CHAPTER 4: THE TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT
Processes
4.1 Life on Land Imposes Unique Constraints
Desiccation
o Greatest constraint imposed by
terrestrial environments
Air is less dense than water
o Results in lower drag (frictional
resistance) on movement of
organisms
o Increases constraint imposed by
gravitational forces
o Another constraint in terrestrial
environments
Diffusion
o Process where water readily
evaporates from the surfaces of
cells
o Doesnt happen if air is
saturated with moisture
Water Balance
o Balance of water between
organisms and their surrounding
environment
o Major factor in evolution of life
on land
- Adaptations of plants:
o Aerial parts of most plants
Stems and leaves are
coated with a waxy
cuticle
Prevents water loss
Waxy cuticle prevents
gas exchange
Terrestrial plants
have pores on
surface
(stomata) that
allows gases to
diffuse
- Terrestrial Animals
o Acquire water through
eating/drinking
- Terrestrial Plants
o Passive process of acquiring
water
Kelp Forests
o Grows in dense stands
o Anchored to the bottom
sediments
o Afloat by gas-filled bladders
attached to each blade
Temperature & Moisture
o Short term effect on Metabolic
o Long term influence on
evolution and distribution of
plants and animals
4.2 Plant Cover Influences the Vertical
Distribution of Light
Vertical Gradient of Light
o Affected by absorption and
reflection of solar radiation by
plants
Leaves
o Affect light that comes in
o Shape of leaves and orientation
affect it
o Measure of leaves would be
Leaf Area Index
m2 leaf area / m2 ground
area
the greater the LAI, the
lower the quantity of light
reaching that surface
LAI increases as you
move from the canopy to
the ground of the forest
Beers law
Describes
relationship of Light
and LAI
Photosynthetically Active Radiation
(PAR)
o Wavelengths used by plants as a
source of energy in
photosynthesis
o Varies through plant canopy
o Visible light (400 700 nm)
o Transmittance of PAR is less
than 10%
o Transmittance of Far-Red
Radiation (730 nm) is greater
Ratio of red to far-red
radiation decreases
through canopy
This shift in
spectral quality of
light affects
production of
Phytochrome
Phytochrome
 o Pigment that allows a plant to
perceive shading by other plants
o Influences patterns of growth
and allocation
Angle of Leaf
o Affects amount of light it
absorbs
o Perpendicular Leaf
Absorbs 1 unit of light
energy (per unit leaf
area/time)
o 60 degree leaf
0.5 units
o Angle of leaf may affect in
various forms depending on
location
High-Latitude
environments
Sunlight angles are
low; canopies
displayed at angle
will absorb more
light
Tropical Areas
Angled leaves are
also ideal to reduce
great water loss in
the afternoon
Seasons may also affect the Leaf Area
o Dry Season
Increased light availability
at ground level
o Spring
Leaves are just
expanding, incoming light
in forest floor greater
4.3 Soil is the Foundation upon Which All
Terrestrial Life Depends
Soil
o Medium for plant growth
o Principal factor controlling fate
of water
o Natures recycling system
Breaks down waste
products of plants and
animals
o Formal Definition
Natural product formed
and synthesized by
Weathering of rocks
Action of living
organisms
Natural body of earth
composed of:
Mineral
Organic matter
Supports plant
growth
o Accdg to Hans Jenny the Pioneer
of modern Soil Studies (waw
nerd alert hahah jk)
Soil is the Stratum below
the vegetation and above
hard rock
No formal definition
o Soil is not abiotic since it has life
Regolith
o Layer of unconsolidated debris
over hard unweathered rock
o Where soil is formed
4.4 Formation of Soil Begins With Weathering
Soil Formation
o Begins with weathering of rocks
and minerals
o Weathering
Mechanical destruction of
rock materials into
smaller particles as well
as chemical modification
Mechanical Weathering
o From interaction of several
forces
o Combined action of wind, water
and temperatures
Water freezes and cracks
rocks
Wind wear away the
surface
o Rock surfaces flake and peel
away
o Break down into small particles
Chemical Weathering
o Presence of water, oxygen and
acids from organisms and
organic matter
4.5 Soil Formation Involves Five Interrelated
Factors
5 Factors of Soil Formation
 o Parent Material
o Climate
o Biotic factors
Parent Material
o Material from which soil
develops
o May originate from:
Underlying bedrock
Glacial deposits (till)
Sand/silt carried by wind
(eolian)
Gravity moving down a
slope (colluvium)
Sediments carried by
water (fluvial)
Biotic Factors
o Plants, animals, bacteria and
fungi
o Plant roots
Break up parent material,
reduce erosion etc
Climate
o Temperature is a big deal when
dealing with soil
o Heat can speed up reaction and
breakdown etc etc
o Leaching
Movement of solutes
through soil
Affected by temperature,
precipitation and winds
Topography
o Steep Slopes
More water runs off and
less enters the soil
Subject to soil erosion
Time
o Time heals all except for soil
nagweweather lang hahahaha
4.6 Soils have certain Distinguishing
Physical Characteristics
Color
o Easily defined and useful
characteristic
o Things That Affect Color
Organic Matter
Makes soil
dark/black
Eg. Humus
Oxides of Iron
o Topography
o Time
Color from
yellowish-brown to
red
Manganese Oxides
Purplish to black
color
Quartz, Kaolin, Gypsum &
Carbonates of Calcium &
Magnesium
Whitish and grayish
color
Poorly Drained Soil/ Soils
with Saturation by water
Yellowish brown
and gray
o Munsell Soil Color Chart
Standardized Color Chart
Texture
o Proportion of different-sized soil
particles
o Inherited from parent material
o Particles classified based on size
as:
Gravel (particles larger
than 2.0mm)
Sand (0.05 mm to 2.0
mm)
Silt (0.002 to 0.05mm)
Clay (less than 0.002 mm)
Most water-holding
capacity
Exchange of ions
o Affects pore space in soil
Plays role in movement of
air and water in soil
Finer texture, smaller
pores, greater availability
of water adhesion and
chem.. activity
Depth
o Depends on slope, weathering,
parent materials and vegetation
o Grasslands
Tend to be several meters
deep
Soil from deep fibrous
roots
 o Forests Less organic matter than
Shallow soil A Horizon
o Alluvial Plains and Slopes Denser than A Horizon
Deep o C Horizon
Unconsolidated Layer
4.7 Soil Body has Horizontal Layers or Original material from
Horizons which soil was developed
Below the C Horizon is the
Soil Profile
Bedrock
o Sequence of Horizontal Layers
(horizons)
Easily visible
4 Horizons
o O Horizon
Organic Layer
Subdivided into:

Oi
o Surface layer
of
decomposing
twigs and
leaves
Oe
o Middle layer
of
decomposing
plant tissues
Oa
o Bottom layer of dark
brown to black
homogenous organic
material
o Aka the Humus Layer
Thinnest in summer (cos
of decomposition) and 4.8 Moisture Holding Capacity is An
thickest in fall Essential Feature of Soils
o A Horizon
Topsoil Size of Soil Particles & Spacing
Mineral soil from organic o Determine how much water can
matter (Humus) flow in
Downward movement of Saturated Soil
water resulting in loss of o More water than pore space can
minerals and finer soil hold
o Excess water drains freely from
particles sometimes
gives rise to E Horizon soil

Layer of maximum

leaching/eluviations
Field Capacity
Usually in forests,
o Water fills all pore spaces held
rarely in grasslands
there by internal capillary forces
o B Horizon
o Expressed as % weight or
Subsoil
volume of soil occupied by water
when saturated

Capillary Water
o Water held between soil
particles by capillary forces
Clay
Small pores, holds
more water
Sandy Soil
Large Pores, water
drains quickly
Wilting Point
o Moisture level decreases to a
point where plants can no longer
extract water
Available Water Capacity (AWC)
o Cations
Positive charge
In soil (Mg2+ , Ca2+, NH4 + )
Ion Exchange Capacity
o Total Number of Charged Sites
on Soil Particles within a Volume
of Soil
Ability of ions to bind on
surface of soil depends on
charged sites
Colloids
o Negatively charged particles in
the soil prevalent in temperate
zones (why cation exchange
dominates the area)
Cation Exchange Capacity
o Total number of negatively
charged sites located on edges
of clay particles and humus
o Negative charge enable soil to
prevent leaching of positively
charged cations
o Fewer negatively charged sites
in soil
Nitrate and phosphate
(both anions) are not
retained
o Laterization
o Calcification
o Salinization
Laterization
o Soils in humid environments
o Tropical/subtropical regions
Amount of water retained by soil
o
between Field Capacity and
Wilting Point
Field capacity and wilting
point heavily affected by
soil texture
o Highest in clay loam soils
Topography affects moisture
o Water drains downslope
o Higher slopes dry
4.9 Ion Exchange Capacity is Important
to Soil Fertility
Ion
o Charged particle
o Anion
Negative charge
In Soil (NO3 - , SO4 2- )
Smaller the ion, the greater its positive
charge, the more tightly it is held
Lyotropic Series of Major Cations
according to their strength of bonding
to the cation exchange sites
o Al3+ > H+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ > K+ =
NH4+ > Na+
o Higher conc of soil can
overcome these affinities in this
series
More Hydrogen makes the soil acidic
o More Al3+ also means the soil is
acidic (toxic to plants)
Result is reduced nutrient
uptake
o More than pH 7 = Basic
o Less than pH 5.6 = Acidic
4.10 Basic Soil Formation Processes
Produce Different Soils
Pedogenesis
o Soil formation
5 Processes that give rise to the
different classes of soil
o Podzolization
o Gleization
o Rainy conditions cause rapid
weathering
 o Movement of water causes Creates sub layer
heavy leaching from A Horizon of
Leaching causes loss of white to gray
cations; making it acidic colored sand
o Most nutrients not taken up by Gleization
plants o in high rainfall but poor drainage
Except for Iron and (waterlogged)
Aluminum o constantly wet conditions slows
Iron Oxide breakdown of organic matter by
o Give red decomposers
color allows matter to build up
Calcification in top layer
o Evaporation and water uptake reacts with iron to form
exceed precipitation black to bluish gray
o Result is upward movement of color
alkaline salts, specifically eg. Gelisol
(CaCO3)
o Infiltration of water
Causes downward
movement of salts
Deposition and
buildup of B
Horizon (Subsoil)
o Deposits
may form
hard layer
called
Caliche
Salinization
o Similar to calcification except it
is in drier climates
o Salt deposits occur near soil
surface
Podzolization
o In cool, moist climates
o In coniferous vegetation
o Organic matter creates acidic
condition
Acidity removes cations
(iron and aluminum) in
topsoil