Culture of France

der to promote French culture and the French language.

Eugne Delacroix's Liberty Leading the People (1830) portrays
the July Revolution using the stylistic views of Romanticism. Since
Liberty is part of the motto "Libert, galit, fraternit", as the
French put it, this painting has become the primary symbol of the
French Republic.
The culture of France and of the French people has been
shaped by geography, by profound historical events, and
by foreign and internal forces and groups. France, and in
particular Paris, has played an important role as a cen-
ter of high culture since the 17th century, rst in Europe,
and from the 19th century on, worldwide. From the late
19th century, France has also played an important role
in cinema, fashion, cuisine and technology. The impor-
tance of French culture has waxed and waned over the
centuries, depending on its economic, political and mili-
tary importance. French culture today is marked both by
great regional and socioeconomic dierences and strong
unifying tendencies.
1 Language
Main articles: French language, Languages of France,
and Language policy in France
For instance, they have established a system of subsi-
dies and preferential loans for supporting French cinema.
The Toubon law, from the name of the conservative cul-
ture minister who promoted it, makes it mandatory to use
French in advertisements directed to the general public.
Note that contrary to some misconceptions sometimes
found in the Anglophone media, the French government
neither regulates the language used by private parties in
non-commercial settings, nor makes it compulsory that
France-based WWW sites should be in French.
France counts many regional languages, some of them be-
ing very dierent from standard French, such as Breton (a
Celtic language close to Cornish and Welsh) and Alsatian
(an Alemannic dialect of German). Some regional lan-
guages are Roman, like French, such as Occitan. The
Basque language is completely unrelated to the French
language and to any other language in the world; it is
spoken in an area that straddles the border between the
southwest of France and the north of Spain.
Many of these languages have enthusiastic advocates;
however, the real importance of local languages remains
subject to debate. In April 2001, the Minister of Edu-
cation, Jack Lang, admitted formally that for more than
two centuries, the political powers of the French govern-
ment had repressed regional languages. He announced
that bilingual education would, for the rst time, be rec-
ognized, and bilingual teachers recruited in French pub-
lic schools to support teaching these other languages. In
French schools, pupils are expected to learn at least two
foreign languages, the rst of which is typically German
or English.
A revision of the French constitution creating ocial
recognition of regional languages was implemented by
the Parliament in Congress at Versailles in July 2008.[1]
2 Religions in France

Main article: Religion in France

The Acadmie franaise sets an ocial standard of France is a secular country where freedom of thought and
language purity; however, this standard, which is not
of religion is preserved, by virtue of the 1789 Declaration
mandatory, is occasionally ignored by the governmentof the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The Republic
itself: for instance, the left-wing government of Lionel
is based on the principle of lacit, that is of freedom of
Jospin pushed for the feminization of the names of religion (including of agnosticism and atheism) enforced
some functions (madame la ministre) while the Acadmie
by the Jules Ferry laws and the 1905 law on the separation
pushed for some more traditional madame le ministre.of the State and the Church, enacted at the beginning of
Some action has been taken by the government in or- the Third Republic (18711940). A 2011 European poll

1
2 2 RELIGIONS IN FRANCE

Long the established state religion, the Roman Catholic

Church has historically played a signicant role in French
culture and in French life. Kings were considered head
of the church and state. Most French people are Roman
Catholic Christians;[5] however, many of them are secular
but still place high value on Catholicism.
The Roman Catholic faith is no longer considered the
state religion, as it was before the 1789 Revolution and
throughout the various, non-republican regimes of the
19th century (the Restoration, the July Monarchy and the
Second Empire). The Ocial split of Catholic Church
and State (Sparation de l'Eglise et de l'Etat) took place
in 1905. This major reform emphazised the Laicist and
anti-clericalist mood of French Radical Republicans in
this period.
At the beginning of the 20th century, France was a largely
rural country with conservative Catholic mores, but in
the hundred years since then, the countryside has become
depopulated as people have become urbanized. The ur-
ban populations have become more secular. A Decem-
ber 2006 poll by Harris Interactive, published in The Fi-
nancial Times, found that 32% of the French population
described themselves as agnostic, some 32% as atheist,
and only 27% believed in any type of God or supreme
being.[6]

Notre-Dame de Reims is the Roman Catholic cathedral where the

kings of France were crowned until 1825.
2.2 Protestantism
found that a third (33%) of the French population does
not believe there is any sort of spirit, God or life force.[2] Main article: Protestantism in France
In May 2015, in a poll published by Le Monde, 63% of
the French population describes itself as not adhering any France was touched by the Reformation during the 16th
religion. century; some 30% of the population converted to Protes-
According to Eurobarometer poll in 2012 Christianity is tantism. they became known as French Huguenots. Some
the largest religion in France accounting 60% of French princes joined the reform movement. But the national
citizens.[3] Catholics are the largest Christian group in monarchy felt threatened by people who wanted to leave
France, accounting for 50% of French citizens,[3] while the established state religion. Protestants were discrimi-
Protestants make up 8%, and other Christians make up nated against and suppressed. On August 24, 1572, the
2%. Non believer/Agnostic account for 20%, Atheist St. Bartholomews Day massacre took place in Paris and
13%, and Muslim 6%.[3] the French Wars of Religion are considered to have be-
gun. this French civil war took place between Catholics,
France guarantees freedom of religion as a constitutional led by Henry I, Duke of Guise, and Protestants, led by
right, and the government generally respects this right Henri de Navarre. Henri de Navarre became king after
in practice. A long history of violent conict between converting to Catholicism in 1589.
groups led the state to break its ties to the established
Catholic Church early in the last century, which pre- Louis XIII, Henri IVs son, began to suppress Protes-
viously had been the state religion. The government tants in violent attacks, such as the Siege of La Rochelle.
adopted a strong commitment to maintaining a totally After Louis XIV revoked the Edit de Nantes in 1685,
secular public sector.[4] Protestants who did not leave the country were gener-
ally suppressed. Thousands of Protestant Huguenots em-
igrated from France for their safety and to gain religious
freedom, generally going to Protestant nations such as
2.1 Catholicism the Netherlands, England, South Africa, and the North
American colonies.[7] Their exile continued during the
Main article: Roman Catholicism in France 17th century and until 1787, when religious freedom was
re-established by Louis XVI.
2.5 Buddhism 3

