Stealth technology
Surcouf French stealth frigate
F-117 stealth attack plane
Taiwan Tuo Chiang stealth warship
Stealth technology also termed LO technology (low
observable technology) is a sub-discipline of military
tactics and passive electronic countermeasures,[1] which
cover a range of techniques used with personnel, aircraft,
ships, submarines, missiles and satellites to make them
less visible (ideally invisible) to radar, infrared,[2] sonar
and other detection methods. It corresponds to military
1
camouage for these parts of the electromagnetic spec-
trum (Multi-spectral camouage).
Development of modern stealth technologies in the
United States began in 1958,[3][4] where earlier at-
tempts in preventing radar tracking of its U-2 spy planes
during the Cold War by the Soviet Union had been
unsuccessful.[5] Designers turned to develop a particu-
lar shape for planes that tended to reduce detection, by
redirecting electromagnetic waves from radars.[6] Radar-
absorbent material was also tested and made to reduce
or block radar signals that reect o from the surface of
planes. Such changes to shape and surface composition
form stealth technology as currently used on the Northrop
Grumman B-2 Spirit Stealth Bomber.[4]
The concept of stealth is to operate or hide without giv-
ing enemy forces any indications as to the presence of
friendly forces. This concept was rst explored through
camouage by blending into the background visual clut-
ter. As the potency of detection and interception tech-
nologies (radar, Infra-red search and track, surface-to-air
missiles, etc.) have increased over time, so too has the
extent to which the design and operation of military per-
sonnel and vehicles have been aected in response. Some
military uniforms are treated with chemicals to reduce
their infrared signature. A modern stealth vehicle is
designed from the outset to have a chosen spectral sig-
nature. The degree of stealth embodied in a particular
design is chosen according to the predicted capabilities
of projected threats.
2 2
1 History
The concept of camouage is known to predate warfare
itself. Hunters have been using vegetation to conceal
themselves perhaps as long as people have been hunting.
In England, irregular units of gamekeepers in the 17th
century were the rst to adopt drab colours (common in
16th century Irish units) as a form of camouage, follow-
ing examples from the continent.
During World War I, the Germans experimented with the
use of Cellon (Cellulose acetate), a transparent covering
material, in an attempt to reduce the visibility of mili-
tary aircraft. Single examples of the Fokker E.III Ein-
decker ghter monoplane, the Albatros C.I two-seat ob-
servation biplane, and the Linke-Hofmann R.I prototype
heavy bomber were covered with Cellon. In fact, sun-
light glinting from the material made the aircraft even
more visible. Celon was also found to be quickly degraded
both by sunlight and in-ight temperature changes so the
attempt to make transparent aircraft was not proceeded
with.[7]
In 1916, the British modied a small SS class airship for
the purpose of night-time reconnaissance over German
lines on the Western Front. Fitted with a silenced en-
gine and a black gas bag, the craft was both invisible and
inaudible from the ground but several night-time ights
over German-held territory produced little useful intelli-
gence and the idea was dropped.[8]
Diused lighting camouage, a shipborne form of
counter-illumination camouage, was trialled by the
Royal Canadian Navy from 1941 to 1943. The concept
was followed up, but for aircraft, by the Americans and
the British: in 1945 a Grumman Avenger with Yehudi
lights, reached 3,000 yards (2,700 m) from a ship be-
fore being sighted. This ability was rendered obsolete by
radar.[9]
The U-boat U-480 may have been the rst stealth sub-
marine. It featured an anechoic tile rubber coating, one
layer of which contained circular air pockets to defeat
ASDIC sonar.[10] Radar absorbent rubber/semiconductor
composite paints and materials (codenames: Sumpf,
Schornsteinfeger) were used by the Kriegsmarine on
submarines in World War II. Tests showed they were ef-
fective in reducing radar signatures at both short (cen-
timetres) and long (1.5 metre) wavelengths.[11]
In 1960, the rst stealth technology development pro-
gram was initiated by USAF, by reducing the radar-cross- 2 Principles
section of a Ryan Q-2C Firebee drone. This was achieved
through specially designed screens over the air intake,
radar-absorbent material on the fuselage and a special Stealth technology (or LO for low observability) is not
radar-absorbing paint.[12]
In 1958, the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency requested that attempt to greatly reduce the distances at which a
funding for a reconnaissance aircraft to replace the ex- person or vehicle can be detected; in particular radar cross
isting U-2 spy planes,[13] and Lockheed secured contrac- section reductions, but also acoustic, thermal, and other
tual rights to produce it.[3] Kelly Johnson and his team aspects.
