Galley: Article No.
0160
CANNING
Cans and their Manufacture
M.de F. Filipe Pocas, Ecola Superior de
Biotechnologia, Universidade Catolica Portuguesa,
Portugal
Copyright 2003, Elsevier Science Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
doi:10.1006/rwfn.2003.0160
Filipe Pocas, M de F
Ecola Superior de Biotechnologia,
Universidade Catolica Portuguesa,
Servicos de Embalagem (Packaging Services),
Rua Dr. Antonio Bernardino de Almeida,
Portugal
Cans
0001 Cans for food and drinks may be manufactured in tin
plate, tin-free steel, or aluminium. Depending on the
metal to be used and on the type of can, different
production methods may also be used to manufacture
cans. The characteristics of the metals and the oper-
ations to produce and close the cans are described
below. Additionally, information is given on the poly-
meric coatings used to avoid undesirable interactions
between the product and the metal surface.
Types of Cans for Foods and Drinks
0002 Metal cans for foods and drinks are usually classified
in three-piece cans and two-piece cans. The can com-
ponents and the terms commonly used to designate
different parts of a can are shown in Figure 1. Cans in
the first group are composed of a welded body and
two seamed ends and are usually made in tinplate.
The two-piece cans have the body and the bottom end
in a single piece and a seamed top end. They are made
in tinplate, aluminum, or tin-free steel, and are pro-
duced by the DrawRedraw (DRD) process or by the
Draw-Wall-Ironing (DWI) process. The DRD process
is used to produce shallow cans, with a height/diam-
eter ratio, low in whereas the DWI process is typically
used for drink cans, commonly with a high height/
diameter ratio. These cans have a very thin wall, thus
lacking mechanical resistance. They are used for car-
bonated drinks where the high pressure from the
product (very often around 4 atm) imparts the re-
quired resistance. In still drinks, the application of
liquid nitrogen in the headspace yields a high internal
pressure.
0003 A wide variety of can shapes are available: round,
rectangular, oval, trapezoidal, etc. The circular can is
CANNING/Cans and their Manufacture 1
the most popular shape because it is the easiest shape
to seam and uses the least metal sheet area for a given
volume content. Rectangular shapes are common for
processed fish because this format benefits the prod-
uct presentation when the consumer opens the can.
For a given can capacity, the surface area of metal 0004
required for round cans is minimal when the can
diameter equals its height. The dimensions of cans
are designed, taking into consideration this diam-
eter/height ratio so as to maximize the efficiency of
metal usage. However, it is easier and less expensive
to reset a production line to make a can with a differ-
ent height than to change its diameter, and thus
a standard can diameter system was developed
(Table 1 shows the standard diameters of round
cans in both imperial and metric units). Therefore
certain can dimensions have been commonly used
for certain capacities of cans. The nominal size of
round cans is given as diameter  height. The dimen-
sions of rectangular cans are given as three sets of
numbers: the first two sets are base dimensions, and
the third is the height dimension. The units conven-
tionally used are millimeters for metric units; imperial
dimensions are given in three digits: the fist digit is in
whole inches, and the second two digits indicate
16ths of an inch. For example, a can designated as
307  403, is 37/16 inches in diameter and 43/16
inches in height. Table 2 shows some of the more
widely used cans for foods.
Metallic Materials
Tinplate is the material used more widely in cans for 0005
foods. The term tinplate refers to a low-carbon mild
steel sheet with a coating of tin on each surface of the
material (Figure 2a). The steel varies from around
0.12 to 0.5 mm in thickness. The thickness and hard-
ness of the tinplate are selected as a function of the
can size and format, as well as taking into consider-
ation the mechanical solicitations during the thermal
processing and handling. In general, the smaller the
diameter of the can, the thinner the body wall and
ends may be to withstand the imposed loads. Larger
cans with thinner walls may be used if wall beading is
provided. Double-reduced steel (steel that has under-
gone a second cold reduction before tinplating) also
enables downgauging with no loss of performance.
This steel has additional strength, but is less ductile
compared with the single reduced plate, which may
impose some limitations to the can-manufacturing
process.

