can become a
signicant part of the school.
A correlation often exists between the size of a schools student population and available sporting
opportunities. More students results in a need for more teachers. A greater number of teachers with passions
for different sports broadens opportunities for student participation.
List the sports in which your school is known for its sporting excellence. What effect has the schools
success in these sports had on your participation?

APPLY AND
EVALUATE
1 Discuss how your school
encourages school spirit
and pride through sport.
2 Are your beliefs and
values about traditions
in sport the same as the
beliefs of all the other 11016
students in your class,
year level or school?
Figure 11.6 The sporting traditions of some schools date back many
Explain why. decades.
EXTENSION
1 Develop a web page or
brochure that your school
could use to outline the
tradition behind your
physical activity. Include
historical background
to show how this sport
is developing a tradition
of success, and list your
schools achievements
and past students and
their representative
honours.
11017
OR
Develop a proposal
Figure 11.7 Being part of a successful school team can give a sense
explaining how your of school spirit and pride.
physical education
department could increase the profile of your physical activity. In your proposal, examine
the factors that would be needed to generate success, such as staff, facilities and other
equipment, resources and competition structures.
2 Read the following articles about rugby union and the value of sport within the great public
schools (GPS).
a Discuss reasons that could explain the emotional ties that link past students to their
schools sport.
b Is the implementation of weight divisions a realistic solution? Explain your response.
c To ensure an equitable competition, many codes have rules that limit the number of
international players, or financial limits in the form of salary caps. Should measures
such as these be introduced to school sport? Discuss.
Click for more information about this debate regarding rugby union in the GPS.

NEWS
Life isnt fair, but the old boys still needrugby
It was soon after I had moved to Brisbane from impressed by the school ties that saw a group of
Sydney that I found myself at an inner-city hotel Terrace old boys start the Youngcare organisation
with a group of solicitors aged in their 30s. when the wife of one was struck down with a
They were arguing about the bona des of a debilitating illness?
colleague. Apparently he had claimed to have played And where would the private school system
rst-grade rugby. One of the lawyers said he hadnt; be if not for the fundraising activities of old boys
another said he had, but foundations providing
only a few games. world-class facilities and
A third reckoned the bursaries?
bloke was fair dinkum. To be an outsider at
Not only had this fellow an old boys function
played rst grade, he and to witness the
said, but he had actually afliation and affection
played against him. ex-students retain for
You played rst- each other and their
grade rugby? I asked, school is to be amazed
looking at his meagre and even a little jealous.
frame. Who for? In many cases there
I expected to hear is nothing a committed
Brothers, or Souths or GPS old boy wouldnt do
Jeeps. for his school. And all he
What I got was, asks is one little thing in
Grammar. return.
Silly me. Where I A winning footy
came from rst grade team.
meant well, you A psychologist would
know, grown ups. probably tell you its a
In Brisbane in 1983 transference thing. Old
it meant school rugby. boys look at the current
More specically GPS school rugby. First XV and see themselves 10, 20, 30 years earlier.
It was my introduction to a phenomenon that I The better the current team is, the better they were.
still experience today. In Sydney, when you sit down Or maybe its just that they like winning.
with a group of strangers they want to know where Either way, a major reason why GPS schools place
you live, how much you paid for it and how far it is such importance on the performance of their First XV
from the water. is the old boys.
In Brisbane they want to know where you went to A winning team means a happy old boy, and a
school. happy old boy is a generous old boy.
Not that theres anything wrong with that. Incredible as it might seem to some, the
From my experience, the Brisbane Old Boys standard of the First XV can even be a major factor in
network is a very positive force. Who could not be enrolments.

Life isnt fair, but the old boys still need rugby (cont )
I have a friend who was a sports star at Sydney I have another friend who played in the First XV
Grammar in the 1970s, as was his father and at a Brisbane GPS school. So did his father-in-law. He
grandfather before him. In the 1980s the headmaster had two sons at the school who played in A teams
of Sydney Grammar announced his school would not right through to their nal year, when they were
be a party to the arms race GPS sport had become. relegated to the seconds to make way for scholarship
It would lose with honour and, if necessary, forfeit winners from the Pacic Islands.
First XV matches against opposition considered too They could have been in the Firsts like their father
strong. and grandfather, he said. I asked them if they were
My friend, announcing: Im not going to spend disappointed and they said it didnt matter, but I
the next 12 years of my life watching my team get think it did. If not now, then later on when they cant
thrashed, sent his three sons to The Kings School. say they were in the Firsts.
So when a GPS headmaster receives irate calls And his feelings?
from old boys demanding a better First XV, he Well, I guess it just teaches them that life isnt fair.
listens. There will be times when someone gets the job they
Especially when they say theyll pay for it. should have because theyre related to the boss or
And if that means some hardworking but less someone will get a promotion they dont deserve
talented players stepping aside for the greater good because they suck up. Its a tough world out there.
of the school, so be it. Source: Mike Colman, The Courier-Mail, 11 April 2010
NEWS
GPS rugby may introduce weight divisions for
school matches
Queenslands Great Public Schools may introduce Mr Hain said he had held talks with the
weight divisions to help rid rugby union of the ARU, Queensland Rugby and his fellow school
mismatches threatening player safety. directors of sport and rugby about a weight-scaling
The Australian Rugby Union and the schools have policy.
discussed introducing a system whereby players New Zealand junior rugby enforces such a
would be graded by weight rather than age. regimen.
Students born in the same year would have to But I dont think the GPS is prepared to go out
meet a set weight classallowing for uctuations of and do this on its own at the moment, Mr Hain said.
about 20 kgto compete against each other. Were looking at it. Its a work in progress.
Players either side of the threshold would climb Parents concerned for their sons welfare have
or drop a grade. ooded The Courier-Mail with telephone calls and
So, for example, you could have a bracket emails in response to the newspapers investigation
between 50 kg and 70 kg and anyone thats right off into sports scholarships.
the scale, plays up, said Bryan Hain, chair of the GPS The series kicked off on Monday with a warning
Association Rugby Sub-Committee. by St Josephs College Gregory Terrace headmaster
What happens if you have a really big 93 kg boy Peter Chapman that he would withdraw his teams
under 14, and your average weight is 70 kg? I worry from rugby games in the event of any gross
about safety. mismatches of size and strength.

GPS rugby may introduce weight divisions for school matches (cont )
And Arthur Palmer, vice-chair of the Combined I think once you go beyond that, I can see where
GPS Old Boys, predicted a death on the paddock if the unfairness comes in, said the now NSW Junior
a brake was not applied to the sporting arms race of Waratah.
schoolboy football. Especially for kids that have been in the school
During the week, The Courier-Mail revealed how since Year 8, and then come Years 11 and 12, their
several GPS schools were spending millions of dollars positions get taken by scholarship-holders.
on importing the strongest and most skilful rugby Kiwi Nick Seymour, 20, a controversial Brisbane
players to effectively buy premierships. Grammar School sports scholar who has since been
Most readers were disgusted at how the elite contracted to the Waikato Rugby Union, said a First
schools core business of education, and principles of XV import quota applied in New Zealand schools.
sportsmanship, fair play and social justice had been He said they were restricted to two overseas and
forsaken in pursuit of corporate image and marketing two domestic recruits every two years. But he said
power. the rules were useless if not strictly policed with
Sports scholarships are banned in Sydney GPS appropriate penalties.
schools. New Zealand schools bring in players from
Ironically, two former Brisbane sports scholarship Tonga, Samoa, Fiji, the Cook Islands, Seymour said.
stars believe an import capping regime is long But if they breach their quotas, the players
overdue. theyve brought in have to stand down for a certain
Eddie Bredenhann, 19, an Australian Schoolboys number of weeks.
scrumhalf who played for Churchies First XV in If they dont, the team will lose competition
200708, called for a limit of three scholarship- points.
holders per First XV.
Source: Matthew Fynes-Clinton, The Courier-Mail,
16 April 2010
11012 l 1/3
spread layout for t
Figure 11.8 Schoolboy football has become a sporting arms race among Queenslands great public schools.

11019
School and community

influence on sports popularity
School physical education classes and playing sport
as part of a local community team are how most of
us are introduced to sport in our early years. How
does the inuence of school and community sport
affect individuals ongoing choice of sports and
physical activities?
Some of the most popular sports played at
school do not achieve high levels of participation
among school leavers. The most popular physical
activities chosen for study in Queensland schools
(in no particular order) are touch football, volleyball,
athletics and tennis. However, only one of these,
tennis, features in our nations top ten sports and
physical recreation activities (see Figure 11.11). For
Australians over the age of 15, walking was by far
the most popular form of exercise, followed by
aerobics/tness; for Australian children, the most
Figure 11.9 Tennis is the only sport that features in
popular sports are soccer and swimming. Why does
the top ten sports for students and adults.
this discrepancy exist?
Although it is impossible to give a conclusive answer, there are many plausible explanations. For many
sports, because the sport is not entrenched in our culture, school leavers nd that they do not have access
to a local league or facilities outside of school. Often, an elite competition that they can aspire to does not
exist. For example, before the A-League was formed in 2004, many young soccer players chose to leave
Australia to further their careers in stronger overseas competitions that provided greater recognition and
nancial rewards. Craig Johnston and Harry Kewell are two of the most notable players to do so.
The media can also have an effect on school leavers sporting options. A good example of this is
volleyball. Of the two volleyball codes, beach volleyball is seen as a better product for television than indoor
volleyball; consequently, beach volleyball receives more coverage. As beach volleyball gets greater television
exposure, it becomes further entrenched in Australian society and receives further funding, which translates
to better facilities and equipment. The nal result is that large numbers of indoor volleyball players convert
to beach volleyball. A reduction in the number and quality of players in the top indoor volleyball leagues
means fewer role models and a less enjoyable, lower standard of competition. This can have a ow-on effect
to the local community leagues, where participants have little to aspire to.
Gifted athletes choosing another code is likely to occur more frequently. This situation has been
increasingly seen in players transferring between the AFL, rugby league and rugby union. For example, the
AFL secured the contracts for two Australian rugby league representatives: Karmichael Hunt and Israel Falou.
Whether their decisions to change football codes were for nancial or personal challenge reasons is a hotly
debated topic.
The interrelationship between the cultural, structural and institutional levels of Figueroas framework
affects participation in sport and physical activity. For example, our cultural preferences inuence
government funding. Funding then dictates, to an extent, the operational decisions of schools and the
success of local sporting organisations.

