Human Geography

Field Research Notes

for
GEOG 3000/ENST 2900 Field Camp:

Oxbow Park, Carleton University

2009

Prepared by
John Milton, Instructor
Carleton University

2009
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Contents

1.0 Introducing field research 2

1.1 What is research? 2
1.2 What is field research 2
1.3 Types of research design 2
1.4 What are the steps in the research process? 3

2.0 Research question OR research hypothesis? 4

2.1 Question or hypothesis? 4
2.2 Can we truly be objective? 4

3.0 Ethical considerations 5

3.1 Decorum in the field 5
3.2 Ethical considerations when dealing with people 5
3.3 In-field awareness 6

4.0 Data and data collection methods 8

4.1 Interviewing 8
4.2 Using non-interactive data collection techniques 8
4.3 Observation 9
4.4 Examination of documents, materials and artefacts 9
4.5 Unobtrusive measures 10
4.6 Sources of information 10

5,0. Research question/hypothesis and variable identification 12

5.1 Sampling procedures 12
5.2 Sample size 13

6.0 Questionnaires 13

7.0 Landscape analysis 15

7.1 Other thoughts to keep in mind 16

8.0 Landscape architecture 20

8.1 Landscape character 20
8.2 Site planning 21
8.3 Site development 22
8.4 Landscape planting 22

9.0 Ecosystem design and revitalisation 23

9.1 Ecosystem components and cycles 23
9.2 Ecological relations, and resilience 23
9.3 Approaching ecosystem research 24

10.0 Landscape design theory 24

10.1 Site volumes 25
10.2 Visible landscape 27
10.3 Circulation 28
10.4 Structures 28

11.0 The planned environment 28

Principle References 30
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1.0 Introducing Field Research

1.1 What is research?

The Oxford English Reference dictionary defines research as systematic exploration and
study in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions.
It is an adventure.
It general involves a synthesis of what is already known and leads to a new question, a
new set of questions or hypotheses (Northey and Knight 2005).
Research questions can emerge from several sources:
o Recognition of an existing problem you might be prompted by recognition of some
existing problem for which there is insufficient information to answer it.
o Desire to improve upon the status quo an organisation may be without identified
major problems but still conduct research for the purpose of improvement (either
product improvement or service improvement).
o Desire to plan for future some research problems might stem from the process of
short- and long-term planning.
o Curiosity you might just be curious about a certain phenomenon and want to
discover more about that phenomenon than is already known. Discovery. (Sproull
2002).

1.2 What is field research?

Its getting out there into the world to conduct research. It involves securing a specific study
area, as defined by the nature of your research question or hypothesis.
Physical data measures of temperature, ice melt, glacial retreat, soil types,
contaminant levels in soils or groundwater, geological data
Biological data vegetative surveys, insect and wildlife surveys (together with physical,
this can also be termed bio-physical data)
Human data human development indices, population studies, medical surveys, social
structures, housing types in urban forms, energy use, wealth distribution
This information is gathered in the field and is often supplemented by laboratory or
library research or other home-based activity.

1.3 Types of research design

There are two basic approaches to research design: extensive and intensive:
Extensive research design emphasises patterns and regularities in data, which are
assumed to represent the outcome of some underlying (causal) regularity or process.
Usually large numbers of observations are taken from many cases so as to ensure a
representative dataset, and this type of design is sometimes referred to as the large-n
type of study (Clifford and Valentine 2007:10).
Intensive research design focuses on a single or small number of case studies and seeks
to maximize the amount of detail. This approach is therefore sometimes known as the
small-n type study. In anthropology, the term thick description has been used. In an
intensive design, by thoroughly appreciating the operation of one physical or social
system, or by immersion into one culture or social group, elements of a more
fundamental, causal nature are sought. Explanation is therefore concerned with
disclosing the links among events, mechanisms and structures. General explanations are
derived from identification of the structures underlying observation, and from the
possible transferring of the linkages discovered from detailed instantiations. (Clifford
and Valentine 2007:11).
Both approaches may be undertaken using quantitative or qualitative techniques.
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Notes Intensive Extensive

Research Question How? What? Why? In a certain case How representative is a feature,
of example pattern or attribute of a population?

Type of explanation Causes are elucidated through in-
depth examination and interpretation
Typical methods Case study. Ethnography. Qualitative
of research analyses.
Limitations The relationships discovered will not
be representative or an
average/generalization.
Representative generalizations are
produced from repeated studies or
large samples
Questionnaires. Large-scale analysis.
Statistical analysis.
Explanation is a generalization it is
difficult to relate to the individual
observation. Generalization is specific
to the group/population in question.

Philosophy Method and explanation rely on Explanation based upon formal

discovering the connection between relations of similarity and
events, mechanisms and causal identification of taxonomic groups.
properties.
Table 1.1 Approaches to research questions. (Source: Clifford and Valentine 2007:11).

1.4 What are the steps in the research process?

1.4.1 Plan and prepare

Theres a lot of work that goes into preparing for field research (or any research).
Formulating and delimiting of the problem. Identify the research area you are interested
in studying. This can include stating a preliminary research question/hypothesis. This is
not expected to be your final question/hypothesis.
Review the related literature/information available on the topic. This serves two
functions: it helps you refine your research question/hypothesis; and it helps place your
work in the context of the literature and subject knowledge.
Develop a theoretical framework. This is based upon both the literature and your
proposed approach to the problem.
Formulate a research question/hypothesis. This could take several incarnations.
Review research ethics. Will you need to secure ethics approval to conduct your
research? Most research involving humans require ethics approval and you will need to
be sensitive to the rights of those individuals you are sampling.
Develop your research design. This includes finalising the variables you propose to study,
defining your variables clearly (setting operational definitions) and determining levels of
measurement.
Specify the object or population to be studied.
Develop your plan for collecting the data. This includes the sampling method, the data
collection method, the instrument to be used in the data collection and determination of
its validity or reliability, or statistical instrument and test of relevancy.
Design and conduct a pilot study, if needed. This allows to you assess your research
design and instruments before heading into the field and make any corrections if needed.
Write a proposal and submit it to your sponsor.

1.4.2 Conduct your in-field research

Now youve made. Youre in the field.
Selecting your sample. This is not always that easy to do.
Collecting your data/conduct experiments as appropriate. This is also not always easy to
do.
Conduct a preliminary analysis of your data. This is important. Assess your data before
returning from the field.
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1.4.3 Conduct your analysis

Prepare your data for analysis.
Analyse your data.
Interpret the results. Test your hypothesis or answer your research question.
Share your findings with others. Write that research report and/or scholarly articles.

2.0 Research question OR research hypothesis?

All research is based on questions. Even if you are given explicit instructions by your
professor, lab book, or course guide, its still important to pose questions about what you are
doing, how and why. (Northey and Knight 2005:15)

Any question/hypothesis must be:

Limited Restrict the scope of your question/hypothesis. Make it narrow enough to be
manageable. Your questions/hypothesis should be restricted/ focused enough to allow
you to research the materials/issue in depth to ensure your findings and conclusions are
supportable.
Unified Make certain your work revolves around one controlling idea. Your hypothesis
or key research question should be the focus of your research.
Exact State your question/hypothesis clearly. Do not use ambiguous words or terms.

2.1 Question or hypothesis?

A hypothesis state predicted relationships between variables. A research question asks if a

relationship exists. The research generally proceeds in the same manner.

Hypothesis: A declarative statement indicating a conjectured relationship between two

or more variables which can be tested (statistically). (Sproull 2002:46)

Research Question: An interrogative statement asking about a conjectured relationship

between two or more variables. (Sproull 2002:47)

The difference lies in their exactness from a scientific perspective. Hypothesis testing refers
to the process of making statistical inferences, with pre-assigned levels of significance, about
population characteristics by using data from samples of that population. A research question
does not require the researcher to assign a level of significance or undertake statistical
testing. Research projects can, and often do, include both hypotheses and research
questions.

2.2 Can we truly be objective?

The scientific method emphasises empiricism. [Define positivism] It is expected that the
researcher remain a detached observer, removed from the investigation. This idea of
detachment came under strong critique beginning during the 1970s.

