STANDARD MODEL OF

PARTICLE PHYSICS

BY:
UPVITA PANDEY
 OUTLINE

INTRODUCTION

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

WHAT IS STANDARD MODEL OF PHYSICS ?

PARTICLE CONTENT

FUNDAMENTAL FORCES

TESTS AND PREDICTIONS

LIMITATIONS OF SM

CHALLENGES

THEORETICAL PROBLEMS

 INTRODUCTION

In particle physics, an elementary particle is a particle

whose substructure is unknown, thus it is unknown whether it
is composed of other particles.

Known elementary particles include the fundamental

fermions(quarks, leptons, antiquarks and antileptons), which
generally are "matter particles" and antimatterparticles",

As well as the fundamental bosons (gauge bosons and Higgs

bosons), which generally are "force particles" that mediate
interactions among fermions.
Ancient times People think that earth, air, fire, and water are the fundamental elements.
1802 Daltons Atomic theory began forming.
1897 J. J. Thompson discovered the electron.
1911 Rutherford discovered positive nucleus.
1930 Pauli invented the neutrino particle.
1932 James Chadwick discovered the neutron.
1937 The muon was discovered by J. C. Street and E. C. Stevenson.
1956 First discovery of the neutrino by an experiment: the electron neutrino.

1962 Discovery of an other type of neutrino: the muon neutrino.

1969 Friedman, Kendall, and Taylor found the first evidence of quarks.

1974 The charmed quark was observed.

1976 The tau lepton was discovered at SPEAR.
1977 Experimenters found proof of the bottom quark.
1983 Carlo Rubbia and Simon Van der Meer discovered the W and Z bosons.

1991 LEP experiments show that there are only three light neutrinos.
1995 The top quark was found at Fermilab.
1998 Neutrino oscillations may have been seen in LSND and Super-Kamiokande.

2000 The tau neutrino was observed at Fermilab.

2003 A Five-Quark State has been discovered.
2013 Discovery of Higgs Boson.
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The first step towards the Standard Model was Sheldon Glashows
discovery in 1961 of a way to combine the electromagnetic and weak
interactions.

In 1967 Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam incorporated the Higgs

mechanism into Glashows electroweak theory, giving it a modern form.

The Higgs mechanism is believed to give rise to the masses of all the
elementary particles in the Standard Model. This includes the masses of
the W and Z bosons, and the masses of the fermions, i.e.
the quarks and leptons.

After the neutral weak currents caused by Z boson exchange were

discovered at CERN in 1973, the electroweak theory became widely
accepted and Glashow, Salam, and Weinberg shared the 1979 Nobel Prize
in Physics for discovering it.

The W and Z bosons were discovered experimentally in 1981, and their

 WHAT IS
STANDARD
MODEL ?

The Standard Model

explains how the basic
building blocks of
matter interact,
governed by four
fundamental forces and
classifies all the
subatomic particles
known. Because of its
success in explaining a
wide variety of
experimental results,
the Standard Model is
sometimes regarded as
a "theory of almost
everything".
 PARTICLE CONTENT
The Standard Model includes members of several classes of elementary
particles (fermions, gauge bosons, and the Higgs boson), which in turn can be
distinguished by other characteristics, such as color charge.

FERMIONS GAUGE BOSONS HIGGS BOSON

 FERMIONS

Fermions are divided into two groups of six, Those that must bind
together are called Quarks and those that can exist independently are
called Leptons.
QUARKS LEPTONS
Six leptons (electron, electron
Six quarks (up, down, charm,

neutrino, muon, muon neutrino,

strange, top, bottom). tau, tau neutrino)

they carry color charge.

do not carry colour

they carry electric charge and charge

weak isospin.
three neutrinos do not carry
electric charge
Fermions obey the pauli exclusion principle. They are characterized by
Fermi-Dirac statistics. They have half integer spin.
 GAUGE
BOSONS

Gauge Bosons are of

four types and are
classified on the
basis of force they
interact with-

Photon-
Electromagnetic
Force

Gluon- Strong Force

W and Z boson-
Weak Force

They have integral

spins and the spin of
 HIGGS BOSON
@
The Higgs particle is a massive scalar elementary particle theorized
by Robert Brout, Francois Englert, Peter Higgs, Gerald Guralnik, C. R.
Hagen, and Tom Kibble in 1964 and is a key building block in the Standard
Model

@
It has no intrinsic spin, and for that reason is classified as a boson.

@
Because the Higgs boson is a very massive particle and also decays almost
immediately when created, only a very high-energy particle accelerator can
observe and record it.

@
On 14 March 2013 the Higgs Boson was tentatively
confirmed to exist.
 WHAT ARE
FUNDAMENTAL
FORCES ?

The Standard Model

classified all four
fundamental forces in
nature. In the Standard
Model, a force is
described as an
exchange
of bosons between the
objects affected, such as
a photon for the
electromagnetic force
and a gluon for the
strong interaction.
Those particles are
called force carriers.
 TESTS AND PREDICTIONS

The Standard Model (SM)

predicted
QUANTITY
theMEASURED
existenceSMof the W
PREDICTION

andMassZofbosons,
W
(GeV)
gluon, and
80.387 0.019
(GeV)
80.390 0.018

theMass
topof Zand charm
boson
91.1876
quarks before
91.1874 0.0021

these
boson
particles 0.0021
were observed.
The SM also makes several predictions about the decay of Z bosons,
which have been experimentally confirmed by the Large Electron-
Positron Collider at CERN.
 LIMITATIONS

The model does not incorporate the full theory of gravitation, as described
by general relativity or account for the accelerating expansion of the
universe.

