UNIT-II

TRANSISTORS

SYLLABUS
BJT, JFET, MOSFET- structure, operation, characteristics and Biasing UJT, Thyristor and IGBT -
Structure and characteristics.

INTRODUCTION

In 1947 J. Barden, W. Bratterin and W. Shockley invented transistor. The term transistor was given
by John R. Pierce. Through initially it was called the solid state version of the vacuum triode, but
the term transistor has survived. As we will go through the topic, we will know about the transistor,
mainly bipolar junction transistor or BJT. Nowadays the use of BJTs has declined towards
CMOS technology in the design of ICs. The word transistor is derived from the words
Transfer and Resistor it describes the operation of a BJT i.e. the transfer of an input signal
from a low resistance circuit to a high resistance circuit. This type of transistor is made up of
semiconductors. We know that silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge) are the examples of
semiconductors. Transistor

A three-terminal device whose output current, voltage and/or power are controlled by its input.

Commonly used in audio application as an amplifier, in switching application as a switch and in

power supply voltage and current regulator circuit.

2 basic transistor types: BJT and FET

These two transistor differ in their operating characteristic and their internal construction.

BJT STRUCTURE

The BJT is constructed with three doped semiconductor regions separated by two pn
junctions.

The three region are called emitter (E),base (B) and collector (C)

The BJT have 2 types:

1. Two n region separate by a p region called npn

2. Two p region separated by a n region called pnp

The pn junction joining the base region and the emitter region is called the base-emiter
junction

1
 The pn junction joining the base region and the collector region is call base-collector
junction

The base region is lightly doped and very thin compared to the heavily doped emitter and
the moderately doped collector region

BJT schematic symbol

The arrow on schematic symbol is important because:

Identify the component terminal

The arrow is always drawn on the emitter terminal. The terminal opposite emitter is collector and
the center terminal is base.

The arrow always points toward n-type material

If the arrow point toward base, transistor is pnp type. If it points toward emitter, transistor is npn
type.

Transistor Currents:

Transistor terminal current

The directions of the currents in npn transistor and pnp transistor are shown in the figure.

The emitter current (IE) is the sum of the collector current (IC) and the base current (IB)

IE IB IC

IB << IE or IC

The capital letter dc value

Transistor is a current-controlled device - the value of collector and emitter currents are
determined by the value of base current.

An increase or decrease in value of IB causes similar change in values of IC and IE.

IC DC B I

3
Current gain () factor by which current increases from base of transistor to its collector.

Transistor Voltages:

VCC collector supply voltage. This is a power supply voltage applied directly to collector
of transistor.

VBB base supply voltage. this is dc voltage used to bias base of transistor.

VEE emitter supply voltage. dc biasing voltage and in many cases, VEE is simply a ground
connection.

Transistor Voltages:

VC dc voltage measured from collector terminal of component to ground

VB dc voltage measured from base terminal to ground.

VE dc voltage measured from emitter terminal to ground.

5
 Transistor Voltages:

VCE dc voltage measured from collector to emitter terminal of transistor.

VBE dc voltage measured from base to emitter terminal of transistor.

VCB dc voltage measured from collector to base terminal of transistor.

BJT OPERATION

To operate the transistor properly, the two pn junction must be correctly biased with
external dc voltages.

The figure shown the proper bias arrangement for both npn and pnp transistor for active
operation as an amplifier.

Transistor is made of 3 separate semiconductor materials that joined together to form two
pn junction.
 Point at which emitter and base are joined forms a single pn junction base-emitter
junction

Collector-base junction point where base and collector meet.

Cutoff region

Both transistor junctions are reverse biased.

With large depletion region between C-B and E-B, very small amount of reverse current,
ICEO passes from emitter to collector and can be neglected.

So, VCE = VCC

 Saturation region

Both transistor junctions are forward-biased.

IC reaches its maximum value as determined by VCC and total resistance in C-E circuit.

IC is independently from relationship of and IB.

VBE is approximately 0.7V and VCE < VBE.

V
I CC

C RC RE

Active region

BE junction is forward biased and the BC junction is reverse biased.

All terminal currents have some measurable value.

The magnitude of IC depends on the values of and IB.

VCE is approximately near to 0.7V and VCE falls in ranges VBE<VCE<VCC.

Transistor Operating Regions:

1.Cutoff region:

Both transistor junctions are reverse biased

All terminal current are approximately equal to zero. Since ICEO neglected, VCE = VCC

2.Active region:

The BE junction is forward biased and the BC junction is reverse biased

All terminal currents have some measurable value

The magnitude of IC depends on the values of and IB

VCE is approximately near to 0.7V and VCE falls in ranges VBE<VCE<VCC

3.Saturation:

Both transistor junctions are forward biased

 EC6202 ElectronicDevices and circuits
IC reaches its maximum values- determine by the component in the CE circuit, and
independent of the values of and IB

VBE is approximately 0.7V and VCE < VBE

Bipolar Transistor Configurations

As the Bipolar Transistor is a three terminal device, there are basically three possible ways to
connect it within an electronic circuit with one terminal being common to both the input and
output. Each method of connection responding differently to its input signal within a circuit as the
static characteristics of the transistor vary with each circuit arrangement.