2.3 Judaism in 1929. The imam and members of the mosque helped
protect some French Jews during WWII and tried to help
Main article: History of the Jews in France them leave the country and avoid deportation to the con-
centration camps.
The current Jewish community in France numbers around In the early 21st century, France has the largest Mus-
600,000, according to the World Jewish Congress and lim population (in percentage) of any Western European
500,000 according to the Appel Uni Juif de France. country. This is a result of immigration and permanent
It is concentrated in the metropolitan areas of Paris, family settlement in France, from the 1960s on, of groups
Marseille and Strasbourg. from, principally, former French colonies in North Africa
(Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Libya) and, to a lesser extent,
The history of the Jews in France dates back over 2,000
other areas such as Turkey and West Africa.[8] The gov-
years. In the early Middle Ages, France was a center of
ernment does not collect data on religious beliefs in cen-
Jewish learning, but persecution increased as the Middle
sus records, but estimates and polls place the percentage
Ages wore on. France was the rst country in Europe
of Muslims at between 4% and 7%.[9]
to emancipate its Jewish population during the French
Revolution, but despite legal equality anti-Semitism re-
mained an issue, as illustrated in the Dreyfus aair of
2.5 Buddhism
the late 19th century. However, through the 1870 Dcret
Crmieux, France secured full citizenship for the Jews in
Main article: Buddhism in France
then French-ruled Algeria. Despite the death of a quarter
of all French Jews during the Holocaust, France currently
has the largest Jewish population in Europe. Buddhism is widely reported to be the fth largest re-
ligion in France, after Christianity, atheism, Islam, and
In the early 21st century, French Jews are mostly
Judaism. France has over two hundred Buddhist medita-
Sephardic and of North African origins. More than
tion centers, including about twenty sizable retreat centers
a quarter of the historic Ashkenazi Jewish community
in rural areas. The Buddhist population mainly consists
was destroyed during the Holocaust of World War II af-
of Chinese and Vietnamese immigrants, with a substan-
ter German forces occupied France and established the
tial minority of native French converts and sympathiz-
Vichy Regime. Jewish religious aliations range from
ers. The rising popularity of Buddhism in France has
the ultra-Orthodox Haredi communities to the large seg-
been the subject of considerable discussion in the French
ment of Jews who are secular and identify culturally as
media and academy in recent years.
Jews.

2.6 Cults and new religious movements

2.4 Islam
France created in 2006 the rst French parliamentary
Main article: Islam in France commission on cult activities which led to a report reg-
After Catholicism and atheism, Islam is the third-largest istering a number of cults considered as dangerous. Sup-
porters of such movements have criticized the report on
the grounds of the respect of religious freedom. Propo-
nents of the measure contend that only dangerous cults
have been listed as such, and state secularism ensures re-
ligious freedom in France.

3 Regional customs and traditions

Modern France is the result of centuries of nation build-
ing and the acquisition and incorporation of a num-
ber of historical provinces and overseas colonies into its
geographical and political structure. These regions all
evolved with their own specic cultural and linguistic tra-
The Grande Mosque in Paris. ditions in fashion, religious observance, regional language
and accent, family structure, cuisine, leisure activities,
faith in France in the early 21st century. Arabs from industry, and including the simple way to pour wine, etc.
North Africa settled in France from before World War The evolution of the French state and culture, the
II, as the French colonies were considered as departments Renaissance to today, has however promoted a
of France. The Grande Mosque was constructed in Paris centralization of politics, media and cultural production
4 4 OTHER SPECIFIC COMMUNITIES

in and around Paris (and, to a lesser extent, around the of acculturation of the provinces. Another expression,
other major urban centers), and the industrialization "terroir" is a French term originally used for wine and
of the country in the 20th century has led to a massive coee to denote the special characteristics that geogra-
move of French people from the countryside to urban phy bestowed upon these products. It can be very loosely
areas. At the end of the 19th century, around 50% of the translated as a sense of place which is embodied in cer-
French depended on the land for a living; today French tain qualities, and the sum of the eects that the local
farmers only make up 6-7%, while 73% live in cities.[10] environment (especially the soil) has had on the growth
Nineteenth century French literature abounds in scenes of the product. The use of the term has since been gen-
of provincial youth coming up to Paris to make it in eralized to talk about many cultural products.
the cultural, political or social scene of the capital (this In addition to its metropolitan territory, France also con-
scheme is frequent in the novels of Balzac). Policies
sists of overseas departments made up of its former
enacted by the French Third Republic also encouraged colonies of Guadeloupe, Martinique and French Guiana
this displacement through mandatory military service, a
in the Caribbean, and Mayotte and Runion in the Indian
centralized national educational system, and suppression Ocean. (There also exist a number of "overseas collectiv-
of regional languages. While government policy and
ities" and "overseas territories". For a full discussion, see
public debate in France in recent years has returned administrative divisions of France. Since 1982, follow-
to a valorization of regional dierences and a call for ing the French government's policy of decentralisation,
decentralization of certain aspects of the public sphere overseas departments have elected regional councils with
(sometimes with ethnic, racial or reactionary overtones), powers similar to those of the regions of metropolitan
the history of regional displacement and the nature of France. As a result of a constitutional revision which
the modern urban environment and of mass media and occurred in 2003, these regions are now to be called
culture have made the preservation of a regional sense overseas regions.) These overseas departments have the
of place or culture in todays France extremely dicult. same political status as metropolitan departments and are
The names of the historical French provinces such as integral parts of France, (similar to the way in which
Brittany (Bretagne), Berry, Orlanais, Normandy (Nor- Hawaii is a state and an integral part of the United States),
mandie), Languedoc, Lyonnais, Dauphin, Champagne, yet they also have specic cultural and linguistic tradi-
Poitou, Guyenne and Gascony (Gascogne), Burgundy tions which set them apart. Certain elements of overseas
(Bourgogne), Picardy (Picardie), Provence, Touraine, culture have also been introduced to metropolitan culture
Limousin, Auvergne, Barn, Alsace, Flanders, Lorraine, (as, for example, the musical form the biguine).
Corsica (Corse), Savoy (Savoie)... (please see individ-
Industrialization, immigration and urbanization in the
ual articles for specics about each regional culture) nineteenth and twentieth centuries have also created new
are still used to designate natural, historical and cultural
socioeconomic regional communities in France, both ur-
regions, and many of them appear in modern rgion or ban (like Paris, Lyon, Villeurbanne, Lille, Marseille, etc.)
dpartement names. These names are also used by the
and the suburban and working class hinterlands (like
French in their self-identication of family origin. Seine-Saint-Denis) of urban agglomerations (called vari-
Regional identication is most pronounced today in ously banlieues ("suburbs", sometimes qualied as chic
cultures linked to regional languages and non-French- or pauvres or les cits "housing projects") which have
speaking traditions - French language itself being only a developed their own sense of place and local culture
dialect of Langue d'ol, the mother language of many of (much like the various boroughs of New York City or
the languages to-be-mentioned, which became a national suburbs of Los Angeles), as well as cultural identity.
vehicular language, like (in alphabetical order): Alsatian,
Arpitan, Basque, Brezhoneg (Breton), Burgundian, Corsu
(Corsican), Catal (Catalan), Francique, Gallo, Lorrain,
Norman, Occitan, Picard, Poitevin, Saintongeais,etc., 4 Other specic communities
and some of these regions have promoted movements
calling for some degree of regional autonomy, and, occa- Paris has traditionally been associated with alter-
sionally, national independence (see, for example, Breton native, artistic or intellectual subcultures, many of
nationalism, Corsica and Occitania). which involved foreigners. Such subcultures in-
There are huge dierences in life style, socioeconomic clude the "Bohemians" of the mid-nineteenth cen-
status and world view between Paris and the provinces. tury, the Impressionists, artistic circles of the Belle
The French often use the expression la France profonde" poque (around such artists as Picasso and Alfred
(Deep France, similar to "heartland") to designate the Jarry), the Dadaists, Surrealists, the "Lost Generation"
profoundly French aspects of provincial towns, village (Hemingway, Gertrude Stein) and the post-war intellec-
life and rural agricultural culture, which escape the hege- tuals associated with Montparnasse (Jean-Paul Sartre,
mony of Paris. The expression can however have a pe- Simone de Beauvoir).
jorative meaning, similar to the expression le dsert France has an estimated 280,000-340,000 Roma, gener-
franais (the French desert) used to describe a lack ally known as Gitans, Tsiganes, Romanichels (slightly pe-

