Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1. Power Transformers.........................................................................................................2
- Introduction part in the power system;
- Construction and technology - core, windings, housing, cooling;
- Energy losses;
- Circulation and magnetization current;
- Group of winding connections;
- Parallel operation;
- Exciting current inrush.
2. Turbogenerators and Hydrogenerators.............................................................................23
- Parameters and characteristics;
- Construction and technology - core, windings, housing, cooling;
- Selected problems of exploitation;
- Surge short circuit;
- Circuit parameters.
3. Induction Motors and Generators.....................................................................................41
- Construction;
- Parameters and characteristics;
- Condition of operation of Induction Generator.
4. Generators for wind power plants....................................................................................55
- Wind power plants;
5. Permanent Magnet Generator...........................................................................................67
- Magnets.
6. References.........................................................................................................................83
Laboratory
1. Determination of selected parameters of synchronous generator.
2. Testing the magnetization conditions of the 3-phase transformer.
3. Measurements of induction generator.
Fig.1.1. Air core tramsformers of cylindrical Fig.1.2. Single phase core type transformer
(a) or toroidal (b) forms.
Shell core transformers (and core type transformers) are burdensome in production. For
easy assemble purpose, distributed gap cores are proposed (Fig.1.5). Due to reduction of
assembled lamination elements (what results in reduction of air gap) significant increase of
efficiency is achieved. However high assemble precision must be kept.
Shell type transformer (transformator paszczowy) core encircles most part of the
winding (Fig.1.6). Construction used for very high voltage transformers.
.
Fig.1.10. Three phase medium power column transformer with taped coil winding. a) Dry transformer voltage
adjustment made by changing keeper-connector. b) Oil immersed transformer voltage adjustment made by
external connector.
5
Power lost due to resistance of the wire windings. Unless superconducting wires are
used, there will always be power dissipated in the form of heat through the resistance of
current-carrying conductors. Because transformers require such long lengths of wire, this loss
can be a significant factor. Increasing the gauge (cross section) of the winding wire is one
way to minimize this loss, but only with substantial increases in cost, size, and weight.
The main strategy in mitigating these wasteful eddy currents in transformer cores is to
form the iron core in sheets, each sheet covered with an insulating varnish so that the core is
divided up into thin slices. The result is very little width in the core for eddy currents to
circulate in.
Fig.1.13. Core iron histeresis loop of 3,5 kVA column 3-phase transformer.
Fig.1.14. Cobalt-Iron Alloys have the highst saturation polarisation and surpass all known soft magnetic
materials.
Transformer energy losses tend to worsen with increasing frequency. Lets discuss
behavior of single conductor. Self induced eddy currents that appear in the conductor oppose
main current changes in the centre of the conductor and support changes in the surface area as
it is explained in Fig.1.15.
AC current density is highest close to the surface and lowest along conductor axe. In case
of high frequency currents, non-zero current density exists only within the thin surface region.
Changes of conductor resistance evoked by this phenomenon describe equation:
1 k4 /3 k 1
R
0,997k 0,277 dla 1,5 k 10 (1.1)
R0
k 1 / 4 3 / 64k k 10
where: R RMS conductor resistance of radius r for AC current of pulsation ;
R0 conductor resistance for DC current;
r r
k r ;
rsk 2
characteristic electric conductivity;
2
rsk - efficacious depth of AC current penetration (distance from conductor
r
In a conductor carrying current, if currents are flowing through one or more other nearby
conductors, such as within a closely wound coil of wire, the distribution of current within the
first conductor will be constrained to smaller regions (Fig.1.16).
The resulting current crowding is termed the proximity effect or skin effect.The skin
effect within winding conductors reduces the available cross-sectional area for electron
flow, thereby increasing effective AC resistance as the frequency goes up and creating more
power lost through resistive dissipation (the AC resistance of a conductor can easily exceed
ten times its DC resistance).
Magnetic core losses are also exaggerated with higher frequencies, eddy currents and
hysteresis effects becoming more severe. For this reason, transformers of significant size are
designed to operate efficiently in a limited range of frequencies. In most power distribution
systems where the line frequency is very stable, one would think excessive frequency would
never pose a problem.
Stray losses. Leakage inductance is by itself lossless, since energy supplied to its
magnetic fields is returned to the supply with the next half-cycle (Fig.1.17). However, any
leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the transformer's support
structure will give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat.
10
d12 d
e1 z1 , e2 z2 12 , (1.2)
dt dt
where: e1, e2 primary and secondary side Emf;
12 main flux.
e1 2 E1 sin t . (1.3)
Primary voltage U1 is balanced by Emf e1 and drop of voltage over winding impedance
forced by flux exciting current (which waveform is different from sinusoidal due to iron core
non linear characteristic Fig.1.18).
Flux exciting current varays from fraction of % to few % of nominal current. In this case
one can simplify:
1 1
d 2 E1 sin tdt 2 E1 sin( t ) m sin( t ) . (1.4)
z1 z1 2 2
11
E1 z1
Winding turn ratio . (1.6)
E2 z2
U1
Voltage ratio(transformer voltage ratio) u . (1.7)
U 20
13
Induced voltage e1 is plotted against time, and core flux lags e1 by 90. This flux is also
plotted against magnetizing current in the loop at the right. This loop has the same shape as
the B-H loop for the grade of iron used in the core, but the scales are changed:
BAc
, (1.8)
i Hlc / 0,4 N
where: B core flux density in gauss,
Ac core cross-sectional area in cm2,
H core magnetizing force in oersteds,
lc core flux path length in cm,
N number of wire turns.
Current is projected from the -i loop to obtain the alternating current i at the bottom of
Fig.1.20. This current contains both the magnetizing and the hysteresis loss components of
current. In core-material research it is important to separate these components, for it is mainly
through reduction of the B-H loop area (and hence hysteresis loss) that core materials have
been improved. Techniques have been developed to separate the exciting current components,
but it is evident that these components cannot be separated by current measurement only. It is
nevertheless convenient for analysis of measurements to add the loss components and call
their sum Iow, and to regard the magnetizing component If as a separate lagging current
14
Fig.1.23. Emf shape in case of: a) absence of higher harmonics in the magnetiztion current, b) presence of
higher harmonics in the magnetiztion current.