2 CANNING/Cans and their Manufacture
0006 The tin coating is applied in weights from 1.0 to
11.2 g m 2, with the same or different amounts of
tin on each surface. Differentially coated tinplate is
identified by marking a set of parallel lines, the line
pattern being related to the differential weight com-
bination. Normally, the pattern is applied on the
more heavily coated surface, inside the can, where
greater protection is needed. Figure 3 shows the tin
coating weights used and, in the case of differentially
coated steel, the pattern of marking lines.
0007 The steel strip usually has a passivation treatment
to render its surface more stable and resistant to the
atmosphere, as well as to improve lacquer adhesion.
Passivation treatment results in the formation of a top
layer of chromium and chromium oxides and tin
oxides. After the passivation, the plate is given a
light oiling to help preserve it from attack and to
assist the passage of sheets through container-forming
machines without damaging the soft tin layer.
0008 Tin-free steel (TFS) or electrolytic chromium-
coated steel (ECCS) is low-carbon steel coated with
metallic chromium and chromium oxides with a
weight of around 80 and 20 mg m 2, respectively
(Figure 2b). The surface of TFS has a better adhesion
to protective lacquer coatings or printing inks and
varnishes than tinplate. It requires shorter times in
curing enamels (since higher temperatures may be
used, due to the lack of a low-melting-point tin
layer) but is less resistant to corrosion than tinplate.
TFS is not used in three-piece cans, because it cannot
be soldered by traditional techniques, nor in DWI
two-piece cans because its hard and rough surface
makes drawing operations in uncoated metal imprac-
ticable. Therefore, TFS is frequently used for can ends
and DRD two-piece cans.
0009 Aluminum is a light metal, easy to work through-
out most of the conventional can-forming processes.
Aluminum is used for two-piece containers only, DWI
and singly or multiply drawn cans, but it is also
formed into easy-open ends. Aluminum cans may
also be formed by impact extrusion, this type of can
normally being used for monobloc aerosols.
0010 Aluminum body stock is available in a range of
thicknesses from 0.25 to 0.30 mm, whereas end
stock covers the range from 0.30 to 0.38 mm. Most
commercial applications of aluminum require special
properties that the pure metal cannot provide. There-
fore, alloying agents are added to impart strength,
improve formability, and influence corrosion charac-
teristics. A wide range of alloys are commercially
available for packaging applications, depending on
the container design and fabrication method being
used. The alloys are identified by four-digit numbers
where the value of the first digit indicates the alloy
type and the principal alloying ingredient. For
Galley: Article No. 0160
example: 2xxx for copper, 3xxx for manganese,
4xxx for silicon, and 5xxx for magnesium. Series
1xxx represents aluminum with 99.00% or higher
purity. Commercially pure aluminum (types 1100
and 1050) is used for the manufacture of foil and
extruded containers since it is the least susceptible to
work hardening. For rigid packaging, the alloy elem-
ents used are manganese and magnesium (alloy types
3004 and 5184). When the aluminum surface is ex-
posed to the atmosphere, a layer of aluminum oxides
is naturally formed, which protects the metal from
further oxidation. This self-protecting characteristic
gives the aluminum its high resistance to corrosion,
unless it is exposed to some substance that destroys
this passivation layer. Aluminum will corrode on con-
tact with products with a pH lower than 4 or higher
than 9, and when used for manufacturing cans for
food and beverage products, it is always coated with a
organic lacquer in the internal surface.
Manufacturing Processes
Steel and aluminum are initially in coil form, so sheet 0011
cutting is often the first manufacturing process. This
operation can be performed by the can-maker if coil
cut-up lines are available in the plant. Otherwise,
material must be acquired already in sheet form.
Sheets to be used for the production of can ends or
round DRD cans are scroll-cut (Figure 4). This is a
method used to cut coil into sheets in a pattern, which
reduces metal wastage. It enables circular blanks to
be packaged more densely: skeleton scrap is reduced
by a third compared with straight-cut sheet.
Three-piece Cans
Starting with metal sheets, rectangular in format and 0012
with dimensions suiting the can body size (Figure 5a),
the sheets are coated on the side that will become the
internal surfaces of the finished cans (Figure 5b). This
special lacquer protects the can itself from corrosion
and limits the interaction between the contents and
the metal. However, welding margins should be left
uncoated since the polymeric nature of the lacquer
would influence the electric current passage through
the metal (see details below). The lacquer is cured as
sheets pass in an oven (Figure 5c). The sheet may also
be printed for decoration on the other side, unless a
paper label is to be used.
The sheets are fed into a slitter, where they are cut 0013
into body can blanks (Figure 5d). The blank is then
fed to the forming rolls, which generate a cylinder
with the edges of the side seam (Figure 5e). The
cylinder edges are welded by squeezing them together
whilst passing an electric current through them

