Rate of Force Development

Rate of force development
Higher rate of force development in lower body

actions is generally correlated with faster sprint
speeds and greater jumping heights. This may indicate
that increasing rate of force development is valuable
for enhancing sprinting and jumping abilities.
Rate of force development can be improved through

long-term resistance training and may be further
enhanced by heavy loads and faster bar speeds. It
does not appear to be affected by muscle action,
training volume, or periodization model. However,
concurrent training may be detrimental.

long-term ballistic training, Olympic weightlifting,
plyometrics, balance training and combined programs.
Ballistic training appears to be superior to balance
training but the other methods seem equally effective.
Surprisingly, shifts in muscle fiber type or type area

(from type IIX to type IIA) and increases in fascicle
length (causing reduced muscle stiffness) resulting
from training very likely cause reduced rate of force
development.
Increases in muscle stiffness, increases in tendon

stiffness, changes in proportional muscle fiber type
area (from type I to type IIA), and increases in neural
drive in the early phase (50ms) likely all contribute to
increases in rate of force development with training.
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CONTENTS
Click on the links below to jump down to the relevant section of the page:
Summary
Background
Effects of resistance training
Effects of ballistic training
Effects of Olympic weightlifting
Effects of plyometrics
Effects of balance training
Effects of combined training
Comparisons between methods
Mechanisms
References
SUMMARY
PURPOSE
This section provides a summary of the current evidence regarding
the importance of improving rate of force development for sports
performance.
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SUMMARY FINDINGS FOR RATE OF FORCE

DEVELOPMENT
Correlations with performance Higher rate of force development in
lower body actions is generally correlated with faster sprint speeds and
greater jumping heights. This may indicate that increasing rate of force
development may be valuable for enhancing sprinting and jumping abilities
Effects of resistance training Rate of force development can be
improved through long-term resistance training and may be further
enhanced by heavy loads and faster bar speeds. It does not appear to be
affected by muscle action, training volume, or periodization model. However,
concurrent training may be detrimental
Effects of other training modalities Rate of force development can be
improved through long-term ballistic training, Olympic weightlifting,
plyometrics, balance training and combined programs. Ballistic training
appears to be superior to balance training but the other methods seem
equally effective
Mechanisms of action Rate of force development is likely adversely
affected by the shifts in muscle fiber type or type area (to type IIA from type
IIX) and the increases in fascicle length (causing reduced muscle stiffness)
that result from training. Equally, it is likely beneficially affected by increases
in muscle stiffness, increases in tendon stiffness, changes in proportional
muscle fiber type area (to type IIA from type I), and increases in neural drive
in the early phase (50ms).
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CONCLUSIONS REGARDING RATE OF FORCE

DEVELOPMENT
Rate of force development is critical for speed and
power sports, possibly more so than strength. It can
be developed using a range of methods and is likely
affected by both central and peripheral mechanisms.
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BACKGROUND
PURPOSE
This section provides a background to rate of force development. It
includes a precise definition of the term, details of the various
measurements that have been used to quantify it, and an
assessment of the research showing correlations between higher
athletic performance and greater rates of force development.
BACKGROUND
Introduction
Rate of force development is thought to be critical for sports performance for
one very simple reason: most sports movements happen within a shorter
period of time than human muscles take to reach maximum force production
(see review by Hernndez-Dav and Sabido, 2014). Although peak force is
typically achieved within around 250ms (see data reported by Haff et al.
2007), sports movements often occur within a period of time much
shorter than this. For example, the ground contact phase during sprint
running lasts <100ms (Beneke and Taylor, 2010), the take-off phase for the
long jump lasts <160ms (Luhtanen and Komi, 1979), and the take-off phase
for the high jump lasts <220ms (Dapena and Chung, 1988). Consequently, it
is not surprising that researchers have concluded that for many sports
movements (including sprinting, jumping and throwing) the rate at which
force is developed is arguably more important than the maximum force that
can be produced (Aagaard et al. 2002a; Andersen et al. 2010). Indeed,
several studies have reported that higher athletic status (elite vs. sub-elite,
starter or non-starter, or professional vs. non-professional) is associated with
having greater rates of force development (Thompson et al. 2013b; Palmer et
al. 2014b; Palmer et al. 2014c).
Definitions
Formal definition
Rate of force development (RFD) is very simple to define mathematically.

RFD is merely a change in force (F) with time (t). The change in force
over time can be expressed either as an equation (F/dt) or plotted on a
graph with F on the y-axis and t on the x-axis. When calculating the
numbers, force is routinely measured in Newtons (N) and time in seconds (s).
Hence, RFD is measured in Newtons per second (N/s).
Practical definitions
Importantly, measurements of muscle force have shown that the curve
produced by the graph of force versus time is non-linear and displays a steep
rise to a plateau over <0.5 seconds. Consequently, it has become customary
to take linear approximations of the RFD over intervals of time within the
initial window in which force is developed. Common intervals include 0
50ms, 50 100ms, 100 150ms, 150 200ms and 200 250ms. In such
cases, RFD is expressed as a single rate (still in Newtons per second) that
averages the solution to the equation over the interval in question.
Measurements
Reliability
Reliability is essential for ensuring that measurements taken before and after
a training program are reflective of real improvements and not measurement
error. When measuring maximum voluntary contraction force, test-re-test
reliability is generally good (Norcross et al. 2010). This means that taking the
same measurement of maximum force production in the same subject
generally produces the same result, at least compared with other subjects. In
statistical terms, the intra-subject variability is much less than the inter-
subject variability. However, test-re-test reliability for rate of force
development has been reported to be less good by some researchers (e.g.
Chiu et al. 2004; Ingebrigtsen et al. 2009; Prieske et al. 2014), although
many others have found good-to-excellent reliability (see review by
Hernndez-Dav and Sabido, 2014). Interestingly, all of these studies that
reported poor reliability for rate of force development used peak rate of force
development and not rate of force development measured in specific time
increments (e.g. 50ms, 100ms etc.). At the same time, they used a range of
different types of equipment and exercise position, indicating that the lack of
reliability was probably not a function of the testing equipment or exercise
selected. Recently, Haff et al. (2015) found that the exact calculation method
of rate of force development was critical for establishing good reliability and
that the use of specific time increments was better than the alternatives.
Differences between types of contraction
Maximum rate of force development can be measured under isometric and

under dynamic conditions (see reviews by Hernndez-Dav and Sabido,
2014; Duchateau and Baudry, 2014). Rate of force development differs
depending on the contraction velocity and type of muscle action. Fast,
dynamic (i.e. ballistic) muscle actions involve a greater rate of force
development than ramped isometric muscle actions (Desmedt and Godaux,
1977; Desmedt and Godaux, 1978; Bawa and Calancie, 1983; see review by
Duchateau and Baudry, 2014). In this context, fast, dynamic muscle actions
involve aiming to produce maximal muscle force for a very short period of
time followed immediately by a period of relaxation. The reason for the
difference is not entirely clear. However, several studies have reported
that fast, dynamic (i.e. ballistic) muscle actions display a lower recruitment
threshold than ramped isometric muscle actions (Desmedt and Godaux
1979; Oishi et al. 1988; Yoneda et al. 1996).
Relationship with recovery status

Resistance training and sport often lead to fatigue and delayed onset muscle
soreness (DOMS), particularly when they involved heavy eccentric muscle
actions. Fatigue following sport has been associated with reductions in both
muscular strength and rate of force development (Thorlund et al. 2009).
DOMS and muscle damage are thought to be related, albeit not identical, and
there are several indicators of muscle damage, including DOMS, levels of
creatine kinase in the blood, and a reduction in maximal force production or
performance measures such as countermovement jump height. Peailillo et
al. (2014) demonstrated that rate of force development (measured between
100 200ms) was a more specific and sensitive measure of muscle damage
induced by eccentric cycling than levels of maximum isometric force
production. Recently, both Gathercole et al. (2015) and Balsalobre-Fernndez
et al. (2015) found that training loads were inversely related with rate of
force development during a countermovement jump and during half squats,
respectively. These findings suggests that rate of force development may
also be indicative of fatigue or state of recovery.
CORRELATIONS WITH PERFORMANCE

Introduction
Both researchers and coaches have identified the ability to express force
quickly as a key factor for determining superior sports performance.
Consequently, a number of studies have explored the relationships between
rate of force development in prime mover muscles (usually in compound
movements) and sports performance.
CORRELATIONS WITH SPRINTING

PERFORMANCE
Study selection
Population any
Intervention short distance (<100m) sprint running test
Comparison correlation (either r or R-squared)
Outcome strength of relationship between measure of rate of force
development and sprint running performance
Results
Applying the selection criteria resulted in the following studies being
identified: Wilson (1995), West (2011), Marques (2011), Marques (2014b).
The early studies found significant relationships between peak isometric or
dynamic rate of force development expressed in lower body joint actions and
sprint times over 10 30m. However, the two later studies that explored the
relationship between rate of force development measured
in countermovement jumps and sprinting performance over 5 10m found
no significant relationships. A high rate of force development might
be beneficial for sprinting performance but the conflicting findings make this
conclusion uncertain.
CORRELATIONS WITH
JUMPING PERFORMANCE
Study selection
Population any
Intervention countermovement or squat jump test for height
Comparison correlation (either r or R-squared)
Outcome strength of relationship between measure of rate of force
development and jumping performance
Results
identified: Psuke (2001), Ugarkovic (2002), Kawamori (2005), Kawamori
(2006), De Ruiter (2006), De Ruiter (2007), McGuigan (2006), McGuigan
(2008), Nuzzo (2008), Kraska (2009), McLellan (2011), West (2011), Tillin
(2012), Muehlbauer (2013), Thompson (2013a), Marques (2014a), Marques
(2014b), Copi (2014), Chang (2015). A small majority of studies found a
significant relationship between rate of force development in either isometric
or dynamic tests of the lower body musculature and either squat or
countermovement jump height. This suggests that having a high rate of
force development may be beneficial for achieving superior jumping
performances.