Common Base Configuration has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.

Common Emitter Configuration has both Current and Voltage Gain.

Common Collector Configuration has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.

The Common Base (CB) Configuration

As its name suggests, in the Common Base or grounded base configuration, the BASEconnection
is common to both the input signal AND the output signal with the input signal being applied
between the base and the emitter terminals. The corresponding output signal is taken from between
the base and the collector terminals as shown with the base terminal grounded or connected to a
fixed reference voltage point.

The input current flowing into the emitter is quite large as its the sum of both the base current and
collector current respectively therefore, the collector current output is less than the emitter current
input resulting in a current gain for this type of circuit of 1 (unity) or less, in other words the
common base configuration attenuates the input signal.

The Common Base Transistor Circuit

This type of amplifier configuration is a non-inverting voltage amplifier circuit, in that the signal
voltages Vin and Vout are in-phase. This type of transistor arrangement is not very common
due to its unusually high voltage gain characteristics. Its input characteristics represent that of a
forward biased diode while the output characteristics represent that of an illuminated photodiode.

Also this type of bipolar transistor configuration has a high ratio of output to input resistance or
more importantly load resistance ( RL ) to input resistance ( Rin ) giving it a value of
Resistance Gain. Then the voltage gain ( Av ) for a common base configuration is therefore
given as:

Common Base Voltage Gain

Where: Ic/Ie is the current gain, alpha ( ) and RL/Rin is the resistance gain.

The common base circuit is generally only used in single stage amplifier circuits such as
microphone pre-amplifier or radio frequency ( Rf ) amplifiers due to its very good high frequency
response.

Common Base Characteristics Input Characteristics

For p-n-p transistor, the input current is the emitter current (IE) and the input voltage is the collector
base voltage (VCB).
 As the
emitter - base junction is forward biased, therefore the graph of IE Vs VEB is similar to the forward
characteristics of a p - n diode. IE increases for fixed VEB when VCB increases.

Output Characteristics

The output characteristics shows the relation between output voltage and output current IC is the
output current and collector-base voltage and the emitter current IE is the input current and works
as the parameters. The figure below shows the output characteristics for a p-n-p transistor in CB

mode.
As we know for p-n-p transistors IE and VEB are positive and IC, IB, VCB are negative. These are
three regions in the curve, active region saturation region and the cut off region. The active region
is the region where the transistor operates normally. Here the emitter junction is reverse biased.
Now the saturation region is the region where both the emitter collector junctions are forward
biased. And finally the cut off region is the region where both emitter and the collector junctions
are reverse biased.

The Common Emitter (CE) Configuration

In the Common Emitter or grounded emitter configuration, the input signal is applied between
the base and the emitter, while the output is taken from between the collector and the emitter as
shown. This type of configuration is the most commonly used circuit for transistor based
amplifiers and which represents the normal method of bipolar transistor connection.

The common emitter amplifier configuration produces the highest current and power gain of all
the three bipolar transistor configurations. This is mainly because the input impedance is LOW as
it is connected to a forward biased PN-junction, while the output impedance is HIGH as it is taken
from a reverse biased PN-junction.

The Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit

In this type of configuration, the current flowing out of the transistor must be equal to the currents
flowing into the transistor as the emitter current is given as Ie = Ic + Ib.

As the load resistance ( RL ) is connected in series with the collector, the current gain of the
common emitter transistor configuration is quite large as it is the ratio of Ic/Ib. A transistors current
gain is given the Greek symbol of Beta, ( ).

As the emitter current for a common emitter configuration is defined as Ie = Ic + Ib, the ratio of
Ic/Ie is called Alpha, given the Greek symbol of . Note: that the value of Alpha will always be
less than unity.
Since the electrical relationship between these three currents, Ib, Ic and Ie is determined by the
physical construction of the transistor itself, any small change in the base current ( Ib ), will result
in a much larger change in the collector current ( Ic ).

Then, small changes in current flowing in the base will thus control the current in the
emittercollector circuit. Typically, Beta has a value between 20 and 200 for most general purpose
transistors. So if a transistor has a Beta value of say 100, then one electron will flow from the base
terminal for every 100 electrons flowing between the emitter-collector terminal.

By combining the expressions for both Alpha, and Beta, the mathematical relationship between
these parameters and therefore the current gain of the transistor can be given as:

Where: Ic is the current flowing into the collector terminal, Ib is the current flowing into the
base terminal and Ie is the current flowing out of the emitter terminal.