jorative), Bohmiens, or Gens du voyage (travellers).
There are gay and lesbian communities in the cities,
particularly in the Paris metropolitan area (such as in
Le Marais district of the capital). Although homosex-
uality is perhaps not as well tolerated in France as in
Spain, Scandinavia, and the Benelux nations, surveys of
the French public reveal a considerable shift in attitudes
comparable to other Western European nations. As of
2001, 55% of the French consider homosexuality an ac-
ceptable lifestyle.[11] The past mayor of Paris, Bertrand
Delano, is gay. In 2006, an Ipsos survey shows that
62% support same-sex marriage, while 37% were op-
posed. 55% believed gay and lesbian couples should not
have parenting rights, while 44% believe same-sex cou-
ples should be able to adopt.[12] See also LGBT rights in
France.
5 Families and romantic relation-
ships
5.1 Household structure
Growing out of the values of the Catholic Church and
rural communities, the basic unit of French society was
traditionally held to be the family.[13] Over the twenti-
eth century, the traditional family structure in France
has evolved from various regional models (including
extended families and nuclear families[14] ) to, after World
War II, nuclear families. Since the 1960s, marriages have
decreased and divorces have increased in France, and di-
vorce law and legal family status have evolved to reect
these social changes.[15]
According to INSEE gures, household and family com-
position in metropolitan France continues to evolve. Most
signicantly, from 1982 to 1999, single parent families
have increased from 3.6% to 7.4%; there have also been
increases in the number of unmarried couples, childless
couples, and single men (from 8.5% to 12.5) and women
(from 16.0% to 18.5%). Their analysis indicates that
one in three dwellings are occupied by a person living
alone; one in four dwellings are occupied by a childless
couple.. [16]
Voted by the French Parliament in November 1999 fol-
lowing some controversy, the pacte civil de solidarit
(civil pact of solidarity) commonly known as a PACS,
is a form of civil union between two adults (same-sex
or opposite-sex) for organizing their joint life. It brings
rights and responsibilities, but less so than marriage.
From a legal standpoint, a PACS is a contract drawn
up between the two individuals, which is stamped and
registered by the clerk of the court. Individuals who have
registered a PACS are still considered single with re-
gard to family status for some purposes, while they are
increasingly considered in the same way as married cou-
ples are for other purposes. While it was pushed by the
5
government of Prime Minister Lionel Jospin in 1998, it
was also opposed, mostly by people on the right-wing who
support traditionalist family values and who argued that
PACS and the recognition of homosexual unions would
be disastrous for French society.
As of 2013, same-sex marriage is legally recognized in
France. Same-sex marriage was an important factor in
the presidential election of 2012 between Franois Hol-
lande and Nicolas Sarkozy. Sarkozy, who represents
the right-wing UMP party, opposed gay marriage, while
Franois Hollande, of the left wing socialist party, sup-
ported it. Hollande was elected in May 2012 and his gov-
ernment proposed the law known as Mariage pour tous
(marriage for all) to the parliament in November 2012.
The law was passed in April 2013 and validated by the
Conseil constitutionnel (the constitutional council, tasked
with insuring that the new laws passed do not contradict
the French constitution) in May 2013. The rst French
same-sex marriage took place on May 29, 2013 in Mont-
pellier.
6 Role of the State
The French state has traditionally played an important
role in promoting and supporting culture through the edu-
cational, linguistic, cultural and economic policies of the
government and through its promotion of national iden-
tity. Because of the closeness of this relationship, cultural
changes in France are often linked to, or produce, politi-
cal crisis.[17]
The relationship between the French state and culture is
an old one. Under Louis XIII's minister Richelieu, the
independent Acadmie franaise came under state super-
vision and became an ocial organ of control over the
French language and seventeenth-century literature. Dur-
ing Louis XIV's reign, his minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert
brought French luxury industries, like textile and porce-
lain, under royal control and the architecture, furniture,
fashion and etiquette of the royal court (particularly at the
Chteau de Versailles) became the preeminent model of
noble culture in France (and, to a great degree, through-
out Europe) during the latter half of the seventeenth cen-
tury.
At times, French state policies have sought to unify the
country around certain cultural norms, while at other
times they have promoted regional dierences within a
heterogeneous French identity. The unifying eect was
particularly true of the radical period"" of the French
Third Republic which fought regionalisms (including re-
gional languages), supported anti-clericalism and a strict
separation of church from state (including education) and
actively promoted national identity, thus converting (as
the historian Eugen Weber has put it) a country of peas-
ants into a nation of Frenchmen. The Vichy Regime, on
the other hand, promoted regional folk traditions.
6 6 ROLE OF THE STATE

The cultural policies of the (current) French Fifth Re-
public have been varied, but a consensus seems to exist
around the need for preservation of French regionalisms
(such as food and language) as long as these don't under-
mine national identity. Meanwhile, the French state re-
mains ambivalent over the integration into French cul-
ture of cultural traditions from recent immigrant groups
and from foreign cultures, particularly American culture
(movies, music, fashion, fast food, language, etc.). There
also exists a certain fear over the perceived loss of French
identity and culture in the European system and under
American cultural hegemony.
6.1 Education
schools, including universities, are independent from the
(Roman Catholic) Church. Education in these institu-
tions is free. Non-secular institutions are allowed to or-
ganize education as well. The French educational system
diers strongly from Northern-European and American
systems in that it stresses the importance of partaking in
a society as opposed to being responsibly independent.
Secular educational policy has become critical in recent
issues of French multiculturalism, as in the "aair of the
Islamic headscarf".
6.2 Minister of Culture
Main article: Minister of Culture (France)

Main article: Education in France

The French educational system is highly centralized. It The Minister of Culture is in the Government of France,
the cabinet member in charge of national museums and
monuments; promoting and protecting the arts (visual,
plastic, theatrical, musical, dance, architectural, literary,
televisual and cinematographic) in France and abroad;
and managing the national archives and regional maisons
de culture (culture centres). The Ministry of Culture is
located on the Palais Royal in Paris.
The modern post of Minister of Culture was created by
Charles de Gaulle in 1959 and the rst Minister was the
writer Andr Malraux. Malraux was responsible for re-
alizing the goals of the droit la culture (the right
to culture) -- an idea which had been incorporated in
the French constitution and the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights (1948) -- by democratizing access to cul-
ture, while also achieving the Gaullist aim of elevating the
The National and University Library on the campus of the grandeur (greatness) of post-war France. To this end,
University of Strasbourg. he created numerous regional cultural centres throughout
France and actively sponsored the arts. Malrauxs artistic
is divided into three dierent stages: primary education, tastes included the modern arts and the avant-garde, but
or enseignement primaire, corresponding to grade school on the whole he remained conservative.
in the United States; secondary education, or collge and
The Ministry of Jacques Toubon was notable for a num-
lyce, corresponding to middle and high school in the
ber of laws (the "Toubon Laws") enacted for the preserva-
United States; and higher education (l'universit or les
tion of the French language, both in advertisements (all
Grandes coles).
ads must include a French translation of foreign words)
Primary and secondary education is predominantly public and on the radio (40% of songs on French radio stations
(private schools also exist, in particular a strong nation- must be in French), ostensibly in reaction to the presence
wide network of primary and secondary Catholic educa- of English.
tion), while higher education has both public and private
elements. At the end of secondary education, students
take the baccalaurat exam, which allows them to pursue 6.3 Acadmie franaise
higher education. The baccalaurat pass rate in 2012 was
84.5%. Main article: Acadmie franaise
In 19992000, educational spending amounted to 7% of
the French GDP and 37% of the national budget. The Acadmie franaise, or the French Academy, is the
pre-eminent French learned body on matters pertaining
Frances performance in math and science at the middle to the French language. The Acadmie was ocially es-
school level was ranked 23 in the 1995 Trends in Inter- tablished in 1635 by Cardinal Richelieu, the chief min-
national Math and Science Study.[18] ister to King Louis XIII. Suppressed in 1793 during the
Since the Jules Ferry laws of 1881-2, named after French Revolution, it was restored in 1803 by Napoleon
the then Minister of Public Instruction, all state-funded Bonaparte (the Acadmie considers itself having been
 7