DEVELOPMENT
Higher rate of force development in lower body
actions is generally correlated with faster sprint
speeds and greater jumping heights. This may indicate
that increasing rate of force development may be
valuable for enhancing sprinting and jumping abilities.
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EFFECTS OF RESISTANCE
TRAINING
PURPOSE
This section sets out the literature that has investigated the long-
term effects of resistance training on rate of force development.
BACKGROUND
Introduction
Resistance training, particularly using heavy loads, has been suggested as a
valuable method for increasing rate of force development. Although some
researchers and coaches have suggested that athletes must move quickly in
order to develop the ability to produce force quickly, others have accepted
the proposal put forward by Behm and Sale (1993) that it is the intended
velocity rather than the actual movement velocity that is key for
creating velocity-specific adaptations and improving explosive strength,
power and rate of force development. Under this theory, so long as it is
the intention of the athlete to move quickly, the adaptations following the
resistance training program will be similar to as if they had actually moved
quickly.
Intended rather than actual movement velocity

The intended velocity theory was put forward most clearly by Behm and Sale
(1993), after they compared the long-term effects of isometric and high-
velocity isokinetic resistance training in which both conditions involved the
instruction to exert force quickly. They found that there was no difference in
the improvement in rate of force development and concluded that this was a
function of the intention to produce force being similar in both cases.
Observation of similar EMG activity profiles in both conditions was considered
to demonstrate a similarity of neural drive in both cases. Since central
factors were thought at that time to be key to rate of force development, this
seemed logical. However, later research has found that peripheral factors
(including muscle fascicle length, muscle stiffness, tendon stiffness and
muscle fiber type) are all critical factors that can alter rate of force
development over long-term periods of time and may be modulated by
training loads and/or bar speeds during resistance training. In addition, the
findings of Behm and Sale (1993) were observed in a cross-over trial in which
one leg was trained using isometric training and the other leg was trained
using high-speed isokinetic training. They discounted the potential cross-over
effect as likely negligible. However, Adamson et al. (2008) reported similar
changes in rate of force development in the trained and untrained legs
following a specific trial of the cross-over effect. This suggests that the
theory put forward by Behm and Sale (1993) should not be accepted without
some degree of caution, even though it continues to be referenced in relation
to the mechanisms by which resistance training alters rate of force
development after over 20 years (e.g. Blazevich, 2012).
Explosive rather than controlled force production

Although many researchers refer to ballistic and non-ballistic movements,
it may be better to differentiate between explosive and controlled force
production. Indeed, researchers have observed that the pattern of neural
drive differs between isometric muscle actions with steadily increasing force
and both explosive, ballistic and explosive non-ballistic (even isometric)
muscle actions (see review by Duchateau and Baudry, 2014). During
isometric muscle actions with steadily increasing force, the rate of increase
in force appears to be related to the rate of increase in motor unit firing
frequency (MilnerBrown et al. 1973; Desmedt and Godaux, 1977). However,
during explosive muscle actions of any kind, there is an initial burst of neural
activity with a very high motor unit firing frequency that then reduces
thereafter (Desmedt and Godaux, 1977; Van Cutsem et al. 1998; Van Cutsem
et al. 2005). In an interesting trial, Van Cutsem et al. (2005) compared the
effects of reducing the motor unit firing frequency in this initial burst by
introducing a pre-existing isometric muscle action before a explosive muscle
action. They found that the reduction in motor unit firing frequency was
associated with a reduction in rate of force development. This suggests that
motor unit firing frequency is at least partially responsible for the change in
rate of force development during explosive or ballistic muscle actions.
However, whether deliberately altering acute rates of force development can
alter long-term adaptations to training is unclear.
Effective mechanisms
[See more about mechanisms]
There are several mechanisms by which resistance training might increase

the rate of force development, including changes in central and peripheral
factors. Shifts in muscle fiber type or proportional fiber type area (to type IIA
from type IIX) and increases in fascicle length (causing reduced muscle
stiffness) that frequently result from resistance training very likely contribute
reduce rate of force development. However, increases in muscle stiffness,
increases in tendon stiffness, changes in proportional muscle fiber type area
(to type IIA from type I), and increases in neural drive in the early phase
(50ms) that also result from resistance training are all thought to contribute
positively to increases in rate of force development.
Influence of training variables on mechanisms

Relative load Higher loads might reasonably be expected to cause
greater increases in rate of force development than lower loads, because of
their beneficial effects on tendon stiffness. Higher loads might also be
expected to cause greater increases in rate of force development following
preferential type IIA fiber hypertrophy compared to the greater type I fiber
hypertrophy occurring with lower loads.
Bar speed Actual bar speed, where it is a function of the force-velocity
relationship, might not be expected to have any marked positive effect on
rate of force development, except perhaps potentially through shifts in
muscle fiber type, particularly as the heavier loads that cause bar speeds to
become slower cause beneficial tendon adaptations. On the other hand,
maximal bar speeds may be superior to deliberately slowed bar speeds as
the latter may reduce neural drive in the early phases of the muscle action.
Muscle action Eccentric muscle actions have been associated with larger
increases in muscle fascicle length following resistance training and greater
growth in type IIA muscle fiber area. The greater increases in muscle fascicle
length following eccentric muscle actions might produce negative effects on
rate of force development, while the greater increases in type II fiber area
might have beneficial effects.
Training volume Higher training volume is associated with greater
increases in muscle size. Greater hypertrophy usually involves preferential
type IIA fiber area growth, which might lead to increased rate of force
development.
Periodization The effects of different periodization types on rate of force
development are difficult to predict, as the underlying mechanisms remain
unclear.
EFFECTS OF RESISTANCE TRAINING ON RATE

OF FORCE DEVELOPMENT
Study selection
Population any healthy, adult group
Intervention long-term resistance training intervention not involving
simultaneous aerobic training (concurrent training)
Comparison baseline or non-training control group
Outcome rate of force development measurement
Results
identified: Duchateau (1984), Hkkinen (1985), Ishida (1989), Young
(1993), Hkkinen (1998), Newton (1999), Connelly (2000), Aagaard (2002a),
Hkkinen (2003), Barak (2004), Bruhn (2005), Barry (2005), Miller (2006),
Alegre (2006), Del Baso (2007), Burgess (2007), Taube (2007), Holtermann
(2007a), Holtermann (2007b), Geertsen (2008), Caserotti (2008), Adamson
(2008), Blazevich (2008), Blazevich (2009), Hartmann (2009), Ingebrigtsen
(2009), Lamont (2009), Lovell (2010), Andersen (2010), Vila-Ch (2010), De
Villarreal (2011), Marshall (2011), Gurjo (2012), Lamas (2012), Correa
(2012), Wallerstein (2012), Painter (2012), Heggelund (2013), Oliveira
(2013a), Oliveira (2013b), Farup (2014), Lopes (2014), Cadore (2014), Mosti
(2014), Bazyler (2014), Vangsgaard (2014), Oliveira (2015), Thompson
(2015), Wirth (2015), Unhjem (2015). Almost all of the many
studies identified showed that long-term trials of resistance training
improved rate of force development.
EFFECT OF RELATIVE LOAD DURING

RESISTANCE TRAINING ON RATE OF FORCE
DEVELOPMENT
Study selection
Intervention >2 groups using different relative loads within a long-term
resistance training intervention, where the purpose was to compare different
relative loads and not different bar speeds
Comparison the other group
Results
Applying the selection criteria resulted in the following study being
identified: Heggelund (2013). The single study found a beneficial effect of
training with heavier loads on rate of force development, implying that this
training variable may be important for programming. However, since the
literature is very limited, this conclusion is uncertain.
EFFECT OF BAR SPEED DURING RESISTANCE

TRAINING ON RATE OF FORCE DEVELOPMENT
Study selection
Intervention >2 groups using different bar speeds within a long-term
resistance training intervention, which may involve the use of different
relative loads
Results
identified: Duchateau (1984), Young (1993), Behm (1993), Ingebrigtsen
(2009), De Villarreal (2011), De Villarreal (2011), Lamas (2012), Correa
(2012), Wallerstein (2012), Lopes (2014). Three of these studies found that
faster bar speeds (usually involving power-oriented training compared to
traditional, heavy resistance training) led to superior improvements in rate of
force development. This indicates that while fast bar speeds are not
necessarily key for improving rate of force development during non-ballistic
resistance training, they may yet be beneficial.
EFFECT OF MUSCLE ACTION DURING

DEVELOPMENT
Study selection
Intervention >2 groups using different muscle actions within a long-term
resistance training intervention
Results
identified: Blazevich (2008), Cadore (2014). Neither study found that there
was any difference in the change in rate of force development between
concentric and eccentric muscle actions. This suggests that emphasising the
use of either concentric or eccentric muscle actions will not have an effect on
changes in rate of force development.
EFFECT OF TRAINING VOLUME DURING