Then to summarise a little. This type of bipolar transistor configuration has a greater input
impedance, current and power gain than that of the common base configuration but its voltage
gain is much lower. The common emitter configuration is an inverting amplifier circuit. This
means that the resulting output signal is 180o out-of-phasewith the input voltage signal.

Common Emitter Characteristics

Input characteristics IB (Base Current) is the input current, VBE (Base - Emitter Voltage) is the
input voltage for CE (Common Emitter) mode. So, the input characteristics for CE mode will be
the relation between IB and VBE with VCE as parameter. The characteristics are shown below
 The typical
CE input characteristics are similar to that of a forward biased of p - n diode. But as VCB increases
the base width decreases. Output Characteristics Output characteristics for CE mode is the curve
or graph between collector current (IC) and collector - emitter voltage (VCE) when the base current
IB is the parameter. The characteristics is shown below in the figure.

Like
the output characteristics of common - base transistor CE mode has also three regions named (i)
Active region, (ii) cut-off regions, (iii) saturation region. The active region has collector region
reverse biased and the emitter junction forward biased. For cut-off region the emitter junction is
slightly reverse biased and the collector current is not totally cut-off. And finally for saturation
region both the collector and the emitter junction are forward biased.
The Common Collector (CC) Configuration

In the Common Collector or grounded collector configuration, the collector is now common
through the supply. The input signal is connected directly to the base, while the output is taken
from the emitter load as shown. This type of configuration is commonly known as a Voltage
Follower or Emitter Follower circuit.

The common collector, or emitter follower configuration is very useful for impedance matching
applications because of the very high input impedance, in the region of hundreds of thousands of
Ohms while having a relatively low output impedance.

The Common Collector Transistor Circuit

The common emitter configuration has a current gain approximately equal to the value of the
transistor itself. In the common collector configuration the load resistance is situated in series with
the emitter so its current is equal to that of the emitter current.

As the emitter current is the combination of the collector AND the base current combined, the load
resistance in this type of transistor configuration also has both the collector current and the input
current of the base flowing through it. Then the current gain of the circuit is given as:
The Common Collector Current Gain

This type of bipolar transistor configuration is a non-inverting circuit in that the signal voltages of
Vin and Vout are in-phase. It has a voltage gain that is always less than 1 (unity). The load
resistance of the common collector transistor receives both the base and collector currents giving
a large current gain (as with the common emitter configuration) therefore, providing good current
amplification with very little voltage gain.

We can now summarise the various relationships between the transistors individual DC currents
flowing through each leg and its DC current gains given above in the following table.

Relationship between DC Currents and Gains

Bipolar Transistor Summary

Then to summarise, the behaviour of the bipolar transistor in each one of the above circuit
configurations is very different and produces different circuit characteristics with regards to input
impedance, output impedance and gain whether this is voltage gain, current gain or power gain
and this is summarised in the table below.

Bipolar Transistor Configurations

with the generalised characteristics of the different transistor configurations given in the following
table:
Characteristic Common Common Common
Base Emitter Collector

Input Impedance Low Medium High

Output Impedance Very High High Low

Phase Angle 0o 180o 0o

Voltage Gain High Medium Low

Current Gain Low Medium High

Power Gain Low Very High Medium

BJT CHARACTERISTICS & PARAMETERS

DC Beta ( ) and DC Alpha ():

 The ratio of the dc collector current (IC) to the dc base current (IB) is the dc beta

( ) = dc current gain of transistor

Range value : 20< <200

Usually designed as an equivalent hybrid (h) parameter, on transistor data sheet = IC

DC IB

The ratio of the dc collector current (IC) to the dc emitter current (IE) is the dc alpha ()
less used parameter in transistor circuits

Range value-> 0.95< <0.99 or greater , but << 1 (Ic< IE )

IC
DC

IE

Current and Voltage Analysis:

The current and voltage can be identified as follow:

Current: Voltage:

dc base current, dc voltage at base with respect to emitter,

dc emitter current, dc voltage at collector with respect to base,

dc collector current, dc voltage at collector with respect to emitter,

 When the BE junction is forward-biased, like a forward biased diode and the voltage drop
is VBE 0.7V

R
Since the emitter is at ground (0V), by Kirchhoffs voltage law, the voltage across B is:
VRB VBB VBE .(1)

Also, by Ohms law: VRB IBRB..(2)

From (1) ->(2) : V

BB VBE IBRB
Therefore, the dc base current is:

IB VBB VBE

The voltage at the collector with respect to the grounded emitter is: RB VCE VCC VRC

V I R
Since the drop across RCis: RC C C

The dc voltage at the collector with respect to the emitter is: VCE VCC ICRC

Where IC I
DC B

VCE VBE
The dc voltage at the collector with respect to the base is: VCB
Collector Characteristic Curve:

Using a circuit as shown in below, we can generate a set of collector characteristic curve
that show how the collector current, Ic varies with the VCE voltage for specified values of
base current, IB.