The model does not contain any viable dark matter particle that possesses
all of the required properties deduced from observational cosmology.

It also does not incorporate neutrino oscillations (and their non-zero

masses).
 CHALLENGES

GRAVITY - The standard model does not explain gravity. The approach of
simply adding a "graviton" to the Standard Model does not recreate what is
observed experimentally without other modifications. Moreover, instead, the
Standard Model is widely considered to be incompatible with the most
successful theory of gravity to date, general relativity.

DARK MATTER AND DARK ENERGY - Cosmological observations tell us

the standard model explains about 5% of the energy present in the universe.
About 26% should be dark matter, which would behave just like other matter,
but which only interacts weakly (if at all) with the Standard Model fields. Yet,
the Standard Model does not supply any fundamental particles that are good
dark matter candidates. The rest (69%) should be dark energy, a constant
energy density for the vacuum. Attempts to explain dark energy in terms of
vacuum energy of the standard model lead to a mismatch of 120 orders of
magnitude.

MATTER-ANTIMATTER ASYMMETRY - The universe is made out of
mostly matter. However, the standard model predicts that matter and
antimatter should have been created in (almost) equal amounts if the initial
conditions of the universe did not involve disproportionate matter relative
to antimatter. Yet, no mechanism sufficient to explain this asymmetry exists
in the Standard Model.

MUONIC HYDROGEN - Standard Model makes precise theoretical

predictions regarding the atomic radius size of ordinary hydrogen (a
proton-electron system) and that of muonic hydrogen (a proton-muon
system in which a muon is a "heavy" variant of an electron). However, the
measured atomic radius of muonic hydrogen differs significantly from that
of the radius predicted by the Standard Model.
 THEORETICAL PROBLEMS
Some features of the standard model are added in an ad hoc way. These are not
problems per se, but they imply a lack of understanding.

Number of parameters Standard model depends on 19 numerical

parameters. Their values are known from experiment, but the origin of the
values is unknown. Some theorists have tried to find relations between
different parameters, for example, between the masses of particles in
different generations.

Quantum triviality - Suggests that it may not be possible to create a

consistent quantum field theory involving elementary scalar Higgs
particles.
Strong CP problem - Theoretically it can be argued that the standard model
should contain a term that breaks CP symmetry, relating matter to antimatter,
in the strong interaction sector. Experimentally, however, no such violation has
been found, implying that the coefficient of this term is very close to zero.
This fine tuning is also considered unnatural.
BEYOND STANDARD MODEL

While the Standard Model goes a long way towards explaining the "whys"
of physical interactions, there are still many mysteries yet to be solved.

Due to these shortcomings of the standard model, a need for theories beyond
the standard model arose. These theories attempt to resolve the shortcomings
of standard model.
 GRAND UNIFICATION

The standard model has three gauge symmetries; the colour SU(3), the
weak isospin SU(2), and the hypercharge U(1) symmetry, corresponding to
the three fundamental forces.

Due to renormalization the coupling constants of each of these symmetries

vary with the energy at which they are measured. Around 10^16 GeV these
couplings become approximately equal.

This has led to speculation that above this energy the three gauge
symmetries of the standard model are unified in one single gauge
symmetry with a simple gauge group, and just one coupling constant.
Below this energy the symmetry is spontaneously broken to the standard
model symmetries.
 SUPERSYMMETRY

Supersymmetry extends the Standard Model by adding another class of

symmetries to the Lagrangian. These symmetries exchange fermionic particles
with bosonic ones. Such a symmetry predicts the existence of supersymmetric
particles, abbreviated as sparticles, which include
the sleptons, squarks, neutralinos, and charginos. Each particle in the Standard
Model would have a superpartner whose spin differs by 1/2 from the ordinary
particle. Due to the breaking of supersymmetry, the sparticles are much
heavier than their ordinary counterparts; they are so heavy that
existing particle colliders would not be powerful enough to produce them.
However, some physicists believe that sparticles will be detected by the Large
Hadron Collider at CERN.
 STRING THEORY

String theory is a theoretical framework in which the point-like

particles of particle physics are replaced by one-dimensional objects
called strings. String theory describes how these strings propagate
through space and interact with each other.
On distance scales larger than the string scale, a string looks just like an
ordinary particle, with its mass, charge, and other properties determined
by the vibrational state of the string.
In string theory, one of the vibrational states of the string corresponds
to the graviton, a quantum mechanical particle that carries gravitational
force. Thus string theory is a theory of quantum gravity.
 TECHNICOLOR

Technicolor theories try to modify the Standard Model in a minimal way by

introducing a new QCD-like interaction. This means one adds a new theory of
so-called Techniquarks, interacting via so called Technigluons. The main idea
is that the Higgs-Boson is not an elementary particle but a bound state of these
objects.
 PREON THEORY

According to preon theory there are one or more orders of particles more
fundamental than those (or most of those) found in the Standard Model. The
most fundamental of these are normally called preons, which is derived from
"pre-quarks". In essence, preon theory tries to do for the Standard Model what
the Standard Model did for the particle zoo that came before it. Most models
assume that almost everything in the Standard Model can be explained in
terms of three to half a dozen more fundamental particles and the rules that
govern their interactions. Interest in preons has waned since the simplest
models were experimentally ruled out in the 1980s.
 ACCELERON THEORY

Accelerons are the hypothetical subatomic particles that integrally link the
newfound mass of the neutrino and to the dark energy conjectured to be
accelerating the expansion of the universe.

In theory, neutrinos are influenced by a new force resulting from their

interactions with accelerons. Dark energy results as the universe tries to
pull neutrinos apart.