DEVELOPMENT
Study selection
Intervention >2 groups using different muscle actions within a long-term
Results
identified: Marshall (2011). The single study found no effect of training with
different volumes on rate of force development, implying that this training
variable has minimal effect. However, since the literature is very limited, this
conclusion is uncertain.
EFFECT OF PERIODIZATION DURING

DEVELOPMENT
Study selection
Intervention >2 groups using types of periodization within a long-term
Results
identified: Hartmann (2009), Painter (2012). The two studies compared linear
and block periodization models with non-linear (daily undulating)
periodization. Neither found any effect of training with different periodization
models on rate of force development, implying that this training variable has
minimal effect. However, both studies reported a non-significant trend that
daily undulating periodization was inferior to both linear and block
periodization which may imply that this type of periodization model is
disadvantageous but since the literature is very limited and the findings not
significant, this conclusion is very uncertain.
EFFECTS OF RESISTANCE TRAINING ON RATE

OF FORCE DEVELOPMENT DURING
CONCURRENT TRAINING
Study selection
Intervention long-term resistance training intervention performed
simultaneously with aerobic training (i.e. concurrent training)
Results
identified: Hkkinen (2003), Stren (2008), Santtila (2009), Sunde (2010),
Rnnestad (2012), Cadore (2013). These studies showed that concurrent
training can still improve rate of force development in comparison with an
endurance-only training group but that strength-only groups tend to improve
rate of force development to a greater extent. This suggests that
an interference effect from endurance training likely exists in relation to rate
of force development.

DEVELOPMENT
long-term resistance training and may be further
enhanced by heavy loads and faster bar speeds. It
does not appear to be affected by muscle action,
training volume, or periodization model. However,
concurrent training may be detrimental.
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EFFECTS OF BALLISTIC
TRAINING
PURPOSE
term effects of ballistic training on rate of force development.
BACKGROUND
Introduction
Definitions
Ballistic training has traditionally been thought to be very beneficial for

improving rate of force development. Ballistic training differs from high-
velocity resistance training in that there is no deceleration phase to the
exercise. The term ballistic means that the load is projected from the lifter
or from the ground. Common ballistic exercises used by athletes include the
jump squat and bench press throw. These differ from their non-ballistic
power-training equivalents the low-load-high-speed squat and low-load-high-
speed bench press. In the jump squat, the athlete leaves the ground but
in the low-load-high-speed squat they remain on the ground. In the bench
press throw, the bar leaves the athletes hands but in the low-load-high-
speed bench press it remains in their grip. Consequently, in the ballistic
exercises, the load is accelerated right the way through the end of the
exercise and is released and returned by gravity. In the light-load resistance
training exercises, the athlete must decelerate the bar before completing the
movement. This changes the biomechanics of the exercise and potentially
makes ballistic exercises superior. Despite this clear difference, ballistic
training and non-ballistic explosive resistance training exercises are often
confused (e.g. Behm and Sale, 1993; Van Cutsem et al. 2005).
Neural drive during explosive movements
There are indications that the pattern of neural drive during explosive
movements may differ from the pattern of neural drive during controlled
movements. Researchers have observed that during isometric muscle
actions with steadily increasing force, the rate of increase in force appears to
be related to the rate of increase in motor unit firing frequency, with both
increasing over time (MilnerBrown et al. 1973; Desmedt and Godaux, 1977).
However, during explosive (ballistic or non-ballistic) muscle actions, there is
an initial burst of neural activity with a very high motor unit firing frequency
that then reduces thereafter (Desmedt and Godaux, 1977; Van Cutsem et al.
1998; Van Cutsem et al. 2005). In an interesting trial, Van Cutsem et al.
(2005) compared the effects of reducing the motor unit firing frequency in
this initial burst by introducing a pre-existing isometric muscle action before
a explosive muscle action. They found that the reduction in motor unit firing
frequency was associated with a reduction in rate of force development. This
suggests that motor unit firing frequency is at least partially responsible for
the change in rate of force development during explosive muscle actions,
such as ballistic training.
Relationship between ballistic resistance training

ability and rate of force development
Only a very small small number of studies have assessed the relationship
between ballistic resistance training ability and rate of force development,
excluding Olympic weightlifting. Kraska et al. (2009) compared the
relationship between isometric mid-thigh clean pull rate of force
development and the heights of both weighted squat and countermovement
jumps with 20kg and found moderately-good (r = 0.66 and r = 0.62)
relationships for both the squat and countermovement jumps, respectively.
There are several mechanisms by which ballistic training might increase the
rate of force development, including changes in central and peripheral
stiffness) that can result from ballistic training very likely contribute reduce
rate of force development. However, increases in muscle stiffness, increases
in tendon stiffness, changes in proportional muscle fiber type area (to type
IIA from type I), and increases in neural drive in the early phase (50ms) that
can also result from ballistic training are all thought to contribute positively
to increases in rate of force development.
EFFECTS OF BALLISTIC TRAINING ON RATE OF

FORCE DEVELOPMENT
Study selection
Intervention long-term ballistic training intervention
Results
identified: Van Cutsem (1998), Newton (1999), Gruber (2007), Schubert
(2008), Cormie (2010), De Villarreal (2011), Kramer (2012). All studies
reported that ballistic training significantly improved rate of force
development. This suggests that ballistic training is valuable for improving
rate of force development.

DEVELOPMENT
Rate of force development can be successfully
improved using ballistic training.
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EFFECTS OF OLYMPIC
WEIGHTLIFTING
PURPOSE
term effects of Olympic weightlifting on rate of force development.
BACKGROUND
Introduction
Olympic weightlifting has been suggested as a valuable method for
increasing rate of force development. However, its technique requirements
make it challenging for use with athletes who are not Olympic weightlifters.
Nevertheless, there are many valuable Olympic lift variations that can be
used that have lower technique requirements. For example, the hang
variations can be used where athletes lack the mobility to pull from the floor;
the power variations can be used where athletes lack the stability or mobility
to attain a very deep squat or lack the desire to learn to move quickly under
the bar; and the pull variations can be used where catching the bar on the
shoulders is problematic either for reasons relating to the wrist or shoulder
girdle.
Relationship between Olympic weightlifting ability and

rate of force development
A small number of studies have assessed the relationship between Olympic
weightlifting ability or force generated during Olympic weightlifting exercises
or variations and rate of force development (Haff et al. 2005; Khamoui et al.
2011). Khamoui et al. (2011) found that isometric mid-thigh pull rate of force
development (50ms and 100ms) was significantly associated with dynamic
high pull peak velocity (r = 0.56 and r = 0.56). However, Haff et al. (2005)
found that isometric mid-thigh pull rate of force development (peak) was
only non-significantly associated with dynamic mid-thigh pull peak velocity (r
= 0.51).
There are several mechanisms by which Olympic weightlifting might increase

the rate of force development, including changes in central and peripheral
stiffness) that can result from ballistic training like Olympic weightlifting very
likely contribute reduce rate of force development. However, increases in
muscle stiffness, increases in tendon stiffness, changes in proportional
muscle fiber type area (to type IIA from type I), and increases in neural drive
in the early phase (50ms) that can also result from Olympic weightlifting are
all thought to contribute positively to increases in rate of force development.
EFFECTS OF OLYMPIC WEIGHTLIFTING ON

RATE OF FORCE DEVELOPMENT
Study selection
Intervention long-term Olympic weightlifting intervention
Results
identified: Haff (2008). This trial found that Olympic weightlifting can
improve rate of force development. This is unsurprising, as Olympic
weightlifting is a form of ballistic training and the literature also indicates
that ballistic training is valuable for increasing rate of force development.

DEVELOPMENT
Rate of force development can likely be enhanced
using programs involving Olympic weightlifting.
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EFFECTS OF PLYOMETRICS
PURPOSE
term effects of plyometrics on rate of force development.
BACKGROUND
Introduction
Plyometrics were originally developed for athletes who had already
successfully improved their strength and speed using resistance training and
required further challenge. They were popularised by the Soviet jumping
coach, Verkoshansky. Verkoshansky wanted to find ways to develop the
jumping ability of athletes who had already attained high performance levels
from jumping practice and resistance-training. Verkoshansky reasoned that
since there seemed to be a correlation between short ground contact times
and better performances in triple jumpers, this could imply that a greater
muscle-tendon stiffness was the key to improving jumping performance. He
began using depth jumps (plyometrics) with his athletes to enhance muscle-
tendon stiffness and reduce ground contact times (see review by Faccioni,
2001). Interestingly, plyometrics actually involve very high acute rates of
force development, which may imply that they could be particularly useful
for developing this quality. Ebben et al. (2010) compared rate of force
development between the depth jump (a plyometrics exercise), the jump
squat (a ballistic training exercise), and the back squat (a resistance training
exercise) and reported that rate of force development was highest in the
order: depth jump > jump squat > back squat. Whether these acute
measurements imply a superior ability to develop the quality long-term,
however, is unclear.
There are several mechanisms by which plyometrics might increase the rate
of force development, including changes in central and peripheral factors.
Shifts in muscle fiber type or proportional fiber type area (to type IIA from
type IIX) and increases in fascicle length (causing reduced muscle stiffness)
that can result from plyometrics very likely contribute reduce rate of force
development. However, increases in muscle stiffness, increases in tendon
stiffness, changes in proportional muscle fiber type area (to type IIA from
type I), and increases in neural drive in the early phase (50ms) that can
also result from plyometrics are all thought to contribute positively to
increases in rate of force development.
EFFECTS OF PLYOMETRICS ON RATE OF FORCE

DEVELOPMENT
Study selection
Intervention long-term plyometrics intervention
Results
identified: Spurrs (2003), Kyrlinen (2005), Burgess (2007), De Villarreal
(2011), Correa (2012), Behrens (2014). Most of these studies found increases
in rate of force development with long-term plyometrics training, suggesting
that this training modality is effective for this purpose.