Swimming
11013 at l 1/4
Football (outdoor soccer)
Netball
Australian rules football
Tennis
Basketball
Gymnastics
Rugby league
Athletics (track and eld)

Females
Futsal (indoor soccer)
Males Figure 11.10
Hockey Percentage of
people aged
Other 514 years and
main sports
0 5 10 15 20 participated in by
% gender.
Aerobics / tness
graph 11014
Bushwalking
Cycling
Golf
Netball
Tennis
Running
Figure 11.11
Football (outdoor soccer) Females Participation
Males by people over
Swimming the age of 15
top ten sports
Walking and physical
recreation
0 10 20 30 40 activities by
% gender.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Referring to Figure 11.10 and Figure 11.11, provide possible reasons for the differences
between the sports participated in by children (514 years) and by adults (15 years and
older).
2 Discuss why sports studied at school (such as volleyball, touch football and athletics) do
not always feature strongly in the top ten sports chosen by adults (Figure 11.11). Justify
your response by discussing the influences from relevant levels of Figueroas framework.

<start new page>
Sports rules and regulations

Rules and regulations are agreed sets of principles, policies and
standards of conduct that govern a sport or physical activity.
They exist to ensure that equipment and facilities are designed
11020 for player safety, to ensure sportsmanlike behaviour, to set
restrictions on aggressive behaviour, and to obtain objective
and fair results from competition. Put simply, there would be
anarchy without rules in sport.
Most of the rules and regulations of a sport are set by the
sports governing body. For example, the International Cricket
Council sets rules about the numbers of players, clothing and
equipment that is permitted, players conduct, and when play
should be suspended due to bad weather or poor light. They
even regulate the length of the lunch and tea breaks. Schools
and community sporting leagues sometimes modify the
governing bodys rules and regulations to suit their traditions or
local playing conditions.
Most of the rules of sport help to ensure that competition
is safe and fair. However, some sporting rules can overlook the
needs of certain groups and individuals and restrict access. By
failing to provide equitable conditions for all participants, the
rules and regulations of a sport can limit access and discourage
participation.
Some schools, for example, make it compulsory for players
to buy expensive uniforms or unnecessarily renew uniforms,
Figure 11.12 Sporting rules and making it more difcult for students from low-income families
regulations help to ensure that matches
are safe and fair. to participate. Physical education programs can also enforce the
wearing of attire that makes some students feel uncomfortable,
or goes against their religious beliefs. Community sporting organisations regularly impose strict and unfair
conditions on students who wish to represent their community and continue to play for their school in the
same sport.
The rules and regulations of sport are often so steeped in tradition (sometimes simply for the sake of
tradition) that they become inexible to change. Sports governing bodies, schools and community sporting
groups should conduct regular reviews of their rules and regulations to ensure that they keep the games best
interests at heart, while adapting to the changing needs of society.
Do any rules at your school deter particular individuals or groups from participating in sport?
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Reread the rules of your chosen sport or physical activity. Can you see any rules or
regulations that might prevent or discourage participation? What type of people might be
discouraged from participating? Why?
2 Propose ways to overcome these barriers.
3 Would your solutions be viable for all players? Explain why.

<start new page>
11015 p 1/4
Religious institutions
Religious organisations are another form of
institution that should be studied as part of the
institutional level of Figueroas framework. Closely
linked to the cultural level of Figueroas framework,
peoples religious beliefs are interconnected with
their values and cultural identity.
Australia is a multicultural society that contains
many different cultures, values and expectations. To
provide equal access and opportunities to physical
Figure 11.13 It is essential that people of all faiths activity to all members of our society, institutions
have access and opportunities to participate in such as schools need to improve their understanding
physical activity. of different religious and cultural requirements.
Although no religion discourages physical activity, religious beliefs can be seen as barriers to sports
participation. Certain religious beliefs can limit when followers can participate and the types of activity that
they can participate in.
Many religions, including Christianity, Judaism and Islam, observe a sabbath or holy day once a week,
during which believers are expected to rest from work and concentrate on their faith. For each religious
group, the day of prayer is differentJews observe it from Friday evening until Saturday night; Muslims
observe it on Fridays; and most Christian faiths observe it on Sunday. Strict followers of these faiths might
not be able to attend a sporting match on these days as they are expected to be praying or taking part in
other traditions of their faith.
Apart from regular days of worship, all faiths and cultures celebrate special holidays each year, such as
Christmas, Chinese New Year and Hanukah. Easter is celebrated at different times by different Christian
faiths. Scheduling sports competitions to clash with dates such as these could prevent some athletes from
participating.
Muslim people all over the world participate in Ramadan. Ramadan is a period of thirty days when
Muslims neither eat nor drink between dawn and dusk. The timing of Ramadan changes each year, moving
forward about ten days. Because they cannot drink, not even water, this period can be physically stressful to
Muslims when participating in sport, especially when Ramadan occurs during the heat of summer.
Other religious restrictions can also affect the types of activities that people choose to participate in.
Some religions, including some Christian faiths, ban dancing and music, or place restrictions on the types
of dance and music that are permitted. The two major barriers that prevent some Muslim females from
participating in sport are clothing and the inappropriateness of participating in mixed-gender sports.
Sporting groups and clubs can also act in other ways that inadvertently discourage people from certain
religions from joining. For example, holding a fundraising sausage sizzle that included pork sausages or served
alcohol would also go against some religious beliefs.
Knowledge and understanding of religious beliefs and exible school and club attitudes can ensure
children and adults of all faiths and cultures can have positive experiences in sport.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

Imagine that you lived overseas in a country where Christmas was not a holiday. If a match in
the sport you play was scheduled for Christmas Day, would you participate? Explain.

>
11: SUMMARY
Many Australians participate in sports and NOW THAT YOU HAVE FINISHED ...
physical recreation activities that are organised
1 a Outline how schools provide opportunities
by a club, association or other organisation.
for participation in physical activity.
Community sporting groups, often working with
b Referring to relevant levels of Figueroas
local government, provide sports facilities and
framework, explain why different schools
programs that cater for the local community.
will provide different sport and physical
The type of facilities available in a community activity opportunities.
can have a signicant effect on local peoples
2 a Explain how school traditions can cause
opportunities to participate in particular sports.
some sports to become dominant at the
The sports available to students at each school expense of others.
depend on the schools sporting facilitiesits
b What strategies can schools put in place to
playing grounds, gymnasiums and equipment
provide more equitable recognition of all
and its staff.
sports?
For many Australians, school sports and physical
c Do you believe that schools should have to
education classes in primary school are their
recognise all sports equally?
rst introduction to organised sport and physical
activity. The experience of school sport can 3 Referring to Figures 11.10 and 11.11, consider the
affect individuals attitudes to sport and physical discrepancies in participation rates in netball and
activity. rugby league between children (aged 514) and
adults (15 years and older). Discuss the factors
School sporting traditions can dictate the sports
in the cultural, structural and institutional level
that are offered and the allocation of resources.
of Figueroas framework that might have led to
Resources can be disproportionately allocated to
these discrepancies.
certain sports that are believed to enhance the
school prole. 4 a Which has had the greatest effect on your
personal sports participationcommunity
The rules and regulations of sport can discourage
or school sport? Explain why.
or prevent participation. They should be regularly
reviewed and, if necessary, modied to ensure b Which should cater for the grassroots level
equity for all. of sports participationcommunity or
school sport? What extra support is required
Understanding religious and cultural beliefs
to ensure success?
can increase opportunities for all people to
participate in and enjoy physical activity. 5 Every student from Year 1 to Year 12 should
participate in compulsory physical activity.
Develop a SWOT (strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats) analysis for this
statement to determine whether compulsory
participation would cause long-term
participation rates to rise and obesity levels to
decrease.
6 Provide three reasons why religious and cultural
beliefs should be considered when developing
policies for sports participation.
11: Summary ///// 373

12001
12
Interpersonal pls conrm
and individual
influences on
equity and sports
participation

Who has been a major inuence in your sporting career? Are your teachers, family Interpersonal level 375
and friends positive role models? Which relationships inuence an individuals Family 375
decisions to participate in sport? Peers 378
What experiences have helped motivate you to participate in physical activity? Teachers 379
What effect will personal choices have on your future involvement in sport and Coaches 380
physical activity? To what extent do your physical activities reect your individual Role models 381
skills and needs? Individual Level 383
This chapter looks at both the interpersonal level and the individual level of Early experiences 383
Figueroas framework. Each individual makes up their own mind about sport Barriers and motivators 384
and physical activity based on their experiences, personal beliefs, attitudes and Individual personalities 388
personality. While people of all sizes, shapes and abilities can participate in sport, an Individuals physical build 398
individuals physical build can play a signicant role in determining at which sport a
person will excel. Also, interpersonal relationships with family, peers, teachers and
role models inuence the sporting opportunities a person will receive and seek.