Other theoretical approaches have been applied to research including:

Humanism
Phenomenology/existentialism
Semiotics
Iconography
Structuralism/institutionalism/regulatory theory
Post-modernism
Deconstructionism
Feminism
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For example, the humanist critique of the 1970s argued that the researcher is not a
dispassionate, neutral observer but that of the insider, involved in the process itself.
The humanistic researcher seeks to understand peoples attitudes, values and
perceptions from within the process.
The humanistic researcher is concerned with the role of the human experience and of
meaning (Northey and Knight 2002:19).
The humanistic geographer also recognises his/her own biases.

In general, these approaches to research range from the strictly quantitative (extreme
objectivity) to strictly qualitative (extreme subjectivity). Again, one may use a variety of
approaches to explore various aspects of a research project.

3.0 Ethical considerations

Appropriate and ethical practices and procedures help to ensure the:

Protection of human and non-human subjects,
Appropriate methodologies are applied,
Inferences, conclusions and recommendations are based on actual findings, and
Research reports are complete and accurate.

3.1 Decorum in the field

Any researcher in the field is expected to remain professional at all times. Such
professionalism is a reflection of both that individual(s) and his/her organisation. You are
expected to:
Be respectful of people and of their culture, of the natural landscape and human
landscape.
Conduct yourself properly one should not behaviour improperly or be rude or
intoxicated in the field.
Be appropriately dressed particularly in keeping with the cultural traditions of the
research area.

3.2 Ethical considerations when dealing with people

Concerning human subjects, you must consider their:

Right to Free Consent the potential research participant has the right not to participate
or be pressured to do so.
Right to Informed Consent the potential research participant must be given sufficient
information about the research and its use to make a knowledgeable or informed
decision about participating or not.
Right to Confidentiality the participant has the right to expect the researcher to limit
access to, and maintain the security of information obtained from or about the
participant.
Right to Privacy the participant has the right to withhold information about which they
feel uncomfortable about sharing.
Right to Anonymity the participant has the right to expect the researcher not to identify
specific data with specific individuals.
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TO AVOID VIOLATION OF FREE AND INFORMED CONSENT

1. Obtain free and informed consent. Have consent forms signed by participants or parents/guardians
of children.

TO AVOID VIOLATION OF CONFIDENTIALITY, PRIVACY AND ANONYMITY

2. Assure potential research participants of confidentiality, privacy and anonymity in writing.
3. Maintain security on identifiable information with locked files or other arrangements.
4. Return information to the participant or discard it safely when it is no longer necessary.
5. Limit the number of people who have access to information on a need to know basis.

TO AVOID THE MISUE OF STATISTICS

6. Determine the appropriate level of measurement for each variable and use corresponding statistical
techniques.
7. Check the assumptions and requirements of statistical tests and have a knowledgeable person
examine the analysis.
8. Dont use complex, sophisticated analysis if simple ones do.
9. Do be over-precise on imprecise data.

TO AVOID OMISSION OF METHODOLOGY AND NEGATIVE FINDINGS

10. Report thoroughly every aspect of the research including sampling and data collection methods and
instrumentations.
11. Report all findings, even those which might be considered negative.

TO AVOID MISLEADING FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

12. Never twist findings or conclusions to make them appear even more positive or negative,
larger or smaller, than warranted by the data.

Table 3.1 Checklist to avoid Unethical Practices (Source: Sproull 2002:13)

3.3 In-field awareness

No fieldwork even goes entirely to plan. You might realise that certain data are not possible
to obtain. Or new opportunities arise that you were unaware of before heading into the field.
Because of these uncertainties, one must always be flexibility in the field.
Adjust quickly when you recognise that certain data are not available or possible to
obtain for whatever reason.
Take advantage of the unexpected opportunities that present themselves during your
fieldwork.

SAMPLE: LETTER OF INFORMATION FOR POTENTIAL SURVEY RESPONDENTS

To Whom It May Concern:

Thank you very much for considering this request to participate in a survey that is being
conducted by students from Carleton University Department of Geography and Environmental
Studies, as part of the Honours Field Camp. The purpose of this course is to learn how to do
primary research in a systematic way. This year, we are examining ways of developing the
Rideau River Park, located behind the Nesbitt biology Building and the National Wildlife Research
Centre. This is a hypothetical project and there are no plans to actually develop this site.

We are inviting you to respond to a short survey about your use/visit to the Park or to express
your opinions concerning the site. The survey should not take more than 10 minutes to complete.
You may decline to answer any question and you may withdraw your participation in the study at
any time without consequences. We are not asking for any identifying information about you.
The surveys will be compiled to address the research question in a general way, based on
identifiable trends. Thank you very much for your co-operation.
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SAMPLE: VERBAL INTRODUCTION FOR POTENTIAL SURVEY RESPONDENTS

My name is ________________________. I am a student at Carleton University in the

Department of Geography and Environmental Studies. I am participating in a third-year field
course. The purpose of this course is to learn how to do primary field research in a systematic
way. As part of this course this year, we are undertaking a planning exercise focusing on the
Rideau River Park behind the Nesbitt Biology Building and the National Wildlife Research Centre.
This is a hypothetical project and there are no plans to change the study site

The survey should not take more than 10 minutes to complete. You may decline to answer any
question and you may withdraw your participation in the study at any time. We are not asking for
any identifying or personal information about you. The surveys will be compiled to address the
research question in a general way, based on identifiable trends. The information will only be
used as part of this course. All surveys will be destroyed once the information has been compiled.

Informed Prior Consent

This survey is being conducted under the guidance of Professor John Milton of the Department of
Geography and Environmental Studies of Carleton University. I am aware that he can be reached
at:
Department of Geography and Environmental Studies
Carleton University
1125 Colonel By Drive
Ottawa, ON, K1S 5B6
Tel: 613-520-2600, ext. 2563
E-mail: John_Milton@carleton.ca

I am also aware that this project has also been reviewed and has received ethics clearance
through the Carleton University Research Ethics Committee and that I can address any concerns
about the project to the committee at:
Carleton University Research Ethics Committee
Office of Research Services
511A Tory Building
1125 Colonel By Drive
Ottawa, ON, K1S 5B6
Tel: 613-520-2517

I consider myself informed and agree to participate:

Name: Date:

Researcher Name: Date:

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4.0 Data and data collection methods

There are four types of data collection (Table 4.1):

Direct person-to-person interviewing;
Non-interactive data collection;
Observation; and
Examination of documents, materials and artefacts.

Often more than one of these methods is employed in a single study.

In determining the appropriate data collection method one of the first decisions is whether
people are your best source of information or whether documents, materials or artefacts
might be more error-free. Despite the tendency of researchers to send out survey after
survey, people are not always the best source of information. (Sproull 2002:162)

4.1 Interviewing

Interviewing involves face-to-face interaction with subjects (Ss). Its advantages are:
Obtain information directly from individuals.
It allows for the opportunity to probe answers, to find out why people feel or think or act
or respond the way they do.
It allows for the opportunity to clarify information as it is given.
It allows for the opportunity to explain complex information.
It allows for the opportunity to clarify previously collected data.

Its disadvantages are:

It can be very costly and time-consuming.
Less information (subjects) can be obtained because of the time requirements.
There is a higher probability of inaccurate data because people might lie, omit
information, use selective recall or simply not remember at the moment.
There is a higher possibility of inaccurate data due to interviewer bias or because of the
interaction between interviewer and respondent.

Reasons for avoiding interviewing people include:

Lying People sometimes lie especially when asked about what they view as sensitive
information such as their age, income, wealth, personal beliefs, actions. Some people lie
because they simply dont like being interviewed.
Omission People will often omit or refuse to answer sensitive questions.
Inaccurate recall Memory deteriorates rapidly over time so there can be issues over
recall.
Insufficient information Often an interviewer poses unclear question or people simply
lack adequate information with which to answer.
Interview bias The interviewer might consciously or unconsciously be leading in the
way he/she handles the interview.
Item bias Sometimes a question in a questionnaire might be leading so they it might
lead a respondent to specific responses.
Interviewer/respondent interaction Sometimes the respondent and interviewer might
clash, affecting responses.

4.2 Using non-interactive data collection techniques

This involves the use of questionnaires, tasks, scales, tests or other devices used to measure
specified variables. These instruments can be managed either through the mail, by
telephone, on-line computer or in face-to-face situations. The key is that there is minimum
interaction between the researcher and respondent.
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Advantages of using non-interactive techniques include:

There are already many such existing instruments to draw upon for measuring a variety
of variables.
Well-designed written instruments are often excellent measures of variables that, at the
same time, minimise negative reactions on the part of respondents.
Physical instruments have a long history of use in research.