DEVELOPMENT
using programs involving plyometrics.
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EFFECTS OF BALANCE
TRAINING
PURPOSE
term effects of balance training on rate of force development.
BACKGROUND
Introduction
Balance, or sensorimotor training was developed for elderly people in order
to help them avoid falls. It has been suggested that rate of force
development is a key component in avoiding falls, which typically occur in
periods of time <200ms (Suetta et al. 2004). Indeed, elderly individuals who
have a history of falls have been found to display reductions in rate of force
development compared to age-matched individuals with no history of falls
(Bento et al. 2010; LaRoche et al. 2010; Palmer et al. 2014a), even where no
deficits in strength are apparent (Bento et al. 2010; Palmer et al. 2014a).
This may be because rate of force development is associated with tests of
balance in the elderly (Chang et al. 2010) and in athletes (Palmer et al.
2014b). However, whether balance training is superior to more
common types of training for improving rate of force development seems
doubtful. McBride et al. (2006) reported that squats performed under
unstable conditions involved substantially lower acute rates of force
development than those performed under stable conditions.
There are several mechanisms by which balance training might increase the
rate of force development. Shifts in muscle fiber type or proportional fiber
type area (to type IIA from type IIX) and increases in fascicle length (causing
reduced muscle stiffness) could reduce rate of force development. However,
increases in muscle stiffness, increases in tendon stiffness, changes in
proportional muscle fiber type area (to type IIA from type I), and increases in
neural drive in the early phase (50ms) might positively to increases in rate of
force development. Whether peripheral factors are relevant for balance
training, however, is unlikely. Rather, it seems more probably that central
factors (i.e. increases in early phase neural drive) are the primary cause of
changes in rate of force development following balance training. Indeed,
Gruber et al. (2004) reported concomitant increases in rate of force
development and neural drive following balance training.
EFFECTS OF BALANCE TRAINING ON RATE OF

FORCE DEVELOPMENT
Study selection
Intervention long-term balance training intervention
Results
identified: Gruber (2004), Bruhn (2005), Gruber (2007), Taube
(2007), Schubert (2008). Only 2 of these 5 studies reported an increase in
rate of force development following balance training, which suggests that
while this training modality could be beneficial, it should not be the primary
training method.

DEVELOPMENT
Rate of force development can potentially be
increased by balance training, although the
mechanisms by which this occurs are not entirely
clear.
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EFFECTS OF COMBINED
TRAINING
PURPOSE
term effects of combined training on rate of force development.
BACKGROUND
Introduction
Rate of force development can be improved through long-term programs of
resistance training, ballistic training, Olympic weightlifting, plyometrics, and
balance training. However, it is unclear whether combined training programs
are superior to programs involving solely one type of training. It is possible
that if different training programs are effective through different
mechanisms, then combining different training modalities within a single
training program could be more effective than a program involving a single
training modality.
EFFECTS OF COMBINED TRAINING ON RATE

OF FORCE DEVELOPMENT
Study selection
Intervention long-term combined training intervention, including any two
or more of the following training modalities: resistance training, ballistic
training, Olympic weightlifting, plyometrics, and balance training
Results
identified: Bruhn (2006), De Villarreal (2011), Faude (2013), Branislav (2013).
Of these 4 studies, 3 found increases in rate of force development, indicating
that combined programs are effective for this purpose.

DEVELOPMENT
using combined programs of other, successful training
methods such as resistance training, ballistic training,
Olympic weightlifting, plyometrics or balance training.
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COMPARISONS BETWEEN
METHODS
PURPOSE
This section sets out the literature that has compared different
training methods on rate of force development.
BACKGROUND
Introduction
Comparing the effects of different long-term training programs (i.e.
resistance training, ballistic training, Olympic weightlifting, plyometrics,
balance training and combined programs) on rate of force development is
the best way to assess their relative effectiveness.
COMPARING METHODS ON RATE OF FORCE

DEVELOPMENT
Study selection
Intervention >2 groups engaged in long-term training involving different
training methods
Comparison the other training group
Results
identified: Newton (1999), Gruber (2007), Taube (2007), Burgess (2007),
Correa (2012), Schubert (2008), De Villarreal (2011). Both Gruber et al.
(2007) and Schubert et al. (2008) compared the effects of balance training
and ballistic training on rate of force development. Gruber et al. (2007) found
that ballistic training was significantly superior to balance training and
Schubert et al. (2008) reported a strong non-signficant trend in the same
direction.

DEVELOPMENT
long-term ballistic training, Olympic weightlifting,
plyometrics, balance training and combined programs.
Ballistic training appears to be superior to balance
training but the other methods seem equally effective.
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MECHANISMS
PURPOSE
This section reviews the literature exploring the central and
peripheral mechanisms by which different training methods might
increase the rate of force development.
CONTENTS
Relationship between strength and rate of force development
Central: introduction
Central: agonist muscle activity
Peripheral: introduction
Peripheral: muscle fiber type
Peripheral: muscle fascicle length
Peripheral: tendon stiffness
Peripheral: extracellular lateral force transmission
Peripheral: muscle fiber conduction velocity
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRENGTH AND

RATE OF FORCE DEVELOPMENT
Introduction
The ability to produce a high level of maximum force is thought to be a key
determinant of rate of force development. But there are strong indications
that there are other factors that also contribute to rate of force development
as well. Studies have reported only moderate relationships between
maximum strength and rate of force development. For example, Haff et al.
(1997) reported non-significant and low-to-moderate correlations between
dynamic peak force and isometric rate of force development (r = 0.30 to
0.45). Driss et al. (2002) reported strong significant correlations between
theoretical maximum voluntary isometric force and peak rate of force
development during isometric knee extension r = 0.81). Mirkov et al. (2004)
reported a significant but only moderately-strong correlation (r = 0.62)
between maximal force production and rate of force development during
dynamic elbow flexion and extension movements. Most famously, Andersen
et al. (2006) reported a moderate-to-strong relationship between rate of
force development and maximum voluntary isometric force production. They
reported that the size of the correlation coefficient between these two
factors increased as the time from the onset of contraction increased. That
is, the correlation between RFD (50ms) was moderate (r = 0.50) but the
correlation between RFD (200ms) was strong (r = 0.90). More
interestingly, Holtermann et al. (2007b) found that specific instructions to
produce force quickly during a short-term resistance training program led to
superior increases in rate of force development without superior increases in
maximum strength. These findings suggest that simply developing strength
may not be sufficient for improving athletic performance that is dependent
upon explosive movements.
Strength and different phases rate of force

development
Rate of force development can be divided into early and late phases of
maximal force production. Early phases are regarded as being <100ms and
late phases as >200ms. There are some indications that maximum strength
may be more closely related to late phases and less closely associated with
early phases. When Andersen and Aagaard (2006) performed a cross-
sectional investigation of the relationship between strength and rate of force
development in 10ms increments up to 250ms, they found that strength was
a key determinant of rate of force development for all increments >90ms
(range = 52 81%). On the other hand, they found that strength was less
closely related to rate of force development in early time increments <40ms
while twitch contractile properties were more important.
Resistance training effects on phases of rate of force

development
It is very unclear whether resistance training affects early and late phases of
rate of force development differently. Several long-term trials investigating
the effects of heavy-load resistance training have reported increases in rate
of force development over late but not early time increments (Blazevich et
al. 2008; Andersen et al. 2010; Oliveira et al. 2013a). Indeed, Andersen et al.
(2010) actually reported a reduction in early phase rate of force development
but an increase in late phase rate of force development. However, others
have reported improvements in both early and late time increments
(Aagaard et al. 2002a; Blazevich et al. 2009; Mosti et al. 2014; Unhjem et al.
2015; Thompson et al. 2015) and some have even reported no change in
early phase rate of force development but a reduction in late phase rate of
force development (Farup et al. 2014). Interestingly, Oliveira et al. (2013b)
found that rate of force development improved only during the early phase
(<20ms) and not during later phases (30 250ms) following an isometric
resistance training protocol involving an emphasis on explosive force
production. However, these findings should not be interpreted without
caution, as Geertsen et al. (2008) found that a similar explosive resistance
training protocol improved both rate of force development in both early (30
and 50ms) and late (200ms) phases.
CENTRAL FACTORS
Introduction
Rate of force production is determined by a range of factors, central and
peripheral. In general, it has been assumed that central factors are more
likely to affect rate of force development than peripheral factors (see review
by Hernndez-Dav and Sabido, 2014). In this respect, it may be noteworthy
that potentiating contractions designed to create a post-activation
potentiation (PAP) effect increases both force production and rate of force
production (Requena et al. 2011) in athletes and that long-term trials
investigating the cross-over effect have found similar improvements in rate
of force development in both trained and untrained limbs (Adamson et al.
2008). Within central factors, increased agonist muscle activity (by means of
greater motor unit firing frequency) is generally identified as the variable
most likely to contribute to changes in rate of force development with
training (see review by Hernndez-Dav and Sabido, 2014).
AGONIST MUSCLE ACTIVITY (NEURAL DRIVE)