When the source cannot provide higher harmonics of current to flow (for example third
order harmonics in the case of Wye without zero line connection) the flux (flux density)
15
Special kind of connection is Wye to Zigzag (Y-Z) connection. We rarely use zigzag
configurations for typical industrial or commercial use, because they are more expensive to
construct than conventional wye-connected transformers. But zigzag connections are useful in
special applications where conventional transformer connections aren't effective.
Each of described above winding arrangement has unique features. The most important is
ability of secure transformer operation under the load asymmetry. Load asymmetry leads to
phase current asymmetry that can be transformed in to current positive, negative and zero
sequences:
IA IP
IB C IN , (1.9)
IC I0
1 1 1 1 h h2
were: C h2 h 1, C 1
1 h2 h ;
h h2 1 1 1 1
1 3
h j ;
2 2
1 3
h2 j .
2 2
16
Wye to Wye winding connection is the simplest one. In comparison with delta
arrangement wining requires 3 less winding turns but wire cross section has to be 3
greater (Fig.1.24).
Fig.1.24. Wye to Wye winding connecton. a) Schematic winding arrangement (ABC three phase input
voltage). b) Primary side voltages vector representation. c) Secondary side 0 o voltages shift in respect to input
voltage. d) Secondary side 180o voltages shift in respect to input voltage.
Transformer requires less sandwich winding, less insulation, more simple cooling system.
In consequence the copper filling factor is better. This kind of the transformer is used as a
small unit with symmetrical load as well as big energy transmission unit. Because of
enormous costs there is no zero line in high (primary) voltage side of transformer. Zero
sequence currents cant flow and voltage and magnetic asymmetry appears. Thats why
usually transmission unit is equipped with an additional compensating winding that
compensate zero sequence current and additionally secures third order magnetization current
sequence. Secondary side voltage phase shift (time shift) could be 0o (0h) or 180o (2h) as
explained in Fig.1.24c,d.
Fig.1.26. Star-zigzag winding connection. a) Schematic winding arrangement (ABC three phase input
voltage). b) Primary side voltage vectors representation. c) Example of secondary side 0o voltages shift in respect
to input voltage winding arranged in typical wye connection. d) Example of secondary side 330o voltages shift
in respect to input voltage winding arranged in one of the possible zigzag connection.
All the transformers connections can be classified in to distinct vector groups. Each vector
group notation consists of first an uppercase letter denoting HV (primary) connection, a
second lover case letter denoting LV (secondary) connection, followed by a clock number
representing LV windings phase displacement with respect o HV winding (at twelve oclock).
18
1- The line voltage ratio of the transformers should be equal. If the transformers
connected in parallel have slightly different voltage ratios, then due to the inequality of
induced emfs in the secondary windings the circulating current will flow in the loop formed
by the secondary windings under the no load conditions which may be much greater then the
normal no load current. The current will be quite high as the leakage impedance is quite low.
When the secondary windings are loaded, this circulating current will tend to produce unequal
loading on the two transformers, and it may be impossible to take he full load from this group
of two parallel (ore more) transformers. One transformer may get overloaded.
2- The transformers should have equal per unit leakage impedances and the same ratio
of equivalent leakage reactance to the equivalent resistance (X/R). If the ratings of both
the transformer are equal, their per unit leakage impedances should be equal in order to have
equal loading of both the transformers:
If the ratings are unequal, their per unit leakage impedances based on their own ratings should
be equal so that the currents carried by them will be proportional to their ratings. In other
words, for unequal ratings the numerical (ohmic) values of their impedances should be in the
inverse proportion to their ratings, to have current in them in line with their ratings.
A difference in the ratio of impedance value to resistance value of the per unit
impedance results in a different phase angle of the currents carried by the two parallel
transformers:
19
One transformer will be working with the higher power factor and the other with the lower
power factor than that of the combined output. Hence the real power will not be
proportionally shared by the transformers.
3- The transformers should have the same polarity. The transformers should be properly
connected with regard of their polarity. If they are connected with incorrect polarities then the
two emfs, induced in the secondary windings which are in parallel, will act together in the
local secondary circuit and produce a short circuit.
The previous three conditions are applicable to both single-phase as well as three-phase
transformers. In addition to these three conditions, two more conditions are essential for the
parallel operation of three-phase transformers:
4- Transformers should have the same phase sequence. The phase sequence of line
voltages of both the transformers must be identical for parallel operation of three-phase
transformers. If the phase sequence is an incorrect, in every cycle each pair of phases will get
short-circuited.
5- The transformers should have the zero relative phase displacement between the
secondary line voltages. The transformer windings can be connected in a variety of ways
which produce different magnitudes and phase displacements of the secondary voltage.
In order to have zero relative phase displacements of secondary side line voltages the
transformers belonging to the same group can be paralleled. For example two transformers
with Yd1 and Dy1 connections can be paralleled. The transformers of groups 1 and 2 can only
be paralleled with transformers from their own group. The transformers of groups 3 and 4 can
be paralleled by reversing the phase sequence of one of them.
20
d
e U m sin( t ) z
dt
et ut 0
0 U m sin , (1.12)
1
U m cos( t ) C
2 fz
where: Um voltage amplitude,
phase angle,
z number of the winding turns.
Constant C can be determined as follow:
Um
C 0 cos 0 m cos , (1.13)
2 fz
where: 0 residual flux.
In consquence:
m cos( t ) 0 m cos
, (1.14)
0 m [cos cos( t )]
21
peak 0 2m . (1.15)
At this point, the only thing that limits exciting current is the air-core impedance of the
winding, which is several orders of magnitude smaller than the normal magnetizing
impedance. Therefore, the exciting current is much greater than the normal exciting current
during the half cycle when the core is saturated. During the opposite half cycle, the core is no
longer saturated and the exciting current is approximately equal to the normal exciting current.
The situation is even more extreme when there is residual flux in the core and the direction of
the residual flux is in the same direction as the offset in the sinusoidal flux wave (Fig.27c,
Fig.28).