Disadvantages include:
If good instruments are not available, it can be costly and time-consuming to create an
appropriate instrument.
Respondents might still react to the intrusion of being measured and either may lie or
distort their answer or simply not participate at all.
There is no guarantee of involvement on the part of recipients of such instruments as
mail-in questionnaires.

4.3 Observation

A qualified/trained person observes Ss or phenomena and records information about specific

characteristics of the phenomena. Can be organised in two manners:
Event sampling selecting a subgroup of events from a population of events by the
researcher (e.g., a verbal expression, physical feature, population trait, television
commercial).
Time sampling the process of selecting specific time periods for observing phenomena
(specific times of the day for television watching, observing specific commercials).

Advantages/disadvantages for observation based upon events sampling include:

Events are natural and complete units.
Because events are sometimes infrequent, they could be missed when using time
sampling.
Because events can be infrequent, there may be long (and expensive) waits between
such events (e.g., stockholders meeting, nights with frost, volcanic eruptions, tsunami).

Advantages/disadvantages for observation based upon time sampling include:

Time sampling is to be used for frequent events. With regular occurring phenomena,
time samples provide representative samples of the phenomena.
Time samples are not useful for infrequent events
Time sampling can split events.

4.4 Examination of documents, materials and artefacts

Such materials provide a valuable source of information for a wide range of variables.

Advantages of such sources:

The data is already available and you need not necessarily survey Ss.
This is a major source of historical data.
Many artefacts can be studied in their natural setting (e.g., heritage buildings).
Many documents and artefacts can be transported to a laboratory or office (e.g., rock
samples, historical documents).
Enduring records can be created: documents copied, artefacts filmed.
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Disadvantages include:
The phenomena may not be representative of the variable.
The phenomena may have deteriorated to the point of making an examination difficult.
The researcher, not being present at or during the event may not recognise erroneous
information or changes in the phenomena.
There can be important ethical issues.

4.5 Unobtrusive measures

These are measures of variables which subjects are unaware or minimally aware they are
providing. As such, the subjects do not react to measurement. Examples include physical
traces wear on a museum floor to measure the popularity of a display; materials collected
from garbage cans to assess the diets of Ss (this is classic archaeology), examination of
materials donated to charities or placed in a garage sale (see Webb, E.J., D.T. Campbell,
R.D. Schwartz and L. Sechrest. 1966. Unobtrusive Measures: Non-reactive Research in the
Social Sciences. Chicago: Rand McNally.)

Advantages:
Using unobtrusive measures can often substitute for sensitive variables such as alcohol
consumption, use of drugs, voting participation, reading habits, etc.

Disadvantages:
It is still possible to make erroneous conclusions. For example, just because there are
many milk cartons in their garbage doesnt mean the inhabitants drink a lot of milk.
Perhaps they are feeding it to pets.
Collecting unobtrusive measures can be uncomfortable: having to shift through garbage
or other necessary actions.

4.6 Sources of information

Concerning living subjects:

People/non-human life This can be a general population or subpopulations depending
upon your study. These can be accessed directly through interviews or indirectly through
non-interactive data acquisition methods and/or observation.

Concerning documents and artefacts:

Libraries Including collections, online databases and resources, CDs, dictionaries,
directories, atlases, gazetteers, handbooks and other references.
Maps atlases, air photographs, satellite images
The Internet although caution is prudent here. If you are using Internet sources you
will need to answer the following questions: (1) Whose material does the site contain?
(2) Has the site been reviewed by experts/authorities? (3) What is the quality of the
information provided on the site [date of information, references, etc.]? (4) Is the
content biased? (5) How complete is the coverage? (6) Is documentation provided? (7)
How current is the information? (Northey and Knight 2005:34).
Specialist documents for example, information on heritage buildings can be traced to
very specialized sources.
Museums and other collections
Fine arts and literature Including fictional and non-fictional works, paintings, music,
sculpture, myths and legends.
Government sites and sources
International sources including both international, credible NGOs and international
institutions such as international governance institutions (United Nations, Food and
Agriculture Organisation, World Health Organisation, United Nations Development
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Programme, United Nations Environment Programme) and organisations (Codex

Alimentarius)
Industry sources especially industry associations

Data Collection Method: Typical Type of Instrument:

Interview Interview schedule
Instrument Administration Questionnaire
Observation Rating scale
Examination of Documents or Artefacts Checklist
Skills test
Original materials created by Ss such as written
materials or drawings
Forms for observer rating or recording of Ss
behaviour
Forms for recording pertinent data

Table 4.1 Typical Types of Instruments for Each Data Collection Method (Sproull 2002:179)

1. Interviewing

A person (interviewer), usually trained, asks respondents questions via telephone, on-line computer,
interactive television or in a face-to-face situation. Respondents answers are usually recorded by the
interviewer on a previously prepared interview schedule. Sometimes a respondent completes a written
questionnaire first and the interviewer then probes for more detailed answers.

2. Instrument Administration (non-interactive surveying)

A person (administrator) gives instruments (questionnaires, attitude scales, tests) to subjects and then
collects them after the Ss have responded; or the administrator attaches an instrument, such as a lie
detector, to the Ss and collects all their responses; or the administrator asks the Ss to complete a task
such as fitting parts together, drawing a diagram or writing memos.
In some situations the contact between the administrator and the Ss is minimal. Often the administrator
simply reads to directions, provides the materials and monitors the Ss while they are responding. In many
of these situations the administrator is face-to-face with the Ss but questionnaires are often mailed or
transmitted by electronic means and interactive television can also be used to ask Ss to complete certain
tasks.

3. Observation

A person (observer) watches Ss (people, animals, etc.) and records characteristics (observations) of the
situation on a previously prepared instrument. Sometimes Ss are recorded on film or video or audiotape.
Other times the observer views the situation directly.

4. Examination of Documents, Materials or Artefacts

A person (researcher or assistant) examines documents, materials or physical artefacts and records the
data on previously prepared instruments.
Table 4.2 Types of Data Collecting Methods (Sproull 2002:164)
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5,0. Research question/hypothesis and variable identification

The quality of any study is dependent upon proper research design. Crucial to any study is
proper sampling procedures. Most sampling procedures can be applied to both human and
physical geographical studies.

There are six stages in the sampling process (Shaw and Wheeler 1994:49):
Define the population to be studied: this can be described in terms of units, objects,
elements or area, and possibly over a specified time period. (What is the population
being studied?)
Define the sampling frame: how the elements of the population to be studied. (What are
the characteristics of that population being studied?)
Specify the sample unit: e.g., city streets, households, soil types. (What is the sampling
unit to be used?)
Determine the sampling method: probability versus non-probability. (What sampling
approach do you propose to use and why?)
Determine the size of the sample. (How many subjects do you propose to include in your
sample and why?)
Specify the sampling plan and method of collecting data. (How do you propose to obtain
your sample?)

Sampling in geography can also take on a spatial dimension. In such instances there are
three approaches to selecting sample points spatially: use of point samples; use of line
samples (e.g., transects); and use of areal samples (quadrats).

5.1 Sampling procedures

In most instances, it is not realistic to try to study an entire population either because of time
or cost. In such cases, a sample is taken. There are two types of sampling approaches that
can be taken:
Non-probability schemes: These approaches do not guarantee that the sample
represents the entire population. Examples of such an approach include convenience
sampling, purposive sampling and quota sampling.
Probability schemes: These approaches seek to obtain a representative sample of the
entire population being studied.

The sampling method you select will depend upon the nature of your study.

Random Sampling

Since the most desired goal of sampling is to have a sample that is representative of a
population, which can only be expected with unbiased methods, only random methods can
be highly recommended. If other methods must be used sometimes, remember that the
generalizations to a population are questionable.

Random sampling offers the researcher with the best chance of securing a sample that is
representative of the total population being sampled. Random sample is based on the
assumption that every member or event of a population being studied has the same chance
of being selected. This is achieved through the use of a random number table or a tombola
system (where individuals are assigned a number and then a random number table is used to
selected the subjects to be included in the study).