Collector Characteristic Curve:

Assume that VBB is set to produce a certain value of IB and VCC is zero.

At this condition, BE junction and BC junction are forward biased because the base is
approximately 0.7V while the emitter and the collector are zero.

IB is through the BE junction because of the low impedance path to ground, therefore IC is
zero.
 When both junctions are forward biased transistor operate in saturation region.

As VCC increase, VCE is increase gradually, IC increase indicated by point A to B.

IC increase as VCC is increased because VCE remains less than 0.7V due to the forward
biased BC junction.

When VCE exceeds 0.7V, the BC becomes reverse biased and the transistor goes into the
active or linear region of its operation.

Once BC junction is RB, IC levels off and remains constant for given value of IB and VCE
continues to increase.

Actually IC increases slightly as VCE increase due to widening of the BC depletion region

This result in fewer holes for recombination in the base region which effectively caused a
slight increase in indicated in point B and C.

When VCE reached a sufficiently high voltage, the reverse biased BC junction goes into
breakdown.

The collector current increase rapidly as indicated at the right point C The transistor

cannot operate in the breakdown region.

When IB=0, the transistor is in the cutoff region although there is a very small collector
leakage current as indicated exaggerated on the graph for purpose of illustration.

DC Load Line:

Cutoff and saturation can be illustrated in relation to the collector characteristic curves by
the use of a load line.

DC load line drawn on the connecting cutoff and saturation point.

The bottom of load line is ideal cutoff where IC=0 & VCE=VCC.

The top of load line is saturation where IC=IC(sat) & VCE =VCE(sat)

In between cutoff and saturation is the active region of transistors operation.

 More
,h
About beta, DC FE :
Important parameter for BJT
 Varies both IC & temperature

Keeping the junction temperature constant, IC cause DC

Further increase in IC beyond this max. point cause to decrease DC Maximum

Transistor Ratings:

Specified on manufacturers data sheet

Given for VCE,VBE,VBC,IC & power dissipation
The product of VCE and IC must not exceed the max. power dissipation
Both VCE and IC cannot be max. at the same time. PI
D(ma
x)

C VCE
FET Definition

Field effect transistor is a unipolar-transistor, which acts as a voltage-controlled current device and
is a device in which current at two electrodes is controlled by the action of an electric field at
another electrode.

Field effect transistor is a device in which the current is controlled and transported by carriers of
one polarity (majority) only and an electric field near the one terminal controls the current between
other two.

Types of FETs

Junction FET
Depletion Mode MOSFET
Enhancement Mode MOSFET

JFET Definition

JFET is a unipolar-transistor, which acts as a voltage controlled current device and is a

device in which current at two electrodes is controlled by the action of an electric field at
a p-n junction.
Field effect transistor is a device in which the current is controlled and transported by
carriers of one polarity (majority) only and an electric field at the p-n junction region
controls the current between other two.
The Junction Field Effect Transistor (JUGFET or JFET) has no PN-junctions but instead
has a narrow piece of high resistivity semiconductor material forming a Channel of
 either N-type or P-type silicon for the majority carriers to flow through with two ohmic
electrical connections at either end commonly called the Drain and the Source respectively.