(Figure 5f). This heats up the metal sufficiently for a
sound join to be made. To protect the weld seam, a
coating is applied immediately after the can body
exits the welder, in both sides of the side seam
(Figure 5g). Powder coating is usually applied electro-
statically to the interior of the side seam.
0014 The cans are passed through a flanger, where the
top and bottom of the can are flanged outwards to
accept the ends (Figure 5h). Ends, produced else-
where, are seamed to the can bodies to close one
end (called the `maker's end') of every can (Figure 5i).
0015 Depending on the can design, cans are passed
through a beader, where the walls of the cans have
circumferential beads formed (Figure 5j). Beading of
the can body wall, although reducing the top-load
resistance of the can, allows for a reduction in wall
thickness without sacrificing paneling performance.
0016 Testing is performed with high-pressure air to
detect pinholes and poor seams on every can, and
the finished can bodies are then transferred to the
warehouse to be automatically palletized before de-
livery to the filling plant.
DWI Two-piece Cans
0017 Aluminum or steel coil (Figure 6a) is lubricated with a
thin film of oil and then fed continuously through a
cupping press (Figure 6b), which stamps and draws
disks into cups at a rate of more than 1500 cans per
minute. Each cup is rammed through a series of tung-
sten carbide rings for drawing and ironing. This pro-
cess redraws the cup to smaller diameter and thins the
walls, whilst increasing the height leading to un-
trimmed cans (Figure 6c).
0018 Trimmers remove the surplus irregular edge and
cut each can to a precise specified height (Figure 6d).
The trimmed can bodies are passed through washers
(Figure 6e) for removal of all traces of lubricant
and then dried in preparation for internal and exter-
nal coatings. The clean cans are coated externally
(Figure 6f) with a clear or pigmented base coat,
which forms a good surface for the printing inks.
The cans pass through a hot air oven to dry the
lacquer (Figure 6g).
0019 The next step is the application of the print design
in up to six colors, and a varnish, by a highly sophis-
ticated printer/decorator (Figure 6h). A coat of var-
nish is also applied to the base of each can by the rim
coater (Figure 6i). The cans pass through a second
oven, which dries the ink and the varnish. Spray
machines apply an internal coating of protective
lacquer (Figure 6j) to maintain product quality, and
the cans are then dried in the final oven (Figure 6k).
0020 The cans are passed through a necker/flanger
(Figure 6l), where the diameter of the body is reduced
Galley: Article No. 0160
CANNING/Cans and their Manufacture 3
(necked in), and the tops of the cans are flanged
outwards to accept the ends after the cans have been
filled.
Every can is tested at each stage of manufacture. At 0021
the final stage, they pass through a light tester, which
automatically rejects any can with pinholes or frac-
tures (Figure 6m). Cans are then moved to the ware-
house for palletizing and delivery to the filling plant
together with the ends.
DRD Two-piece Cans
This process is similar to the DWI process, except that 0022
the final height and diameter of the container are
produced by sequentially drawing cups to a smaller
diameter, i.e., causing metal to flow from the base to
the wall of the container rather than ironing the con-
tainer wall. The wall and base thickness of DRD cans,
as well as the surface area, are identical to the original
blank, as opposed to the DWI cans, where the wall
thickness is much lower than the base thickness
(Figure 7).
The process starts with blanking and cupping, in 0023
which cups are produced from prescrolled sheets,
lacquered, and/or decorated. The cups then go
through the first drawing operation, where they are
drawn by a punch through a die. The cups produced
at this stage may undergo a similar redraw process for
further diameter reduction as the height is progres-
sively increased (Figure 7b).
There is a linear relationship between the max- 0024
imum height to which a container can be drawn in a
single operation and its diameter. The taller the can,
the more drawing operations are required. Also,
single-reduced steels can be drawn more than
double-reduced, which can be used in lower gauges
for the same strength.
The bottom end is the thickest region and governs 0025
the material gauge, often resulting in an excessive side
wall thickness. Typically, 0.2-mm-thickness prelac-
quered tinplate and TFS is used for the DRD process.
DRD cans are currently used in the packaging for
food rather than beverages, where a greater wall
thickness is required to withstand pressure reversals.
The body is beaded, and TFS is used more than tin-
plate because a better enamel adhesion is achieved
with the former.
Ends
The can end is designed for optimum deformation 0026
behavior during the food-heating process thereby pre-
venting permanent distortion: it should resist the high
relative internal pressure achieved in the heating pro-
cess that tends to deform the can ends outwards, and
it must also be sufficiently flexible to return to its