It is, however, possible, for such a selection process to overlook some parts of a population
and to over-represent other parts of that population. Several approaches have been
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proposed to overcome (or at least reduce) the chance of this occurring. The principle
modification is that of stratification. Through stratification a population is divided into sub-
groups from which separate samples are drawn (e.g., age groups, mother tongues, socio-
economic groups, soil horizons, altitude bands, geological strata).

A further modification of sampling was proposed by Berry (1962) for spatial data. He
developed a sampling scheme incorporating random, systematic and stratified sampling. This
involved the use of a spatial grid.

Selected Sampling Bias Free Method* Major Advantage Major Disadvantage

Methods
Random Methods: Yes High probability of Requires sizable number
Simple sample representing of Ss
Random population
Stratified Random Yes Controls for stratification Often more time and
variables cost than for simple
random sampling
Non-random Methods: No Cheaper, easier and Potentially biased
Systematic faster with large method
population
Convenience No Quicker and cheaper Potentially biased
than other methods method
Purposive No Sample possess characteristics Potentially biased
desired by researchers method

Quota No Sample is proportional Potentially biased

to population in the method
selected characteristics
Table 5.1 Selecting the Sample Method (Sproull 2002:113)

5.2 Sample size

One of the challenges in planning research is how large must a sample be. A large sample is
not necessary to be representative although, in general, the larger the sample size, the
greater the likelihood that it is representative. A minimum of 30 samples per group, based
upon that sample approaching a normal distribution, is recommended based upon the
reduction of the standard of error achieved by increasing the sample size beyond 30. Some
authors arbitrarily use a 10% or 5% sample of the population although there is no statistical
rationale for such selection approaches.

In general, there are four factors impacting upon the sample size:
cost;
how much confidence in the results is desired;
how much error can be tolerated; and
how much is known about the population being studied.

6.0 Questionnaires

Questionnaires can provide both quantitative and qualitative information. Casey and Lury
(1982, 1987) developed a typology of questionnaire surveys as defined by the nature of the
phenomenon being studied (Table 6.1).
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Phrasing questions
Ask yourself five basic questions:
Can the question be stated unambiguously?
Are the results unambiguous? Can the results be measured accurately or interpreted
clearly?
Is the question posed so that the resulting answers accurately reflect general conditions
for the population?
Is the question unbiased?
Can the question contribute to explanations to the stated research?

Criterion Classification
A B C
1. Scale of enquiry Phenomenon of interest Village or community Phenomenon of interest
rare and clustered level; specific site or widely distributed
institution throughout area

2. Interview type Free-ranging; Open-ended questions; Closed and/or structured

unstructured attitudinal studies questionnaire

3. Observations and Technical, requiring Accurate and detailed Simple counts and
measurements professional skill measures
4. Frequency Continuous or very Multi-visit over year Single visit
frequent
Table 6.1. A typology of questionnaire surveys.

Type of Response Major advantages Major disadvantages

Multiple choice Obtain researcher specified Does not allow respondent

responses; creativity or originality;
Response easy and fast; Requires time to generate good
Allows more items than would items.
open-ended in same time span;
Easy tabulation of data;
Can be used for scaled or
categorical responses.
Dichotomous Response easy and fast; Severely limited amount of
Tabulation easy and fast. information;
May yield erroneous data if
respondent cant decide how to
answer.
Ranking Forces discrimination among Does not yield degree of
responses. respondent preference, but only
preference for selected
responses over others;
Respondent is not allowed
dislike responses;
Response more difficult and
slower than multiple-choice.
Open-ended Can elicit creative and original Can generate unpredictable
responses; information;
Can measure organization and Requires much respondent time;
thought. Requires much respondent
effort;
Requires much researcher or
clerical time for data coding and
tabulation.
Table 6.2. Advantages and disadvantages of differing type of questions.
 15

Types of questions
There are four basic types of questions one can use in a questionnaire/interview See table on
the preceeding page):
Multiple choice (categorical);
Dichotomous (Yes/No);
Ranking (scale); and
Open-ended.

Organising your questionnaire

In organizing your questionnaire, ensure that the questions follow each other in a rationale
format. Ideally conduct a pilot of your questionnaire to ensure that it achieves what it is
design to achieve:
Did the questions yield the desired information in an appropriate form?
Did the questions yield the selected levels of measurement?
Were the directions and questions clear to the respondents?
How long did it take for the fastest 90% of the respondents to complete the
questionnaire?

7.0 Landscape Analysis

We depend upon the natural environment for our existence. Increasingly we are
acknowledging the inter-relationship between the human world and the natural world. This
awareness is influencing the way we assess human activities and how we plan. It has
certainly influenced how we approach fieldwork especially as conducted by geographers
and environmentalists. As geographers and environmentalists, we are concerned with the
biosphere the band of space where life exists. This ranges from the deepest ocean beds to
the upper atmosphere. We are concerned not simply with compiling or quantifying what is
there, but also the inter-relationships and inter-dependencies between organisms and with
the physical world. We are concerned with natural systems and the Earthscape in general.

Landscape analysis consists of two basic dimensions:

Natural landscape draw upon biophysical assessment techniques; and
Human landscape use ideas derived from landscape architecture.

Biophysical assessment includes:

Soils and sub-surface or geomorphology of an area;
Hydrology (water reserves, quality and flow through an area);
Vegetation and wildlife;
Topography of an area;
Ecosystem assessment; and
Microclimatology.

Methodologies used to conduct biophysical assessments are dependent upon the character of
the study area.
For areas relatively uniform in nature, block assessments are generally employed. For
example, a grid overlay is placed on the study area and soil samples are taken randomly
from these grids using a random number table) OR you can use a pattern approach to
ensure coverage of the study area.
For areas not relatively uniform, such as hilly or mountainous areas, or transitional areas
(from water to forest), transects are often used. A transect is a straight line between two
points and you take samples along that line.
Models can also be employed for assessment such as when you are conducting an
ecosystem assessment.
Mapping of the natural landscape.
 16

Human landscape assessment includes:

Built environment (buildings, spaces, surface infrastructure, sub-surface infrastructure);
Site character, and the tensions and synergies between the build and natural
environments;
Vision, including site volumes (spaces, base plan, overhead plane and vertical planes),
visible landscapes (views, vistas, axis, symmetrical/asymmetrical design), circulation and
flow, and site design (landscape plantings, structures, habitations).
Any assessment and design must also be grounded upon a clearly stated ethics and
aesthetics.

7.1 Other thoughts to keep in mind

7.1.1 Microclimatology

Every property has to some degree a variety of microclimates. These are dependent upon
orientation, wind and breeze direction, land orientation, vegetation, soil depth and types,
moisture content and even colors. Such off-site conditioners as hills, forests, rivers, water
bodies, and urbanization make a difference too (Simonds and Starke 2006:26).
Slope and orientation of hills will impact on the hours and intensity of solar heat.
Topographical forms, tall buildings, trees, or other objects can also reduce the total hours
of daylight.
Abrupt forms can result in air turbulence.
Elevation impacts on seasonal and diurnal temperatures.
Large bodies of water can moderate temperature extremes (the Maritime influence).

7.1.2 Land

Adapt to the landforms:

To diminish landscape disruption
To reduce the costs of earthwork
To prevent the wasting of topsoil
To preclude the need for erosion control and replanting
To make use of existing drainage ways
To blend into the natural scene (Simonds and Starke 2006:35).

See the landscape as a habitat or a natural system: A natural system is a co-related

assemblage of topographic, climatic, or ecologic elements interacting in accordance with
natural law. Watersheds, wetlands, coral reefs, meadows, and anthills are examples
(Simonds and Starke 2006:37). See Table 7.1and 7.2.