suspended, not suppressed, during the revolution). It is jor countries by Italy, Spain, Oman, Austria and Japan
the oldest of the ve acadmies of the Institut de France. (The World Health Report).
The Acadmie consists of forty members, known as im-
mortels (immortals). New members are elected by the
members of the Acadmie itself. Acadmicians hold of- 7 Lifestyle
ce for life, but they may be removed for misconduct.
The body has the task of acting as an ocial authority 7.1 Food and alcohol
on the language; it is charged with publishing an ocial
dictionary of the language. Its rulings, however, are only Main article: French cuisine
advisory; not binding on either the public or the govern-
ment.
Traditional French culture places a high priority on the
enjoyment of food. French cuisine was codied in the
6.4 Military service 20th century by Georges Auguste Escoer to become
the modern version of haute cuisine. Escoers major
Until 1996, France had compulsory military service of work, however, left out much of the regional character to
young men. This has been credited by historians for fur- be found in the provinces of France. Gastro-tourism and
ther promoting a unied national identity and by breaking the Guide Michelin helped to bring people to the country-
down regional isolationism. side during the 20th century and beyond, to sample this
rich bourgeois and peasant cuisine of France. Basque cui-
sine has also been a great inuence over the cuisine in the
6.5 Labor and employment policy southwest of France.
Ingredients and dishes vary by region (see: Regional cui-
In France, the rst labour laws were Waldeck Rousseau's sine). There are many signicant regional dishes that
laws passed in 1884. Between 1936 and 1938 the Popular have become both national and regional. Many dishes
Front enacted a law mandating 12 days (2 weeks) each that were once regional, however, have proliferated in
year of paid vacation for workers, and a law limiting dierent variations across the country in the present day.
the work week to 40 hours, excluding overtime. The Cheese (see: List of French cheeses) and wine (see:
Grenelle accords negotiated on May 25 and 26th in the French wine) are also a major part of the cuisine, play-
middle of the May 1968 crisis, reduced the working week ing dierent roles both regionally and nationally with
to 44 hours and created trade union sections in each their many variations and Appellation d'origine contrle
enterprise.[19] The minimum wage was also increased by (AOC) (regulated appellation) laws, (lentils from Le Puy-
25%.[20] In 2000 Lionel Jospin's government then en- en-Velay also have an AOC status). Another French
acted the 35-hour workweek, down from 39 hours. Five product of special note is the Charolais cattle.
years later, conservative prime minister Dominique de
Villepin enacted the New Employment Contract (CNE).
Addressing the demands of employers asking for more
exibility in French labour laws, the CNE sparked crit-
icism from trade unions and opponents claiming it was
lending favour to contingent work. In 2006 he then at-
tempted to pass the First Employment Contract (CPE)
through a vote by emergency procedure, but that it was
met by students and unions protests. President Jacques
Chirac nally had no choice but to repeal it.

6.6 Healthcare and social welfare

The French are profoundly committed to the public
healthcare system (called scurit sociale) and to their
A sweet crpe. Crpes are originally from Brittany.
pay-as-you-go social welfare system.
In 1998, 75% of health payments in France were paid
through the public healthcare system. Since 27 July 1999,
France has a universal medical coverage for permanent
residents in France (stable residence for more than three
months). Using ve performance indicators to measure
health systems in 191 member states, it nds that France
provides the best overall health care followed among ma-
The French typically eat only a simple breakfast (petit
djeuner) which consists of coee, tea or hot choco-
late with milk, served traditionally in a large handleless
bol (bowl) and bread or breakfast pastries (croissants).
Lunch (djeuner) and dinner (dner) are the main
meals of the day. Formal four course meals consist of
a starter course (entre), a salad, a main course (plat
8 7 LIFESTYLE

principal), and nally a cheese or dessert course. While Smoking is now banned in all public places (stations,
French cuisine is often associated with rich desserts, in museums, etc.); an exception exists for special smoking
most homes dessert consists of only fruit or yogurt. rooms fullling drastic conditions, see below. A spe-
Food shopping in France was formerly done almost daily cial exemption was made for cafs and restaurants, clubs, [21]
in small local shops and markets, but the arrival of the casinos, bars, etc. which ended, 1 January 2008.[22]
supermarket and the even larger hypermarchs (large- Opinion polls suggest 70% of people support the ban.
surface distributors) in France have disrupted this tradi- Previously, under the former implementation rules of the
tion. With depopulation of the countryside, many towns 1991 vin law, restaurants, cafs etc. just had to pro-
vide smoking and non-smoking sections, which in prac-
have been forced to close shops and markets.
tice were often not well separated.
Rates of obesity and heart disease in France have tradi-
tionally been lower than in other north-western European Under the new regulations, smoking rooms are allowed,
countries. This is sometimes called the French paradox but are subjected to very strict conditions: they may oc-
(see, for example, Mireille Guiliano's 2006 book French cupy at most 20% of the total oor space of the estab-
Women Don't Get Fat). French cuisine and eating habits lishment and their size may not be more than 35 m; they
have however come under great pressure in recent years need to be equipped with separate ventilation which re-
from modern fast food, American products and the new places the full volume of air ten times per hour; the air
global agricultural industry. While French youth cul- pressure of the smoking room must constantly be lower
ture has gravitated toward fast food and American eat- than the pressure in the contiguous rooms; they have
ing habits (with an attendant rise in obesity), the French doors that close automatically; no service can be provided
in general have remained committed to preserving cer- in the smoking rooms; cleaning and maintenance person-
tain elements of their food culture through such activities nel may enter the room only one hour after it was last used
as including programs of taste acquisition in their public for smoking.
schools, by the use of the appellation d'origine contrle Popular French cigarette brands include Gauloises and
laws, and by state and European subsides to the French Marlboro.
agricultural industry. Emblematic of these tensions is the The possession, sale and use of cannabis (predominantly
work of Jos Bov, who founded in 1987, the Confdra-
Moroccan hashish) is illegal in France. Since 1 March
tion Paysanne, an agricultural union that places its high- 1994, the penalties for cannabis use are from two months
est political values on humans and the environment, pro-
to a year and/or a ne, while possession, cultivation
motes organic farming and opposes genetically modied or tracking of the drug can be punished much more
organisms; Bov's most famous protest was the disman- severely, up to ten years. According to a 1992 survey
tling of a McDonalds franchise in Millau (Aveyron), in by SOFRES, 4.7 million French people ages 1244 have
1999. smoked cannabis at least once in their lives.[23]
In France, cutlery is used in the continental manner (with
the fork in the left hand, prongs facing down and the knife
in the right hand). French etiquette prohibits the placing 7.3 Sports and hobbies
of hands below the table and the placing of elbows on it.
The legal drinking age is ocially 18 (see: Legal drinking Main article: Sport in France
age).
France is one of the oldest wine producing regions of Football (French: Le Foot) is the most popular sport
Europe. France now produces the most wine by value in in France. Other popular sports played in France are
the world (although Italy rivals it by volume and Spain has rugby union, cycling, tennis, handball, basketball and
more land under cultivation for wine grapes). Bordeaux sailing. France is notable for holding and winning the
wine, Bourgogne wine and Champagne are important FIFA World Cup in 1998, and holding the annual cycling
agricultural products. race Tour de France, and the tennis Grand Slam tourna-
ment the French Open. Sport is encouraged in school,
and local sports clubs receive nancial support from the
7.2 Tobacco and drugs local governments. While football is denitely the most
popular, rugby union and rugby league takes dominance
The cigarette smoking age is 18 years. According to a in the southwest, especially around the city of Toulouse
widespread clich, smoking has been part of French cul- (see: Rugby union in France and Rugby league in France).
ture actually gures indicate that in terms of consump- The modern Olympics was invented in France, in 1894
tion per capita, France is only the 60th country out of 121. by Pierre de Coubertin.
France, from 1 February 2007, tightened the existing ban Professional sailing in France is centred on singlehanded
on smoking in public places found in the 1991 vin law: and shorthanded ocean racing with the pinnacle of this
Law n91-32 of 10 January, 1991, containing a variety of branch of the sport being the Vende Globe singlehanded
measures against alcoholism and tobacco consumption. around the world race which starts every 4 years from the
7.5 Pets 9