PRINCIPLES
at Lockheeds Skunk Works were assigned to produce
the A-12 (or OXCART), the rst of the previously top
secret Blackbird series, which operated at high altitude
of 70,000 to 80,000 ft and speed of Mach 3.2 to avoid
radar detection. Radar absorbent material was used on
U-2 spy planes, and various plane shapes designed to
reduce radar detection were developed in earlier proto-
types, named A1 to A11.[4] In 1964, an optimal plane
shape taking into account compactness was developed for
another Blackbird, the Lockheed SR-71. This aircraft
surpassed prior models in both altitude (90,000 ft) and
speed (Mach 3.3).[4] The SR-71 included a number of
stealthy features, notably its canted vertical stabilizers,
the use of composite materials in key locations, and the
overall nish in radar absorbing paint.[14]
During the 1970s the U.S. Department of Defense
launched project Lockheed Have Blue, with the aim of
developing a stealth ghter. There was erce bidding be-
tween Lockheed and Northrop to secure the multibillion-
dollar contract. Lockheed incorporated into its bid a text
written by the Soviet/Russian physicist Pyotr Umtsev
from 1962, titled Method of Edge Waves in the Physical
Theory of Diraction, Soviet Radio, Moscow, 1962. In
1971 this book was translated into English with the same
title by U.S. Air Force, Foreign Technology Division.[15]
The theory played a critical role in the design of Amer-
ican stealth-aircraft F-117 and B-2.[16][17][18] Equations
outlined in the paper quantied how a planes shape would
aect its detectability by radar, its radar cross-section
(RCS).[19] This was applied by Lockheed in computer
simulation to design a novel shape they called the Hope-
less Diamond, a wordplay on the Hope Diamond, secur-
ing contractual rights to produce the F-117 Nighthawk
starting in 1975. In 1977 Lockheed produced two 60%
scale models under the Have Blue contract. The Have
Blue program was a stealth technology demonstrator that
lasted from 1976 to 1979. Also the Northrop Grumman
Tacit Blue played a part in the development of compos-
ite material and curvilinear surfaces, as well as Low Ob-
servables, y-by-wire, and other stealth technology inno-
vations. The success of Have Blue led the Air Force to
create the Senior Trend[20][21] program which developed
the F-117.
a single technology. It is a combination of technologies
3.1 Vehicle shape 3

3 Radar cross-section (RCS) re- tectability. The Avro Vulcan, a British bomber of the
1960s, had a remarkably small appearance on radar de-
ductions spite its large size, and occasionally disappeared from
radar screens entirely. It is now known that it had a for-
Main article: Radar cross-section tuitously stealthy shape apart from the vertical element
of the tail. Despite being designed before a low radar
Almost since the invention of radar, various methods cross-section (RCS) and other stealth factors were ever
have been tried to minimize detection. Rapid develop- a consideration,[23] a Royal Aircraft Establishment tech-
ment of radar during World War II led to equally rapid nical note of 1957 stated that of all the aircraft so far
development of numerous counter radar measures during studied, the Vulcan appeared by far the simplest radar
the period; a notable example of this was the use of cha. echoing object, due to its shape: only one or two compo-
Modern methods include Radar jamming and deception. nents contributing signicantly to the echo at any aspect,
compared with three or more on most other types.[24][25]
The term stealth in reference to reduced radar signa- While writing about radar systems, authors Simon Kings-
ture aircraft became popular during the late eighties when ley and Shaun Quegan singled out the Vulcans shape as
the Lockheed Martin F-117 stealth ghter became widely acting to reduce the RCS.[27] In contrast, the Tupolev
known. The rst large scale (and public) use of the F- 95 Russian long-range bomber (NATO reporting name
117 was during the Gulf War in 1991. However, F-117A 'Bear') was conspicuous on radar. It is now known that
stealth ghters were used for the rst time in combat dur- propellers and jet turbine blades produce a bright radar
ing Operation Just Cause, the United States invasion of image; the Bear has four pairs of large (5.6 meter diam-
Panama in 1989.[22] Increased awareness of stealth vehi- eter) contra-rotating propellers.