There are two basic configurations of junction field effect transistor, the N-channel JFET
and the P-channel JFET. The N-channel JFETs channel is doped with donor impurities
meaning that the flow of current through the channel is negative (hence the term Nchannel)
in the form of electrons.
Likewise, the P-channel JFETs channel is doped with acceptor impurities meaning that
the flow of current through the channel is positive (hence the term P-channel) in the form
of holes. N-channel JFETs have a greater channel conductivity (lower resistance) than
their equivalent P-channel types, since electrons have a higher mobility through a
conductor compared to holes. This makes the N-channel JFETs a more efficient conductor
compared to their P-channel counterparts.
We have said previously that there are two ohmic electrical connections at either end of the
channel called the Drain and the Source. But within this channel there is a third electrical
connection which is called the Gate terminal and this can also be a P-type or Ntype material
forming a PN-junction with the main channel. The relationship between the connections of
a junction field effect transistor and a bipolar junction transistor are compared below.
Comparison of Connections between a JFET and a BJT
Bipolar Transistor Field Effect Transistor
Emitter (E) >> Source (S)
Base (B) >> Gate (G)
Collector (C) >> Drain (D)
The symbols and basic construction for both configurations of JFETs are shown below.
 The semiconductor channel of the Junction Field Effect Transistor is a resistive path
through which a voltage VDS causes a current ID to flow and as such the junction field effect
transistor can conduct current equally well in either direction. As the channel is resistive
in nature, a voltage gradient is thus formed down the length of the channel with this voltage
becoming less positive as we go from the Drain terminal to the Source terminal.
The result is that the PN-junction therefore has a high reverse bias at the Drain terminal
and a lower reverse bias at the Source terminal. This bias causes a depletion layer to be
formed within the channel and whose width increases with the bias.
The magnitude of the current flowing through the channel between the Drain and the
Source terminals is controlled by a voltage applied to the Gate terminal, which is a reverse-
biased. In an N-channel JFET this Gate voltage is negative while for a P-channel JFET the
Gate voltage is positive. The main difference between the JFET and a BJT device is that
when the JFET junction is reverse-biased the Gate current is practically zero, whereas the
Base current of the BJT is always some value greater than zero. N-Channel JFET
A semiconductor bar of n-type material is taken & ohmic contacts are made on either ends of the
bar. Terminals are brought out from these ohmic contacts and named as drain & source as shown
in the figure below. On the other two sides of the n-type semiconductor bar, heavily doped ptype
regions are formed to create a p-n junction. Both these p-type regions are connected together via
ohmic contacts and the gate terminal is brought out as seen below. Figure below shows the n-
channel and p-channel JFET with symbols. The arrow on the gate indicates the direction of the
current. Current flows through the length of the n-type bar (channel) due to majority charge carries
which in this case are electrons. When a voltage is applied between the
two ends, a current which is carried by the majority carriers electrons flows along the length of a
bar. The majority carriers enter the bar through the source terminal and leave through the drain
terminal. The heavily doped regions of the n-type bar are known as the gates. The gate source
junctions is reverse is biased as a result depletion regions from which extend to the bar by changing
gate to source voltage effective cross sectional area decreases with the function of the gate to
source voltage.

P-Channel JEFT

p-channel JFET consists of a p-type silicon or GaAs. Two sides of the bar is heavily doped with
n-type impurities. When a voltage is applied between the two ends, a current which is carried by
the majority carrier holes flow along the length of a bar. The gate source junction is reverse biased
as a result depletion regions form, which extend to the bar by changing gate to extend to source
voltage the depletion width can be controlled. The effective cross sectional area decreased with
increasing reverse bias, so the drain current is the function of the gate to source voltage.
Biasing of an N-channel JFET

The cross sectional diagram above shows an N-type semiconductor channel with a P-type region
called the Gate diffused into the N-type channel forming a reverse biased PN-junction and it is
this junction which forms the depletion region around the Gate area when no external voltages are
applied. JFETs are therefore known as depletion mode devices.

This depletion region produces a potential gradient which is of varying thickness around the
PNjunction and restrict the current flow through the channel by reducing its effective width and
thus increasing the overall resistance of the channel itself.

Then we can see that the most-depleted portion of the depletion region is in between the Gate and
the Drain, while the least-depleted area is between the Gate and the Source. Then the JFETs
channel conducts with zero bias voltage applied (ie, the depletion region has near zero width).

With no external Gate voltage ( VG = 0 ), and a small voltage ( VDS ) applied between the Drain
and the Source, maximum saturation current ( IDSS ) will flow through the channel from the Drain
to the Source restricted only by the small depletion region around the junctions.

If a small negative voltage ( -VGS ) is now applied to the Gate the size of the depletion region
begins to increase reducing the overall effective area of the channel and thus reducing the current
flowing through it, a sort of squeezing effect takes place. So by applying a reverse bias voltage
increases the width of the depletion region which in turn reduces the conduction of the channel.

Since the PN-junction is reverse biased, little current will flow into the gate connection. As the
Gate voltage ( -VGS ) is made more negative, the width of the channel decreases until no more
current flows between the Drain and the Source and the FET is said to be pinched-off (similar
to the cut-off region for a BJT). The voltage at which the channel closes is called the pinch-off
voltage, ( VP ).
JFET Channel Pinched-off

In this pinch-off region the Gate voltage, VGS controls the channel current and VDS has little or no
effect.

JFET Model

The result is that the FET acts more like a voltage controlled resistor which has zero resistance
when VGS = 0 and maximum ON resistance ( RDS ) when the Gate voltage is very negative.
Under normal operating conditions, the JFET gate is always negatively biased relative to the
source.

It is essential that the Gate voltage is never positive since if it is all the channel current will flow
to the Gate and not to the Source, the result is damage to the JFET. Then to close the channel:

No Gate voltage ( VGS ) and VDS is increased from zero.

No VDS and Gate control is decreased negatively from zero.

VDS and VGS varying.

The P-channel Junction Field Effect Transistor operates the same as the N-channel above, with
the following exceptions: 1). Channel current is positive due to holes, 2). The polarity of the
biasing voltage needs to be reversed.
The output characteristics of an N-channel JFET with the gate short-circuited to the source is given
as

Output characteristic V-I curves of a typical junction FET.