<start new page>
12002 TS s 1/4
Interpersonal level
The interpersonal level is used
to investigate the relationships
Cultural level
that affect an individuals
participation and access to sport
Structural level
and physical activity.
Most of us are inuenced,
Institutional level
directly or indirectly, by our
relationships with the people
around us, including parents, Interpersonal level
peers, siblings, teachers, coaches
and sporting role models. These Individual level
relationships play a signicant
role in determining the sporting
Figure 12.1 The interpersonal and individual levels are strongly
opportunities a person will seek
12002_HED_QPE.indd 1by all other levels of Figueroas framework.
influenced 28/09/10 9:34 AM
and receive.
The people around an individual are, in turn, inuenced by cultural, structural and institutional factors
from all levels of Figueroas framework. Analysing only one level from Figueroas framework is an overly
simplistic approach that overlooks the complex interrelationships between all ve levels.
Family
The family is the earliest and most signicant inuence on an individuals attitude towards sport. Research
has shown that about one child in three states that parents are the main inuence on their activity choices.
A familys inuence on sports participation can be either positive or negative. Either way, it can have
lifelong effects on an individuals sporting pathways. For example, a child who has parents who value a
particular sport will be provided with more opportunities to play that sport than others. Children whose
parents are heavily involved in touch football, for example, will be more likely to play touch football.
Conversely, if parents are not involved in any sport, their children will be less inclined to choose sport as a
hobby. Such children might need the inuence of others, such as peers, to be inspired to take up a sport.
Children who reported that their fathers were involved in sport also reported playing more sports
themselves. However, parents themselves do not need to participate in a sport to instil a sporting ethos
in their children. Parents who value sport or who have an interest in a particular sport will also positively
inuence their childrens participation.
What values and opinions do your parents have about sport? How has this affected your sports participation?
It is common for parents to have preconceived ideas about the type of sport that is best suited for their
children. A stereotypically masculine father may steer his son towards a sport that encompasses his ideals of
masculinity, such as pursuits involving strength, aggression and courage. Mothers, on the other hand, may
discourage their children from rough activities due to a natural instinct to nurture and protect, and because
they fear injury to their children. This is, of course, a broad generalisation, but one that is quite common.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

Where do you think parents get their preconceived ideas about sport from?
Chapter 12Interpersonal and individual influences on equity and sports participation ///// 375

12003 L 1/3
Insert diagram
12003
pls conrm AW
Figure 12.2 Children who reported that their fathers were involved in sport also reported playing more
sports themselves.
Socioeconomic status and time

In addition to parents attitudes and beliefs about sport and physical activity, the family income and the work
commitments of both parents are important determinants that affect whether sport is played in the family
and the type of sport chosen.
Structured sport is not cheap. For many families, the rising costs associated with sport mean that they
cannot afford to let their children to participate. Some sports are also signicantly cheaper than others, and
this has been shown to inuence parents decisions about the type of sport in which they enrol their children.
The decision about whether to play sport and which sport to participate in can be limited to what the family
can afford. For example, sports such as hockeywhich has high registration fees due to high insurance and
eld maintenance costs, on top of extensive equipment requirementscan cost a family up to $500 per year
per child. In comparison, sports such as volleyballwhich has lower registration fees and minimal equipment
requirementscan cost less than $150 per year per child.
The nancial costs of participation also inuence decisions about whether to participate in school sport.
Interschool competitions, swimming lessons, and buses to and from venues can make it very difcult for
children from low-income families to participate, even when there is access to structured competitions.
Because of the physical and social advantages of sport, many parents will nd ways to provide the money
needed so their children can participate in sport. However, this can stretch an already tight family budget and
lead to more nancial stress for the family.
This is one reason why the government is investigating ways to help the families pay for childrens sport
by offering tax rebates to cover part of families sport expenses.
Time is another common reason given for not participating in sport or exercise. In single-parent families
or in families where both parents work full-time, it can be difcult to nd time in the familys daily schedule
to arrange for children to get to training and games.

NEWS
Children and sport
One of the biggest factors in
this whole debate is the rising
12005 l 1/3
cost of participation in childrens
sport. At the moment, most
parents are signing up their
children for winter activities
such as soccer, football, netball
or hockey. It is not unusual for
families to be faced with a bill of
over $100 for each child just for
the opportunity to be part of a
teamthat is, before uniforms
and travel costs are included.
Individual sports such as
swimming, dancing and athletics
are even more expensive, yet
Figure 12.3 The rising cost of childrens sport is being blamed for
the value from a public health
lower participation rates.
point of view of young people
being physically active is huge. cent over the same period. That determined that parents of
If children are not involved 88 per cent increase in sporting junior sport participants were
in some form of organised club subscriptions in ve years predominantly in white-collar
physical activity, there are severe does not include new boots, occupations. In particular, the
implications for their weight, swimmers, goggles, uniforms, data suggested that the direct
self-esteem and wellbeing ballet shoes, bats, racquets, and indirect costs favour children
Evidence suggests that gloves and protective helmets, from high income families with
the rising cost of participation nor the petrol required to a exible daily routine, or those
in sport is a massive barrier transport children to xtures having one parent at home full-
to increased involvement . . the reality is that most families time or part-time to provide
.The limited available ofcial are paying more to be involved transport and other means of
data from the ABS household in physical activity. This increase practical support.
expenditure survey indicates is signicantly higher than the I believe there needs to be a
that, for households with CPI and is leading to families greater incentive for parents to
dependent children, the not allowing their children to be get their children into physical
amount spent on sporting club involved activity, and for the last few
subscriptions increased by 88 Of great concern is the link weeks my ofce has been
per cent, from 92c per week between lower income families working on a proposal of a tax
in 199899 to $1.73 per week and sporting activities. A research allowance for the registration
in 200304. This is a much report by the University of and tuition costs of childrens
bigger increase than the growth South Australia found a strong sport.
in average incomes of these correlation between participation Source: Senator Boswell, speech to
households, which was 32 per and family income. The study the Senate, 28 March 2007

APPLY AND 12006 l 1/4
EVALUATE
1 How could tax rebates
or vouchers be used to
help increase sports
participation?
2 Would this be an
attractive incentive
to parents? Create a
strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats
(SWOT) analysis for this
proposal to justify your Figure 12.4 Parents and siblings play a major role in introducing
response. children to sport.
Siblings
Within the family, the inuence of siblings is also signicant in determining a childs sporting choices.
It is common for younger children to want to do the same activities as their older sibling and for younger
children to develop an interest in the sport of an older sibling. Parents often encourage this as having two
children choosing the same sport can be more convenient and offers cost savings. The parents are able to
drive two children to the same venues, saving time and petrol; the younger child is also often able to use the
hand-me-down equipment and uniforms of the older sibling.
In some cases, siblings can have a negative inuence. For example, when there is a clear difference in
ability from one sibling to another, the less-able sibling can feel inadequate and worthless. This has been
known to discourage young athletes from continuing in the sport or trying their hardest.
Did a sibling influence your early sports choices?
ACQUIRE
1 Discuss reasons to explain why larger families tend to have a greater involvement in sport.
2 List barriers to sports participation in single-parent families.
Peers
Outside of the family, friends and peers are one of the most inuential factors in the sporting decisions made
by young athletes. Research has shown that as children get older the inuence of the family decreases and
the inuence of peers becomes more important.
Peers can inuence decisions about:
whether to participate in sport
the type of sport to undertake.
Many children admit that the desire to t in and belong is an important inuence in their decisions to
participate in sport. Adolescents have a desire to feel they belong and will often make decisions about sport
based on what is considered the norm or what is seen to be socially acceptable among their peers.

Humans are an innately social
species. Children can often nd it 12007 p 1/4
difcult to continue a sport they
enjoyed in their youth, even if it
is a sport they are good at, if peer
pressure says that sport is uncool
or unacceptable. Young athletes
may turn away from a sport they
have pursued through childhood
to a sport deemed more socially
acceptable by their friends.
Often, peer inuence and
young peoples concerns about
how others see them can cause
young athletes to turn away from
sport completely during their high
school years. Trends show that as
children get older and approach
adolescence, their sports
Figure 12.5 Peers can influence decisions about whether to
participation levels decrease,
participate in sport and the type of sport to undertake.
especially among females.
Can you think of a sport your peers consider uncool? Would this affect your decision to participate in it?
Peers also have an inuence on the type of behaviour displayed on the sports eldwhether athletes
behaviour is ethical or not. Negative inuences can exist within teams. A copycat mentality can cause
adolescents to mimic the rough or unethical play of some teammates. Victimisation from teammates can
drive young athletes from their sporting pursuit. Conversely, peers who demonstrate leadership qualities and
strong ethics can have a positive inuence on teammates behaviour.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 How could you use the power of peer pressure to increase participation in your physical
activity at school?
2 Which type of participationsocial or competitivewould encourage more students to

take part? Justify your response.
Teachers
For many adolescents, participation in physical activity at school is their only exposure to sport.
While a schools curriculum plays a role in shaping attitudes to physical activity, it is the teachers at the
school who will ultimately inuence the opportunities provided to the students. Where a teacher or teachers
have a passion for sport, they use their expertise, enthusiasm and commitment to give students positive
experiences in that sport. For example, a teacher with a personal passion for volleyball is more likely to enter
teams into volleyball competitions and provide expert coaching in that area. This can be at the expense of
other sports, limiting students choices, or it can complement other sports already offered at the school. If
that teacher were to leave the school and be replaced by an expert in touch football, it would follow that the
touch football participation in the school would probably increase.