Table 7.1. & 7.2. Our Place: The cold/cool-temperate regions (Source: Simonds and Starke
2006:22 - 23) (below and. next page)
Cold Region
Condition:
Extreme winter cold.
Deep snow.
Strong winds.
High wind chill factor.
Deep frost.
Scrub forest cover.
Short winter days.
Long winters.
Alternating freeze and thaw.
Rapid spring melt.
Community design:
Orientation to warming sun.
Provision for snow plowing and snow
storage.
Utilization of all protective ground forms and
covers as windscreens and soil stabilizers.
Crosswind alignment of traffic ways and
linear site use areas.
Reduction in size of plan areas to minimize
costly excavation and frost-proof
construction.
Preservation of all possible vegetation, with
the strong wind resistant edges left intact.
Grouping of activity areas to reduce travel
time.
Provision of community recreation and
cultural centers within or near concentrations
of dwellings.
Alignment of trafficways to fall within shadow
bands to preclude ice build-up.
Avoidance of low ground, natural
drainagways and flood plains.
17
Cool-Temperate Region
Condition:
Variable temperatures, ranging from warm
to hot in the summer, cold in winter, and
moderate in spring and fall.
Marked seasonal change.
Changing wind directions and velocities.
Violent storms occur infrequently.
Periods of drought, light to heavy rain and
frost and snow may be expected.
Soils are generally well-drained and fertile.
Many streams, rivers and freshwater lakes.
An abundant supply of water.
Land cover varies from open to forests with
rich vegetative variety.
Topographically scenic, including marine,
plain, plateau and mountainous areas.
Community design:
Definition of land use and trafficway patterns
to reflect local temperature ranges and other
climatic conditions. Extremes suggest
compact plan arrangements; more moderate
conditions permit dispersal.
Accommodation. Community plans must
stand the test of function in all seasons.
Alignment of streets and open spaces to
block cold winter winds and admit welcome
summer breezes.
Design of streets, utility systems and
drainage channels to meet extreme
conditions.
Consideration of high winds, flooding and
occasional snowstorms are important design
factors.
Provision of the natural waterways into the
community plan for the use and enjoyment
of the public.
Widespread installation of private and public
gardens as regional features.
Preservation of indigenous vegetation within
the open-space framework.
Planning of each community as a unique
expression of its setting.

Cold Region
Site:
Creation of enclosed courts and sun traps;
use of textured construction materials and
warm primitive colors.
Use of short accessways, grouped entries,
raised platforms and covered walks.
Preservation or planting of windscreens;
installation of snow fencing; use of low,
strong vertical enclosure to brace for the
gale.
Provision of intermediate points of shelter on
a long traverse; placement of structures to
block or sideslip the wind.
Move with the ground surface by the use of
stepped horizontal planes.
Clearing of small and clustered use areas, or
rooms, and meandering paths of
interconnection within the scrub and tree
growth. Developed areas should be limited in
size to leave natural growth undisturbed
insofar as possible.
Maximum utilization of daylight; orientation
of buildings toward sunlit spaces with views
of the sky and sunlit hills.
Utilization of the clustered-compound plan
approach, which tends to engender pleasant
community life and close social ties.
Use of decks, raised walkways, and flexible
ground surfacings to preclude frost heave
and keep people out of the slush and mud.
Provision of positive surface drainage to the
natural lines of storm-water flow, with the
soils, grasses and other covers left
undisturbed to prevent soil erosion.
Building:
Design of massive, low-profile and insulated
structures.
Protection of approaches from snow drift; the
raising of entrance platforms.
Placement of windows away from prevailing
winds; use of tree screens.
Location of entrances on lee of building.
Reduction of building footprint to minimize
foundation needs.
Forest cover preserved and buildings nestled
against the protected slopes and tree
masses.
Design of windows and living areas to exact
the full contribution of the sun.
Attention lavished on comfort, architectural
interest and detail. In frigid climates
particularly, the home is a castle.
With condensation and ice formation a
problem, elimination of vulnerable joints and
hazardous surfaces insofar as possible.
Use of steep roof pitches, deep overhangs,
and exaggerated storm drainage gradients
and capacities to facilitate rapid run-off.
18
Cool-Temperate Region
Site:
Possibility of, and necessity for, wide variety
in the type and size of outdoor activity areas.
Dramatization of the seasonal variations;
consideration of spaces for winter, spring,
summer and fall activities.
Design recognition of the prevailing wind and
breeze patterns.
Construction to withstand the worst of the
storms.
Provision for all-weather durability and
maintenance.
Protection of prime regional forest and
agricultural lands.
Sensitive planning and zoning of all water-
related lands to preserve their scenic and
ecological values.
Use of pools and fountains to enhance
community parks and gathering places.
Adaptation of community plan forms to
provide the best possible integration with the
natural landscape features.
Full utilization of scenic possibilities.
Building:
Elimination by design, of extremes of
demands for cooling, heating and ventilation.
Consideration of the special design
requirements and possibilities suggested by
each season in turn.
Architectural plan organization and detailing
in response to the cooling and chilling effects
of local breezes and winds.
Structural design to meet the most severe
storm conditions.
Consideration of shrinkage, swelling,
condensation, freezing and snow loadings.
Expansion and extension of plan forms when
desirable, since excavation and foundation
construction are not generally a problem.
Full utilization of the recreation values of
each site.
Water catchment and storage is not a prime
consideration.
Design of building areas and form in
response to the topography.
Treatment of each building site to realize the
full landscape potential.
 19

7.1.3 Water

Keep in mind the ten axioms of water resource management. Within each rationally defined
hydrographic region:
Protect the watersheds, wetlands, and the banks and shores of all streams and water
bodies.
Minimize pollution in any form and all forms and initiate a program of decontamination.
Gear land use allocation and development capacities to the available water supply rather
than vice versa.
Return to the underlying aquifer water of quantity and quality equal to that withdrawn.
Limit use to such quantities as will sustain the local fresh-water reserves.
Conduct surface runoff by natural drainageways insofar as feasible rather than by
constructed storm sewer systems.
Utilize ecologically designed wetlands for wastewater treatment, detoxification, and
groundwater discharge.
Promote dual systems of water supply and distribution, with differentiated rates for
potable water and that used for irrigation or industrial purposes.
Reclaim, restore and regenerate abused land and water areas to their natural healthful
condition.
Work to advance the technology of water supply, use, processing, recycling and
recharge (Simonds and Starke 2006:49).

Principles in a nutshell: Protect Rediscover Restore Conserve Replenish Pre-plan

The qualities of water are infinite in their variety. In depth, water may range from deep
to no more than a film of surface moisture. In motion, from rush to gush, plummet,
spurt, spout, spill, spray or seep. In sound, from tumultuous roar to murmur. Each
attribute suggests a particular use and application in landscape design (Simonds and
Starke 2006:57).

Water edge design OR where the land and water meet. In water-edge detailing these are
some of the fundamentals to keep in mind:
Minimize disruption. Where the banks or shores are stable, the less treatment, the better.
Maintain smooth flows. Avoid the use of elements that obstruct currents or block wave
action.
Slope and armor the banks, if necessary, to absorb energy where flows are swift or wave
impacts are destructive.
Provide boat access to water if desired depth by the use of docks, piers or floats with
self-adjusting ramps.
Avoid the indiscriminate use of jetties and groins or the diverting of strong currents. The
effects are often unpredictable and sometimes calamitous.
Design to the worst conditions. Considered recorded water levels and the height of wind-
driven surf.
Preclude flooding. Hold the floor level of habitable structures above the 50-year flood
stage as a minimum.
Promote safety by the use of handrails, nonslip pavement, buoys, markers and lights.
Use weather- and water-resistant materials, fastenings, and equipment. Corrosion and
deterioration are constant problems along the waterfront.
Prevent the flow of polluted surface runoff into receiving waters. Such runoff should be
intercepted and treated, or filtered by the use of detention swales (Simonds and Starke
2006:56 - 57).

Water has become symbolic. It connotes and promotes refreshment and stimulates verdant
growth. Its presence can convert seeming desert into seeming oasis (Simonds and Starke
2006:59).
 20

7.1.4 Vegetation

Vegetation is vital in the sustainability of ecosystems. Vegetation provides many important

services beyond being a foundation of natural food chains including: transpiration; climate
control; water retention; soil building and productivity.
Use indigenous plants wherever possible.

8.0 Landscape Architecture

A first step in the design of any architectural, landscape architectural, or engineering project
is to have a clear understanding of just what is being designed (Simonds and Starke
2006:99). The same is true for ecosystem reclamation or other environmental act.

In defining the program for a project less concerned about what it will look like and more
concerned about what it will be. To dream soaring dreams is not enough. To have value,
dreams and ideas must be translated into the hard reality of feasible proposals. Design, as a
form-giving process, is the creation of places, spaces, or artefacts to serve a predetermined
purpose (Simonds and Starke 2006:100).