Peak inrush current is limited only by the air-core reactance XL [H] which is nothing else
but transformer winding without core reactance. XL can be determined on the base of
calculations:
A
XL 2 fz 2
, 0 (1.16)
l
where: A winding coil surface,
l length of the flux path (axial length of the coil),
A
z2 0 L inductance of the winding.
l
Generated flux L is equal to the residual flux plus 2 times the normal flux change minus
the saturation flux. Inductance is related to the flux L and the current as follow:
z L
L . (1.17)
I
z(
2 u s) 0
I peak , (1.18)
L
where: 0 residual flux, u normal flux change, 0 saturation flux.
Without resistance in the circuit, each successive peak would have the same value and the
current inrush would go on indefinitely. With resistance in the circuit, however, there is a
significant voltage drop across the resistance and the flux does not have to rise quite as high
as the previous cycle. The integral of the voltage drop represents a net decrease in the flux
required to support the applied voltage. Since the i * R voltage drop is always in the same
direction, each cycle decreases the amount of flux required.
22
When the peak value of flux falls below the saturation value of the core the inrush current
disappears. The rate of decay is not exponential although it resembles an exponentially
decaying current. For large power transformers, the inrush current can persist for several
seconds before it finally dies off. The line reactance has the effect of reducing the peak inrush
current by simply adding inductance to the air-core inductance of the winding. There is a
definite relationship between inrush current and short-circuit current because both are related
to the air-core inductance of the windings. (Remember that short circuits tend to exclude flux
from the core.) Typically, a rule of thumb is that peak inrush currents are a little over 90% of
peak short-circuit currents. The magnetic forces caused by inrush currents are generally much
smaller than short-circuit forces, however. Because only one winding per phase is involved,
there is no magnetic repulsion between windings. The whole problem of analyzing exciting
current inrush gets much more difficult when 3-phase transformers are involved. This is
because the phase angles of the exciting voltages are 120 apart, there are interactions of
currents and voltages between phases and the three poles of the switching device do not close
at exactly the same time. Nevertheless, it is safe to say that the peak magnitude of inrush
current for three-phase transformers approaches the short-circuit current levels. One of the
interesting features of exciting current inrush is that since the current is fully offset, there are
large percentages of even harmonics present. Even harmonics are otherwise rarely
encountered in power circuits.
23
24
Synchronous AC generators are considered either brush or brushless, based on the method
used to transfer DC exciting current to the generator field. In addition AC generators are
classified as salient-pole and non-salient-pole depending on the configuration of the field
poles. Projecting poles are salient poles units, and turbo type (slotted) are non-salient units.
Fig.2.2. Flux density distribution in air gap and induced emf in the phase winding of a (a) two pole and (b) four
pole synchronous machine.
25
By changing the shape of pole shoe (air gap thickness) the sinusoidal distribution of flux
density (magnetic induction) is obtained.
nf
Field ampere-turn: f If , (2.1)
p
where: nf number of wire turns
p number of pole pairs.
f U x , (2.2)
where: U x H xlx ,
Hx magnetic field strength,
lx flux path length.
1 1
Magnetomotive force: Ff f U x . (2.3)
2 2
Neglecting the drop of magnetic potential in the magnet core and yoke results in:
U f Ff , (2.5)
26
In Fig.2.5 the 2p rotor of small power synchronous machine and in Fig.2.6 shape of rotor
lamination is presented. Pole shoe holes are prepared for rotor rotational speed stabilization
cage.
Fig.2.5. Four pole small synchronous machine. Fig.2.6. Four pole rotor lamination.
Fig.2.7. The mmf of a distributed wondong on the rotor of non-salient pole generator.
Due to the winding distribution and/or air gap shape (Fig.2.8, Fig.2.9) resultant mmf is
very close to the space fundamental mmf that is stationary in respect to the rotor:
27
In practice higher tooth harmonics of induced stator winding voltage are dumped and
output voltage is sinusoidal.
Fig.2.8. Non-uniform rotor groves distribution. Fig.2.9. Non-uniform air gap distribution.
In turbogenerators as well as in hydrogenerators oil bearings are used. Oil (fluid) bearings
are frequently used in high load, high speed or high precision applications where ordinary ball
bearings have short life or high noise and vibration. They are also used increasingly to reduce
cost.
29
Due to the high flux density in the air gap stator windings are one turn ones. For the
purpose of minimalization of additional copper losses due to the non-uniform current density,
winding bar is made of several parallel branches with transposition.
31
Rotating exciters:
brush exciter require slip-
rings, commutators, brushes and
require periodic maintenance,
brushless exciter do not require
slip-rings, commutators, brushes
and are practically maintenance
free.
32
Fig.2.20. Radial stator and rotor cooling canals of machine cooling system.
33
Air cooled generators are produced in two basic configurations: open ventilated (OV) and
totally enclosed water-to-air-cooled (TEWAC). In the OV design, air is drawn from outside
the unit through filters, passes through the generator and is discharged outside the generator.
In the TEWAC design, air is circulated within the generator passing through frame mounted
air-to-water heat exchangers.
Hydrogen has attractive characteristics as a fluid to bathe the windings of the generator,
and to remove heat from the windings and deliver that heat to the cooling water. Hydrogen is
nearly the perfect cooling gas, except for being flamable:
- lowest density gas yields lowest drag (drag is proportional to fluid density, and
related to the square of the velocity),
- highest heat conductivity of any gas,
- controlled atmosphere to maintain Clean & Dry,
- inexpensive,
- easy to detect,
- excellent electrical properties,
- easy to manage not readily miscible with CO2 purge gas.
Hydrogen has a wide flammability range (4% to 75% hydrogen in air is hydrogen
flammability range). Unlike most applications involved with flammable gases, where the
effort is to keep the gas below the LFL (4%), the safety of hydrogen generator cooling is
based on staying above the UFL (75%). Operating above the UFL require experience in
operating a system. Every leak is a source of concern because the leak will pass through the
flammability envelope. Leak detection and mitigation is critical.
34
t t t
1 1 Td 1 1 Td 1 1 Ts
iz 2U if e e cos( t 0 ) cos( 0 )e , (2.9)
Xd Xd Xd Xd Xd Xd
35
U phN
- Machine impedance Zn , (2.10)
I phN
where: UphN nominal phase voltage,
IphN nominal phase current.