Introduction
Agonist muscle activity (also known as the neural drive) is a function of two
key variables: motor unit recruitment and motor unit firing frequency. Motor
unit recruitment refers to how many motor units are recruited in order to
achieve the task. Tasks with low force requirements typically recruit small
numbers of motor units while tasks requiring a high degree of force may
require nearly all motor units to be recruited. Different muscles can have
very different recruitment thresholds for their motor units, which means that
some muscles are fully recruited at relatively low levels of force while other
muscles are fully recruited only when force levels reach >80% of maximum
voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) force. On the other hand, motor unit
firing frequency (also known as rate coding) refers to the number of pulses
that are sent in a period of time to the recruited motor units. When a very
large number of pulses are sent in a short period of time, the muscle fibers
innervated by the motor units do not have chance to relax between
contractions and the muscle achieves a state of tetanus, in which maximal
possible force is generated. Many researchers now believe that increasing
motor unit recruitment is the means by which force is increased from low to
medium force levels, while motor unit firing frequency increases are
responsible for the increases from medium to high force levels.
Measuring agonist muscle activity

Agonist muscle activity, or neural drive, is commonly discussed but often
misrepresented. It is commonly but falsely assumed that neural drive is the
same as motor unit recruitment. In fact, neural drive is the combination of
both motor unit recruitment and motor unit firing frequency. It is also
commonly but falsely assumed that neural drive is always measured using
electromyography (EMG). In reality, neural drive can be measured in several
different ways, including EMG activity, the central activation ratio, and twitch
interpolation, each of which has its own unique benefits and limitations (see
review by Duchateau et al. 2006). Neural drive, however it is measured,
typically increases with resistance training, but researchers have
generally concluded that since the increases are not large, they are likely not
a primary contributor to the increases in strength that are observed post-
training (see review by Carroll et al. 2011). Whether they are a more
important contributor to rate of force development, however, is less clear.
ELECTROMYOGRAPHY (EMG)
Introduction
EMG is the most commonly-used measure of neural drive. However, there
are three very important considerations to note about the interpretation of
changes in the magnitude of the EMG activity signal with training. Firstly, and
perhaps most importantly, EMG activity measured during voluntary muscle
actions does not measure voluntary activation relative to the maximum
possible level of recruitment under involuntary conditions. Secondly, EMG
measures a signal that is the sum of both motor unit recruitment and motor
unit firing frequency (Suzuki et al. 2002). Therefore, observing changes
in magnitude of the EMG signal cannot differentiate between changes in
motor unit recruitment and changes in motor unit firing frequency. This
means that changes in EMG activity levels cannot provide information about
whether motor unit recruitment has increased or whether motor unit firing
frequency has increased. They only tell us that one or the other (or both
together) have increased. Thirdly, the EMG signal provides an indication of
the magnitude of the neural drive to the muscle but this can be influenced
by two sets of intrinsic factors: central and peripheral. Central factors include
the number of recruited motor units and the motor unit firing frequency,
while peripheral factors include muscle fiber type composition, blood flow,
fiber diameter, the location of the electrode on the muscle fiber, and the
quantity of subcutaneous tissue (see reviews by De Luca, 1997; Reaz et al.
2006).
Effects of resistance training on EMG activity

EMG activity and short-term strength gains
Resistance training, particularly using heavy loads, is widely believed to

increase neural drive, as measured by EMG. Indeed, many studies have
shown that agonist muscle activity increases significantly with long-term
resistance training, although some others have failed to show any significant
increase. Whether these findings imply that neural drive is altering to
accommodate peripheral changes or whether independent increases in
central factors are occurring is unclear. Many researchers and coaches claim
confidently that the increases in EMG activity represent alterations in central
factors and specifically an improvement in motor unit recruitment.
This confidence seems to stem from when early studies first measured
increases in both muscular strength and EMG activity following periods of
long-term resistance training and yet did not find simultaneous increases in
muscular size. It was therefore inferred that the early adaptations to
resistance training were entirely neural and that the neural changes that
occurred comprised increased neural drive. Despite later refutation of this
hypothesis by researchers such as Holtermann et al. (2005), who showed
that strength gains could occur in as little as 5 days without any changes in
neural drive, the idea persists even today.
Peripheral changes and short-term strength gains
In addition to the complexity described above regarding the relationship

between short-term strength gains and changes in neural drive, later studies
using more accurate measuring methods for muscle size (e.g. CT and MRI)
have found that small amounts of hypertrophy occur in as little as 2 weeks
(see review by Griffin and Cafarelli, 2005) and that molecular signalling for
hypertrophy occurs even faster (Bickel et al. 2005). These findings are
important, as peripheral factors that typically change with resistance
training (such as muscle fiber diameter and muscle fiber type) strongly affect
the EMG signal (see reviews by De Luca, 1997; Reaz et al. 2006).
Peripheral changes and neural drive
Many researchers have reported close relationships between components of

the EMG activity signal and both muscle fiber diameter and muscle fiber
type, although the precise nature of these relationships is not entirely clear
(Kupa et al. 1995; Gerdle et al. 1997; Gerdle et al. 2000; Klass et al. 2007).
An increase in muscle size might be expected to lead to greater neural drive
because of Ohms law requiring a greater action potential to produce the
same current. This might therefore mean that changes in neural drive are
simply a function of local changes and are unrelated to any meaningful
change in voluntary activation. However, EMG signals are highly complex
and this is unclear.

Relationship between rate of force development

and EMG activity
Many studies have reported simultaneous increases in rate of force
development and the magnitude of EMG activity following long-term
programs of resistance training (Van Cutsem et al. 1998; Connelly and
Vandervoort, 2000; Hkkinen et al. 2003; Barry et al. 2005; Del Baso et al.
2007; Vila-Ch et al. 2010; Gurjo et al. 2012; Wallerstein et al. 2012),
ballistic training (Gruber et al. 2007), and plyometrics (Behrens et al. 2014),
which is somewhat suggestive of a relationship between increases in neural
drive and rate of force development. However, some studies have not found
significant increases in the magnitude of EMG activity, despite still observing
significant improvements in rate of force development (Aagaard et al. 2002a;
Geertsen et al. 2008; Blazevich et al. 2008; Blazevich et al.
2009; Vangsgaard et al. 2014), and other studies have reported
significant increases in EMG activity without simultaneous increases in rate
of force development (Hkkinen et al. 1985; Hkkinen et al. 1998). Also, it
is interesting to note that Correa et al. (2012) assessed the changes in both
rate of force development and in the magnitude of the EMG signal with three
different types of physical training (plyometrics, high-velocity-low-load
resistance training, and low-velocity-high-load resistance training). While
EMG activity increased in all groups, rate of force development increased
only in the plyometrics and high-velocity-low-load resistance training groups.
These findings indicate that the magnitude of neural drive, as represented by
the EMG signal, is probably not the primary factor determining the increase
in rate of force development that occurs with resistance training.
Relationship between rate of force development and

early-phase EMG activity
During resistance training
Although Aagaard et al. (2002a) reported an increase in rate of force

development but no simultaneous increase in the overall magnitude of EMG
activity after long-term dynamic resistance training, they did report an
increase in EMG activity in the early phases (30, 50 and 100ms). Aagaard et
al. (2002a) also found an increase in the rate of EMG activity rise (RER) over
<75ms. Following a program of long-term dynamic resistance training, Barry
et al. (2005) also reported increases in early phase rate of force development
(100ms) and both the magnitude of EMG activity and RER over 100ms,
although findings varied between the younger and older subjects. Using
explosive resistance training, Tillin et al. (2012) reported increases in
voluntary force at 50ms and increases in EMG activity over the same
period. These findings might be interpreted as an earlier increase in neural
drive that could contribute to an increased rate of force production. In
contrast, Marshall et al. (2011) reported a significant reduction in rate of
force development and no significant increase in the magnitude of EMG
activity but a significant increase in both muscular strength and in RER over
<50ms. Narici et al. (1996) found no increases in rate of force development
in the early phase (<160ms) but did find increases in the late phase
(>160ms) following a period of resistance training in which EMG activity was
also not altered. Meanwhile, Blazevich et al. (2008) reported increases in
early phase rate of force development (30, 50 and 100ms) but no changes in
either EMG activity in the early phase and no change in RER. Therefore,
the grounds for identifying EMG activity in the early phase of the muscle
action as a key factor determining the increase in rate of force development
that occurs with resistance training are good but still somewhat uncertain.
During ballistic training
The findings of ballistic training studies are similar to those of investigations

of resistance training. Cormie et al. (2010) found increases in rate of force
development during jump squats along with increases in the rate of EMG rise
(RER) but without any increase in the overall magnitude of EMG activity.
Schubert et al. (2008) reported concomitant increases in rate of force
development and agonist EMG activity over 100ms but not over 500ms.
Gruber et al. (2007) reported increases in rate of force development and
agonist EMG activity over 70ms. Van Cutsem et al. (1998) found increases in
EMG activity in which the waveform displayed a clear tendency towards
higher levels in the earliest phases. Together, these findings might be
interpreted as an earlier rise in neural drive that could contribute to an
increased rate of force production. Since Van Cutsem et al. (1998) also
reported increases in motor unit firing frequency, this could be the
underlying reason for the increase in early neural drive.
During plyometrics
The findings of plyometrics studies are similar to those of investigations of