12008
Figure 12.6 Good physical education teachers can inspire students with positive attitudes to sport that can
last their entire lives.
Teachers have the opportunity to motivate, teach physical and social skills and provide new experiences
that can lead to a lifelong relationship with sport and physical activity. However, not all teachers will provide
positive experiences for all students, as the values and individual physical activity needs are different for each
student. Students can have negative experiences of sport at school if their sporting needs are not met by
their teachers.
Different teachers will place a different emphasis on what they see as the most important sporting
outcome. Some teachers see winning competitions as the most important aspect of sport and physical
activity. Other teachers will try to instil in students their belief that developing social skills and working as a
team are more important goals than winning.
Coaches
Another type of person who inuences sports participation in the interpersonal level is the sports coach.
Coaches assist athletes to develop to their full potential. They are responsible for training athletes by
analysing their performance and providing skill instruction and encouragement.
Coaches are responsible for guiding an athlete in their chosen sport, and often in other aspects of life.
As a result, the role of a coach can be variedinstructor, assessor, friend, mentor, facilitator, chauffeur,
demonstrator, advisor, supporter, fact nder, motivator, counsellor, organiser, planner and a fount of all
knowledge.

APPLY AND EVALUATE
1 a Which teacher has had the greatest influence on your physical activity?
b What values (competition, social, teamwork, etc.) did they promote?
2 How important is it that teachers be positive role models?
3 List examples of how teachers at your school have helped motivate students to participate
in sport.
4 Which teaching qualities can turn students off sport and physical activity?
5 Professional coaches should be employed to coach school teams for interschool sport. Do
you agree or disagree? Support your stance.
6 Teachers versus peerswhich group has had the greatest effect on your involvement in
school sport? Justify your response.
Role models
Role models are people who have
the capacity to inspire individuals
to greater achievement.
Successful sports stars with high
proles are often thrust into the
limelight and presented as role
models for children to emulate.
Children aspire to achieve the
same levels of success as their 12009 l 1/4
sporting heroes. A 2009 study
found that a signicant number
of boys gave their desire to
emulate their sporting heroes as
the dominant reason for playing
sport.
Not all successful sports
stars are excellent role models.
Some elite athletes, although
successful, can become know for
inappropriate temper tantrums
or outbursts on the eld. Others
are exposed by the media for
acting immorally in their private
lives.
A role models inuence
will vary depending on a young
athletes drive and level of
association with a sport. The
relationship between the role Figure 12.7 In the film Bend it like Beckham, Jess dreams of being a
model and the individual will great soccer player, like her hero David Beckham.

12010 l 1/3
Figure 12.8 Alicia Molik is recognised as a wonderful role model.
also determine the inuence. Although elite athletes become role models for many aspiring athletes, young
athletes are more likely to nd a role model closer to home. Having a personal relationship with a role model
they know and trust is often more powerful than the inuence of a distant star. Teachers, coaches, parents,
siblings and teammates are more often sources of inspiration for aspiring athletes than high-prole stars.
Even children recognise that the levels of achievement of elite athletes are not always realistically achievable
for everyone.
Who has been the greatest inspiration for your sporting achievements?
In a sporting world dominated by men, it is extremely important for young women to have role models
to promote their continued participation in sport. As well as having family members, teachers and coaches to
encourage and inspire female athletes, it is also important to be able to see successful elite female athletes
positively portrayed in the media. Such positive images inspire young women to continue their participation
in sport.
Many successful young female athletes cite role models such as netballer Liz Ellis, swimmers Jessica
Schipper and Stephanie Rice, and tennis star Alicia Molik as the inspiration behind their success. It is
unfortunate, therefore, that the coverage and promotion of female sports stars still lags behind that of male
sports stars, leading to a paucity of female role models.

12011 l 1/4
APPLY AND EVALUATE

What strategies do you believe the government could put into place to alleviate the shortage of
female role models in sport?
Click to read articles about Alicia Moliks efforts to promote tennis to young Australians.
Individual level
The value of physical activity to improve general health has been thoroughly researched and established, yet
some individuals still choose to forgo physical activity. Analysing why individuals make choices to participate
in or to avoid physical activity needs to consider the many factors that shape each of us as individuals.
The reasons individuals exercise and their understanding of what physical activity is will vary from person
to person. To many people, the word exercise is associated with images of unpleasant, vigorous activity
that just makes them dirty, sweaty and uncomfortable. Others see exercise as a something they must do
to improve tness or as a normal part of their daily life. For others, exercise is something that they do for
enjoyment.
Early experiences
Peoples attitudes to physical
activity are usually formed
Organised sport
during their early years of
Informal sport (b)
childhood. Childhood is when
Watched TV, videos or DVDs
most people try their rst
Played electronic or computer games
sports at school or through local
community groups. Primary 50
school students participate in
regular physical activity during
school hours. Schools offer a 40
variety of activities to try to
accommodate students different
30
needs and encourage students
%
to be active. The activities range
from competitive sports to 20
social physical activities such as
walking, handball and dance. The
10
early development of positive
attitudes towards physical
activity is essential to reverse 0
the increasing trend of sedentary 2 hours 3-4 5-9 10-19 20 hours
or less or more
behaviour among children.
Hours per fortnight
Unfortunately, studies have
Figure 12.9 Childrens leisure time is divided between active and
shown a rising trend in the
sedentary activities.
number of hours children spend Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2006

in front of television sets and computers. The Australian Bureau of Statistics found that about 45 per cent of
children aged between 5 and 14 years are spending twenty hours or more each fortnight watching television.
In the same age group, 10 per cent spent twenty hours or more each fortnight playing computer or electronic
games. Approximately 70 per cent of children spent two hours or less participating in organised or informal
sport (including bike riding, skateboarding and rollerblading).
These sedentary habits are concerning as they can remain with children as they get older. A sedentary
lifestyle during childhood is also directly linked to overweight and obesity.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

Today, approximately 25 per cent of Australian children aged 716 are overweight or obese. In
1985, this figure was closer to 10 per cent.
1 Considering this trend and the relationship between obesity and inactivity, predict what the
Australian Bureau of Statistics might find in 2020 for childrens time spent on:
playing electronic or computer games
playing organised sport
playing informal sport
watching television.
2 Which level from Figueroas framework will contribute the most to your proposed figures?
Justify your response.
Barriers and motivators

Barriers to participation
Why are students able to participate in physical activity regularly, while others cannot? Students today
are generally aware of the benets of physical activity and many enjoy participating, yet many people
nd it difcult to participate in physical activity outside of school hours. The real or perceived barriers to
participation can include:
a lack of time
a lack of money
a lack of access to transport
a lack of facilities
physical restrictions due to disability, injury or illness
commitments to household duties
work commitments
a belief that they lack the necessary skills or tness.
Barriers to participation change as personal circumstances change. As people get older, they may face
greater responsibilities, especially work commitments and the responsibility of caring for children.
Are these barriers always genuine barriers or are they sometimes merely convenient reasons to avoid
exercising? Individuals who place a high priority on physical activity would say that there are no barriers to
participation other than illness or injury. Many Australians say that they have no time to exercise, yet they do
have time to watch two to three hours of television every day. Is the barrier to physical activity really a lack
of time or just a lack of interest and motivation?
Which barriers to participation do you face? How do you work around them?

Sources of motivation
Some inactive people may not even contemplate taking up physical activity; others might be considering it but
lack the motivation to begin. To be motivated to exercise, people need to feel that they will be rewarded for
doing so. The rewards could include:
physical rewardsperceiving that they look better or are healthier after exercise
extrinsic (external) rewardsreceiving praise and encouragement from others, such as receiving a T-shirt
for achieving a goal or for joining a tness centre
intrinsic (internal) rewardsachieving a feeling of accomplishment after reaching a personal goal.
Simply recognising the health benets of regular exercise can provide motivation.
Do you have a friend who would like to be more active? How can you help give the positive motivation he or she
needs to get started?
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 a Which type of rewardphysical, extrinsic or intrinsicis the most important to your
involvement in sport? Do your different sports and physical activities have different
rewards? Justify your response.
b Do you think that the relative importance of each type of reward will change as you get
older? Explain why.
2 Many people like to use motivational quotes to help them achieve their goals. Find ten
motivational quotes. Which quote is the most significant to you? Why?
Clothing
One factor that can inuence attitudes towards physical activity is clothing. Many sports require uniforms that
are tighter, shorter or closer-tting than everyday clothes. Issues surrounding body image, body weight and
self-condence mean that people, especially young women, can feel self-conscious about wearing such outts
and avoid sports and activities that require them.
For many women, the clothing requirements for certain sports can become a barrier to participation.
Uniforms for men and women can differ dramatically; for example, in beach volleyball and indoor volleyball,
basketball, athletics and touch football. As discussed on page 349, one method of sexploitation is to use
body-hugging and revealing sports uniforms. Although many sports require closely tted uniforms, individual
athletes and their sporting associations often feel compelled to dress female athletes in revealing outts that
are not needed for practical reasons simply to get media recognition for their sport. In 2004 Sepp Blatter, the
president of international soccer association FIFA, caused an uproar by suggesting female soccer players should
wear tighter shorts to attract more attention to their sport.
The issue of inequitable clothing regulations will become redundant when women in sportand in society
in generalare judged based on their abilities and not their looks. For such a cultural shift to occur, the media,
which has enormous powers to bring about changes in society, would have to actively support it. Such a
cultural shift would also bring about more equal television and other media coverage of womens sportboth
in reporting time and space, and in the language used.
If sporting organisations can gain appropriate media exposure, sponsorship and support without resorting to
the use of sexploitation, rules governing uniforms could then be based solely on practicality and performance.
The ultimate aim of all sporting bodies should be to increase participation, yet people will only continue to
participate if they are comfortable while doing so.