4 CANNING/Cans and their Manufacture
original profile as the internal pressure becomes
slightly negative inside the processed can. This behav-
ior depends on the metal thickness, the profile of
the expansion rings, and the countersink depth
(Figure 8).
0027 The scroll-cut sheet, previously lacquered, is fed
through a press that stamps the ends. After stamping,
the edges are curled and passed through a lining
machine, which applies a precise amount of a sealant
compound around the inside of the curl. This sealant
assists the formation of a hermetic seal by providing a
gasket between adjacent layers of metal in the double
seam.
0028 Easy-open ends are produced, from a previously
stamped shell (Figure 9a), in a press comprising four
basic operations: a bubble-like structure is drawn
(Figure 9b), a cylindrical button is drawn from
the bubble (Figure 9c), the score line is performed
(Figure 9d), and the tab is attached at the rivet station
by compression of the button, the tab being formed
on a separate operation (Figure 9e). In this way, the
tab is affixed to the end without any loss of end
integrity. Figure 9 illustrates the basic operations.
Double seaming
0029 The end is joined to the can body by a double-seaming
operation that is carried out in two stages (Figure 10):
in the first operation, the end curl and the body flange
are brought together and rolled inwards so that the
end hook is well tucked up underneath the body
hook. The shape of the seaming roll determines the
contour of the seam at the end of this stage; in the
second operation, the seam is tightened by a second
set of seaming rolls. The final quality of the double
seam is defined by its length, thickness, and the extent
of the overlap of the end hook with the body hook
(Figure 11). Rigid standards are laid down for an
acceptable degree of overlap and seam tightness.
Welding Side Seams of Three-piece Cans
0030 The side seam is made by a resistance-welding pro-
cess, using the lost-wire-electrode principle. After the
can body blank has been formed into a cylinder over
the welding arm, the overlapping seam (0.4 mm for
most cans) passes between two copper weld rools
where the weld is formed (Figure 12).
0031 The two layers in the seam are squeezed together
between the upper weld roll located outside the can
body and a smaller-diameter inner weld roll. An al-
ternating current is passed to the upper roll, and high
electrical resistance causes the interface temperature
to rise rapidly to at least 900  C, resulting in solid-
phase bonding. As the can body moves continuously
between the two weld rolls, a spot weld is created at
Galley: Article No. 0160
each peak of the alternating current. By adjusting the
frequency of the current to the linear speed of the can
body, the correct number of spot welds per unit of can
length can be achieved. In a good weld, the individual
spots should merge into a continuous weld. Although
the welded seam is free from the danger of lead pick-
up, the weld has to be effectively coated to prevent
any traces of iron being picked up by some types of
beverages and acidic foods. The external side of the
seam is also coated for protection.
Protective Organic Coatings
The primary function of interior can coatings, 0032
enamels or lacquers, is to prevent any interaction
between the can and its contents, although some
enamels have special properties, and others are used
merely to improve the appearance of the pack. Exter-
ior can coatings may be used to provide protection
against the environment, as well as for decoration and
product labeling.
Internal lacquers must be inert, must provide a 0033
good barrier, and must also have a good mechanical
resistance, as well as thermal resistance if the product
is to be thermally processed. The lacquer must
comply with the regulations for materials intended
for food contact, i.e., only approved substances that
had sustained successful migration or extraction tests
and that do not impart any flavor to the contents,
may be used.
The barrier provided by the lacquer depends on its 0034
chemical composition and on its porosity (which
must be as low as possible) and which in turn depends
on the thickness of the lacquer. Control of the amount
of lacquer applied, usually measured in terms of the
mass of dry film per area of metal sheet, is very
important since a thin layer will not cover the surface
completely, and a layer that is too thick will lead to
brittleness, lack of flexibility, and poor adhesion, as
well as being uneconomical.
The lacquer must resist mechanical solicitations 0035
during can and ends manufacturing operations, as in
the case of three-piece cans and most DRD two-piece
cans that are produced from a precoated metal sheet.
Flexibility and adhesion are also important character-
istics of lacquers, as during retorting, the can tends to
deform, due to a pressure imbalance.
The lacquer is usually applied by roller coating to 0036
the metal in the flat form sheet or coil before fabrica-
tion. Spraying is used for coating the internal surface
of DWI two-piece cans that cannot be produced from
prelacquered sheets, owing to the considerable
amount of metal deformation and surface disruption
occurring during ironing operations. Powder coating,
where the resin is applied dry in the form of a fine