8.1 Landscape character

The degree of evident harmony of the various elements of a landscape area is a measure
not only of the pleasure induced in us but also of the quality we call beauty. For beauty is
the evident harmonious relationship of all the sensed components. Natural landscape beauty
is of many varying qualities, which include:
The picturesque The bizarre The delicate
The stark The majestic The ethereal
The idyllic The graceful The serene
(Simonds and Starke 2006:72)

Natural landscape character, too, is of many categories, including:

Mountain Lake Canyon Pond
Dune Sea Forest Desert
Prairie Stream River Plain
Swamp Hill Valley [Tundra]
(Simonds and Starke 2006:72)

Elements to remember when assessing landscape character:

Impact of modifications, past, present and future. Seek to eliminate incongruous
elements; accentuate natural form and major features; avoid destruction of the natural
form while undertaking processes of intensification (of use).
The built environment. This is the point where you begin to integrate the natural and
human (or built) environment. Some issues to consider are: the use of the space; the
suitability of a site for a specific use or uses; the harmony of the natural and the built
environment elements; contrast of elements; type of construction; and compatibility.

Siegfried Giedion: Esthetic impacts influence us at all moments. Consciously, or in most

cases subconsciously, they provoke friendly or hostile reactions Their impacts on
decisions reach into even the most practical problems, into the shaping of things of daily use
cars, bridges and above all, all of our human environment (in Simonds and Starke
2006:81)
 21

Le Corbusier: To me the quest of harmony seems the noblest of human passions.

Boundless as is the goal, for it is vast enough to embrace everything, it yet remains a definite
one (in Simonds and Starke 2006:83)

8.2 Site planning

Site planning is a comprehensive planning process. Apply a systematic means of determining

where you are, where you want to be and how best to get there. The site-planning
procedure involves the following ten steps, several of which may take place concurrently:
Definition of intent (scope, goal and objective);
Procurement of topographic survey;
Program development;
Data gathering and analysis;
Site reconnaissance;
Organization of reference plan set and file;
Preparation of exploratory studies;
Comparative analysis and revision of studies, leading to an approved conceptual plan;
Development of preliminary development plans and estimate of costs; and
Preparation of construction plans, specifications and bidding documents (Simonds and
Starke 2006:106).

Simonds and Starke (2006:115) write that a specific planning attitude is essential: Meaningful
design is far from an exercise in graphic exposition. It is an empathetic process a creative act
of the intellect. Design begins with a conceptual determination o the desired nature of space or
object. This what shall it be aspect may be focalized by a flash of intuitive genius, by a
methodical analysis of possibilities, or by logical extension and improvement upon past examples.
The visual aspects of superior design are marked by a clear and direct expression of idea, time,
place, materials, and technology, coupled with a fine instinct for three-dimensional form. Again,
we can extend this thought to the fourth dimension when considering ecological design as
ecosystems evolve through time.

Part of this process involved impact assessment. An impact statement should include:
All significant negative impacts to be expected from the proposed development, and the
means by which the planners have ameliorated them as far as possible.
All positive values created by the project, and the means by which they have been
enhanced in the planning process.
The rationale for proceeding with construction. Only with rare exceptions is approval
justified unless the long-term negative factors are outweighed by the benefits (Simonds
and Starke 2006:117).

An environmental assessment checklist should include:

Earth landforms, soils, mineral resource, geologic features
Water surface conformation, visual appeal, quality, supply
Atmosphere quality (gases, particulates), climate (macro, micro), temperature
Processes flooding, erosion, sedimentation, stability (slides, slumps), air movement,
solar penetration (sunlight, cast shadow)
Flora ecological systems, visual continuity, trees, shrubs, ground covers, crops, habitat,
rare plant species
Fauna birds, land animals and reptiles, fish and shellfish, rare or endangered species,
food chains
Land use wilderness, wetlands, forestry, grazing, agricultural uses, recreational uses,
residential uses, institutional uses, commercial uses, industrial uses, urbanization, open-
space preserve
 22

Visual and human interest scenic quality, landscape character, views and vistas, parks
and recreation, conservation areas, archaeological or historical interest, unique physical
features, inappropriate uses, pollution
Social factors health, safety, cultural patterns (lifestyle), employment, population
density and distribution, public services, cultural amenities
Built environment buildings, engineering structures, landscape development,
community integrity, urbanization patterns, transportation networks, utility systems,
waste disposal facilities
Other list

Frank Lloyd Wright: Therefore, let us build houses that restore to man the life-giving, life-
enhancing elements of nature. This means an architecture that begins with the nature of the
site. Which means taking the first great step toward assuring a worthy architecture, for in the
rightness of a house on the land we sense fitness we call beauty (Simonds and Starke
2006:104). Consider, for example, his monumental work, Fallingwater.

8.3 Site development

This involves the translation of vision into reality. It includes:

Site-structure expression How does the built environment rest on the natural landscape
(topography, etc)?
Site-structure unity How does everything fit?
Site systems

8.4 Landscape planting

Landscaping is an essential feature of design house architecture, urban planning, and in

ecosystem revitalisation. From a landscape architecture perspective, Simonds and Starke
(2006:147-153) summarise 25 pointers:
Preserve existing vegetation.
Select each plant to serve its intended function.
Trees are the basic. Group trees to simulate natural stands. Arrange the tree groupings
to provide views and expansive open spaces. Use canopy trees to unify the site. Install
intermediate trees for understory screening, windbreak and visual interest.
In all extensive tree plantings, select a theme tree, from three to five supporting
secondary trees, and a limited palette of supplementary species for special conditions
and effects. Choose as the dominant theme tree a type that is indigenous, moderately
fast growing and able to thrive will little care. Use secondary species to complement the
primary planting installation and to define the site spaces of lesser magnitude.
Supplementary tree species are used as appropriate to demarcate or differentiate areas
of unique landscape quality. Exotic species are to be limited to areas of high refinement.
Use trees to sheathe the trafficways.
Use shrubs for supplementary, low-level baffles and screens.
Treat vines as nets and draperies.
Install ground cover on the base plane to retain soils and soil moisture, define paths and
use areas, and provide turf where required.
Give emphasis to trafficway nodes.
Keep the sight lines clear at roadway intersections. Create an attractive roadway portal to
each neighbourhood and activity centre.
Close or compress the plantings where the ground forms or structures impinge.
Expand roadside plantings. Use plantings to reinforce the alignment of paths and
roadways. Provide shade and interest along the paths and bikeways.
Conceal parking, storage and other service areas.
Consider climate control in all landscape planting.
 23

Complement the topographical forms.

Use plants as space definers.

Some definitions of note:

Native, or indigenous plants are those growing naturally on the site and historically
characteristic of the region.
Naturalized plants are those introduced accidentally or by intent that have
accommodated themselves to the growing conditions and become part of the local
scene.
Exotic plants are those foreign to the natural site and locality (Simonds and Starke
2006:155).

9.0 Ecosystem design and revitalisation

As geographers and environmentalists, we are concerned with the biosphere and our
relationship with the planet.
The biosphere the sphere of life and organic activity extends from the ocean to about
eight kilometres altitude into the atmosphere.
The biosphere consists of a myriad of ecosystems from simple to complex, each
operating within general spatial boundaries (Christopherson and Byrne 2009:628).
Christopherson and Byrne (2009:628) define as ecosystem as a self-sustaining
association of living plants and animals and their nonliving physical environment.

Some other definitions to keep in mind:

Ecology: is the study of the relationships between organisms and their environment,
and among the various ecosystems in the biosphere (Christopherson and Byrne
2009:628).
Biogeography is the study of the distribution of plants and animals, the diverse spatial
patterns they create, and the physical and biological processes, past and present, that
produce Earths species richness (Christopherson and Byrne 2009:628).

Why are we concerned with ecosystem design and revitalisation in this course? Because, due
to the diversity embodied in geography, fieldwork may not simply be about human issues.
We are also concerned with the non-human world and many geographers and
environmentalists are examining the complexities of the non-human world and the impact of
human activities from that perspective.