cles and the technologies behind them is prompting the
development of means to detect stealth vehicles, such Another important factor is internal construction. Some
as passive radar arrays and low-frequency radars. Many stealth aircraft have skin that is radar transparent or ab-
countries nevertheless continue to develop low-RCS ve- sorbing, behind which are structures termed re-entrant
hicles because they oer advantages in detection range triangles. Radar waves penetrating the skin get trapped in
reduction and amplify the eectiveness of on-board sys- these structures, reecting o the internal faces and los-
tems against active radar homing threats. ing energy. This method was rst used on the Blackbird
series (A-12/YF-12A/Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird).
The most ecient way to reect radar waves back to
3.1 Vehicle shape the emitting radar is with orthogonal metal plates, form-
ing a corner reector consisting of either a dihedral (two
3.1.1 Aircraft plates) or a trihedral (three orthogonal plates). This con-
guration occurs in the tail of a conventional aircraft,
Main article: Aircraft design process where the vertical and horizontal components of the tail
The possibility of designing aircraft in such a manner are set at right angles. Stealth aircraft such as the F-117
use a dierent arrangement, tilting the tail surfaces to re-
duce corner reections formed between them. A more
radical method is to eliminate the tail completely, as in
the B-2 Spirit. The B-2s clean, low-drag ying wing con-
guration not only gives it exceptional range but also re-
duces its radar prole.[28][29] The ying wing design most
closely resembles a so-called innite at plate (as vertical
control surfaces dramatically increase RCS), the perfect
stealth shape, as it would have no angles to reect back
radar waves.[30]
In addition to altering the tail, stealth design must bury
the engines within the wing or fuselage, or in some cases
where stealth is applied to an extant aircraft, install baf-
es in the air intakes, so that the compressor blades are
not visible to radar. A stealthy shape must be devoid of
The F-35 Lightning II oers better stealthy features (such as this
landing gear door) than prior American multi-role ghters, such complex bumps or protrusions of any kind, meaning that
as the F-16 Fighting Falcon weapons, fuel tanks, and other stores must not be car-
ried externally. Any stealthy vehicle becomes un-stealthy
as to reduce their radar cross-section was recognized in when a door or hatch opens.
the late 1930s, when the rst radar tracking systems were Parallel alignment of edges or even surfaces is also of-
employed, and it has been known since at least the 1960s ten used in stealth designs. The technique involves using
that aircraft shape makes a signicant dierence in de-
4 3
a small number of edge orientations in the shape of the
structure. For example, on the F-22A Raptor, the lead-
ing edges of the wing and the tail planes are set at the
same angle. Other smaller structures, such as the air in-
take bypass doors and the air refueling aperture, also use
the same angles. The eect of this is to return a nar-
row radar signal in a very specic direction away from
the radar emitter rather than returning a diuse signal de-
tectable at many angles. The eect is sometimes called
glitter after the very brief signal seen when the reected
beam passes across a detector. It can be dicult for the
radar operator to distinguish between a glitter event and
a digital glitch in the processing system.
Stealth airframes sometimes display distinctive serrations
on some exposed edges, such as the engine ports. The
YF-23 has such serrations on the exhaust ports. This is
another example in the parallel alignment of features, this
time on the external airframe.
Shaping requirements detract greatly from an aircrafts 3.2.2 Radar-absorbing material
aerodynamic properties. The F-117 has poor aerodynam-
ics, is inherently unstable, and cannot be own without a Main article: Radar-absorbent material
y-by-wire control system.
Similarly, coating the cockpit canopy with a thin lm
transparent conductor (vapor-deposited gold or indium
tin oxide) helps to reduce the aircrafts radar prole, be-
cause radar waves would normally enter the cockpit, re-
ect o objects (the inside of a cockpit has a complex
shape, with a pilot helmet alone forming a sizeable re-
turn), and possibly return to the radar, but the conductive
coating creates a controlled shape that deects the incom-
ing radar waves away from the radar. The coating is thin
enough that it has no adverse eect on pilot vision.