U if
Xd . (2.12)
I d position
37
Xd X aq X al . (2.13)
U if
Xd . (2.14)
I q position
Very small slip cause slow change of direct axis position in respect to the rotating magnetic
field. That means that periodically with slip frequency permaence of flux path changes
respectively from value ad to aq. Permeance change is equivalent to the armature reaction
reactance change from Xad to Xaq and in consequence synchronous reactance from Xd to Xq. As
a result of above changes also the armature current Ia changes from minimum to the
maximum value as well as indispensable - supply voltage U and voltage induced in the field
winding Uf. Zero value of Uf means direct axis rotor position, Uf = Ufmax means quadrature
rotor position. According to the above equation:
U max U min
Xd , Xq . (2.15)
3I min 3I max
38
From synchronous subtransient reactance Xd and Xq definition it is clear that the best
way to determine them is to perform surge short-circuit of synchronous generator. Since the
method is difficult to perform the static method is proposed. For direct and quadrature rotor
position the oscillatory ampere-turn is forced (supply voltage of value equel to (0,2 0,7)U is
applied to two phase generator terminals). Excitation winding is short-circuited with ampere-
meter the induced current appears. Flux produced changes with high frequency and the
phenomena is similar to the surge short-circuit. The corresponding formulas are as follow:
U max U min
Xd , Xq . (2.17)
2I min 2I max
3U
X0 . (2.18)
I
Ui U s cos X d Id
. (2.19)
U sin X q Iq
40
41
n = nN = const,
If
Induced voltage: Ui U iN ,
I fN
Nominal induced voltage: U iN (U phN X s I N sin N )2 ( X s I N cos N )2 ,
Phazor`s diagram:
Real power: Pin nN T 3I phs Rs ,
30
ZsIs
PX s Us
operating angle: arcsin , Ui
3U phNU iN
1
Stator current: I s U i2 U s2 2U sU i cos ,
Xs
Armature: The part of an electrical machine in which emf is generated and the load current flows.
Armature reaction: Effect of armature current on the resultant magnetic field distribution in an
electrical machine.
Automatic voltage regulator (AVR): A device that senses the terminal voltage and adjusts the
field excitation so that the terminal voltage is maintained at the specified value. For a grid-
connected synchronous machine, the AVR is used for reactive power control and to improve
stability.
Busbars: The locations to which synchronous generators and loads are connected in a power
system.
Load angle: This is the electrical angle between the no-load voltage E and the terminal voltage V
f
of a synchronous machine.
Phasor diagram: Diagram showing the relationship between electrical quantities, the concise
phasor representation being used for each quantity.
Synchronous speed: This is the speed of the armature rotating mmf. If the frequency of the
armature current is f Hz and the number of pole pairs is p, then the synchronous speed is equal to
f/p revolutions per second.
Voltage regulation: For a synchronous generator, the voltage regulation is the voltage rise at the
terminals when a given load is removed, both the speed and field excitation remaining unchanged.
43
44
Fig.3.3. Squirrel cage made of copper bars with ends welded to copper rings.
Viewed from the end, the rotor assembly resembles a squirrel cage, hence the name
squirrel- cage motor is used to refer to induction motors. In modern induction motors, the
most common type of rotor has cast-aluminum conductors and short-circuiting end rings.
45
Synchronous speed is the absolute upper limit of motor speed. At synchronous speed,
there is no difference between rotor speed and rotating field speed, so no voltage is induced in
the rotor bars, hence no torque is developed. Therefore, when running, the rotor must rotate
slower than the magnetic field. The rotor speed is just slow enough to cause the proper
amount of rotor current to flow, so that the resulting torque is sufficient to overcome windage
and friction losses, and drive the load. This speed difference between the rotor and magnetic
field, called slip, is normally referred to synchronous speed:
s 1 break
1 s 0 motor
ns nr
s s 0 generator , (3.2)
ns
s 1 transforme r
s 0 coil
where: s = slip,
ns synchronous speed,
nr rotor speed.
46
60 f s
nr ns (1 s) , or nr (1 s) , (3.3)
p
f r sf s . (3.4)
Stator induced voltage is proportional to the synchronous speed and resultant flux:
Induction motor equivalent circuit (Fig.3.6) that represents also mechanical power produced
in the machine Pm + Pout that is proportional to the rotor real resistance R2:
47
2
Copper losses in the stator windings: Pus ms Rs I phs , (3.9)
where: Rs stator phase winding resistance,
Rotor and stator iron losses depends on performance of used magnetic materials. New
technologies allow producing soft magnetic laminations with high saturation level and low
losses. Additionally new glued lamination technologies (combination of isolation and
oxidation layers) allow reaching maximum package densities for highest induction values. In
Fig 3.7 the comparison of iron losses for standard (Silicon-Iron) magnetic materials and
Cobalt-Iron magnetic materials with thinnest isolation layers is presented.
Fig.3.7. Reduction of iron losses due to better magnetic material and improved stacking technology.
Copper losses in rotor windings: Pur sPem , (for s=1 Pur Pem ), (3.11)
Assuming that RFe >> Rs, Xf >> Xs and Rr/s >> Rs, following parameters can be derived:
ms Rr' U s2
Electromagnetic torque: Tem ' 2
, T U2, (3.15)
' 2 (R )
2
s s Xs X r
s
49
Rr'
Critical slip: skr , (3.17)
X s X r'
(if Rr = Xs + Xr skr = 1 and Tem = Tkr).
Tem 2
Kloss equation can be formulated: . (3.18)
Tkr s skr
skr s
Tkr
Motor overload: u , (3.19)
Tld
(typically u > 2).
Polyphase induction motors are classified according to locked rotor torque and current,
breakdown torque, pull up torque, and percent slip.
- Locked rotor torque is the minimum torque that the motor develops at rest for all angular
positions of the rotor at rated voltage and frequency.
- Locked rotor current is the steady state current from the line at rated voltage and
frequency with the rotor locked.
50
51
- Characteristic B motors account for most of the induction motors sold. Often referred to
as general purpose motors, slip is 5% or less.
-Characteristic C motors have high starting torque with normal starting current and low
slip. This design is normally used where breakaway loads are high at starting, but
normally run at rated full load, and are not subject to high overload demands after running
speed has been reached. Slip is 5% or less.