powder, usually under the direction of an electrostatic
field, is used for the protection of welded side seams
(internal side), where heavy coatings are required.
A postfabrication repair lacquering is applied to
cans used to pack products with very stringent pro-
tection requirements, to compensate for natural ap-
plication imperfections and layer damage during can
fabrication.
0037 After application, the lacquer must be dried by
solvent removal, oxidation, and/or heat polymeriza-
tion. This process is usually performed in a forced
convection oven using hot air up to 210  C for up to
15 min. Recent developments include resin formula-
tions, which need lower temperatures and shorter
curing times, often through the use of ultraviolet
radiation (these ultraviolet-curing resins are virtually
solvent-free).
0038 The more common chemical families of protective
lacquers are the phenols, epoxy, polyesters, and vinyl.
The resins are rarely used pure. They are modified
and/or combined with other resins and additives that
confer specific characteristics. Table 3 summarizes
the major lacquers' characteristics and applications.
0039 Phenolic resins are produced by the action of for-
maldehyde on phenol and are characterized by having
a high degree of reticulation enhancing barrier, hard-
ness and chemical inertia, but limited flexibility due
to the presence of the bulge phenolic ring.
0040 Epoxy resins are produced by polymerization of
bisphenol A with glycerol epichlorohydrine. Epoxy
is highly reactive, allowing for combination with
other resins, and it has a good chemical resistance. It
is very flexible because of its linear structure, without
reticulation, and it is often combined with phenolics
giving the epoxy-phenolic family, one of the most
widely used families of resins for lacquering. A
three-dimensional structure is formed during curing,
either by straight blending of a solid epoxy resin with
a solid phenolic resin or by condensation of a mixture
of two resins in appropriate solvents. Epoxy-phenolic
lacquer combines the good adhesion properties of the
epoxy resin with the high chemical resistance proper-
ties of the phenolic resin. The balanced properties of
epoxy-phenolic coatings have made their use almost
universal in food-can applications. Epoxy may also
be combined with amines to produce epoxy-urea and
with fatty acids to produce epoxy-esters.
0041 Vinyl coatings are based on copolymers of vinyl
chloride and vinyl acetate. They can be used with or
without pigmentation, and they can be blended with
alkyd, epoxy, and phenolic resins to enhance their
performance. Their main disadvantage is the high
sensitivity to heat and retorting processes, restricting
their application to cans that are hot-filled and to beer
and beverage products.
Galley: Article No. 0160
CANNING/Cans and their Manufacture 5
Vinyl organosol coatings are dispersions of PVC 0042
(homopolymer), sometimes reinforced with soluble
thermosetting resins, such as epoxy or phenolic, to
enhance thermal resistance and adhesion. Plasticizers
are also added to aid film formation. These coatings
are typically white due to the addition of titanium
dioxide.
Polyesters have an excellent resistance to high tem- 0043
peratures and are often used for can external coating.
When used for heat-processed foods, they are modi-
fied with phenolic resins and often white pigmented
with titanium dioxide.
The choice of lacquer depends on the nature of the 0044
food and the can to be used. Products that contain
sulfur-containing amino acids require sulfur-resistant
lacquers to prevent staining of tinplate surfaces.
Sulfur compounds may break down during heat pro-
cessing to release sulfides, which react with tin to
form brownviolet tin sulfide (SnS) that affects the
global can surface or with iron to form iron sulfide
(FeS) in spots where, due to lacquering and tin-
coating imperfections, iron may be in contact with
the food. These compounds do not affect the product
safety or quality but are suspicious to the consumer.
To overcome this problem, lacquers offering a good
physical barrier, such as phenolic or epoxy-phenolic,
are used. In addition, these are pigmented with zinc
oxide, which reacts preferentially with the sulfur
compounds, thus acting as chemical barriers.
Lacquers may also be pigmented with aluminium
powder or white pigments, to obscure any tin sulfide
that might be formed.
Acidic foods require a very good protection to 0045
prevent can corrosion. A vinyl organosol with a high
thickness, pigmented with aluminium powder or
titanium dioxide, or a double coating of epoxy-
phenolic plus vinyl organosol may be used for this
purpose.
Beer and other drinks susceptible to flavor contam- 0046
ination by metallic traces require very good protec-
tion as well. DWI cans are coated after fabrication,
usually with two coats of lacquer: epoxy-phenolic
plus vinyl, epoxy-urea plus vinyl or a double layer
of epoxy-urea.
See also: (0089a) ; (0159a) Canning: Principles; (0162a)
Food Handling; (0163a) Quality Changes During Canning;
(0872a) Packaging: Packaging of Liquids; (0873a)
Packaging of Solids
Further Reading
Bakker M and Eckroth D (1986) The Wiley Encyclopaedia
of Packaging Technology. New York: John Wiley.
 Galley: Article No. 0160