French Atlantic coast. Other signicant events include the work of the Englishman Charles Frederick Worth who
Solitaire du Figaro, Mini Transat 6.50, Tour de France a dominated the industry from 1858 to 1895.[25] In the
Voile and Route du Rhum transatlantic race. France has early twentieth century, the industry expanded through
been a regular competitor in the Americas Cup since the such Parisian fashion houses as the house of Chanel
1970s. (which rst came to prominence in 1925) and Balenciaga
Other important sports include: (founded by a Spaniard in 1937). In the post war year,
fashion returned to prominence through Christian Dior's
famous new look in 1947, and through the houses
24 Hours of Le Mans - The worlds oldest sports car
of Pierre Balmain and Hubert de Givenchy (opened in
race.
1952). In the 1960s, high fashion came under crit-
Skiing - France has an extensive number of ski re- icism from Frances youth culture while designers like
sorts in the French alps such as Tignes. Ski resorts Yves Saint Laurent broke with established high fashion
are also located in the Pyrnes and Vosges moun- norms by launching prt--porter (ready to wear) lines
tain chains. and expanding French fashion into mass manufacturing
and marketing.[26] Further innovations were carried out
Ptanque - The international federation is recog- by Paco Rabanne and Pierre Cardin. With a greater focus
nized by the IOC. on marketing and manufacturing, new trends were estab-
lished in the 70s and 80s by Sonia Rykiel, Thierry Mu-
Fencing - Fencing leads the list of sports for which
gler, Claude Montana, Jean Paul Gaultier and Christian
gold medals were won for France at the Summer
Lacroix. The 1990s saw a conglomeration of many
Olympics (see: France at the Olympics).
French couture houses under luxury giants and multina-
Parkour - Developed in France, Parkour is a training tionals such as LVMH.
discipline with similarities to self-defense or martial Since the 1960s, Frances fashion industry has come un-
arts. der increasing competition from London, New York, Mi-
Babyfoot (table football) - A very popular pastime lan and Tokyo, and the French have increasingly adopted
in bars and homes in France, and the French are foreign (particularly American) fashions (such as jeans,
the predominant winners of worldwide table foot- tennis shoes). Nevertheless, many foreign designers still
ball competitions. seek to make their careers in France.

Kitesurng
Like other cultural areas in France, sport is overseen by a
government ministry, the Minister of Youth Aairs and
Sports (France) which is in charge of national and public
sport associations, youth aairs, public sports centers and
national stadia (like the Stade de France).
7.5 Pets
In 2006, 52% of French households had at least one
pet:[27] In total, 9.7 million cats, 8.8 million dogs, 2.3 mil-
lion rodents, 8 million birds, and 28 million sh were kept
as pets in France during this year.

7.4 Fashion 8 Media and art

Main article: French fashion
8.1 Art and museums
Along with Milan, London and New York, Paris is cen- Main article: French art
ter of an important number of fashion shows. Some of
the worlds biggest fashion houses (ex: Chanel) have their The rst paintings of France are those that are from pre-
headquarters in France. historic times, painted in the caves of Lascaux well over
The association of France with fashion (la mode) dates 10,000 years ago. The arts were already ourishing 1,200
largely to the reign of Louis XIV [24] when the luxury years ago, at the time of Charlemagne, as can be seen in
goods industries in France came increasingly under royal many hand made and hand illustrated books of that time.
control and the French royal court became, arguably, the Gothic art and architecture originated in France in the
arbiter of taste and style in Europe. 12th century around Paris and then spread to all of Eu-
France renewed its dominance of the high fashion (cou- rope. In the 13th century, French craftsmen developed
ture or haute couture) industry in the years 18601960 the stained glass painting technique and sophisticated il-
through the establishing of the great couturier houses, luminated manuscripts for private devotion in the new
the fashion press (Vogue was founded in 1892; Elle was gothic style. The nal phase of gothic architecture,
founded in 1945) and fashion shows. The rst mod- known as Flamboyant, also began in France in the 15th
ern Parisian couturier house is generally considered the century before spreading to the rest of Europe.
10 8 MEDIA AND ART