NEWS
Daggy or daring, girls fear the gear
It is a question dear to the hearts
of every modern athlete.
What to wear? The sexy
tight lycra of some netballers,
the skimpy swimsuit of beach
volleyball or the drab polyester of
the bowls competitions?
Such extreme examples are
apparently turning off women,
especially teenagers, from some 12013 /
sports. 12014 p 1/4
The issue is of such
importance that a key
recommendation of the Senate
inquiry into women in sport and
recreation is that clubs, schools
and sports organisations review
their dress code policies.
The committee investigated
how women are portrayed in the Figure 12.10 Women avoid sports that require daggy or skimpy
media, and the barriers stopping uniforms.
female participation in sport. sport would put safety at risk by always been a choice: do you
Its chairman, Senator Andrew virtue of a uniform the beach make them look sexy, or do you
Bartlett, said relaxing strict volleyball requirement about size dress them appropriately for the
dress could help improve body of bikini straps is seen as a joke sport?
image among young women and is separated from its practical The softballers do look nice
and girls, and help increase function. in shorts, but they are sliding
their participation in sport and Bowls Australia agreed its on the ground and ripping their
recreation. dress code at state and club level legs to pieces. Or do we go back
The Opposition spokeswoman was strict. Its submission said to the old-style pantaloons
on sport, Kate Lundy, said the skirts were sometimes measured or knickerbockers? It is a real
committee had heard that for length below the knee and choice.
tight, revealing outts were there were rules on the length Another recommendation
discouraging participation by of sleeves. It admitted such an by the committee is to provide
body-conscious teenagers. So too approach did not work with $9 million to encourage
was the old-fashioned, inexible younger women. joint schemes by sports and
look of older sports like bowls The chief executive of broadcasters to televise womens
and golf. We believe safety and Softball Australia, Susan Crow, sport.
practicality should come rst, said marketing could inuence Source: Jacquelin Magnay,
Senator Lundy said. No male dress code considerations. It has The Sydney Morning Herald, 8
September 2006

12032
pls supply
APPLY AND EVALUATE
Imagine that a new sporting venue
has opened two minutes walk from
your house. It has facilities for a
sport that you have always been
interested in. In groups, discuss
the following.
1 Which of the following
barriers might prevent your
participation?
part-time employment
study commitments
cost
peer disapproval
Figure 12.11 Part-time work and study commitments are said
a belief that you lack the to act as barriers to sports participation for young people.
necessary skills or fitness.
2 Which motivating factors would encourage you to give the activity a go?
the opportunity to use new facilities
you live close to the venue
your friends are keen to form a team
your parents have an interest in this activity
low fees
free coaching clinics
equipment is provided
the uniforms are excellent
the venue has organised a competition
other.
3 Prioritise the barriers and motivators from most significant to least significant. Is the
ranking the same for males and females?
EXTENSION
1 Dr William Glasser developed his choice theory based on the belief that all individuals
are internally motivated, choose their own behaviour and make their own decisions to
satisfy their needs. Abraham Maslow proposed a hierarchy of needs to explain individual
motivation.
a Do some research to find out more about each theory.
b Discuss how each theory can be applied to an individuals choice about sports
participation.
2 Many people like to use motivational quotes to help them achieve their goals. Find ten
motivational quotes. Which quote is the most significant to you? Why?
Click for more information about Glassers and Maslows theories.

Individual personalities
While many external factors inuence the sports decisions of young athletes, every person has their own
unique set of values and beliefs that will affect the decisions they make throughout their lives. A persons
personality and attitudes will predispose them to one type of sport over another. It will also affect their
behaviour in the sport they choose.
Certain sports require certain characteristics of its participants. Sports such as rugby league and
basketball require a level of aggression that is not innate in all people. Other sports such as golf and
gymnastics require patience and concentration to be successful. Athletes who have personalities suited to
the sport they play often nd more success than those who do not.
What are typical personality characteristics required of players in the sport you are currently studying? Do
you have these characteristics?
Values and ethics

An athletes personality may also contribute to the ethics of their behaviour in the sport they play.
The term ethics refers to the moral behaviour of an individual. Values are the beliefs and attitudes that
determine this behaviour. Ethical dilemmas can arise from behaviour such as:
cheating (failing to abide by the rules, taking drugs in sport, using illegally modied or prohibited
equipment)
opportunistic behaviour
sledging
faking injury.
Cheating
Cheating in sport is any activity that uses tactics such as breaking rules, lying, deception or trickery to create
an unfair advantage for an individual or team.
Cheating can be the result of athletes being placed under pressure to win at any cost. This pressure
can come from various sources, including parents, coaches and teammates, or from an athletes own
expectations.
Failing to abide by the rules
The rules and regulations of sport are designed to create an even playing eld for all competitors. They are
formed by sports governing bodies (institutional level) for the greater good of the sport and to encourage
fair play. Athletes who break rules do so to gain an advantage. For example, in softball, base runners are
required to stay on the base until the ball has left the pitchers hand. When stealing a base, some players will
try to gain an advantage by leaving the base early. This gives them a greater chance of getting to the next
base without getting out.
Taking drugs in sport
One of the most contentious forms of cheating in sport is drug use. The use of drugs to enhance performance
has occurred throughout the history of sport, and the use of illegal performance-enhancing drugs and
methods is a signicant problem in modern sport. Many methods are used to gain an edge over opponents.
While some are safe and within the rules of the sport, it is the illegal performance-enhancing drugs and
methods that are the focus of sporting bodies.
The International Olympic Committee has developed a list of banned substances and practices in
sport, and believes that drug use contravenes the ethics of sport and medical science. The classes of

substances that are prohibited
12015 l 1/8
are stimulants; narcotics;
anabolic steroids; diuretics; and
peptide hormones, mimetics
and analogues. Some drugs are
subject to certain restrictions;
these drugs are alcohol, cannabis,
local anaesthetics, corticosteroids
and beta-blockers. The methods
that are prohibited include blood-
doping and pharmacological,
chemical and physical
manipulation.
Athletes take drugs to make
their muscles bigger, recover
Figure 12.12 Cycling team Astana was banned from the 2008 Tour de
France after team member Alexander Vinokourov tested positive for from hard training sessions more
blood doping. rapidly, increase blood volume
and oxygen-carrying capacity,
reduce pain, and speed up or slow down the central nervous system. Some drugs also heighten emotions
such as aggression. While the athlete gains an unfair advantage, they also suffer the harmful side effects of
the drugs. As many athletes take the drugs at doses that are signicantly higher than those prescribed for
medical reasons, the harmful side effects can be magnied.
An opposing point of view believes that by legalising drug use the potential harm will be lessened as the
drugs can then be taken under medical supervision. Those holding this view claim that such legalisation
would also level the playing eld and provide an even competition.
NEWS
Aussie legend supports drug use
Former middle-distance runner Ron Clarke, one should be allowed to use drugs to give them a
of Australias most revered sporting gures, has fairer chance against competitors raised at
launched an unexpected defence of drug use in sport. altitude.
Clarke told the Australian Associated Press (AAP) There are two competitions in the world, the
on Wednesday that athletes should be permitted to altitude runners and the others, he said.
use performance-enhancing drugs, including steroids Im not advocating drugs, Im saying until there
and EPO, as long as they did not harm their health. is a drug, there wont be any parity in any future
If its not dangerous, no (it should not be competition.
banned), it just levels the playing eld, Clarke was Well never break another world record by our
quoted as saying. sea level athletes from 1500 m or above for another
As soon as something comes along like EPO ... century.
theyll say its a drug and you cant use it (but) its the Clarke broke numerous world records during his
only thing that levels the playing eld. glittering career but never won the Olympic gold
Clarke, a former multiple world record holder medal.
who retired in 1970, said athletes born at sea level Source: BBC Sport, 3 July 2002

Table 12.1Banned drugs and practices
Drug or method Description Possible harm
Anabolic steroids Synthetic derivative of Liver dysfunction

testosterone Cancer
Anabolic (muscle-building) Infertility
effect Shrinking of testes in males
Androgenic (promotes male Menstrual dysfunction in
secondary sex characteristics) females
effect Development of male secondary
Commonly used in strength and sex characteristics in females
power events Increased acne
Increase in heart problems
Analgesics Depress the central nervous Liver problems

system Mask real injuries
Reduce pain Slow the healing process
Reduce inflammation Often used without medical
Can be used in most events advice
Beta-blockers Slow down heart rate Decreased heart rate

Commonly used in shooting Decreased blood pressure
sports (in which competitors fire Drowsiness
between heart beats)
Blood-doping Increased blood volume Blood incompatibilities (if not

(blood is drawn from the athlete, Increased oxygen-carrying own blood)
stored and reinfused at a later capacity Disease transmission
date) Commonly used in endurance Blood infection
events Air embolism
Blood clot
Decreased training after blood is
removed
Diuretics Increased fluid released from Kidney damage

body Dehydration and electrolyte loss
Can be used to mask anabolic
steroids
Commonly used by athletes with
weight restrictions (jockeys,
boxing)
Erythropoietin Increases oxygen-carrying Thickens blood (can lead to

(a naturally occurring hormone capacity heart attack, clots or stroke)
that stimulates production of red Used in endurance events Disease transmission via
blood cells; made synthetically, injections
and then injected) Determining amount to inject is
difficult
Human growth hormone Decreased body fat Similar to anabolic steroids

(occurs naturally, but is available Commonly used to increase size, Acromegaly (enlarged hands,
synthetically) strength and power feet and face)
Increased risk of heart disease
Adverse, irreversible effects on
growth
Click for more information about drug use in sport.