K32 HMS Helsingborg, a stealth ship
3.1.2 Ships
Main article: Naval architecture
Ships have also adopted similar methods. Though
the earlier Arleigh Burke-class destroyer incorporated
some signature-reduction features.,[31][32] the Skjold-
class corvette was the rst coastal defence and the French
La Fayette-class frigate the rst ocean-going stealth ship
RADAR CROSS-SECTION (RCS) REDUCTIONS
to enter service. Other examples are the Taiwanese Tuo
Chiang stealth corvette, German Sachsen-class frigates,
the Swedish Visby-class corvette, the USS San Antonio
amphibious transport dock, and most modern warship de-
signs.
3.2 Materials
3.2.1 Non-metallic airframe
Dielectric composites are more transparent to radar,
whereas electrically conductive materials such as metals
and carbon bers reect electromagnetic energy incident
on the materials surface. Composites may also contain
ferrites to optimize the dielectric and magnetic proper-
ties of a material for its application.
Radar-absorbent material (RAM), often as paints, are
used especially on the edges of metal surfaces. While
the material and thickness of RAM coatings can vary,
the way they work is the same: absorb radiated energy
from a ground or air based radar station into the coat-
ing and convert it to heat rather than reect it back.[33]
Current technologies include dielectric composites and
metal bers containing ferrite isotopes. Paint comprises
depositing pyramid like colonies on the reecting super-
cies with the gaps lled with ferrite-based RAM. The
pyramidal structure deects the incident radar energy in
the maze of RAM. A commonly used material is known
as Iron Ball Paint.[34] Iron ball paint contains micro-
scopic iron spheres that resonate in tune with incoming
radio waves and dissipate the majority of their energy
as heat, leaving little to bounce back to detectors. FSS
are planar periodic structures that behave like lters to
electromagnetic energy. The considered frequency selec-
tive surfaces are composed of conducting patch elements
pasted on the ferrite layer. FSS are used for ltration and
microwave absorption.
3.3 Radar stealth countermeasures and
limits
3.3.1 Low-frequency radar
Shaping oers far fewer stealth advantages against low-
frequency radar. If the radar wavelength is roughly
twice the size of the target, a half-wave resonance ef-
fect can still generate a signicant return. However, low-
frequency radar is limited by lack of available frequen-
cies (many are heavily used by other systems), by lack
of accuracy of the diraction-limited systems given their

long wavelengths, and by the radars size, making it dif-
cult to transport. A long-wave radar may detect a target
and roughly locate it, but not provide enough informa-
tion to identify it, target it with weapons, or even to guide
a ghter to it.[35] Noise poses another problem, but that
can be eciently addressed using modern computer tech-
nology; Chinese Nantsin radar and many older Soviet-
made long-range radars have been modied by support-
ing them with modern computers.
3.3.2 Multiple emitters
Much of the stealth comes in directions dierent than a
direct return. Thus, detection can be better achieved if
emitters are separate from receivers. One emitter sep-
arate from one receiver is termed bistatic radar; one or
more emitters separate from more than one receiver is
termed multistatic radar. Proposals exist to use reec- 5 Visibility
tions from emitters such as civilian radio transmitters, in-
cluding cellular telephone radio towers.[36]
3.3.3 Moores law
The simplest technology is visual camouage; the use of
By Moores law the processing power behind radar sys- paint or other materials to color and break up the lines of
tems is rising over time. This will erode the ability of the vehicle or person.
physical stealth to hide vehicles.[37][38] Most stealth aircraft use matte paint and dark colors, and
3.3.4 Ships wakes and spray
Synthetic Aperture sidescan radars can be used to de-
tect the location and heading of ships from their wake
patterns.[39] These may be detectable from orbit. When a
ship moves through a seaway it throws up a cloud of spray
which can be detected by radar.
3.3.5 Schlieren signature
Anything that disturbs the atmosphere may be detected
(Schlieren photography) because of the Schlieren eect
caused by that atmospheric disturbance. This type of
Measurement and signature intelligence detection falls
under the category of Electro-optical MASINT.
4 Acoustics
See also: Acoustic signature, Aircraft noise, and
Helicopter noise reduction
Acoustic stealth plays a primary role in submarine stealth
as well as for ground vehicles. Submarines use extensive
rubber mountings to isolate and avoid mechanical noises
that could reveal locations to underwater passive sonar ar-
rays.