The 17th century was one of intense artistic achieve- 8.3 Theater
ments : French painting emerged with a distinct iden-
tity, moving from Baroque to Classicism. Famous clas-
Main article: Theater of France
sic painters of the 17th century in France are Nicolas
Poussin and Claude Lorrain. French architecture also
proved inuential with the Palace of Versailles, built for
the powerful king Louis XIV, becoming the model of
many European royal palaces. During the 18th century
the Rococo style emerged as a frivolous continuation of
the Baroque style. The most famous painters of the 8.4 Cinema
era were Antoine Watteau, Franois Boucher and Jean-
Honor Fragonard. At the end of the century, Jacques- Main articles: Cinema of France and French comedy
Louis David and Dominique Ingres were the most inu- lms
ential painters of the Neoclassicism.
Gricault and Delacroix were the most important painters France is the birthplace of cinema and was responsible
of the Romanticism. Afterwards, the painters were for many of its early signicant contributions:[28] Antoine
more realistic, describing nature (Barbizon school). The Lumire realized, on 28 December 1895, the rst projec-
realistic movement was led by Courbet and Honor Dau- tion, with the Cinematograph, in Paris.[29] Philippe Bi-
mier. Impressionism was developed in France by artists nant realized, on 2 February 2000, the rst digital cinema
such as Claude Monet, Edgar Degas, Pierre-Auguste projection in Europe, with the DLP CINEMA technol-
Renoir and Camille Pissarro. At the turn of the century, ogy developed by Texas Instruments, in Paris.[30] Several
France had become more than ever the center of inno- important cinematic movements, including the Nouvelle
vative art. The Spaniard Pablo Picasso came to France, Vague, began in the country.
like many other foreign artists, to deploy his talents there
Additionally, France is an important Francophone lm
for decades to come. Toulouse-Lautrec, Gauguin and
production country. A certain amount of the movies cre-
Czanne were painting then. Cubism is an avant-garde
ated share international distribution in the western hemi-
movement born in Paris at the beginning of the 20th cen-
sphere thanks to Unifrance. Although French cinema in-
tury.
dustry is rather small in terms of budget and revenues,
The Louvre in Paris is one of the most famous and the it enjoys qualitative screenplay, cast and story telling.
largest art museums in the world, created by the new rev- French Cinema is often portrayed as more liberal in terms
olutionary regime in 1793 in the former royal palace. It of subjects (Sex, Society, Politics, Historical). Within the
holds a vast amount of art of French and other artists, domestic market, French movies are ranked through n of
e.g. the Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, and classical entries. Movies are premiered on Wednesdays.
Greek Venus de Milo and ancient works of culture and
Going to the movies is a popular activity within
art from Egypt and the Middle East.
metropolitan areas. Many cinema operators oer a at-
rate pass for approx. 20 per month. Prices per movie
range between 5.50 and 10.
8.2 Music
French major cinema operators are UGC and Path,
mainly located in city suburbs due to the number of
Main article: Music of France screens and seating capacity.
Within France many small cinemas are located in the
France boasts a wide variety of indigenous folk music,
downtown parts of a city, resisting the big cinema oper-
as well as styles played by immigrants from Africa, Latin ators nationwide. Paris has the highest density of cine-
America and Asia. In the eld of classical music, France mas (movie theaters) in the world:[31] biggest number of
has produced a number of notable composers such as movie theaters per inhabitants, and that in most down-
Gabriel Faur, Claude Debussy, and Hector Berlioz while town Paris movie theaters, foreign movies which would
modern pop music has seen the rise of popular French hip be secluded to art houses cinemas in other places, are
hop, French rock, techno/funk, and turntablists/djs. shown alongside mainstream works as Parisians are
The Fte de la Musique was created in France (rst held avid movie-goers. Proximity of restaurants, accessibility,
in 1982), a music festival, which has since become world- ambiance and the showing of alternative foreign movies is
wide . It takes place every June 21, on the rst day of often cited as being the advantage of these small theaters.
summer. The Cinmathque Franaise holds one of the largest
In 2010, the French electronic music duo, Daft Punk was archives of lms, movie documents and lm-related ob-
admitted into the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres, an order jects in the world. Located in Paris, the Cinmathque
of merit of France. Bangalter and de Homem-Christo holds daily screenings of lms unrestricted by country of
were individually awarded the rank of Chevalier (knight). origin.
 11

8.5 Television 5.5%, which is also that of food and other necessities (see
here).
Main article: Television in France In terms of journalism in France, the regional press (see
list of newspapers in France) has become more important
than national dailies (such as Le Monde and Le Figaro)
over the past century: in 1939, national dailies were 2/3 of
8.6 Books, newspapers and magazines the dailies market, while today they are less than 1/4.[39]
The magazine market is currently dominated by TV list-
Main articles: French media and French literature ings magazines[40] followed by news magazines such as
Le Nouvel Observateur, L'Express and Le Point.
France has the reputation of being a literary culture,[32]
and this image is reinforced by such things as the impor-
tance of French literature in the French educational sys-
tem, the attention paid by the French media to French
9 Architecture and housing
book fairs and book prizes (like the Prix Goncourt, Prix
Renaudot or Prix Femina) and by the popular success Main article: French architecture
of the (former) literary television show "Apostrophes"
(hosted by Bernard Pivot).
Although the ocial literacy rate of France is 99%, some
estimates have placed functional illiteracy at between 10 Transportation
10% and 20% of the adult population (and higher in the
prison population).[33] Main article: Transport in France
While reading remains a favorite pastime of French
youth today, surveys show that it has decreased in im- There are signicant dierences in lifestyles with respect
portance compared to music, television, sports and other to transportation between very urbanized regions such as
activities.[33] The crisis of academic publishing has also Paris, and smaller towns and rural areas. In Paris, and
hit France (see, for example, the nancial diculties of to a lesser extent in other major cities, many households
the Presses universitaires de France (PUF), Frances pre- do not own an automobile and simply use ecient public
mier academic publishing house, in the 1990s).[34] transport. The clich about the Parisien is rush hour in the
Literary taste in France remains centered on the novel Mtro subway. However, outside of such areas, ownership
(26.4% of book sales in 1997), although the French read of one or more cars is standard, especially for households
more non-ction essays and books on current aairs than with children.
the British or Americans.[35] Contemporary novels, in- The TGV high-speed rail network, train grande vitesse
cluding French translations of foreign novels, lead the is a fast rail transport which serves several areas of the
list (13% of total books sold), followed by sentimental country and is self-nancing. There are plans to reach
novels (4.1%), detective and spy ction (3.7%), classic most parts of France and many other destinations in Eu-
literature (3.5%), science ction and horror (1.3%) and rope in coming years. Rail services to major destinations
erotic ction (0.2%).[36] About 30% of all ction sold in are punctual and frequent.
France today is translated from English (authors such as
William Boyd, John le Carr, Ian McEwan, Paul Auster
and Douglas Kennedy are well received).[37]
11 Holidays
An important subset of book sales is comic books (typ-
ically Franco-Belgian comics like The Adventures of
Tintin and Astrix) which are published in a large hard- Main article: Public holidays in France
back format; comic books represented 4% of total book
sales in 1997.[38] French artists have made the country a Despite the principles of lacit and the separation of
leader in the graphic novel genre[37] and France hosts the church from state, public and school holidays in France
Angoulme International Comics Festival, Europes pre- generally follow the Roman Catholic religious calendar
eminent comics festival. (including Easter, Christmas, Ascension Day, Pentecost,
Like other areas of French culture, book culture is inu- Assumption of Mary, All Saints Day, etc.). Labor Day
enced, in part, by the state, in particular by the Direc- and the National Holiday are the only business holidays
tion du livre et de la lecture of the Ministry of Culture, determined by government statute; the other holidays are
which oversees the Centre national du livre (National granted by convention collective (agreement between em-
Book Center). The French Ministry of Industry also plays ployers and employees unions) or by agreement of the
a role in price control. Finally, the VAT for books and employer.
other cultural products in France is at the reduced rate of The ve holiday periods of the public school year[41] are:
12
the vacances de la Toussaint (All Saints Day) - two
weeks starting near the end of October.
the vacances de Nol (Christmas) - two weeks, end-
ing after New Years.
the vacances d'hiver (winter) - two weeks in Febru-
ary and March.
the vacances de printemps (spring), formerly va-
cances de Pques (Easter) - two weeks in April and
May.
the vacances d't (summer), or grandes vacances
(literally: big holidays) - two months in July and Au-
gust.
On May 1, Labour Day (La Fte du Travail) the French
give owers of Lily of the Valley (Le Muguet) to one an-
other.
The National holiday (called Bastille Day in English) is on
the 14 of July. Military parades, called Dls du 14 juil-
let, are held, the largest on the Champs-lyses avenue in
Paris in front of the President of the Republic.
On November 2, All Souls Day (La Fte des morts), the
French traditionally bring chrysanthemums to the tombs
of departed family members.
On November 11, Remembrance Day (Le Jour de la
Commmoration or L' Armistice) is an ocial holiday.
Christmas is generally celebrated in France on Christ-
mas Eve by a traditional meal (typical dishes include
oysters, boudin blanc and the bche de Nol), by opening
presents and by attending the midnight mass (even among
Catholics who do not attend church at other times of the
year).
Candlemas (La Chandeleur) is celebrated with crpes.
The popular saying is that if the cook can ip a crpe
singlehandedly with a coin in the other hand, the family
is assured of prosperity throughout the coming year. See also: Deconstruction and Relativism
The Celtic holiday Halloween, which is popular through-
out the English speaking world, has grown in popularity
following its introduction in the mid-1990s by the trade
associations. The growth seems to have stalled during the
following decade.
12 Conventions
France is the home of the International System of
Units (the metric system).[42] Some pre-metric units
are still used, essentially the livre (a unit of weight
equal to half a kilogram) and the quintal (a unit of
weight equal to 100 kilograms).
In mathematics, France uses the inx notation like
most countries. For large numbers the long scale
is used. Thus, the French use the word billion
13 PROBLEM IN DEFINING FRENCH CULTURE
for the number 1,000,000,000,000, which in coun-
tries using short scale is called a trillion. However,
there exists a French word, milliard, for the number
1,000,000,000, which in countries using the short
scale is called a billion. Thus, despite the use of the
long scale, one billion is called un milliard (one mil-
liard) in French, and not mille millions (one thou-
sand million). It should also be noted that names of
numbers above the milliard are rarely used. Thus,
one trillion will most often be called mille milliards
(one thousand milliard) in French, and rarely un
billion.
In the French numeral notation, the comma (,) is the
decimal separator, whereas a space is used between
each group of three digits (fteen million ve hun-
dred thousand and thirty-two should be written as 15
500 032). In nance, the currency symbol is used as
a decimal separator or put after the number. For ex-
ample, 25,048.05 is written either 25 04805 or
25 048,05 (always with an extra space between
the gure and the currency symbol).
In computing, a bit is called a bit yet a byte is called
an octet[43] (from the Latin root octo, meaning 8).
SI prexes are used.
24-hour clock time is used, with h being the sepa-
rator between hours and minutes (for example 2:30
pm is 14h30).
The all-numeric form for dates is in the order day-
month-year, using a slash as the separator (example:
31/12/1992 or 31/12/92).
13 Problem in dening French
culture
Wherever one comes from, culture consists of beliefs
and values learned through the socialization process as
well as material artifacts.[44][45] Culture is the learned
set of beliefs, values, norms and material goods shared by
group members. Culture consists of everything we learn
in groups during the life course-from infancy to an old
age.[46]
The conception of French culture however poses cer-
tain diculties and presupposes a series of assump-
tions about what precisely the expression French
means. Whereas American culture posits the notion of
the "melting-pot" and cultural diversity, the expression
French culture tends to refer implicitly to a specic ge-
ographical entity (as, say, "metropolitan France", gener-
ally excluding its overseas departments) or to a specic
historico-sociological group dened by ethnicity, lan-
guage, religion and geography. The realities of French-