6 CANNING/Cans and their Manufacture

Robertson GL (1993) Food Packaging Principles and Prac-

tice. New York: Marcel Dekker.
Soroka W (1995) Fundamentals of Packaging Technology.
Herndon, VA: Institute of Packaging Professionals.

Easy-open
end
Double-seam

Can body

Beading

Side-seam

fig0001 Figure 1 Can terminology.

Tin plate Tin-free steel Aluminum

Lacquer

Passivation Lacquer

Tin Chromium oxide Lacquer

Alloy tin/iron Chromium Aluminum oxide

Steel Steel Aluminum alloy

fig0002 Figure 2 Metallic materials for can-making.

 Galley: Article No. 0160

CANNING/Cans and their Manufacture 7

Equal coating Differential coating (identification on heavier coated side)

12.7

25.4

38.0
D 5.6/2.8 D 8.4/5.6
E 2.8/2.8
25.4 38.0 12.7
E 5.6/5.6

E 8.4/8.4

E 11.2/11.2
D 8.4/2.8 D 11.2/5.6

38.0

50.8

D 11.2/2.8 D 2.8/1.1 [mm]

fig0003 Figure 3 Tin coating weights.

(a) Scroll-cut sheet

Length
of cut
sheet

Width across coil

(b) Straight-cut sheet

Length
of cut
sheet

Width across coil

fig0004 Figure 4 Comparison between scroll and straight cut sheet.

 Galley: Article No. 0160

8 CANNING/Cans and their Manufacture

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

(f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

fig0005 Figure 5 Three-piece can-manufacturing process.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(e) (f) (g) (h)

(i) (j) (k) (l)

(m) (n) (o) (p)

fig0006 Figure 6 Two-piece DWI can-manufacturing process.

 Galley: Article No. 0160

CANNING/Cans and their Manufacture 9

(a) Seaming panel

Bead

Second expansion
panel

Center panel

(b)
First expansion
panal
Figure 8 Can end profile. fig0008

fig0007 Figure 7 Comparison between (a) DRD and (b) DWI processes.
From Bakker M and Eckroth D (1986) The Wiley Encyclopaedia of
PackagingTechnology. New York: John Wiley with permission.
Lining compound

Can end
Flange on can body
(a)

(a)
Former
Sealant
(b)

Lining Profile of roller die

compound
(c) (b)
Score line

(d)
Rivet Lining compound
Ring tab

(e) (c) Profile of roller die

fig0009 Figure 9 Easy-open end production.

Lining
compound
(d)