-Characteristic D motors exhibit high slip (5 to 13%), very high starting torque, low
starting current, and low full load speed. Because of high slip, speed can drop when
fluctuating loads are encountered. This design is subdivided into several groups that vary
according to slip or the shape of the speed-torque curve. These motors are usually
available only on a special order basis.
- Shaded pole motors have a continuous copper loop wound around a small portion of
each pole (Fig.3.13).
The loop causes the magnetic field through the ringed portion to lag behind the field in the
unringed portion. This produces a slightly rotating field in each pole face sufficient to turn the
rotor. As the rotor accelerates, its torque increases and rated speed is reached. Shaded pole
motors have low starting torque and are available only in fractional and subfractional
horsepower sizes. Slip is about 10%, or more at rated load.
- Split phase motors, use both a starting and running winding (Fig.3.14).
As the motor comes up to speed (at about 25% of full-load speed), a centrifugal switch
actuated by the rotor, or an electronic switch, disconnects the starting winding (Fig.3.15).
Split phase motors are considered low or moderate starting torque motors and are limited to
about 200 W.
- Capacitor-start motors are similar to split phase motors. The main difference is that
a capacitor is placed in series with the auxiliary winding (Fig.3.15). This type of motor
produces greater locked rotor and accelerating torque per ampere than does the split phase
motor. Sizes range from fractional to 5 kW at 750 to 3000 rpm.
- Split-capacitor motors also have an auxiliary winding with a capacitor, but they
remain continuously energized and aid in producing a higher power factor than other
capacitor designs. This makes them well suited to variable speed applications.
54
That means that induction generator delivers active power to the grid but (similarly like
induction motor) absorbs reactive inductive power from grid. This is the main disadvantage of
induction generator. Another disadvantage is that induction generator cant individually force
voltage frequency.
Using external drive with regulated rotational speed, it is possible to force synchronous
state of operation of induction motor by increasing motor rotational speed up to synchronous
speed (s=0). Drive system delivers power to cover all mechanical losses in induction motor
(bearings and ventilation), and balancing parasitic electromagnetic torques. On the other side
grid delivers active power to cover winding and core losses as well as reactive power
necessary to build up flux in the motor (Fig.3.17).
After increasing shaft speed over synchronous speed (n > ns) slip became negative (s < 0)
and internal motor power became negative:
55
Rs Xs Xf , (3.21)
U Ui jX s I f
Ui jX f I f , (3.22)
Uc jX c I c
where: Xc capacitor reactance.
56
1 1
Xc Xf Xs Ls Lf Cmin 2
. (3.24)
C ( Ls Lf )
Ic I f I L , (3.25)
where: IL load reactive current.
Assuming generator overload up to 1,2 nominal current for determined power factor cos of
induction character current equation has form:
so
If I load cos
Cmax , (3.27)
U
and finally:
1 If I load cos
2
C . (3.28)
( Ls Lf ) U
Border values of capacitance C delivering necessary reactive power to the induction generator
together with magnetizing characteristic of induction motor/generator are presented in
Fig.3.19). Crossing points A1, A2, A3 of three values of capacitances C1, C2, C3 characteristics
with magnetizing characteristic determine generator operational voltage in no load state. For
capacitance value C2 and generator load IL voltage on the generator terminals is described by
point A. Voltage point A of generator operation is consequence of decreasing magnetizing
current (part of magnetizing current reactive current produced by capacitor C is absorbed by
load). Necessary condition to build up voltage of autonomously working induction generator
is preexistence of remanence magnetization that is representing in Fig.3.19 by remanence
voltage UR.
57
Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such as using
wind turbines to make electricity, wind mills for mechanical power, wind pumps for pumping
water or drainage, or sails to propel ships.
Large-scale wind farms (Fig.4.1) are connected to the electric power transmission network,
smaller facilities are used to provide electricity to isolated locations. Utility companies
increasingly buy back surplus electricity produced by small domestic turbines. However, wind
power is non-dispatchable, meaning that for economic operation, all of the available output
must be taken when it is available. Other resources, such as hydropower, and standard load
management techniques must be used to match supply with demand. The intermittency of
wind seldom creates problems when using wind power to supply a low proportion of total
demand.
Even though the cost of wind power has decreased dramatically in the past 10 years, the
technology requires a higher initial investment than fossil-fueled generators. Roughly 80% of
the cost is the machinery, with the balance being the site preparation and installation. If wind-
generating systems are compared with fossil-fueled systems on a "life-cycle" cost basis
(counting fuel and operating expenses for the life of the generator), wind power costs are
much more competitive with other generating technologies because there is no fuel to
purchase and minimal operating expenses.
Wind Power Density (WPD) is a calculation relating to the effective force of the wind at a
particular location, frequently expressed in terms of the elevation above ground level over a
period of time. It takes into account wind velocity and mass. Color coded maps are prepared
for a particular area described, for example, as "Mean Annual Power Density at 50 Meters."
The larger the WPD calculation, the higher it is rated by class. In Fig.4.3 mean wind velocity
map in Europe is presented.
59
Wind power is nonlinear function of wind velocity as it is presented in Fig.4.4. Wind turbines
locations with constantly high wind speeds bring best return on investment. With a wind
resource assessment it is possible to estimate the amount of energy the wind turbine will
produce.
60
The first known electricity generating windmill operated was a battery charging machine
installed in 1887 by James Blyth in Scotland. A forerunner of modern horizontal-axis wind
generators was in service at Yalta, USSR in 1931. This was a 100 kW generator on a 30 m
tower, connected to the local 6.3 kV distribution system. It was reported to have an annual
capacity factor of 32 per cent, not much different from current wind machines. The modern
wind power industry began in 1979 with the serial production of wind turbines by Danish
manufacturers Kuriant, Vestas, Nordtank, and Bonus. These early turbines were small by
today's standards, with capacities of 2030 kW each. Since then, they have increased greatly
in size (Fig.4.5, Fig.4.6), while wind turbine production has expanded to many countries.
Fig.4.5. 20 years of development of wind turbines (capacitances grew from 20 kW to 4,5 MW).