12036
It can be tempting to use drugs to

gain an edge over competitors, especially
when the rewards of sporting success
can be a multimillion-dollar lifestyle. For
some, the risks seem worthwhile, given
the relatively small penalties for illegal
use (sometimes as little as six months
suspension), the effectiveness and more
undetectable nature of modern drugs,
and the relatively low rate of testing in
many countries. At risk, however, is not
only the health and wellbeing of the
athlete but also the true spirit of sport,
the rights of hard-working athletes
and the reputation of sport. Athletes
from many sports succumb to the
temptation and then suffer devastating
consequences.
Many countries have built their
reputation around the sporting success
of teams and individuals. When the aim
is winning at all costs, the reputations
of countries, individuals and sports can
be tarnished. Already, the reputations
of certain sports such as weightlifting,
cycling and athletics have been badly
damaged. Implicated athletes lose the
respect of peers and spectators, and
Figure 12.13 The Tour de France has been tarnished by drug-use scandals. may be vilied by the media. When a
whole sport gains a bad reputation, clean
athletes in the sport can also suffer the stigma. Improved performances and victories may be tainted by
doubts about their legitimacy.
Millions of dollars are invested in sports by governments and sponsors. The suspicion of illegal drug
use in a sport may so tarnish the reputation of the sport and its athletes that funding and sponsorship are
withdrawn. Even the honest competitors may lose income.
Cycling has found itself in this situation where its premier event, the Tour de France, has been tarnished
by riders using a variety of drugs to gain an advantage. Whole teams have folded after sponsorship has been
removed when just one rider on the team tests positive to drugs. Teams have also found it difcult to attract
sponsorship as companies maintain that cycling teams are a marketing nightmare.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

Discuss the effectiveness of the AFL drug policy that allows players three strikes before they
are banned from the AFL competition.
Click for information about the AFL drug policy.

NEWS
Dwain Chamberss race for respect
Controversial British sprinter
Dwain Chambers opens up to 12018 l 1/3
Adrian Proszenko about drugs,
suicide and desire to race Usain
Bolt again.
It is only now, years after they
were inked onto his arm, that
the words make sense to Dwain
Chambers.
Tattooed in Japanese is
courage to win, a motto he is
starting to live by. It never
meant much to me at the time
but [the words] are coming
into effect now, Chambers told
The Sun-Herald. Thats what Figure 12.14 Picking himself back up Dwain Chambers is back on the
drives me. track again after being just one of many sprinters suspended for testing
positive to performance-enhancing drugs.
Initially that was going to be
the title of the book but it was
But in 2003 his life imploded been selsh and walked away,
taken.
when he was exposed as a drug maybe taken my life. Who
The book sprinting star
cheat, a mistake that left him knows?
Chambers refers to is his
penniless and friendless. During In life, they say everything
autobiography, Race Against Me,
that dark period, Chambers happens for a reason. What the
which will have British sporting
considered suicide. reason is for me going down
ofcials in the foetal position
Im sure weve all been down the road of taking drugs, I dont
when it is released on March 2.
that road, he said. At the lowest know. Im sure the answer will
Its the story of a national hero
point in our lives you think come to me at some stage of my
turned villain, a cautionary tale
about calling it a day. On many life.
of what can happen when you
occasions I did. What Chambers does know
give into temptation and fear. It
also takes aim at the ofcials that There was more than one is that he doesnt want anyone
have prevented Chambers a shot occasion but I was never brave else to make the same mistake.
at redemption with the national enough to do it. I thought about To that end, he details his
track team. it, I really did. Its something relationship with Victor Conti,
people [say] lightly but its really the head of the infamous Bay
In his prime, the British runner
serious Area Laboratory Co-operative
was one of the fastest men in
Only his familythe 30-year- (BALCO) implicated in some of
the world. When he trained
old has three sonsprevented sports greatest doping scandals.
alongside world record-holder
him from following through. Everything is laid bare. The
Usain Bolt, Chambers claims the
horric side effects of drugs, the
honours were split in 100-metre If I didnt have something
hospital visits, being pursued
match races. to keep me going, I would have

Dwain Chamberss race for respect (cont )
by the FBI All sorts of crazy Beijing Olympics but his bid to More importantly, he has assured
things happened to me during this overturn his Olympic ban was a sceptical public that the times
period, Chambers said. thwarted in court, a decision that he posts will be clean.
The transformation I had to shattered him. The problem we have in the
go through from a regular guy to a I know [Bolt] is not going to sport is that if you run fast, people
superhumanits a crazy affair. be bold enough to come forward think youre dirty anyway, he
[Drugs] come as a high and and say it, but I beat him very said.
its a quick x, but when you get often in training, Chambers said Thats sad. Theres still that
caught, the punishments will be of his 2006 training partner. [stigma] around the topic of drugs
far worse. Its an easy trap to fall Based on my performances in sport.
into but its not worth it at the of 6.64 [over 60 m] indoor, that At the end of the day, Im
end of the day. These are things equates to about 9.89 [over 100 routinely tested. Theres no reason
you hear upon the grapevine but m], which would have got me the for me to lie any more.
Im prepared to talk and expose silver medal. It doesnt make no Scorned by the British public
the experiences and give an sense; Im the best this countrys and the national selectors,
insight into my life. got and they continue to put Chambers had relatively
Not all of the book is heavy individuals far slower than me into unsuccessful stints with American
reading. One of the chapter titles positions theyre not capable to football and rugby league sides.
is Girls, Girls, Girls. handle. But theres no point crying However, he has returned to the
We talk about all sorts of over spilt milk. Thats gone and sport in which he made his name
females. In track. Out of track. well never know what would have and aims to win a medal in the
Those not in the public eye. I will happened if wed got out there. World Championships.
leave that to your [imagination], I hope to race [Bolt] this year. Im a sprinter, Im not
he said. Boasting a personal best time anything else, he said.
Chambers had hoped to join of 9.97 seconds over 100 metres, Source: Adrian Proszenko, The Sydney
Bolt at the starting blocks of the Chambers says he can run a 9.8. Morning Herald, 25 January 2009
NEWS
Shahid Afridi suspended to two games for ball-biting
Pakistans Shahid Afridi has been banned for two Afridi was caught on camera biting into the ball
Twenty20 internationals for ball-tampering in the during the dying overs of Australias two-wicket
two-wicket loss to Australia in Perth. victory at the WACA Ground on Sunday night.
The International Cricket Council said Afridi was He apologised this morning.
guilty of changing the condition of the ball. I am ashamed. I did it in the heat of the moment
Afridi was captain of Pakistan in the absence of as the match was a close one, but I should not have
Mohammad Yousuf. done that, its a serious offence, Afridi said.
The ban means the hard-hitting all-rounder will I apologise to all and everyone involved in the
be unavailable for the tourists in Fridays Twenty20 match and to the fans around the world. This will
xture against Australia at the MCG. never happen again.

Shahid Afridi suspended to two games for ball-biting (cont )
Pakistan coach Intikhab Alam said Afridi deserved 50 defeat in the one-day series against Australia in
to be charged. Perth.
Its unacceptable, Intikhab said. I am very disappointed, like millions of
It shouldnt have happened but it happened and I Pakistanis, over the manner in which the Pakistan
feel sorry for him. team lost the Test series 30 and one-day series 50,
Being a captain you should be above everything Qasim said.
but unfortunately its happened and its up to the As I am responsible for the selection of the team,
referee what sort of charges hes going to level I quit from my post.
against him. Pakistan won the World Twenty20 last year but
When asked why Afridi may have bit into the have since suffered a number of defeats. The Pakistan
ball, Intikhab replied: It just happened, probably was Cricket Board has said it will appoint a new captain
eating apple you know. to replace current skipper Mohammad Yousuf after
I have no idea. the Australia tour.
Source: The Courier-Mail, 1 February, 2010
The match was also marred when a spectator ran
on to the eld late in Australias innings and tackled Using illegally modified or prohibited equipment
Pakistan eldsman Khalid Latif,
leaving him with a stiff neck.
I thought it was disgraceful,
12020 l 1/4
Australian paceman Clint McKay
said of the incident.
Something you dont want to
see ever.
For someone to go out there
and to touch one of their players
is not on.
Hopefully it all gets put to
bed and he gets a right whack.
Its not something you want
to happen.
Its probably the worst thing
that can happen on a cricket eld
... so hopefully it gets stamped
out and we dont see it again.
Pakistans selection chairman
Iqbal Qasim has resigned, saying
he was disappointed with the
teams performance.
Iqbal Qasim announced his Figure 12.15 Pakistans Shahid Afridi was captured on camera biting
resignation soon after Pakistans into the ball in a one-dayer against Australia in Perth.
Click for more articles about controversial and unethical behaviour.

12021 l 1/3
Figure 12.16 Darren Lockyer is targeted by opponents due to his ability.
It is not uncommon for athletes to try to use illegally modied or prohibited equipment to gain an unfair
advantage over their opponents. In tenpin bowling, for example, balls are often checked to ensure they
comply with the rules set down by the sports governing body, as players have been known to illegally
weight balls to increase their chances of getting a strike.
Another example can be seen in a Twenty20 international cricket match between Australia and
Pakistan. Pakistans captain, Shahid Afridi, was found guilty of trying to give his team an unfair advantage by
modifying the cricket ball. He bit into the ball before handing it to his bowler.
Advances in equipment technology have seen signicant improvements in athletic performance. In some
cases, the latest technology is not allowed in competition to ensure that all players and teams have equal
equipment and no one has an unfair advantage.
This issue has been controversial, particularly in the case of the technological advances in swimsuit
design (see pages 115-116). Because not all swimmers had access to the new designs, some people
questioned the unfair advantage that swimmers who had the suits obtained. Many swimmers and coaches
called for restrictions in technological advances to ensure an even playing eld for all competitors. From
January 2010, the suits were controlled by new rules that restricted body coverage, buoyancy and the
materials used. The rule changes also put a stop to customised suits for individual athletes.
Opportunistic behaviour
Some behaviour falls into an ethical grey area. Such behaviour is believed to give individuals or teams an
unfair advantage; however, it is not listed in the rules as illegal.
Opportunistic behaviour is any behaviour that takes immediate advantage of a situation for gain, often
at the expense of principles or ethics. These situations are usually discretionary, meaning that an individuals
values and morals determine whether they act to gain an advantage. Apart from an individuals values,
inuences from coaches, teammates and parents are also contributing factors in the decision to behave
opportunistically.