The voltage VGS applied to the Gate controls the current flowing between the Drain and the Source
terminals. VGS refers to the voltage applied between the Gate and the Source while VDS refers to
the voltage applied between the Drain and the Source.

Because a Junction Field Effect Transistor is a voltage controlled device, NO current flows
into the gate! then the Source current ( IS ) flowing out of the device equals the Drain current
flowing into it and therefore ( ID = IS ).

The characteristics curves example shown above, shows the four different regions of operation for
a JFET and these are given as:
 Ohmic Region When VGS = 0 the depletion layer of the channel is very small and the
JFET acts like a voltage controlled resistor.

Cut-off Region This is also known as the pinch-off region were the Gate voltage, VGS is
sufficient to cause the JFET to act as an open circuit as the channel resistance is at
maximum.

Saturation or Active Region The JFET becomes a good conductor and is controlled by
the Gate-Source voltage, ( VGS ) while the Drain-Source voltage, ( VDS ) has little or no
effect.

Breakdown Region The voltage between the Drain and the Source, ( VDS ) is high enough
to causes the JFETs resistive channel to break down and pass uncontrolled maximum
current.

The characteristics curves for a P-channel junction field effect transistor are the same as those
above, except that the Drain current ID decreases with an increasing positive Gate-Source voltage,
VGS.

The Drain current is zero when VGS = VP. For normal operation, VGS is biased to be somewhere
between VP and 0. Then we can calculate the Drain current, ID for any given bias point in the
saturation or active region as follows:

Drain current in the active region.

Note that the value of the Drain current will be between zero (pinch-off) and IDSS(maximum
current). By knowing the Drain current ID and the Drain-Source voltage VDSthe resistance of the
channel ( ID ) is given as:

Drain-Source channel resistance.

Where: gm is the transconductance gain since the JFET is a voltage controlled device and which
represents the rate of change of the Drain current with respect to the change in GateSource voltage.
Modes of FETs

Like the bipolar junction transistor, the field effect transistor being a three terminal device is
capable of three distinct modes of operation and can therefore be connected within a circuit in one
of the following configurations.

Common Source (CS) Configuration

In the Common Source configuration (similar to common emitter), the input is applied to the Gate
and its output is taken from the Drain as shown. This is the most common mode of operation of
the FET due to its high input impedance and good voltage amplification and as such Common
Source amplifiers are widely used.

The common source mode of FET connection is generally used audio frequency amplifiers and in
high input impedance pre-amps and stages. Being an amplifying circuit, the output signal is 180 o
out-of-phase with the input.

Common Gate (CG) Configuration

In the Common Gate configuration (similar to common base), the input is applied to the Source
and its output is taken from the Drain with the Gate connected directly to ground (0v) as shown.
The high input impedance feature of the previous connection is lost in this configuration as the
common gate has a low input impedance, but a high output impedance.
This type of FET configuration can be used in high frequency circuits or in impedance matching
circuits were a low input impedance needs to be matched to a high output impedance. The output
is in-phase with the input.

Common Drain (CD) Configuration

In the Common Drain configuration (similar to common collector), the input is applied to the
Gate and its output is taken from the Source. The common drain or source follower
configuration has a high input impedance and a low output impedance and near-unity voltage gain
so is therefore used in buffer amplifiers. The voltage gain of the source follower configuration is
less than unity, and the output signal is in-phase, 0o with the input signal.

This type of configuration is referred to as Common Drain because there is no signal available
at the drain connection, the voltage present, +VDD just provides a bias. The output is in-phase with
the input.

The JFET Amplifier

Just like the bipolar junction transistor, JFETs can be used to make single stage class A amplifier
circuits with the JFET common source amplifier and characteristics being very similar to the BJT
common emitter circuit. The main advantage JFET amplifiers have over BJT amplifiers is their
high input impedance which is controlled by the Gate biasing resistive network formed by R1 and
R2 as shown. Biasing of JFET Amplifier
This common source (CS) amplifier circuit is biased in class A mode by the voltage divider
network formed by resistors R1 and R2. The voltage across the Source resistor R Sis generally set
to be about one quarter of VDD, ( VDD /4 ) but can be any reasonable value. The required Gate
voltage can then be calculated from this RS value. Since the Gate current is zero, ( IG = 0 ) we can
set the required DC quiescent voltage by the proper selection of resistors R1 and R2.

The control of the Drain current by a negative Gate potential makes the Junction Field Effect
Transistor useful as a switch and it is essential that the Gate voltage is never positive for an
Nchannel JFET as the channel current will flow to the Gate and not the Drain resulting in damage
to the JFET. The principals of operation for a P-channel JFET are the same as for the N-channel
JFET, except that the polarity of the voltages need to be reversed.