ness however, are extremely complicated. Even before
the late 18th-19th century, metropolitan France was
largely a patchwork of local customs and regional dif-
ferences that the unifying aims of the Ancien Rgime
and the French Revolution had only begun to work
against, and todays France remains a nation of numer-
ous indigenous and foreign languages, of multiple ethnic-
ities and religions, and of regional diversity that includes
French citizens in Corsica, Guadeloupe, Martinique and
elsewhere around the globe also in America.
The creation of some sort of typical or shared French cul-
ture or "cultural identity", despite this vast heterogeneity,
is the result of powerful internal forces such as the
French educational system, mandatory military service,
state linguistic and cultural policies and by profound
historic events such as the Franco-Prussian war and the
two World Wars which have forged a sense of national
identity over the last 200 years. However, despite these
unifying forces, France today still remains marked by so-
cial class and by important regional dierences in culture
(cuisine, dialect/accent, local traditions) that many fear
will be unable to withstand contemporary social forces
(depopulation of the countryside, immigration, central-
ization, market forces and the world economy).
In recent years, to ght the loss of regional diversity,
many in France have promoted forms of multiculturalism
and encouraged cultural enclaves (communautarisme), in-
cluding reforms on the preservation of regional languages
and the decentralization of certain government functions,
but French multiculturalism has had a harder time of
accepting, or of integrating into the collective identity,
the large non-Christian and immigrant communities and
groups that have come to France since the 1960s.
The last 70 years has also seen French cultural identity
threatened by global market forces and by American
"cultural hegemony". Since its dealings with the 1943
GATT free trade negotiations, France has fought for what
it calls the exception culturelle, meaning the right to subsi-
dize or treat favorably domestic cultural production and to
limit or control foreign cultural products (as seen in pub-
lic funding for French cinema or the lower VAT accorded
to books). The notion of an explicit exception franaise
however has angered many of Frances critics.[47]
The French are often perceived as taking a great pride in
national identity and the positive achievements of France
(the expression "chauvinism" is of French origin) and cul-
tural issues are more integrated in the body of the politics
than elsewhere (see The Role of the State, below). The
French Revolution claimed universalism for the demo-
cratic principles of the Republic. Charles de Gaulle ac-
tively promoted a notion of French grandeur (great-
ness). Perceived declines in cultural status are a matter
of national concern and have generated national debates,
both from the left (as seen in the anti-globalism of Jos
Bov) and from the right and far right (as in the discourses
of the National Front).
13
According to Hofstedes Framework for Assessing Cul-
ture, the culture of France is moderately individualistic
and high Power Distance Index.
Now, the interracial blending of some native French and
newcomers stands as a vibrant and boasted feature of
French culture, from popular music to movies and liter-
ature. Therefore, alongside mixing of populations, ex-
ists also a cultural blending (le mtissage culturel) that
is present in France. It may be compared to the tradi-
tional US conception of the melting-pot. The French cul-
ture might have been already blended in from other races
and ethnicities, in cases of some biographical research
on the possibility of African ancestry on a small num-
ber of famous French citizens. Author Alexandre Du-
mas, pre possessed one-fth black Haitian descent, and
Empress Josephine Napoleon who was born and raised
in the French West Indies from a plantation estate fam-
ily. We can mention as well, the most famous French-
Canadian singer Celine Dion whose grandmother was a
North African from Kabylie.[48]
For a long time, the only objection to such outcomes pre-
dictably came from the far-left schools of thought. In
the past few years, other unexpected voices are how-
ever beginning to question what they interpret, as the
new philosopher Alain Finkielkraut coined the term, as
an Ideology of miscegenation" (une idologie du mtis-
sage) that may come from what one other philosopher,
Pascal Bruckner, dened as The Tears of the White Man
(le sanglot de l'homme blanc). These critics have been
dismissed by the mainstream and their propagators have
been labelled as new reactionaries (les nouveaux raction-
naires),[49] even if racist and anti-immigration sentiment
has recently been documented to be increasing in France
at least according to one poll.[50]
14 See also
Architecture of Normandy
Catherinettes
Demographics of France
Remarkable Gardens of France
List of French people
List of World Heritage Sites in France
15 References
Bernstein, Richard. Fragile Glory: A Portrait of
France and the French. Plume, 1991.
Carroll, Raymonde. Carol Volk, translator. Cul-
tural Misunderstandings: The French-American Ex-
perience. University of Chicago Press, 1990.
14
Darnton, Robert. The Great Cat Massacre and Other
Episodes in French Cultural History. Vintage, 1984.
ISBN 0-394-72927-7
Dauncey, Hugh, ed. French Popular Culture: An
Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press
(Arnold Publishers), 2003.
DeJean, Joan. The Essence of Style: How The
French INvented High Fashion, Fine Food, Chic
Cafs, Style, Sophistication, and Glamour. New
York: Free Press, 2005. ISBN 978-0-7432-6413-
6 sion, p. 233, 2012, archived from the original (PDF)
Forbes, Jill and Michael Kelly, eds. French Cultural
Studies: An Introduction. Clarendon Press, 1996.
ISBN 0-19-871501-3
Girod, Andr. " French-American class: Its
a long way to France Redleadbooks <www.
usa-decouverte.com>
Gopnik, Adam. Paris to the Moon. Random House,
2001.
Hall, Edward Twitchell and Mildred Reed Hall. Un-
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Howarth, David and Georgios Varouzakis. Contem-
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(Arnold Publishers), 2003. ISBN 0-340-74187-2
Kelly, Michael. French Culture and Society: The
Essentials. New York: Oxford University Press
(Arnold Publishers), 2001. (A Reference Guide)
Kidd, William and Sin Reynolds, eds. Contem-
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2000. ISBN 0-340-74050-7
Marmer, Nancy, Out of Paris: Decentralizing
French Art, Art in America, September 1986, pp.
124137, 155-157.
Nadeau, Jean-Benot and Julie Barlow. Sixty Million
Frenchmen Cant Be Wrong: Why We Love France
But Not The French. Sourcebooks Trade, 2003.
ISBN 1-4022-0045-5
Robb, Graham. The Discovery of France: A His-
torical Geography, from the Revolution to the First
World War. New York: Norton, 2007. ISBN 978-
0-393-05973-1
(French) Wylie, Laurence and Jean-Franois Brire.
Les Franais. 3rd edition. Prentice Hall, 2001.
Zedlin, Theodore and Philippe Turner, eds. The
French. Kodansha International, 1996.
16 NOTES
16 Notes
[1] Article 75-1: (a new article): Les langues rgionales ap-
partiennent au patrimoine de la France (Regional lan-
guages belong to the patrimony of France). See Loi con-
stitutionnelle du 23 juillet 2008.
[2] https://web.archive.org/web/20110430163128/http:
//ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_
report_en.pdf
[3] Discrimination in the EU in 2012 (PDF), Special Eu-
robarometer, 383, European Union: European Commis-
on 2 December 2012, retrieved 14 August 2013 The
question asked was Do you consider yourself to be...?"
With a card showing: Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant,
Other Christian, Jewish, Muslim, Sikh, Buddhist, Hindu,
Atheist, and Non-believer/Agnostic. Space was given for
Other (SPONTANEOUS) and DK. Jewish, Sikh, Bud-
dhist, Hindu did not reach the 1% threshold.
[4] (Romanian) Frana nu mai e o ar catolic (France is
no longer a Catholic country)], Cotidianul, 2007-01-11;
France 'no longer a Catholic country'", Daily Telegraph,
10 January 2007
[5] World and Its Peoples. Marshall Cavendish. 2010-01-01.
p. 245. ISBN 9780761478874.
[6] Religion Important for Americans, Italians, Angus Reid
Global Monitor, 16 December 2008
[7] Birnsiel Eckart & Bernat Chrystel, La Diaspora des
Huguenots : les rfugis protestants de France et leur dis-
persion dans le monde (XVIe XVIIIe), Paris, Edition
Champion, 2005
[8] Kidd and Reynolds, 104-5.
[9] Kidd and Reynolds, for example, give a gure of 4 million
Muslims, or 6.9%, based on sources dated 1993, 1994,
1999. (102). See Islam in France for more on recent es-
timates.
[10] Kidd and Reynolds, 30-31.
[11] Embassy of France in the US - The PACS - A civil soli-
darity pact
[12] Gay News From 365Gay.com
[13] Kelley, Family, 100.
[14] Emmanuel Todd, Herv Le Bras, Linvention de la France
: atlas anthropologiue et politique, chapter Les grandes
familles
[15] Ibid.
[16] http://www.insee.fr/en/ffc/chifcle_fiche.asp?ref_id=
NATTEF02313&tab_id=31
[17] Kelley, 246-7.
[18] TIMSS 1995 Highlights of Results for the Middle School
Years . France has not participated in later TIMSS studies.
 15