9.1 Ecosystem components and cycles

Living and non-living actors interact forming an ecosystem. Some have termed this the web
of life.
Ecosystems are divided into subsystems, with the biotic portion composed of producers
(plants), consumers (animals), and detritus feeders and decomposers (worms, mites,
bacteria, fungi). The abiotic flows in an ecosystem include gaseous, hydrologic and
mineral cycles. (Christopherson and Byrne 2009:629)
An ecosystem is the product of the interaction of many communities with the abiotic
components of an environment, where a community is understand as forming by
interactions among populations of animals and plants at a particular time (sets of inter-
relationships symbiotic, mutalism, predatory/parasitic) organised into food webs.
Habitat: is the type of environment where an organism resides or is biologically
adapted to live (Christopherson and Byrne 2009:630).
Life zones: It was Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859) who first observed that plants
and animals recur in related groupings [communities] wherever similar conditions occur
in the abiotic environment and came up with the life zone concept. Each zone possesses
 24

its own temperature, precipitation and insolation relations upon which its own biotic
communities evolve.
Microclimatology: As already discussed earlier, micro-climates also result in unique
communities and ecosystems.

9.2 Ecological relations, and resilience

Ecosystems are not static. Much the opposite: the Earths ecosystems are dynamic, vigorous
and energetic, and are ever-changing as conditions change.
The concept of change is key to understanding ecosystem stability (Christopherson and
Byrne 2009:648).
Yet, ecosystems tend to stability through negative feedback loops, moving towards what
is known heterogenisis. Factors controlling population balance in an ecosystems
include: favourable/unfavourable weather; adequate/inadequate water, temperature,
chemicals; climate change; reproductive success/failure;
adaptability/lack of suitable habitat; ability/inability to compete, migrate and defend;
presence/absence of predators, parasites, disease.
Change is often represented through the idea of ecological succession. This occurs
when newer communities (usually more complex) replace older communities of plants
and animals (usually simpler) a change of composition (Christopherson and Byrne
2009:655).
Rather than thinking of an ecosystem as a uniform set of communities, think of
ecosystems as a patchwork mosaic of habitats each striving to achieve an optimal
range and low environmental stress. This is the study of patch dynamics, or disturbed
portions of habitats (Christopherson and Byrne 2009:655).

How change occurs is a highly uneven process. While in an ecosystem species populations
tend to remain stable (inertial stability), this does not necessarily translate into an ability to
recover from change (resilience).
The nature of change in natural ecosystems can range from gradual transition from one
equilibrium to another to extreme catastrophes, such as asteroid impact or severe
volcanism, among other events (Christopherson and Byrne 2009:648)
Continuing on the discussion of patch dynamics, Within an ecosystem, individual
patches may arise only to fail later. The smaller the patch, the faster species loss occurs.
Succession is the interaction among patches. Most ecosystems are in actuality made up
of patches of former landscapes. Biodiversity in some respects is the result of such patch
dynamics (Christopherson and Byrne 2009:655).
Greater biodiversity in an ecosystem results in greater stability and greater productivity.
In other words, the strength of biodiversity is that it spreads risk over the entire
community, because several food sources exit at each trophic level. Therefore,
biodiversity matters. Consider more than just the diversity of species; rather, think of all
the positive interactions of species embodied in the facilitation concept. Facilitation
describes how a diverse community manages nutrient dynamics among the populations,
and pest resistance, and resilience to events such as fire (Christopherson and Byrne
2009:651).

9.3 Approaching ecosystem research

The purpose of field research associated with the non-human world can seek to
develop a greater understanding of the natural processes and relationships that exist;
and
gain a better understanding of how our actions are impacting upon these natural
processes and relationships.
Achieving the latter is dependent in large part upon the former.
 25

10.0 Landscape design theory

Fieldwork and design draw upon perception, ethics and inspiration as well as a knowledge of
what is appropriate to a specific area. Architects write the while plans are often presented in
two dimensions, we actually live in three dimensions:

Garrett Eckbo: People live on the earth, on the land, but in three-dimensional air-space,
the atmospheric volume, immediately above this land surface. Plans and land-use maps may
be measured diagrammatically and abstractly in square footage and acreage, but space for
living is measured in cubage, in volumes of air-space enclosed or organized with tangible
physical elements The experience of being within fine three-dimensional spatial volumes is
one of the greatest experiences of life (Simonds and Starke 2006:158).

Design takes place in four dimensions contrary to what landscape architects would have us
believe. We have to consider time as well, especially when designing with nature.

Landscape design theory considers:

Site volumes its spaces, the base plane, the overhead plane and verticals;
Visible landscape the view, the vista, the axis, symmetrical plan and asymmetry, and
visual resource management;
Circulation motion, sequence, pedestrian movement, automobile flows, public transit
systems;
Structures composition, commonalities, structures in the landscape, the define open
space;
Habitations dwelling-nature relationships, human needs and habitat, and residential
components; and
Community planning problems, possibilities, new directions and urban design.

10.1 Site volumes

Each design element can introduce a specific emotion into the overall work. Simonds and
Starke (2006:159-161) summarise these as follows:
Tension. Unstable forms. Split composition. Illogical complexities. Wide range of values.
Clash of colors. Intense colors without relief. Visual imbalance about a line or point. No
point at which the eye can rest. Hard, polished, or jagged surfaces. Unfamiliar elements.
Harsh, blinding, or quavering light. Uncomfortable temperatures in any range. Piercing,
jangling, jittery sound.
Relaxation. Simplicity. Volumes varying in size from the intimate to the infinite. Fitness.
Familiar objects and materials. Flowing lines. Curvilinear forms and spaces. Evident
structural stability. Horizontality. Agreeable textures. Pleasant and comfortable shapes.
Soft light. Soothing sound. Volume infused with quiet colors whites, grays, blues,
greens. Think round thoughts.
Fright. Sensed confinement. An apparent trap. A quality of compression and bearing. No
points of orientation. No means by which to judge position or scale. Hidden areas and
spaces. Possibilities for surprise. Sloping, twisted or broken planes. Illogical, unstable
forms. Slippery, hazardous base plane. Danger. Unprotected voids. Sharp, protruding
elements. Contorted spaces. The unfamiliar. The shocking. The startling. The weird. The
uncanny. Symbols connoting horror, pain, torture, or applied force. The dim, the dark,
the eerie, the brutal. Pale and quavering, or conversely, blinding garish light. Cold blues,
cold greens. Abnormal, monochromatic color.
Gaiety. Free spaces. Smooth, flowing forms and patterns. Looping, tumbling, swirling
motion accommodated. Lack of restrictions. Forms, colors, and symbols that appeal to
the emotions rather than to the intellect. Temporal. Causal. Lack of restraint. Pretense
 26

acceptable. The fanciful applauded. Warm, bright colors. Sparkling, shimmering,

shooting, or glowing light. Exuberant, lilting sound.
Contemplation. Scale not important since subjects will withdraw into their own sense
well of consciousness. Total space mild and unpretentious. No insinuating elements. No
distractions of sharp contrast. Symbols, if used, should relate to subject of
contemplation. Space providing a sense of isolation, privacy, detachment, security,
peace. Soft, diffused light. Tranquil and recessive colors. If sound, a low muted stream of
sound to be perceived subconsciously.
Dynamic action. Bold forms. Heavy, structural cadence. Solid materials such as stone,
concrete, wood or steel. Rough, natural textures. Angular planes. Diagonals. The pitched
vertical. Concentration of interest on focal point of action, as to rostrum, rallying point, or
exit gate through which the volume impels one. Motion induced by sweeping lines,
shooting lights, and climactic sequences of form, pattern and sound. Strong, primitive
colors crimson, scarlet and yellow-orange. Billowing banners. Burnished standards.
Martial music. Rush of sound. Ringing crescendos. Crash of brass. Blare of trumpets. The
roll and booms of drums.
Sensuous love. Complete privacy. Inward orientation of room. Subject the focal point.
Intimate scale. Low ceiling. Horizontal planes. Fluid lines. Soft, rounded forms.
Juxtaposition of angles and curves. Delicate fabrics. Voluptuous and yielding surfaces.
Exotic elements and scents. Soft, rosy pink to golden light. Pulsating, titillating music.
Sublime spiritual awe. Overwhelming scale that transcends normal human existence.
Soaring forms in contrast with low horizontal forms. A volume so contrived as to hold one
transfixed on a broad base plane and lift ones eyes and mind high along the vertical.
Orientation upward to or beyond some symbol of the infinite. Complete compositional
order, often symmetry. Highly developed sequences. Use of costly and permanent
materials. Connotation of the eternal. Use of chaste white. If color used, the cool
detached colors, such as blue-greens, blues and violet. Diffused glow with shafts of light.
Deep, full swelling music with lofty passages.
Displeasure. Frustrating sequences of movement or revelation. Areas and spaces
unsuited to anticipated use. Obstacles. Excesses. Undue friction. Discomfort. Annoying
textures. Improper use of materials. The illogical. The false. The insecure. The tedious.
The blatant. The dull. The disorderly. Disagreeable colors. Discordant sounds.
Uncomfortable temperature or humidity. Annoying lights. That which is ugly.
Pleasure. Spaces, forms, textures, colors, symbols, sounds, light quality and odors all
suited to the use, whatever it may be. Satisfaction of anticipations, requirements, or
desires. Sequences developed and fulfilled. Unity with variety. Harmonious relationships.
A resultant quality of beauty.