resistance training and ballistic training. Behrens et al. (2014) found
increases in rate of force development during isometric knee extension
testing following a program comprising squat, countermovement, and drop
jumps. These increases were accompanied by increases in neural drive in the
early phases of the movement (50ms and 100ms).
VOLUNTARY ACTIVATION
Introduction
Unlike agonist muscle activity (EMG activity), which measures absolute levels
of muscle activity, voluntary activation is a relative measure assessing the
ability of an individual to activate a muscle voluntarily compared to the
extent to which it can be activated using involuntary, electrical stimulation
(Shield and Zhou, 2004). The central activation ratio and twitch interpolation
techniques are the most reliable and commonly-used measures of voluntary
activation. These measures involve relating maximal voluntary torque
production to maximal involuntary torque production superimposed with an
electrical stimulus during a maximal voluntary contraction. Measures of
voluntary activation are limited in that they appear to be dependent upon
muscle length (Noorkiv et al. 2014) and the reliability of the methods have
been questioned (Cooper et al. 2013).
Effects of resistance training on central activation

ratio
The central activation ratio is a measure of voluntary activation. Voluntary
activation is an assessment of the extent to which an individual can
voluntarily activate all of their available motor units during a maximal,
voluntary contraction compared to during a maximal involuntary contraction
created using an electrical stimulus. Consequently, the central activation
ratio is a ratio of the torque produced during voluntary contractions to the
torque produced during voluntary contractions plus the increment developed
during a superimposed involuntary contraction (e.g. Yoshida et al. 2012).
When using this measure, many studies have found that voluntary activation
is actually nearly complete in many muscles in untrained individuals
(Belanger and McComas, 1981) and while it sometimes changes significantly,
it only changes a small amount with resistance training. However, there are
indications that the central activation ratio is somewhat reduced in elderly
people (see review by Klass et al. 2007) but this seems likely to be mostly a
problem in those who are physically inactive rather than those who are
healthy (see review by Klass et al. 2007) and the deficits may be a function
of the infiltration of intramuscular fat (Yoshida et al. 2012).

Effects of resistance training on twitch interpolation

Twitch interpolation is a measure of voluntary activation. Voluntary activation
is an assessment of the extent to which an individual can voluntarily activate
all of their available motor units during a maximal, voluntary contraction
compared to during a maximal involuntary contraction created using an
electrical stimulus. Twitch interpolation is performed by comparing the
excess force produced during an interpolated twitch (i.e. an electrically
stimulated, involuntary muscle contraction performed in the middle of a
voluntary muscle contraction) with the same force produced from a relaxed
muscle. If there is no difference between the two numbers, then voluntary
activation is 100%. Any difference between the two numbers is caused by
voluntary force production being less than involuntary force production and
hence incomplete voluntary activation. When measuring using twitch
interpolation, the majority of studies report no significant changes in
voluntary activation as a result of resistance training and generally find that
voluntary activation is high at baseline. For example, Herbert et al. (1998)
reported voluntary activation of 96% in the elbow flexors and this was
recorded using a particularly high-quality method (see review by Shield and
Zhou, 2004). However, a minority of studies have reported increases in
voluntary activation using this technique. Where there are increases, they
are of similar size to the changes observed with the central activation ratio.
For example, Ekblom (2010) reported an increase from 83% to 91%, while
Scaglioni et al. (2002) reported an increase from 95% to 98%.


voluntary activation
Few studies have simultaneously studied changes in rate of force
development and changes in voluntary activation following long-term
programs of resistance training. Reeves et al. (2003) studied the effects of
14 weeks of lower-body dynamic resistance training in elderly individuals and
found that while rate of force development increased by 27%, there was no
significant change in voluntary activation, as measured by the central
activation ratio (from 95% to 97%). However, other studies have reported
simultaneous increases in rate of force development and voluntary activation
following resistance training (Del Baso et al. 2007) and plyometrics (Behrens
et al. 2014).
MOTOR UNIT RECRUITMENT

Introduction
Motor unit recruitment and motor unit firing frequency are the two main
factors that make up agonist activity or neural drive. Changes in agonist
activity are often ascribed to either motor unit recruitment or motor unit
firing frequency without justification, as the magnitude of EMG activity alone
does not permit us to determine which of these factors is responsible for
changes that are observed. Nevertheless, an altered motor unit recruitment
pattern involving high-threshold motor units being recruited earlier in a
maximum voluntary isometric contraction could potentially have a profound
beneficial impact on rate of force development (Holtermann et al. 2007a). It
has been suggested that mean or median power frequencies measured
during EMG recordings might indirectly allow us to measure motor unit
recruitment, as these measurements do not appear to be related to motor
unit firing frequencies (Solomonow et al. 1990). Consequently, Holtermann et
al. (2005) measured changes in median power frequency during a short
period of resistance training that led to increased strength. However, there
were no increases in either EMG activity or mean power frequency,
suggesting that neither increases in neural drive or motor recruitment were
responsible for strength gains. However, certain aspects of motor unit
recruitment have still been explored in relation to rate of force development.
In particular, the excitability of the involved motor neurons.
Spinal excitability
Increased motor neuron excitability at the spinal level might contribute to
increased rate of force development following long-term resistance training
(Holtermann et al. 2007a). Spinal excitability is most commonly measured by
using a test of the Hoffman reflex (see review by Schieppati, 1987). Testing
the Hoffman reflex involves a simple electrical stimulation of the (Ia afferent)
sensory nerve fibers. The electrical stimulus causes a reflex reaction at the
spinal level, which leads to a neural signal being sent back to the muscle.
This neural signal can be detected as agonist muscle activity using
electromyography (EMG) and also evidenced visually by a short-
duration contraction of the muscle. The Hoffman reflex is analogous to the
stretch reflex, only the stretch reflex involves first stimulating the muscle
spindles, which then in turn cause stimulation of the (Ia afferent) sensory
nerve fibers. By removing the need to first stimulate the muscle spindles, the
Hoffman reflex allows researchers to investigate changes in the spinal reflex
independently of changes in the muscle at the local level. Such changes
might be expected to arise either from alterations in the excitability of spinal
alpha-motoneurons, or changes in presynaptic inhibition in the Ia afferent
synapses (Aagaard et al. 2002a; Holtermann et al. 2007a).
Effect of resistance training on the Hoffman reflex

The effect of long-term resistance training on the magnitude of the Hoffman
reflex is very unclear. Some (Aagaard et al. 2002b; Lagerquist et al. 2006;
Holtermann et al. 2007a; Duclay et al. 2008; Vangsgaard et al. 2014) but
certainly not all (Scaglioni et al. 2002; Del Baso et al. 2007; Fimland et al.
2009; Ekblom, 2010; Vila-Ch et al. 2012; Christie and Kamen, 2014; Unhjem
et al. 2015) researchers have found that long-term programs of resistance
training lead to increases in the magnitude of the Hoffman reflex or in the
Hoffman reflex normalized to the M-wave, with increases of around 15 20%
sometimes being recorded. However, cross-sectional studies comparing
athletes engaged in resistance training with either non-training controls or
endurance athletes have found that strength and power athletes tend to
display lower measures of the Hoffman reflex than endurance athletes
(e.g. Rochcongar et al. 1979; Casabona et al. 1990; Maffiuletti et al. 2012).

the Hoffman reflex
The relationship between changes in the size of the Hoffman reflex and
increases in rate of force development subsequent to long-term resistance
training is unclear. Holtermann et al. (2007a) found a moderate, positive
correlation between percentage changes in the Hoffman reflex amplitude
and changes in rate of force development (r = 0.59), and there were no such
associations between percentage changes in the Hoffman reflex amplitude
and changes in maximum force production. Holtermann et al. (2007a)
suggested that this change in the Hoffman reflex amplitude might be
interpreted as either a result of increased motor-neuron excitability or as a
result of reduced presynaptic inhibition. While some studies support this
finding with parallel increases in the Hoffman reflex amplitude and rate of
force development during resistance training programs (e.g. Aagaard et al.
2002b; Vangsgaard et al. 2014), other studies have reported no change in
measures of the Hoffman reflex with long-term conventional resistance
training (Del Baso et al. 2007), ballistic resistance training (Schubert et al.
2008), or plyometrics (Behrens et al. 2014), despite increases in rate of force
development and EMG activity.
MOTOR UNIT FIRING FREQUENCY