Human error plays a part in
all sports ofciating. Referees 12022 p 1/4
often inadvertently make
incorrect decisions that wrongly
favour one team over the other.
Players can sometimes see
things more clearly from their
vantage point and know when a
wrong decision has been made.
If an incorrect call causes an
advantage, the players on the
team that benets are faced
with the dilemma of accepting
the benet, or rectifying the
mistake. For example, if players
on a volleyball team see their
opponents spike clearly land
inside their court and the line
judge incorrectly calls out, the
referee would naturally award
the point to the opponent. The
players who saw the ball land in
would not be breaking the rules
if they were to accept the point
and play on; however, this is not
in the spirit of fair play and could
therefore be deemed unethical
opportunistic behaviour.
Have you ever knowingly made an
unethical decision for the benefit
of your team?
Another type of opportunistic
behaviour commonly seen in Figure 12.17 Adam Gilchrist became known for ethical behaviour
during his career, especially for walking when the ball nicked his bat,
sport is targeting a teams best often to the dismay of his teammates.
player or players with a view to
cause injury and have them removed from the game. For example, a basketball coach may instruct players to
target an opposition player by:
double teaming
rough fouling
subtle contact to put a player at high speed off balance.
A well-known case of this type of opportunistic behaviour involves Broncos captain Darren Lockyer. His
phenomenal skill and tness make him a strong force for his team. Opponents, therefore, know that their
chances of success increase when he is not on the eld. It is quite clear that he is a target during games and
is constantly on the receiving end of hard-hitting tackles involving two or three opposing players. This rough
contact makes him susceptible to injury, and he is regularly sidelined as a result.

APPLY AND EVALUATE
You are playing cricket. Your team has made the semi-final and is facing your arch rivals who
have knocked you out of the competition at this point for three consecutive years. You are the
last batter and your team requires ten runs to win. A ball nicks your bat on the way through to
the keeper; however, due to crowd noise, the umpire cannot be sure and it is given not out.
1 Would you walk or not?
2 Pick three factors from two different levels of Figueroas framework that contribute to
your decision. Discuss.
Sledging
Sledging is a term that encompasses verbal taunts, name calling or insults. Sledging is a tactic often
employed by athletes to upset the mental focus of an opponent in a bid to put them off their game.
Some would argue that whether sledging is an unethical practice in sport very much depends on its
context. For example, sledging in sports such as tennis and golf would be universally deemed unethical and
such an offence would incur a hefty ne. On the other hand, sledging in sports like cricket and Australian
rules football is generally accepted as part of the spirit of the game, unless the taunts cross certain lines.
In a few cases athletes have taken the sledging personally, and the incidents have been reported in the
media, causing public outrage. A famous case was the Andrew Symonds incident in India in 2008, when his
ethnic background was the subject of taunts. Even in the sports where sledging is tolerated, racist insults are
not.
Although the rules and regulations of many sports do not forbid sledging, people often consider the act
to be unsportsmanlike. An individuals values and beliefs will determine the extent to which they engage in or
accept such behaviour.
Would you ever sledge an opponent?
Click for articles about sledging in sport.
Faking injury
Unfortunately, getting injured is a consequence of playing sport. To allow injured players to receive
treatment, time needs to be provided so a trainer or medical staff member can make an initial assessment.
Sometimes, if the injury is serious, the player will need to be removed from the eld.
By faking an injury, a team or individual athlete gains an advantage by:
receiving extra time to recuperate
running the clock down (depending on the timing rules)
causing a penalty
breaking the oppositions momentum.
Some soccer players have gained a reputation for taking dives in their opponents penalty area to gain a
direct penalty in front of the goals.
Have you ever faked an injury? What was your motivation for doing so?
Click to watch footage of the dive that is believed to have caused the Socceroos exit from
the 2006 World Cup.

12023
Individuals physical
build
Your body will be a major factor when
considering which sport or physical
activity you are best suited to. Like it or
not, we cannot change the physical traits
that are determined by the genes we
inherit from our biological parents.
Everybody has genetic
predispositions, which are certain
physical and mental qualities that each
person is born with. Although people
can to a degree change their bodies (for
example, by training to improve tness)
certain characteristics are impossible to
change. For example, each persons adult
height is primarily determined by genes,
except when poor diet or malnutrition
during childhood stunt growth. Peoples
genes can affect many different aspects
of their physical buildfor example, their
height, the length of their limbs and their
eyesight. It can even determine peoples
reactions to pain.
The inherited traits can make
people more suited to one sport over
another. Individuals natural differences
in body shape can predispose them to
Figure 12.18 Athletic abilities, such as those in the Ablett
family, can be passed from parent tochild. different athletic abilities. These link to
different sports and may inuence the
type of sport a person pursues. For example, a person from a very tall family is more likely to be well suited
to basketball; the same person might nd that they are less suited to gymnastics. A short and stocky build
might not suit basketball, but would be helpful for rugby union props. Even so, it should be noted that having
the ideal body type does not guarantee or preclude success.
How would you describe your body shape? Does it help or hinder your performance in the sport you are
currently studying?
Athletic abilities can be passed from parent to child. Some children who demonstrate athletic abilities are
identied early by coaches or teachers, who may encourage them to take up a particular sport. For example,
a child who is tall at an early age may be encouraged to take up a sport such as basketball or volleyball.
Another child with a muscular build may be encouraged to take up a sport such as rugby.
Inherited traits can also discourage some children from taking up sport. For example, children who are
relatively small or who have a genetically determined late growth spurt nd that they are competing against
children much larger than themselves. They can nd the size differences intimidating and either avoid sport
altogether or choose non-contact sports where their size is less important.

APPLY AND EVALUATE
1 List sports or physical activities that would suit the following inheritable physical traits:
a taller than average height
b shorter than average height
c long limbs
d broad shoulders.
2 Which inheritable physical traits are considered optimal in your physical activity? Justify.
3 Which physical activities or sports (or player positions within sports) would be best suited
to your body shape?
4 Genes or environment? Which has the greatest influence on a persons sporting success?
Using body shape to identify talent

The Australian Sports Commission has developed talent identication programs that try to nd untapped
potential throughout the country. Such programs use a series of anthropomorphic (body shape) and physical
tests to help determine which sports people are more suited to. The individual can rene their search by
indicating personal preferences such as individual or team games, and indoor or outdoor sports.
Talent identication programs are, at best, only a guide. However, although talent identication programs
cannot predict with certainty whether an athlete will make it, they do offer a good initial assessment that
can assist individuals to determine whether they want to undertake the long hard road to the top.
Sports scientists, working alongside talent identication programs, study how the changing nature of
sports affects the type of physical build that is most suited to each activity so that they can identify the
best talent for future competitions. For example,
researchers at the Queensland Academy of Sport 12024 l 1/4 author supply
recorded the physical characteristics of volleyball
players and found that players, especially those
in the middle position, are getting taller and
heavier. It is believed that to be successful in future
volleyball competitions, such as the 2016 and 2020
Olympics, Australian volleyball teams will need to
select players who are even taller than those who
competed in the 2000 Olympics.
Click for more information about talent

identification programs.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Which is more important for talent
identification programs: physical
characteristics or skill levels? Justify your
response.
2 Are taller volleyball players always more
Figure 12.19 Students sometimes perform the
valuable than shorter players? Illinois agility test for talent identification programs.

12033
PRACTICAL
The Australian Sports Commission
runs a national talent identification
program to try to identify and
develop future sporting champions.
Use their online testing tools to
identify which sports your physical
characteristics are best suited to:
cycling, rowing, canoeing, triathlon,
athletics or beach volleyball.
Follow the directions online and
complete the survey.
1 Which physical activities did the
test suggest that you are best
suited to?
2 Reflect on your chosen four
physical activities. Do these
reflect your strengths?
3 In your current physical activity,
are you more suited to a specific
position? Explain why, using
examples from the battery of
tests completed.
4 If given the opportunity, which
four sports would you choose?
Click to access the Australian

Sports Commissions
Figure 12.20 People with disabilities are actively involved in a national talent identification
wide range of sports and physical activities. site.
Sport for every body

Sport does not build character; it reveals it. Sport provides opportunities for people to develop self-esteem,
establish social networks, challenge their physical and mental capabilities, and provide direction and balance
in their life. The beauty of sport is that it can and does cater for everyone, regardless of ability or disability.
According to the Australian Human Rights Commission, it is estimated that about 20 per cent of
Australians have some form of physical or mental disability, and about 6 per cent of us have a profound
or severe disability. The nature, effects and causes of disabilities vary considerably. For example, some
individuals are born with cerebral palsy, while others have lost a limb or become a paraplegic after a car
accident. Despite these physical and mental limitations, people with disabilities are actively involved in a
wide range of sports and physical activities.
The best-known sporting competition for people with disabilities is the Paralympic Games. The rst
Paralympic Games was held in Rome, Italy, in 1960 and involved 400 athletes from twenty-three countries.
Originally, only wheelchair athletes were invited to compete. Since then, however, the Paralympic Games
have grown dramatically. The present-day games include six major classications of athletes: persons with

12034
Figure 12.21 Skill, determination and talent are all evident in todays Paralympians.
visual impairments, persons with physical disabilities, amputee athletes, people with cerebral palsy, people
with spinal cord injuries, and les autres (French for others)athletes with disabilities that are not included in
the other categories (such as muscular dystrophy).
The Paralympics are held in summer and winter. Athletes with disabilities have been competing in the
winter games since 1976. Sweden hosted the rst winter games, which included twelve countries competing
in alpine and cross-country skiing events. In 1992, the four-year cycle was modied so that the winter and
summer Paralympic Games coincided with the Olympics.
Many people believe that the sportsmanship of the Paralympics reects the real spirit of the Olympic
Games as athletes demonstrate the true meaning of Pierre de Coubertins Olympic creed:
The most important thing in the Olympic Games is not to win but to take part, just as the most
important thing in life is not the triumph but the struggle. The essential thing is not to have
conquered but to have fought well.
The value of sport in the lives of athletes with disabilities extends far beyond its rehabilitative benets.
Sportsmanship, camaraderie and an active lifestyle are other important benets. The athletic talents of
competitors with disabilities are becoming recognised worldwide. The skill, determination and talent of high-
performance athletics and competition are evident in the performance of todays Paralympians.
At a grassroots level, many sporting associations and schools have recognised that everyone should have
opportunities to participate in sports and physical activity. School sport provides opportunities through the
Able with Disability (AWD) competitions for students with recognised disabilities. However, some sporting
groups still have to undergo further cultural change to be willing to welcome athletes with disabilities.
APPLY AND EVALUATE

1 Read the following article. What can be learned from Chris Scotts experiences?
2 What steps can be taken to ensure disabled athletes are given equal opportunities to
participate in sports and physical activities at school and in community sports?