Lao-tse: From its hollowness arises the reality of the vessel; from its empty space arises
the reality of the building (in Simonds and Starke 2006:161).

This is important. The change of perspective. How do we understand design: as walls and
form or the space within? Frames are simply providing form to experiential space. For
example, the Neurumberg rally. For a more detailed understanding of this see Chang, Amo Ih
Tiao. 1981. The Tao of Architecture.

How we see space is often through how we experience space:

A confined space may be static, inducing repose. It may direct and concentrate interest
and vision inward. The whole spatial shell may be made seemingly to contract and bear
down, to engender a feeling of intensity or compression.
Alternatively a space may open out. It may direct attention to its frame and beyond. It
may fall away or seem to expand. It may seem to burst outward. It may impel outward
motion to its perimeter and to more distant limits.
 27

A space may be flowing and undulating, suggesting directional movement. A space may
be developed to have its own sufficient, satisfying qualities. It may appear complete
within itself or incomplete, a setting for persons or objects.
A space may be in effect a vacuum.
A space may have expulsive pressure.
A space may dominate an object, imbuing the object with its particular spatial qualities.
Or it may be dominated by the object, drawing from it something of its nature.
A space may have orientation inward, outward, upward, downward, radial or tangential.
A space may be developed as an optimum setting for an object or environment for a
given use.
A space may be designed to stimulate a prescribed emotional reaction or to produce a
predetermined sequence of such responses.
A complex space assumes to a degree the qualities of its component volumes and
should relate them into a unified entity (Simonds and Starke 2006:161-163).

Spatial size also matters. External spaces share the same psychological attributes as interior
spaces.
Volumes can be stimulating or relaxing; immense or confining
Spaces can be person-dominated while natural spaces can dominate us (e.g., Grand
Canyon)

Spatial form and movement exhibit similar dichotomies

Active passive
Stable unstable
Positive, bold, forceful tenuous, uncertain, wavering
Primitive, simple, bold effusive
Jagged, brutal, harsh, vigorous, masculine, picturesque curvilinear, tender, soft,
pleasant, feminine, beautiful
Decreasing, contracting increasing, expanding
In motion meandering, casual, relaxed, interesting, human
Flowing, rolling formal, imperious, dogmatic [straight]
Indirect concentrating

The base plane

Is closely related to the arrangement of use areas, for it is on this volumetric floor that
we are most concerned with use (Simonds and Starke 2006:170)
Often the natural surface of the earth
Topography is important, helping to define the shapes and patterns of the site

The overhead
Overhead space design involves form, height, pattern, density, solidity, translucence,
reflectivity, sound absorbence, texture, colour, symbolism and degree of enclosure

The verticals
Space dividers, screen baffles, back-drops; can be more open or more closed
Can include unusual elements such as waterfalls
Provide for enclosures of privacy, visual control
Can be a point of reference in a site
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10.2 Visible landscape

The view is a scene observed from a given vantage point (Simonds and Starke 2006:187):
A view is an evolving panorama of many blending factors.
A view is a theme. Its proper realization resembles the musical creation of variations on
a theme.
A view is a constantly changing mood-inducer.
A view is a limit of visual space. It transcends the boundaries of the site. It is directional
in pull. It may evoke a sense of expansive freedom.
A view is a backdrop. It may serve as a wall of a garden or as a mural in a room.
A view is a setting for architecture (Simonds and Starke 2006:187).
One can be lead towards it, provides power of suggestion, and stimulates the
imagination through a process of concealment and revealment.

The vista
A vista is a confined view, usually directed toward a terminal or dominant feature (Simonds
and Starke 2006:191)

The axis
the axis is a linear plan element connecting two or more points (Simonds and Starke
2006:194)
It is directional, orderly, dominating, often monotonous
Often seen as a unifying element, linking spaces in a site

Symmetry versus asymmetry

Exactly how a site and its elements are organised impacts upon the visitor. A symmetrical
design can be formal or balanced whereas the asymmetrical can be more fanciful and playful.

Visual resource management

This describes the planning and management practices directed toward preserving or
enhancing the aesthetic quality of an area often referred to as a viewshed (Simonds and
Starke 2006:210)

10.3 Circulation

Experience is rarely static; almost always, motion is involved in the person or in the thing
experienced (Simonds and Starke 2006:213).
Access into or through spaces and sites involve motion.
Motion is impelled by form:
o Curvilinear Erratic Meandering Direct
o In-circling Dispersing Looping Passing
o Returning Diverging Congregating Rounding
o Ascending with Friction Homing Converging
o Tenuous Obscure with Interference Massive
o Interrupted Conditional Concentration with Diversion
We are attracted to: that which is impressive, the unusual, the admirable, to patterns
and that which is necessary; the spectacular, the inspirational, the exotic, the restful, the
subtle, the appealing, the dramatic; the weird, the elegant, the bold.
Often drawn through a sequence or succession of perceptions
 29

10.4 Structures

While structures are human creations, these are to be seen as resolution a specific purpose
in time and place.
Composition of structures: When a structure is to be related to a given area or space,
both the shape and the area or space will be affected by the positioning of the structure
(Simonds and Starke 2006:251).
AS will it due to the nature of the structure, the materials of the structure, the purpose of
the structure (fanciful, pragmatic purpose).
Can involve a single structure or several structures. With diverse plan elements one
needs to emphasize circulation and connectivity.
Again, as Lao-tse observes, it is the space that is more important that the structures.
How open spaces are integrated is vital in design.
The complexity of design increases with scale from single areas/sites to habitations, to
communities, urban areas to the regional landscape.

11.0 The planned environment

Simonds and Starke (2006:350) write By proven planning techniques and legislative
measures, the presently scattered urban components can be gathered up and regrouped into
activity nodes of various types each fitted harmoniously to the land, each more self-
sufficient and complete, and each connected by parkways and aerial glide ways to an
intensified urban core.
They express a belief in rationalism bound with inspiration.
But there is much more than this from a geographic or environmental vantage where we
acknowledge the important [and some, the rights] of non-human actors in the processes
of planning, designing and creating.

Planning requires adherence to a conservation credo that holds from a landscape planning
perspective (Simonds and Starke 2006:350):
A long-term strategy for the wise and sustainable use, restrictions and replenishment of
our natural resources.
The preservation of our ecologic, historic, and scenic superlatives.
Public access to beaches, shores and open-space lands for compatible use and
enjoyment.
The provision of scenic parkways, hiking and biking trails, and cross-country greenway
corridors.
Controlled-access highways that sweep around, not through, plant and animal
communities and human settlements.
The logic of carrying capacity in land use management, rather than (superficial) area
zoning.
Communities fitted to and around the best features of the landscape.
An end to urban sprawl and the scourge of scatteration.
More compact and efficient cities and towns spaced out within a protected open-space
frame of productive farmland, forest and nature preserves.
The fostering through education of a caring concern for the well-being of the Earth.

Through this process we need to consider environmental issues, growth management,

regional planning, forms of civic action, conservation, and global action.
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Principle References

Christopherson, R. and M.-L. Byrne. 2009. Geosystems. An Introduction to Physical Geography.

Toronto: Prentice-Hall. 2nd edition

Clifford, N.J. and G. Valentine. 2003. Key Methods in Geography. London: Sage Publications.
Sproull, N.L. 2002. Handbook for Research Methods. Lanham, Maryland: The Scarecrow Press
Inc. 2nd edition.

Simonds, J.O. and B.W. Starke. 2006. Landscape Architecture. A Manual of Environmental
Planning and Design. New York/Toronto: McGraw-Hill.