61
Wind turbine power Pw (assuming very thin propeller, incompressible and axial flow) can be
expressed as:
1
Pw D2 V 3 C g b , (4.1)
2 4
where: air density,
D diameter of turbine blades,
V velocity of the wind passing through the turbine blades,
C constant Betz' Law limiting factor,
g electric generator efficiency,
b gearbox efficiency.
Constant C shows the maximum possible that may be derived by means of an infinitely
thin rotor from a fluid flowing at a certain speed. According to the mass conservation
principle, the mass flow rate is given by:
m A1v1 Sv A2 v2 , (4.2)
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The force exerted on the wind by the rotor may be written as:
dv
F ma m m v Sv(v1 v2 ) . (4.3)
dt
dE F dx , (4.4)
dE dx
P F Fv . (4.5)
dt dt
P Sv 2 (v1 v2 ) . (4.6)
dE 1
P m (v12 v22 ) . (4.7)
dt 2
Taking into account continuity equation 4.2 a substitution for the mass flow rate yields the
following:
1
P Sv(v12 v22 ) . (4.8)
2
1 2 1 1
(v1 v22 ) (v1 v2 )( v1 v2 ) v(v1 v2 ) v (v1 v2 ) . (4.9)
2 2 2
65
1 1
E Sv(v12 v22 ) S (v1 v2 )(v12 v22 )
2 4
2 3 . (4.10)
1 v2 v2 v2
Sv13 1
4 v1 v1 v1
By differentiating E with respect to v2/v1 for a given fluid speed v1 and a given area S one
finds the maximum or minimum value for E (Fig.4.9). E reaches maximum value when
v2/v1=1/3.
16 1
Pmax Sv13 . (4.11)
27 2
In consequence work rate obtainable from a cylinder of fluid with cross sectional area S and
velocity v1 is:
1
P Sv13C , (4.12)
2
66
68
69
70
71
a) b)
Fig.5.2. Flux distribution in a) slotted and b) slotless PM generator/motor. Flux distribution in slot-less PM
generator reveals lack of cogging torque.
72
Slotted axial-flux machine (Fig.5.4), the shape of the stator as well as the rotor resembles
a pancake and these machines are commonly referred to as pancake machines. Double stator
slotted axial flux machine consists of two external stators and one inner rotor. The permanent
magnets are axially magnetized and they are surface mounted or inset into a cut window on
the rotor disc. In all axial flux machines, the rotor rotates relative to the stator with the flux
crossing the air-gap in the axial direction. The stator iron core is laminated in the radial
direction and resembles concentric rings that have a constant slot width and tapered teeth.
Generally axial-flux slotted machines have a smaller volume for a given power rating, making
the power density very high. However, it should be mentioned that as the power rating
increases and the outer radius becomes larger, the mechanical dynamic balance must be taken
into consideration for axial flux machines.
The low speed constructions (multi-pole) are superior to the high speed constructions,
which means that multi-pole PM generators are preferred in the application of small, gearless,
low speed wind system.
73
Fig.5.5. Permanent magnets development in last century. (BH max magnet energy)
Although ferromagnetic (and ferrimagnetic) materials are the only ones attracted to a
magnet strongly enough to be commonly considered magnetic, all other substances respond
weakly to a magnetic field, by one of several other types of magnetism. Some ferromagnetic
materials can be magnetised by a magnetic field but do not tend to remain magnetised when
the field is removed; these are termed soft. Permanent magnets are made from magnetically
hard ferromagnetic materials that stay magnetized.
Characteristics of magnetic materials are prezented on B and H plane and are named
histeresis loop (Fig.5.6).
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N
M m nm , (5.1)
V
where: N number of magnetic moments in the sample of magnetic material,
N/V = n density of magnetic moments.
The origin of the magnetic moments responsible for magnetization can be either microscopic
electric currents resulting from the motion of electrons in atoms, or the spin of the electrons or
the nuclei. Net magnetization results from the response of a material to an external magnetic
field, together with any unbalanced magnetic dipole moments that may be inherent in the
material itself; for example, in ferromagnets.
The magnetization M is given in SI units of ampere per meter (A/m). In CGS, the unit of
M is the oersted (Oe). One A/m equals 10-3 emu. A good permanent magnet can have a
magnetization as large as a million ampere per meter.
B 0 (H M) , (5.2)
where: 0 permeability of space equals 410-7 Tm/A.
B H 4 M, (5.3)
which is frequently considered as much easier for calculations and commonly used.
Materials that are not permanent magnets usually satisfy the linear relation:
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B 0 (1 )H 0 rH H, (5.5)
where: r = 1 + dimensionless relative permeability,
= 0r is the magnetic permeability,
is also valid. Both hard and soft magnets have a more complex (nonlinear), history-dependent,
relation between B and H, described by hysteresis loops (Fig.5.6, Fig.5.7).
From the point of view of magnets applied in electrical machine the demagnetization
characteristic is most important one. There are two very important points here. First is
Br(H=0). As the H field is reduced, B also falls. The value of B where H=0 is called
remenance, Br. The second is Hc(B=0), or coercive force. When the magnet reaches this
condition, it has no observable (external) field. This is because the applied field H=Hc is
balanced out by the flux M of the magnet material. Because they are in the opposite direction,
the net observable induction B is equal to zero.
76
Fig.5.9. Equivalent circuit of magnetic circuit consists of permanent magnet, ferromagnetic core and air gap.
Magnetic induction (flux density) insides the magnet according to 5.2 is equal:
Bm 0Hm Mm , (5.6)
where: Hm magnetic field strength inside magnet,
Mm magnetization of magnet.
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lm H m H lFe H Fe , (5.7)
where: lm magnet length,
Hm magnetic field strength determined by magnet operating point,
H magnetic field strength in the air-gap,
air-gap width.
Magnetic field strength in the air gap and magnetic field strength in the magnetic circuit core
(made of ferromagnetic material) have the same direction, so magnetic field strength inside
magnet has to have opposite direction. Accepting very high permeability of ferromagnetic
core Fe= equation 5.7 component lFe H Fe can be neglected:
lm H m H . (5.8)
On the base of magnetic field strength in the air gap the flux density in the air gap can de
determined:
B 0 H . (5.9)
Flux density in the air gap and magnet (neglecting flux leakage) is the same:
B Bm B. (5.10)
lm
B 0 Hm . (5.11)
In consequence assuming the same cross-sections of magnet and air-gap (which is normally
fulfilled), magnet operating point Bd on the demagnetization curve is determined by common
point of characteristic B=f(H) and characteristic of flux density in the air gap (magnet load
line) described by dependence 5.11. For non-operating machine this point is called open
circuit operating point (Fig.5.10).