Applications of JFET

The junction field effect transistor has many application in the field of electronics and
communication. Some of these applications are stated below.

1. Low noise and high input impedance amplifier:- Noise is an undesirable disturbance which
interferes with the signals information - greater the noise less the information. Energy
electronics device cause some amount of noise. If FET s is used at the front end, we get
less amount of amplified noise at the output. Now, it has very high input impedance. So, it
can be used in high input impedance amplifier.

2. Buffer Amplifier:- Buffer amplifier should have very high input impedance and low
output impedance. Because of high i / p impedance and low output impedance, FET acts
as great buffer amplifier. the common drain mode can be used in this purpose.
3. R.F. Amplifier:- JFET is good in low current signal operation as it is a voltage controlled
semiconductors device. It has very low noise level. So, it can be used as RF amplifier in
receiver sections of communication field.

4. Current Source:- Here all the supply voltage appears across load. If the current tries to
increase very much, the excessive load a current drives the JFET in to active region. Thus
JFET acts as a current source.

5. Switch:- JFET may be used as an on / off switch controlling electrical power to load. An
example is given below

Chopper :- When a source wave is applied to the gate of JFET witch, the chopper operation
can be done using JFET.

6. Multiplexer:- Analog multiplexer circuit can be made using JFETs. An example is given
below.
The MOSFET Metal Oxide FET

As well as the Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET), there is another type of Field Effect
Transistor available whose Gate input is electrically insulated from the main current carrying
channel and is therefore called an Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor or IGFET. The most
common type of insulated gate FET which is used in many different types of electronic circuits is
called the Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor or MOSFET for short.

The IGFET or MOSFET is a voltage controlled field effect transistor that differs from a JFET in
that it has a Metal Oxide Gate electrode which is electrically insulated from the main
semiconductor n-channel or p-channel by a very thin layer of insulating material usually silicon
dioxide, commonly known as glass.

This ultra thin insulated metal gate electrode can be thought of as one plate of a capacitor. The
isolation of the controlling Gate makes the input resistance of the MOSFET extremely high way
up in the Mega-ohms ( M ) region thereby making it almost infinite.

As the Gate terminal is isolated from the main current carrying channel NO current flows into
the gate and just like the JFET, the MOSFET also acts like a voltage controlled resistor were the
current flowing through the main channel between the Drain and Source is proportional to the
input voltage. Also like the JFET, the MOSFETs very high input resistance can easily accumulate
large amounts of static charge resulting in the MOSFET becoming easily damaged unless
carefully handled or protected.

Like JFET, MOSFETs are three terminal devices with a Gate, Drain and Source and both Pchannel
(PMOS) and N-channel (NMOS) MOSFETs are available. The main difference this time is that
MOSFETs are available in two basic forms:
 Depletion Type the transistor requires the Gate-Source voltage, ( VGS ) to switch the
device OFF. The depletion mode MOSFET is equivalent to a Normally Closed
switch.

Enhancement Type the transistor requires a Gate-Source voltage, ( VGS ) to switch the
device ON. The enhancement mode MOSFET is equivalent to a Normally Open
switch.

The symbols and basic construction for both configurations of MOSFETs are shown below.

The four MOSFET symbols above show an additional terminal called the Substrate and is not
normally used as either an input or an output connection but instead it is used for grounding the
substrate. It connects to the main semiconductive channel through a diode junction to the body or
metal tab of the MOSFET. Usually in discrete type MOSFETs, this substrate lead is connected
internally to the source terminal. When this is the case, as in enhancement types it is omitted from
the symbol for clarification.

The line between the drain and source connections represents the semiconductive channel. If this
is a solid unbroken line then this represents a Depletion (normally-ON) type MOSFET as drain
current can flow with zero gate potential. If the channel line is shown dotted or broken it is an
Enhancement (normally-OFF) type MOSFET as zero drain current flows with zero gate
potential. The direction of the arrow indicates whether the conductive channel is a p-type or an n-
type semiconductor device.

Basic MOSFET Structure and Symbol

The construction of the Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET is very different to that of the Junction
FET. Both the Depletion and Enhancement type MOSFETs use an electrical field produced by a
gate voltage to alter the flow of charge carriers, electrons for n-channel or holes for P-channel,
through the semiconductive drain-source channel. The gate electrode is placed on top of a very
thin insulating layer and there are a pair of small n-type regions just under the drain and source
electrodes.

We saw in the previous tutorial, that the gate of a junction field effect transistor, JFET must be
biased in such a way as to reverse-bias the pn-junction. With a insulated gate MOSFET device no
such limitations apply so it is possible to bias the gate of a MOSFET in either polarity, positive
(+ve) or negative (-ve).