Introduction
Motor unit firing frequency (also called rate coding) is one of the two main
components of agonist muscle activity. Although it is a key component of
neural drive, it has been argued that it does not explain the large increases
in maximum force production that are observed following resistance training
(see review by Carroll et al. 2011). Nevertheless, it may still be important for
changes in rate of force development. Motor unit firing frequency is thought
to be largely responsible for the increases in force from medium-to-high
levels of force production, in contrast to motor unit recruitment, which is
thought to be complete by <85% of MVIC in almost all muscles. Exactly how
motor unit firing frequency might be increased through training is unclear.
Reviewers have suggested that increases in motor unit firing frequency could
occur as a result of adaptations at various different points along
the corticospinal pathway, from the supraspinal level (as reported by
Schubert et al. 2008) down to the intrinsic properties of motor neurons (see
review by Duchateau and Baudry, 2014).
Effects of resistance training on motor unit

firing frequency
A small number of studies have reported that resistance training improves
motor unit firing frequency, with conflicting results. Van Cutsem et al. (1998)
found that low load, ballistic resistance training for the ankle
dorsiflexors caused a significant increase in motor unit firing frequency.
Kamen et al. (1998) and Kamen and Knight (2004) explored the effects of
dynamic heavy-load and isometric knee extension resistance training
programs in young and older adults and reported increases in motor unit
discharge rates during maximal efforts but not during sub-maximal efforts.
Patten et al. (2001) explored the effects of an isometric finger abduction
resistance training program in both young and older adults and reported that
maximal motor unit discharge rates increased significantly during maximal
efforts and the increase occurred very early in the training program. In
contrast to these findings, Rich and Cafarelli (2000) and Pucci et al. (2006)
both examined the effects of an isometric knee extension resistance training
program and found that motor unit firing frequency was unchanged during
sub-maximal and during maximal efforts. Nevertheless, Vila-Ch et al. (2010)
more recently reported that motor unit discharge rate at 30% of MVIC
increased following a standard protocol of upper and lower body dynamic
resistance training.

motor unit firing frequency
Although motor unit firing frequency is widely assumed to have a large
impact on rate of force development, there is only limited literature providing
an association between the two measures. Van Cutsem et al. (1998) found
that low load, ballistic resistance training for the ankle dorsiflexors caused
a significant increase in rate of torque development of +8.6 10.7% and
that this was accompanied by a significant increase in both EMG activity in
the early phase and in motor unit firing frequency. These findings are
supported by Vila-Ch et al. (2010), who found that rate of force
development and motor unit discharge rate at 30% of MVIC both increased
following a standard protocol of upper and lower body dynamic resistance
training. These findings indicate that the increase in EMG activity in the early
phase that has been linked to increased rate of force development might be
caused by a faster motor unit firing frequency in the same period.
PERIPHERAL FACTORS
Introduction
There are a number of peripheral factors that might contribute to altered
rate of force development, including shifts in muscle fiber type, changes in
proportional muscle fiber type area, alterations in muscle fascicle length as a
result of sarcomerogenesis, alterations in tendon stiffness, changes in
extracellular lateral force transmission, and alterations in muscle fiber
conduction velocity caused by shifts in calcium ion flux rates.
MUSCLE FIBER TYPE

[See more about muscle fiber types]
Introduction
Muscle fiber type is thought to affect rate of force development since type II
muscle fibers display a markedly faster muscle contraction velocity (when
measured during single fiber studies) than type I muscle fibers.
Consequently, training methods that affect muscle fiber type (such as
resistance training) can alter rate of force development through two
mechanisms. Firstly, they can cause a shift in the actual muscle fiber type of
individual muscle fibers. Secondly, they might cause preferential growth of
the muscle fiber area of specific muscle fiber types. However, in a modelling
study based upon mouse muscle fibers, Burkholder et al. (1994) found that
muscle fiber type only affected muscle contraction velocity to a small extent
in comparison with muscle fascicle length.
Muscle fiber conduction velocity of different fiber

types
Although the primary means by which shifts in muscle fiber type are likely to
affect rate of force development is though a shift in muscle fiber contraction
velocity, it is also relevant that large type II muscle fiber proportions are
associated with faster muscle fiber conduction velocities (Sadoyama et al.
1988). Muscle fiber conduction velocity is the speed at which the muscle
fiber membrane (sarcolemma) is depolarised. Depolarisation of the muscle
fiber membrane is one of the necessary stages for muscle fiber contraction
to occur and this stage occurs prior to the measurement of muscle
contraction velocity in single fiber studies. Muscle fiber conduction velocity
appears to increase in tandem with rate of force development, although it
has not been directly associated with it following resistance training (Vila-Ch
et al. 2010; Cadore et al. 2014).
Muscle fiber type shifts

Resistance-training with fast bar speeds has been found to produce a shift
between type I and type IIX muscle fibers, as reported by Paddon-Jones et al.
(2001), Liu et al. (2003), and Shepstone et al. (2005). Since type IIA and type
IIX muscle fibers contract several times faster than type I muscle fibers, this
could be a mechanism by which fast velocity resistance training could lead to
increased rate of force development. However, further studies are
required to confirm these early results.
Preferential muscle fiber type area hypertrophy

There are some indications that resistance training with relatively light loads
and higher repetitions may produce a preferential increase in type I muscle
fiber area, while training with relatively heavy loads and lower repetitions
might cause greater increases in type II muscle fiber area. Mitchell et al.
(2012) found that a group training with 30% of 1RM increased type I muscle
fiber area by nearly twice as much as type II muscle fiber area, while a group
training with 80% of 1RM increased both type I and type II muscle fiber areas
by a similar amount. Similarly, Campos et al. (2002) found that a group
training with 20 28RM increased type I, type IIA and type IIX area similarly
but a group training with 3 5RM increased type I fiber area to a lesser
extent than type IIA and type IIX fiber areas. However, not all studies have
reported that low loads lead to greater growth of type I muscle
fiber areas. Schuenke et al. (2012) found that the increase in type I fiber area
of a 30% of 1RM group was minimal and much lower than the increase in
type IIA and type IIX fiber areas. Nevertheless, since type IIA and type IIX
muscle fibers contract more quickly than type I muscle fibers, this could be
a mechanism by which heavy load resistance training could lead to increased
rate of force development. However, further studies are required to
clarify these conflicting results.

muscle fiber type
Adverse effects of change from type IIX to type IIA
Some studies have suggested that the change from type IIX to type IIA
muscle fiber type that occurs with resistance training might cause a
reduction in rate of force development. Indeed, Andersen et al. (2010)
reported that reductions in rate of force development in the early phase
(100ms) were significantly and moderate-to-strongly related with reductions
in type IIX muscle fiber relative area (r = 0.61) following resistance training.
On the other hand, they found that rate of force development increased in
the late phase (200ms) and that a relationship did not exist between rate of
force development in the late phase (200ms) and relative area of type
IIX muscle fiber type. Farup et al. (2014) reported no change in early phase
rate of force development following resistance training for the knee
extensors but they noted reductions in late phase (200ms) rate of force
development. They found that rate of force development was significantly
and moderately related with type IIX muscle fiber relative area over 30ms,
50ms and 100ms (r = 0.61, 0.56, 0.46) but not over 200ms (r = 0.26).
Interestingly, Kyrlinen et al. (2005) noted that 15 weeks of plyometrics
training increased rate of force development but had no effect on muscle
fiber type, leaving even type IIX fiber proportion unchanged.
Beneficial effects of increasing type IIA
Although early shifts from type IIX to type IIA may be disadvantageous, later
preferential growth in type IIA fiber area may be beneficial. Hkkinen et al.
(2003) reported a significant increase in rate of force development (peak)
and a non-significant trend for reduced type IIX fiber distribution (50% to
36%), increased type IIA fiber distribution (16% to 26%), and little effect on
type I muscle fiber distribution (34% to 37%). Also, Aagaard et al. (2002a)
reported that preferential increases in type II muscle fiber area were
observed in conjunction with increases in rate of force development. This is
in line with the overall findings of the literature, which generally
reports preferential increases in type II muscle fiber area and increases in
rate of force development following long-term resistance training programs,
even if they are not reported in the same individual trials.
MUSCLE FASCICLE LENGTH

Introduction
Although muscle fascicle length is not often discussed as a factor that can
determine muscular function, it is actually a critical parameter. In a
modelling study based upon mouse muscle fibers, Burkholder et al. (1994)
reported that muscle fascicle length was the most important factor
determining muscular function and markedly affected muscle contraction
velocity, with greater fascicle lengths being highly predictive of faster muscle
contraction velocities. Sacks and Roy (1982) reported similar findings in
respect of cat muscle fibers. Therefore, it is unsurprising that longer fascicle
lengths have been associated with superior athletic performance,
especially sprint running (Kumagi et al. 2000; Abe et al., 2001; Lee and
Piazza, 2009). These findings suggest that muscle fascicle length may be an
important factor that can determine rate of force development.
Effects of changing fascicle length

Increases in muscle fascicle length occur through changes in the number of
sarcomeres in series, which is a process known as sarcomerogenesis. This
addition of sarcomeres in series has two key implications. Firstly, since all of
the sarcomeres in a muscle fascicle contract simultaneously when stimulated
by a motor neuron, a greater number of sarcomeres in series leads to a
faster muscle contraction velocity (and thereby enhanced rate of force
development) for the fascicle as a whole (see review by Gans and Gaunt,
1991). Secondly, by increasing the number of sarcomeres in series, there is a
simultaneous reduction in muscle stiffness, which reduces the rate of force
development (Wilkie, 1949). This may imply that increasing fascicle length
could under certain circumstances increase rate of force development while
under other circumstances it might reduce it. It is therefore unsurprising
that while Alegre et al. (2006) found simultaneous increases in rate of force
development and improvements in muscle fascicle length as a result of long-
term resistance training, Blazevich et al. (2009) reported reductions in rate of
force development (to 30ms) with associated increases in muscle fascicle
length.
Effects of resistance training on fascicle length