Any change of the width of air-gap of premanent magnet circuit moves the magnetic
operating point on the demagnetization curve. Especially with steep demagnetization curve
the effect can cause strong dependence of the air gap induction from the air gap width.
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H
B Br 1 , (5.12)
H ca
where: Hca common point of approximated demagnetization characteristic with axe H.
Inclination of magnet load line is described by permeance coefficient P.C. Permanent magnet
flux in no-load state can be determined using formula (Fig.5.11):
d re
B p lm m, (5.14)
2
where: dre diameter of rotor with permanent magnet poles,
m magnet angle.
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The flux needed for excitation is set by the high, length and angle of the magnet. Stray
factor gives the ratio of the magnets total flux to usable flux in the air-gap and usually lies
between 1,5 and 5. In another words stray factor gives information of usable efficiency of
system. The field decay along the flux conducting parts and inner air-gaps of the magnetic
circuit and is counted fir by factor . Its value lies between 1 and 1,5 and normally mean value
of 1,2 is used. Having above in mind one can calculate magnets length:
B
lm , (5.16)
0 Hp
BS
Sm . (5.17)
Bp
B 2V
Vm . (5.18)
0 H p Bp
When the operating point is known, the energy produced by the magnet Em may be
calculated. This is calculated by multiplying the Bd value by the Hd value:
Em Bd H d . (5.19)
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For Straight Line demagnetization curve materials this point is at approximately Bd=1.1 Hd
(it is suitable to choose the operating point a little above BHmax the point of maximum BH
product). BHmax is commonly used to rate materials for maximum energy output per unit
volume. However, this does not mean that material with greater BHmax will always perform
better.
hm H k H k U ma , (5.21)
where: Hk critical strength of magnetic field in the magnet.
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As - Area of the air gap, or the cross sectional area of the air gap perpendicular to the flux
path, is the average cross sectional area of that portion of the air gap within which the
application interaction occurs. Area is measured in sq. cm. in a plane normal to the central
flux line of the air gap.
Am - Area of the magnet, is the cross sectional area of the magnet perpendicular to the
central flux line, measured in sq. cm. at any point along its length. In design, Am is usually
considered the area at the neutral section of the magnet.
B - Magnetic induction, is the magnetic field induced by a field strength, H, at a given point.
It is the vector sum, at each point within the substance, of the magnetic field strength and
resultant intrinsic induction. Magnetic induction is the flux per unit area normal to the
direction of the magnetic path.
Bd - Remnant induction, is any magnetic induction that remains in a magnetic material after
removal of an applied saturating magnetic field, Hs. (Bd is the magnetic induction at any
point on the demagnetization curve: measured in gauss.)
Bd/Hd. Slope of the operating line, is the ratio of the remnant induction, Bd, to a
demagnetizing force, Hd. It is also referred to as the permeance coefficient, shear line, load
line and unit permeance.
BdHd. Energy product indicates the energy that a magnetic material can supply to an external
magnetic circuit when operating at any point on its demagnetization curve; measured in
megagauss-oersteds.
(BH)max - Maximum energy product, is the maximum product of (BdHd) which can be
obtained on the demagnetization curve.
Bis (or J) - Saturation intrinsic induction, is the maximum intrinsic induction possible in a
material.
Bg - Magnetic induction in the air gap, is the average value of magnetic induction over the
area of the air gap, A; or it is the magnetic induction measured at a specific point within the
air gap; measured in gauss.
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Bm - Recoil induction, is the magnetic induction that remains in a magnetic material after
magnetizing and conditioning for final use; measured in gauss.
Bo - Magnetic induction, at the point of the maximum energy product (BH)max; measured in
gauss.
Br - Residual induction (or flux density), is the magnetic induction corresponding to zero
magnetizing force in a magnetic material after saturation in a closed circuit; measured in
gauss.
A closed circuit condition exists when the external flux path of a permanent magnet is
confined with high permeability material.
Curie Temperature. The transition temperature above which the alloy loses its magnetic
properties. This is not the maximum serviceable temperature, which is usually much lower.
The demagnetization curve is the second (or fourth) quadrant of a major hysteresis loop.
Points on this curve are designated by the coordinates Bd and Hd.
Domains. Areas in a magnetic alloy which have the same orientation. The magnetic domains
are regions where the atomic moments of atoms cooperate and allow for a common magnetic
moment. It is the domains which are rotated and manipulated by an external magnetizing field
to create a useful magnet which has a net magnetic moment. In un-magnetized material the
domains are un-oriented and cancel each other out. In this condition there is no net external
field.
Eddy currents, are circulating electrical currents that are induced in electrically conductive
elements when exposed to changing magnetic fields, creating an opposing force to the
magnetic flux. Eddy currents can be harnessed to perform useful work (such as dampening of
movement), or may be unwanted consequences of certain designs, which should be accounted
for of minimized.
Electromagnet, is a magnet, consisting of solenoid with an iron core, which has a magnetic
field existing only during the time of current flow through the coil.
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F - Leakage factor, accounts for flux leakage from the magnetic circuit. It is the ratio
between the magnetic flux at the magnet neutral section and the average flux present in the air
gap:
F=(Bm Am)/(B Ag).
F - Magneto motive force, (magnetic potential difference), is the line integral of the field
strength, H, between any two points, p1 and p2:
p2
F= H dl,
p1
where: F = magneto motive force in gilberts, H = field strength in oersteds, dl = an element of
length between the two points, in centimeters.
Ferromagnetic material, is a material whose permeability is very much larger than 1 (from
60 to several thousands times 1), and which exhibits hysteresis phenomena.
Flux is the condition existing in a medium subjected to a magnetizing force. This quantity is
characterized by the fact that an electromotive force is induced in a conductor surrounding the
flux at any time the flux changes in magnitude. The cgs unit of flux is the Maxwell.