Figure 10 Double-seaming: (a) and (b) first seaming operation; fig0010

(c) and (d) second seaming operation.

 Galley: Article No. 0160

10 CANNING/Cans and their Manufacture

Seam thickness

Body-hook length
Seam length

Countersink depth
Overlap
End-hook legth

End-plate
thickness
Body-plate thickness

fig0011 Figure 11 Main components of a double seam.

1 2

3 3

3 3

fig0012 Figure 12 Welding side seam of a three-piece can: 1, blank feed; 2, wire fed; 3, welding rolls (electrodes); 4, copper wire (welding
contact); 5, used wire. From Bakker M and Eckroth D (1986) TheWileyEncyclopaediaofPackagingTechnology. New York: John Wiley, with
permission.

Table 2 Examples of common sizes of food cans tbl0002

Type Capacity (ml) Dimensions (mm)

Round three-piece cans 142 55  67

tbl0001 Table 1 Nominal diameters of round cans
212 65  71
Imperialunits Metric units 212 73  58
236 65  78
202 52 335 73  88
211 65 340 99  52
300 73 350 83.7  69
307 83 425 73  109
401 99 850 99  118
404 105 945 99  123
502 127 Rectangular two-piece cans 75 104  59  19
603 153 125 104  59  28
610 168 150 154  55  23
700 176 250 105  76  38
 Galley: Article No. 0160

CANNING/Cans and their Manufacture 11

tbl0003 Table 3 Application and characteristics of lacquers

Family Application Flexibility Adhesion Resistance to

heat-processing

Phenolic Fruits, vegetables, meat: very good barrier Bad Bad Very good
Epoxy-phenolic Wide use, can be pigmented with Al, ZnO; characteristics Good Good Good
depending on formulation
Vinylics Beverages Excellent Good Bad
Organosols Large use in two-piece cans Very good Very good Good
Acrylics Pigmented with TiO2 Good Very good Medium
Epoxy-urea Beverages Good Good Medium
Polyesters Pigmented with TiO2 Medium Good Good
 Manuscript Queries

TITLE: ENCYCLOPEDIA OF FOOD SCIENCES AND NUTRITION

Manuscript code: 0160
Entry: Cans and Their Manufacture
Article:
Author: Filipe Pocas
Sheet _1__ of _1__

Page Para/line Query

Figures 7 and 12: Has permission been obtained?
1 Please clarify town/city in shortened and full addresses
10 5/1 mechanical solicitation Do you mean damage or ?
11 5 Sentence Phenolic resins does not make sense. Please check