Muscle fascicle length is well known to increase following eccentric
resistance training (e.g. Blazevich et al. 2007; Duclay et al. 2009; Potier et al.
2009; Baroni et al. 2013; Kim et al. 2014). However, it is much less well-
known that many studies have shown that fascicle length also increases
following conventional stretch-shortening cycle resistance training as well
(e.g. Blazevich et al. 2003; Reeves et al. 2003; Alegre et al. 2006; Seynnes et
al. 2007) and even after concentric-only resistance training (Blazevich et al.
2007; Kim et al. 2014). A review of the available literature assessing the
effect of different resistance training interventions on muscle fascicle length
in a range of different populations shows that muscle fascicle length does
increase in most but not all studies. While the range of fascicle length
increases is very broad (from -14% to +83%), the median increase in fascicle
length is around 5%, which may be sufficient to cause a material increase in

Relationship between rate of force development

and muscle fascicle length
In an important analysis, Blazevich et al. (2009) reported that 50% of the
inter-individual variability in respect of the changes in rate of force
development (over 30ms) following long-term isokinetic resistance training
could be explained by alterations in muscle fascicle length. Increases in
muscle fascicle length were negatively correlated with the increases in rate
of force development, suggesting that those subjects who incurred increases
in muscle fascicle length were negatively impacted. Following a 4-week
program of explosive isometric knee extension resistance training, Tillin et al.
(2012) reported a significant increase in explosive force over 50ms that was
accompanied by a non-significant increase in muscle fascicle length of 4.8%
and a significant increase in muscle-tendon unit stiffness of 34.0% between
50 90% of maximum voluntary force. Although Kramer et al. (2012) did not
report muscle fascicle length following a period of ballistic resistance
training, they did find a concomitant increase in leg stiffness during sledge
jumps and an increase in rate of force development. These findings support
the idea that increases in muscle fascicle length reduce rate of force
development by reducing muscle stiffness, that the benefit of increasing
muscle contraction velocity may not always overcome this adverse effect,
and that increasing muscle stiffness may be a means by which rate of force
development can be enhanced.
TENDON STIFFNESS
Introduction
Greater tendon stiffness has been suggested to enhance rate of force
development (Wilson et al. 1994; Kubo et al. 2001) and greater tendon
stiffness does appear to be positively correlated with superior athletic
performance (e.g. Bojsen-Mller et al. 2005). Additionally, several types of
training, including resistance training (Kubo et al. 2001; Burgess et al. 2007)
and plyometrics (Burgess et al. 2007), have been found to increase tendon
stiffness while also increasing rate of force development (Kubo et al. 2001;
Burgess et al. 2007).
Effects of resistance training on tendon stiffness

Many studies have reported on the effect of long-term resistance training
programs on changes in tendon stiffness. In general, it appears that
resistance training does cause increases in tendon stiffness, with increases
ranging between -9 to +85% in patella tendons and between -18 to +61% in
Achilles tendons. The literature shows that resistance training programs with
higher levels of muscular force and for longer durations seem to have the
largest effect on tendon stiffness, regardless of contraction type or training
modality (see review by Bohm et al. 2015).


tendon stiffness
Although it is not widely thought of as a factor determining rate of force
development, there is some evidence to support a causal relationship
between increases in tendon stiffness and improvements in rate of force
development, even above neural adaptations. Reeves et al. (2003) studied
the effects of 14 weeks of lower-body dynamic resistance training in elderly
individuals and found that while rate of force development increased by
27%, there was no significant change in voluntary activation, as measured
by the central activation ratio (from 95% to 97%). However, tendon stiffness,
as measured by Youngs modulus, increased by 69%. Reeves et al. (2003)
interpreted their results such that this peripheral change in tendon stiffness
was thought to account for the increase in rate of force development, rather
than neural factors. Other studies have also reported simultaneous increases
in tendon stiffness and rate of force development following resistance
training and other training modalities. For example, Burgess et al. (2007)
reported a substantial but non-significant (19%) increase in rate of force
development along with an increase in rate of force development following a
6-week plyometrics program.
EXTRACELLULAR LATERAL FORCE

TRANSMISSION
Introduction
Although force transmission in muscle fibers is generally assumed to occur in
a longitudinal direction (i.e. from one end to the other), it is actually
transmitted laterally, into the extracellular matrix. This phenomenon is
believed to be mediated by changes in the costameres and has been
observed in amphibian and mammalian muscles (Street, 1983; Ramaswamy
et al. 2011). Increases in strength that are not attributable to either changes
in muscle size or central factors have therefore been attributed to an
increase in the number of lateral attachments (by means of the costameres)
between sarcomeres and the extracellular matrix. This increase in the
number of lateral attachments increases lateral force transmission between
neighbouring myofibrils and effectively increases the number of sarcomeres
in parallel (Jones et al. 1989). However, this increase in lateral attachments
might reasonably be expected to lead to a reduction in muscle contraction
velocity and therefore this increase in extracellular lateral force transmission
could cause a reduction in rate of force development.
MUSCLE FIBER CONDUCTION VELOCITY

Introduction
Muscle fiber conduction velocity is the speed at which the muscle fiber
membrane (sarcolemma) is depolarised. Depolarisation of the muscle fiber
membrane is one of the necessary stages for muscle fiber contraction to
occur and this stage occurs prior to the measurement of muscle contraction
velocity in single fiber studies. It is thought that muscle fiber conduct
velocity is at least partly affected by the speed at which calcium ions are
released or removed from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Consequently,
peripheral factors affecting the levels and the flux of calcium ions could have
an effect on muscle fiber conduction velocity and potentially also thereby
Effects of resistance training on muscle fiber

conduction velocity
Studies of long-term resistance training interventions have found that muscle
fiber conduction velocity does increase post-training (Vila-Ch et al. 2010;
Cadore et al. 2014). However, what training variables are associated with
greater increases or whether there is a population-specific effect is currently
unclear.

muscle fiber conduction velocity
Studies of long-term resistance training interventions that have
simultaneously measured rate of force development have generally reported
that muscle fiber conduction velocity does increase in tandem with rate of
force development (Vila-Ch et al. 2010; Cadore et al. 2014). However,
changes in the two variables with resistance training have not yet been
associated so it is unclear whether there is a causal relationship between the
two.

DEVELOPMENT
Surprisingly, the shifts in muscle fiber type or type
area (to type IIA from type IIX) and the increases in
fascicle length (causing reduced muscle stiffness) that
result from training very likely contribute
to reduced rate of force development.
Increases in muscle stiffness, increases in tendon
stiffness, changes in proportional muscle fiber type
area (to type IIA from type I), and increases in neural
drive in the early phase (<100ms), which might be
caused by increased motor unit firing frequency,
likely all contribute to increased rate of force
development with training.
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Rate of Force Development

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Rate of force development

Higher rate of force development in lower body

Rate of force development can be improved through

Rate of force development can be improved through

Surprisingly, shifts in muscle fiber type or type area

Increases in muscle stiffness, increases in tendon

SUMMARY FINDINGS FOR RATE OF FORCE

CONCLUSIONS REGARDING RATE OF FORCE

Rate of force development (RFD) is very simple to define mathematically.

Differences between types of contraction

Maximum rate of force development can be measured under isometric and

Relationship with recovery status

CORRELATIONS WITH PERFORMANCE

CORRELATIONS WITH SPRINTING

CONCLUSIONS REGARDING RATE OF FORCE

Intended rather than actual movement velocity

Explosive rather than controlled force production

There are several mechanisms by which resistance training might increase

Influence of training variables on mechanisms

EFFECTS OF RESISTANCE TRAINING ON RATE

EFFECT OF RELATIVE LOAD DURING

EFFECT OF BAR SPEED DURING RESISTANCE

EFFECT OF MUSCLE ACTION DURING

EFFECT OF TRAINING VOLUME DURING

EFFECT OF PERIODIZATION DURING

EFFECTS OF RESISTANCE TRAINING ON RATE

CONCLUSIONS REGARDING RATE OF FORCE

Ballistic training has traditionally been thought to be very beneficial for

Neural drive during explosive movements

Relationship between ballistic resistance training

EFFECTS OF BALLISTIC TRAINING ON RATE OF

CONCLUSIONS REGARDING RATE OF FORCE

Relationship between Olympic weightlifting ability and

There are several mechanisms by which Olympic weightlifting might increase

EFFECTS OF OLYMPIC WEIGHTLIFTING ON

CONCLUSIONS REGARDING RATE OF FORCE

EFFECTS OF PLYOMETRICS ON RATE OF FORCE

CONCLUSIONS REGARDING RATE OF FORCE

EFFECTS OF BALANCE TRAINING ON RATE OF

CONCLUSIONS REGARDING RATE OF FORCE

EFFECTS OF COMBINED TRAINING ON RATE

CONCLUSIONS REGARDING RATE OF FORCE

COMPARING METHODS ON RATE OF FORCE

CONCLUSIONS REGARDING RATE OF FORCE

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRENGTH AND

Strength and different phases rate of force

Resistance training effects on phases of rate of force

AGONIST MUSCLE ACTIVITY (NEURAL DRIVE)

Measuring agonist muscle activity

Effects of resistance training on EMG activity

Resistance training, particularly using heavy loads, is widely believed to

Peripheral changes and short-term strength gains

In addition to the complexity described above regarding the relationship

Peripheral changes and neural drive

Many researchers have reported close relationships between components of

To open a new window and view detailed information in a large table,

Relationship between rate of force development

Relationship between rate of force development and

Although Aagaard et al. (2002a) reported an increase in rate of force

During ballistic training

The findings of ballistic training studies are similar to those of investigations

The findings of plyometrics studies are similar to those of investigations of

Effects of resistance training on central activation