A flux meter is an instrument that measures the change of flux linkage with a search coil.
Fringing fields are leakage flux particularly associated with edge effects in a magnetic circuit.
The gauss is the unit of magnetic induction, B, in the cgs electromagnetic system. One gauss
is equal to one maxwell per square centimeter.
A gauss meter is an instrument that measures the instantaneous value of magnetic induction,
B. Its principle of operation is usually based on one of the following: the Hall effect, nuclear
magnetic resonance (NMR), or the rotating coil principle.
The gilbert is the unit of magneto motive force F, in the cgs electromagnetic system.
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Hmv is that value of H corresponding to the recoil induction, B,; measured in oersteds.
Ho is the magnetic field strength at the point of the maximum energy product (BH)max;
measured in oersteds.
Hs Net effective magnetizing force, is the magnetizing force required in the material, to
magnetize to saturation measured in oersteds.
A hysteresis loop is a closed curve obtained for a material by plotting (usually to rectangular
coordinates) corresponding values of magnetic induction B, for ordinates and magnetizing
force H, for abscissa when the material is passing through a complete cycle between definite
limits of either magnetizing force H, or magnetic induction B.
Irreversible losses are defined as partial demagnetization of the magnet, caused by exposure
to high or low temperatures external fields or other factors. These losses are recoverable by
remagnetization. Magnets can be stabilized against irreversible losses by partial
demagnetization induced by temperature cycles or by external magnetic fields.
A keeper is a piece (or pieces) of soft iron that is placed on or between the pole faces of a
permanent magnet to decrease the reluctance of the air gap and thereby reduce the flux
leakage from the magnet. It also makes the magnet less susceptible to demagnetizing
influences.
Keepers. A keeper is a high permeability material, typically mild steel, which is installed on a
magnet or magnetic assembly to reduce the reluctance of the magnetic circuit. This reduces
the overall leakage fields generated by the magnet or magnetic assembly. Keepers are
typically installed to help the magnet or magnetic assembly resist demagnetization during
handling, transportation, or storage. Keepers are typically found on Alnico magnets and
Alnico magnetic assemblies.
Knee of the demagnetization curve is the point at which the B-H curve ceases to be linear.
All magnet materials, even if their second quadrant curves are straight line at room
85
Leakage flux is flux , whose path is outside the useful or intended magnetic circuit;
measured in maxwells.
lg - Length of the air gap, is the length of the path of the central flux line of the air gap;
measured in centimeters.
lm - Length of the magnet, is the total length of magnet material traversed in one complete
revolution of the centerline of the magnetic circuit; measured in centimeters.
lm/D - Dimension ratio, is the ratio of the length of a magnet to its diameter, or the diameter
of a circle of equivalent cross-sectional area. For simple geometries, such as bars and rods, the
dimension ratio is related to the slope of the operating line of the magnet BdHa.
Load line is a line drawn from the origin of the demagnetization curve with a slope of B/H,
the intersection of which with the B-H curve represents the operating point of the magnet.
Also see permeance coefficient.
Magnetic circuit, an assembly consisting of some or all of the following: permanent magnets,
ferromagnetic conduction elements, air gaps, and electrical currents.
Magnetic Length. The physical length of the magnet dimension which corresponds to the
direction the magnet is magnetized. This may or may not be the magnet's orientation direction.
The major hysteresis loop of a material is the closed loop obtained when the material is
cycled between positive and negative saturation.
The maxwell is the unit of magnetic flux in the cgs electromagnetic system. One maxwell is
one line of magnetic flux.
The neutral section of a permanent magnet is defined by a plane passing through the magnet
perpendicular to its central flux line at the point of maximum flux.
86
The oersted is the unit of magnetic field strength, H, in the cgs electromagnetic system. One
oersted equals a magneto motive force of one gilbert per centimeter of flux path.
An open circuit condition exists when a magnetized magnet is by itself with no external flux
path of high permeability material.
The operating line for a given permanent magnet circuit is a straight line passing through the
origin of the demagnetization curve with a slope of negative Bd/Hd. (Also known as
permeance coefficient line).
The operating point of a permanent magnet is that point on a demagnetization curve defined
by the coordinates (BdHd) or that point within the demagnetization curve defined by the
coordinates (BmHm).
An oriented (anisotropic) material is one that has better magnetic properties in a given
direction.
A permeameter is an instrument that can measure, and often record, the magnetic
characteristics of a specimen.
Pole pieces, are ferromagnetic materials placed on magnetic poles used to shape and alter the
effect of lines of flux.
Return path, are conduction elements in a magnetic circuit, which provide a low reluctance
path for the magnetic flux.
87
A search coil is a coiled conductor, usually of known area and number of turns that is used
with a flux meter to measure the change of flux linkage with the coil.
Tc - Curie temperature, is the transition temperature above which a material loses its magnet
properties.
Tmax - Maximum service temperature, is the maximum temperature to which the magnet
may be exposed with no significant long-range instability or structural changes.
Reversible temperature coefficients are changes in flux which occur with temperature
change. These are spontaneously regained when the temperature is returned to its original
point.Magnetic saturation of a material exists when an increase in magnetizing force produces
no increase in intrinsic induction.
The temperature coefficient is a factor which describes the reversible change in a magnetic
property with a change in temperature. The magnetic property spontaneously returns when the
temperature is cycled to its original point. It usually is expressed as the percentage change per
unit of temperature.
Vg - Air gap volume, is the useful volume of air or nonmagnetic material between magnetic
poles; measured in cubic centimeters.
88
- permeability, is the general term used to express various relationships between magnetic
induction, B, and the field strength, H.
re - recoil permeability, is the average slope of the recoil hysteresis loop. Also known as the
minor loop.
- magnetic flux, is a contrived but measurable concept that has evolved in an attempt to
describe the flow of a magnetic field. Mathematically, it is the surface integral of the
normal component of the magnetic induction B, over an area A.
= B dA,
where: = magnetic flux, in maxwells, B = magnetic induction, in gauss, dA = an element of
area, in square centimeters.
When the magnetic induction, B, is uniformly distributed and is normal to the area, A, the
flux, = BA.
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90