5
Early stealth observation aircraft used slow-turning
propellers to avoid being heard by enemy troops below.
Stealth aircraft that stay subsonic can avoid being tracked
by sonic boom. The presence of supersonic and jet-
powered stealth aircraft such as the SR-71 Blackbird in-
dicates that acoustic signature is not always a major driver
in aircraft design, as the Blackbird relied more on its ex-
tremely high speed and altitude.
One possible technique for reducing helicopter rotor
noise is 'modulated blade spacing'.[40] Standard rotor
blades are evenly spaced, and produce greater noise at
a particular frequency and its harmonics. Using varying
degrees of spacing between the blades spreads the noise
or acoustic signature of the rotor over a greater range of
frequencies.[41]
Further information: Military camouage, Active cam-
ouage, Aircraft camouage, and Ship camouage
operate only at night. Lately, interest in daylight Stealth
(especially by the USAF) has emphasized the use of gray
paint in disruptive schemes, and it is assumed that Yehudi
lights could be used in the future to hide the airframe
(against the background of the sky, including at night, air-
craft of any colour appear dark[42] ) or as a sort of active
camouage. The original B-2 design had wing tanks for a
contrail-inhibiting chemical, alleged by some to be chlo-
rouorosulfonic acid,[43] but this was replaced in the nal
design with a contrail sensor that alerts the pilot when he
should change altitude[44] and mission planning also con-
siders altitudes where the probability of their formation
is minimized.
In space, mirrored surfaces can be employed to reect
views of empty space toward known or suspected ob-
servers; this approach is compatible with several radar
stealth schemes. Careful control of the orientation of the
satellite relative to the observers is essential, and mistakes
can lead to detectability enhancement rather than the de-
sired reduction.
6 Infrared
Main article: infrared signature
See also: Infrared countermeasure
An exhaust plume contributes a signicant infrared sig-
nature. One means to reduce IR signature is to have a
6 10 RESEARCH

non-circular tail pipe (a slit shape) to minimize the ex- receiver, reducing the RCS. Modern stealth aircraft are
haust cross sectional area and maximize the mixing of said to have an RCS comparable with small birds or large
hot exhaust with cool ambient air (see Lockheed F-117 insects,[48] though this varies widely depending on aircraft
Nighthawk). Often, cool air is deliberately injected into and radar.
the exhaust ow to boost this process (see Ryan AQM-91 If the RCS was directly related to the targets cross-
Firey and Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit). According sectional area, the only way to reduce it would be to make
to the StefanBoltzmann law, this results in less energy the physical prole smaller. Rather, by reecting much of
(Thermal radiation in infrared spectrum) being released the radiation away or by absorbing it, the target achieves
and thus reduces the heat signature. Sometimes, the jet
a smaller radar cross section.[49]
exhaust is vented above the wing surface to shield it from
observers below, as in the Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk,
and the unstealthy Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt
II. To achieve infrared stealth, the exhaust gas is cooled 9 Tactics
to the temperatures where the brightest wavelengths it
radiates are absorbed by atmospheric carbon dioxide and Stealthy strike aircraft such as the Lockheed F-117
water vapor, dramatically reducing the infrared visibil- Nighthawk, designed by the famous Skunk Works, are
ity of the exhaust plume.[45] Another way to reduce the usually used against heavily defended enemy sites such
exhaust temperature is to circulate coolant uids such as as Command and control centers or surface-to-air mis-
fuel inside the exhaust pipe, where the fuel tanks serve as sile (SAM) batteries. Enemy radar will cover the airspace
heat sinks cooled by the ow of air along the wings. around these sites with overlapping coverage, making un-
Ground combat includes the use of both active and pas- detected entry by conventional aircraft nearly impossible.
sive infrared sensors and so the USMC ground combat Stealthy aircraft can also be detected, but only at short
uniform requirements document species infrared reec- ranges around the radars; for a stealthy aircraft there are
tive quality standards.[46] substantial gaps in the radar coverage. Thus a stealthy air-
craft ying an appropriate route can remain undetected
by radar. Many ground-based radars exploit Doppler l-
ter to improve sensitivity to objects having a radial veloc-
7 Reducing radio frequency (RF) ity component with respect to the radar. Mission plan-
emissions ners use their knowledge of enemy radar locations and
the RCS pattern of the aircraft to design a ight path that
minimizes radial speed while presenting the lowest-RCS
See also: Radio wave
aspects of the aircraft to the threat radar. To be able to
y these safe routes, it is necessary to understand an
In addition to reducing infrared and acoustic emissions, a enemys radar coverage (see electronic intelligence). Air-
stealth vehicle must avoid radiating any other detectable borne or mobile radar systems such as AWACS can com-
energy, such as from onboard radars, communications plicate tactical strategy for stealth operation.