NEWS
Chris Scott stars in Beijing Paralympics
welcome-home celebrations
Queenslands most successful Beijing Paralympian,
Brisbane cyclist Chris Scott, will star in todays 12028
welcome-home celebration.
Scott, 40, from Parkinson, in the citys south,
won medals in the CP4 mens individual pursuit
(gold), individual time trial (silver) and 1 km time trial
(bronze) at the Beijing Paralympics, reaching speeds
up to 57 km/h.
Scott, who was born with cerebral palsy, also has
three gold medals from Athens, a gold and bronze in
Sydney and gold and silver from Atlanta.
I medalled in the last four Paralympics in
cyclingand thats something I would never have
dreamed possible, Scott said.
The veteran performer, who announced his
retirement in the Chinese capital, described being
the states highest Paralympic achiever as pretty
awesome actually ... and not bad for my swansong.
It is also no mean feat for a competitor who
contested his rst two Paralympics at Seoul in 1988 Figure 12.22 Chris Scott won gold, silver and bronze
medals at the Beijing Paralympics.
and Barcelona in 1992 in track and eld before a
broken ankle prompted a switch to cycling. Despite another coach happily accepting him into
Surprisingly, Scott said instead of nding his the next age group so he could play with his older
disability a hindrance in life he preferred to think of it brother, the initial rejection still stings.
as an advantage. Apparently to be a good soccer player you have
I like to say my disability has been more of an to be ambidextrousbut it seems a bit harsh at
ability because it has enabled me to achieve a lot of eight, Scott said.
things I never would have if I didnt have it, he said. Id love to be able to get in touch with him (that
It has always been a positive to me. coach) now and show him what I have been able to
achieve.
But living with cerebral palsy hasnt always
been smooth sailing, with one incident of obvious So what is Scott, who works as a public servant,
discrimination still standing out clearly in Scotts planning to do with all his free time now that hours
mind. of training are over?
As an eight-year-old he was told by a coach that I got married earlier this year and Im sure my
he could not join the local football team unless he wife (Karen) has plenty of things planned to keep me
could kick the ball with his right foot as well as his occupied, he joked.
lefta rule not enforced with other players. Source: Alex Murdoch, The Courier-Mail, 29 September 2008

12: SUMMARY
Interpersonal relationships play a signicant part NOW THAT YOU HAVE FINISHED ...
in determining the sporting opportunities an
1 What percentage of children cited parents as the
individual will seek and receive.
dominant inuence on physical activity?
The family is the earliest and most signicant
2 Discuss how siblings can be either a positive or
inuence on an individuals attitude towards
negative inuence on sport and physical activity
sport.
participation.
Research has shown that as children get older
3 List three ways in which peers can inuence
the inuence of the family decreases and the
sport and physical activity participation.
inuence of peers becomes more important.
4 Explain why peers can be more inuential than
For many young people, school physical
family during adolescence.
education classes are their only exposure to
sport. 5 Develop a list of all interpersonal factors
affecting participation in physical activity.
Role models are people who have the capacity
Prioritise these from greatest to least inuence
to inspire individuals to greater achievement.
for:
Successful sports stars with high proles are
often presented as role models for children to a children
emulate. b adolescents
An individuals decisions about whether to c adults.
participate in physical activity and which type Use a table to collate your information.
of activity to choose will vary according to the 6 List potential barriers that might limit or prevent
individuals beliefs, attitudes and personality. sports participation among Year 11 and Year 12
The term ethics refers to the moral behaviour of students.
an individual. Values are the beliefs and attitudes 7 Recall the three types of rewards people can use
that determine this behaviour. to maintain motivation.
Everybody has genetic predispositions, which are 8 Summarise the four main types of ethical
certain physical and mental qualities that each dilemmas that can occur in sport.
person is born with. Peoples genes are a major 9 Which level from Figueroas framework has
factor when considering which sport or physical the greatest inuence in determining whether
activity they are most suited to. an individual will choose to use performance-
Talent identication programs try to nd enhancing drugs?
untapped potential by using a series of tests 10 Discuss how an individuals body shape can
to determine which sports people are most inuence their decision to participate in sport or
suited to. physical activity.
All people, regardless of ability or disability, can
benet from participation in sport and physical
activity.
Figueroas framework is hierarchical; therefore,
all previous levels will inuence and shape
interpersonal and personal decisions about sport
and physical activity.
12: Summary ///// 403

c
12029
ASSESSMENT TASKS
Task 1
Personal sporting values
Genre: Report
12030 Task 2
Factors influencing
participation in
Word limit: 8001000 words school sport
Genre: Unseen essay
Preamble Preamble
During the term you participated in a series of drills and The decisions about whether to participate in sport and
games. Statistics were taken on each class members physical activity are inuenced by many sociological
performance, and each person was ranked according to factors. As part of this unit, you have studied the process of
ability. To put pressure on individuals to perform well, the socialisation and the effects of socialising factors from all ve
results were publicly posted, rewards and incentives were levels of Figueroas frameworks. You have conducted a survey
offered to the top performers, and low-ranked individuals that investigated the sociological factors that inuence
were given additional tasks. Under this pressure to achieve student participation in sport at school and in the local
and succeed, how did you react? community.
Learning requirements Learning requirements

To successfully complete this task you will need to: To successfully complete this task you will need to:
participate in drills and games, the results of which are conduct training sessions for your chosen sport
used to develop a points tally to rank each individual use sociological concepts to increase other students
publicly display the class results and ranking. interest in participating in these training sessions
develop a survey to determine which factors inuenced
Task students decisions to take part in your training sessions.
Evaluate your reaction in the face of public pressure to
succeed. Use Figueroas framework to explain your reaction Task
to the pressure created by the public display of statistics and Justify which level of Figueroas framework has the greatest
class ranking. Did concern about ending up at the bottom effect on participation in school sport.
of the ranking affect your behaviour? How? In particular,
consider the effect of pressure on your values and ethics. Additional information
If the essay task is completed as an unseen essay,
Additional information students are allowed to refer to two pages of notes.
You will need to use appropriate headings and
Survey results referred to in the body of your report are to
subheadings in your report.
be placed in an appendix.
You will need to provide a reference list and correctly use
You will need to provide a reference list and correctly use information.
information.

Task 3 12031
A selection process for the

four physical activities
Time limit: 35 minutes
Markup: add 12031
Zo: design change pls

Preamble
conrm /advise on placement
At the beginning of your senior physical education course,
decisions were made as to which four physical activities
would be studied over the next two years. The selection
process for these activities was probably based on teacher
preference, student preferences (from limited options),
cultural preferences based on what the school has excelled
at, or a combination of these and other inuences.
analyse the factors that inuence the selection of physical
activities.
Task
Justify the process you would endorse to select the four
physical activities for your cohort. Apply the relevant factors
from Figueroas framework to support your ideal selection
process.
Prepare PowerPoint slides to accompany your speech.
Sport and physical activity in Australian society ///// 405

Senior Physical Education For Queensland

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SENIOR

W ith contr ibutions from Deb Cl ar ke | Danielle Simpson | K aren L amber t |

K im McKeen | Michelle Maher | Peter Henson | Peter Kov ac s

RUS_QSPE_3pp.indb i 28/09/10 9:39 AM

Edited by Carla Morris

RUS_QSPE_3pp.indb ii 28/09/10 9:39 AM

Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise 122

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Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society 292

iv PE: Senior Physical Education For Queensland

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Assessment and revision

Personalisation and integration

Application, inquiry and skills-based

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vi PE: Senior Physical Education For Queensland

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Psychology of performance page 42

Applying biomechanics to sport page 72

2 \\\\\ Focus area ALearning physical skills

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BEFORE YOU START CHAPTER OVERVIEW

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Chapter 1Motor learning ///// 5

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Open and closed skills

6 \\\\\ Focus area ALearning physical skills

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Chapter 1Motor learning ///// 7

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Classifying motor skills on Fine Gross

APPLY AND EVALUATE

8 \\\\\ Focus area ALearning physical skills

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Chapter 1Motor learning ///// 9

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Strategic and tactical skills

10 \\\\\ Focus area ALearning physical skills

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APPLY AND EVALUATE

Chapter 1Motor learning ///// 11

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The cognitive stage

12 \\\\\ Focus area ALearning physical skills

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The associative stage

Chapter 1Motor learning ///// 13

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In comparison with the cognitive

14 \\\\\ Focus area ALearning physical skills

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Chapter 1Motor learning ///// 15

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APPLY AND EVALUATE

Click to access the online footage.

16 \\\\\ Focus area ALearning physical skills

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Chapter 1Motor learning ///// 17

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Even when the skills needed

18 \\\\\ Focus area ALearning physical skills

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