[19] fr:section syndicale d'entreprise December 27, 1968 law
[20] fr:SMIG
[21] Decree n2006-1386 over 15th November, 2006 taken as
application of article L3511-7 of the Public Health Code,
banning smoking in public places.
[48] Acha Sad Ben Mohamed (1876 - 1930) was born in
Kabylie, Gnalogie Magazine, N 233, p. 30/36
[49] Le Point, February 8, 2007
[50] One in three French 'are racist'". BBC News. 2006-03-
22. Retrieved 2006-05-03.

[22] France to ban smoking in public. BBC News. 2006-10-

08. Retrieved 2006-10-09. -

[23] http://www.cedro-uva.org/lib/boekhout.france.html

[24] Kelly, 101. DeJean, chapters 2-4. 17 External links

[25] Kelly, 101.
Frenchculture.org
[26] Dauncey, 195.
France in Brief / France From A to Z - Embassy of
[27] Le march des aliments pour chiens et chats en Belgique. France in the US
Mission Economique de Bruxelles, 2006. Read this doc-
ument (in French) PDF National Institute for Statistics and Economic Stud-
ies (INSEE)
[28] Alan Riding (February 28, 1995). The Birthplace Cele-
brates Films Big 1-0-0. The New York Times. French Culture
[29] December 28, 1895.

[30] Cahiers du cinma, nhors-srie, Paris, April 2000, p. 32

(cf. also Histoire des communications, 2011, p. 10.).

[31] 20 questions about studying in France |url=http://old.

campusfrance.org/en/a-etudier/faq.htm

[32] Theodore Zedlin, quoted in Kidd and Reynolds, 266

[33] Kidd and Reynolds, 261.

[34] Kidd and Reynolds, 266.

[35] Kidd and Reynolds, 258 and 264.

[36] Kidd and Reynolds, 265.

[37] Donald Morrison, The Death of French Culture, Time,

Wednesday Nov. 21, 2007. {http://www.time.com/time/
magazine/article/0,9171,1686532,00.html}

[38] Kidd and Reynolds, 264.

[39] Kidd and Reynolds, 232.

[40] Kidd and Reynolds, 236

[41] French schoolyear calendar {fr}

[42] International System of Units (SI) - Physics Laboratory

[43] English translation of Octet on Reverso

[44] Jary, D. and J. Jary. 1991. The HarperCollins Dictionary

of Sociology, page 101.

[45] Hoult, T. F, ed. 1969. Dictionary of Modern Sociology, p.

93.

[46] Thompson, William; Joseph Hickey (2005). Society in Fo-

cus. Boston, MA: Pearson. ISBN 0-205-41365-X.

[47] see, for example, Jonathan Fenby: On the Brink: the

Trouble with France Warner Books London, 1998, ISBN
0316646652
16 18 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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