systems, or RF leakage from electronics enclosures. The
F-117 uses passive infrared and low light level television
sensor systems to aim its weapons and the F-22 Raptor
has an advanced LPI radar which can illuminate enemy
10 Research
aircraft without triggering a radar warning receiver re-
sponse. Negative index metamaterials are articial structures for
which refractive index has a negative value for some fre-
quency range, such as in microwave, infrared, or possibly
optical.[50] These oer another way to reduce detectabil-
8 Measuring ity, and may provide electromagnetic near-invisibility in
designed wavelengths.
The size of a targets image on radar is measured by the
radar cross section or RCS, often represented by the sym- Plasma stealth is a phenomenon proposed to use ionized
bol and expressed in square meters. This does not equal gas (plasma) to reduce RCS of vehicles. Interactions
geometric area. A perfectly conducting sphere of pro- between electromagnetic radiation and ionized gas have
jected cross sectional area 1 m2 (i.e. a diameter of 1.13 been studied extensively for many purposes, including
m) will have an RCS of 1 m2 . Note that for radar wave- concealing vehicles from radar. Various methods might
lengths much less than the diameter of the sphere, RCS form a layer or cloud of plasma around a vehicle to deect
is independent of frequency. Conversely, a square at or absorb radar, from simpler electrostatic to RF more
plate of area 1 m2 will have an RCS of = 4 A2 / 2 complex[51] laser discharges, but these may be dicult in
2
(where A=area, =wavelength), or 13,982 m at 10 GHz practice.
if the radar is perpendicular to the at surface.[47] At o- Several technology research and development eorts ex-
normal incident angles, energy is reected away from the ist to integrate the functions of aircraft ight control

systems such as ailerons, elevators, elevons, aps, and
aperons into wings to perform the aerodynamic purpose
with the advantages of lower RCS for stealth via simpler
geometries and lower complexity (mechanically simpler,
fewer or no moving parts or surfaces, less maintenance),
and lower mass, cost (up to 50% less), drag (up to 15%
less during use) and, inertia (for faster, stronger control
response to change vehicle orientation to reduce detec-
tion). Two promising approaches are exible wings, and
uidics.
In exible wings, much or all of a wing surface can change
shape in ight to deect air ow. Adaptive compli-
ant wings are a military and commercial eort.[52][53][54]
The X-53 Active Aeroelastic Wing was a US Air Force,
Boeing, and NASA eort.
In uidics, uid injection is being researched for use in
aircraft to control direction, in two ways: circulation con-
trol and thrust vectoring. In both, larger more complex
mechanical parts are replaced by smaller, simpler uidic
systems, in which larger forces in uids are diverted by
smaller jets or ows of uid intermittently, to change the
direction of vehicles.
In circulation control, near the trailing edges of wings,
aircraft ight control systems are replaced by slots which
emit uid ows.[55][56][57]
In thrust vectoring, in jet engine nozzles, swiveling parts
are replaced by slots which inject uid ows into jets to
divert thrust.[58] Tests show that air forced into a jet en-
gine exhaust stream can deect thrust up to 15 degrees.
The U.S. FAA has conducted a study about civilizing 3D
military thrust vectoring to help jetliners avoid crashes.
According to this study, 65% of all air crashes can be
prevented by deploying thrust vectoring means.[59][60]
11 List of stealth aircraft
Main article: List of stealth aircraft
F-22 Raptor
F-117 Nighthawk
F-35 Lightning II
B-2 Spirit
T-50 PAK FA
12 List of stealth ships
Main article: Stealth ship
7
13 See also
Horten brothers German engineers whose planes
were the models for the stealth bombers.
Multi-spectral camouage
Petr Umtsev Soviet/Russian physicist who cre-
ated much of the original theory behind radar stealth
Radar
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10 16 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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