This makes the MOSFET device especially valuable as electronic switches or to make logic gates
because with no bias they are normally non-conducting and this high gate input resistance means
that very little or no control current is needed as MOSFETs are voltage controlled devices. Both
the p-channel and the n-channel MOSFETs are available in two basic forms, the Enhancement
type and the Depletion type.

Depletion-mode MOSFET

The Depletion-mode MOSFET, which is less common than the enhancement mode types is
normally switched ON (conducting) without the application of a gate bias voltage. That is the
channel conducts when VGS = 0 making it a normally-closed device. The circuit symbol shown
above for a depletion MOS transistor uses a solid channel line to signify a normally closed
conductive channel.

For the n-channel depletion MOS transistor, a negative gate-source voltage, -VGS will deplete
(hence its name) the conductive channel of its free electrons switching the transistor OFF.
Likewise for a p-channel depletion MOS transistor a positive gate-source voltage, +VGS will
deplete the channel of its free holes turning it OFF.

In other words, for an n-channel depletion mode MOSFET: +VGS means more electrons and more
current. While a -VGS means less electrons and less current. The opposite is also true for the p-
channel types. Then the depletion mode MOSFET is equivalent to a normally-closed switch.

Depletion-mode N-Channel MOSFET and circuit Symbols

The depletion-mode MOSFET is constructed in a similar way to their JFET transistor counterparts
were the drain-source channel is inherently conductive with the electrons and holes already present
within the n-type or p-type channel. This doping of the channel produces a conducting path of low
resistance between the Drain and Sourcewith zero Gate bias.

Enhancement-mode MOSFET

The more common Enhancement-mode MOSFET or eMOSFET, is the reverse of the depletion-
mode type. Here the conducting channel is lightly doped or even undoped making it non-
conductive. This results in the device being normally OFF (non-conducting) when the gate bias
voltage, VGS is equal to zero. The circuit symbol shown above for an enhancement MOS transistor
uses a broken channel line to signify a normally open non-conducting channel.

For the n-channel enhancement MOS transistor a drain current will only flow when a gate voltage
( VGS ) is applied to the gate terminal greater than the threshold voltage (VTH ) level in which
conductance takes place making it a transconductance device.

The application of a positive (+ve) gate voltage to a n-type eMOSFET attracts more electrons
towards the oxide layer around the gate thereby increasing or enhancing (hence its name) the
thickness of the channel allowing more current to flow. This is why this kind of transistor is called
an enhancement mode device as the application of a gate voltage enhances the channel.

Increasing this positive gate voltage will cause the channel resistance to decrease further causing
an increase in the drain current, ID through the channel. In other words, for an n-channel
enhancement mode MOSFET: +VGS turns the transistor ON, while a zero or -VGS turns the
transistor OFF. Then, the enhancement-mode MOSFET is equivalent to a normally-open
switch.

The reverse is true for the p-channel enhancement MOS transistor. When VGS = 0 the device is
OFF and the channel is open. The application of a negative (-ve) gate voltage to the p-type
eMOSFET enhances the channels conductivity turning it ON. Then for an p-channel
enhancement mode MOSFET: +VGS turns the transistor OFF, while -VGSturns the transistor
ON.
Enhancement-mode N-Channel MOSFET and Circuit Symbols

Enhancement-mode MOSFETs make excellent electronics switches due to their low ON

resistance and extremely high OFF resistance as well as their infinitely high input resistance
due to their isolated gate. Enhancement-mode MOSFETs are used in integrated circuits to produce
CMOS type Logic Gates and power switching circuits in the form of as PMOS (Pchannel) and
NMOS (N-channel) gates. CMOS actually stands for Complementary MOS meaning that the logic
device has both PMOS and NMOS within its design.

UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR

The Unijunction Transistor or UJT for short, is another solid state three terminal device that can
be used in gate pulse, timing circuits and trigger generator applications to switch and control either
thyristors and triacs for AC power control type applications.
Like diodes, unijunction transistors are constructed from separate P-type and N-type
semiconductor materials forming a single (hence its name Uni-Junction) PN-junction within the
main conducting N-type channel of the device.

Although the Unijunction Transistor has the name of a transistor, its switching characteristics are
very different from those of a conventional bipolar or field effect transistor as it can not be used
to amplify a signal but instead is used as a ON-OFF switching transistor. UJTs have unidirectional
conductivity and negative impedance characteristics acting more like a variable voltage divider
during breakdown.

Like N-channel FETs, the UJT consists of a single solid piece of N-type semiconductor material
forming the main current carrying channel with its two outer connections marked as Base 2 ( B2 )
and Base 1 ( B1 ). The third connection, confusingly marked as the Emitter ( E ) is located along
the channel. The emitter terminal is represented by an arrow pointing from the P-type emitter to
the N-type base.

The Emitter rectifying p-n junction of the unijunction transistor is formed by fusing the P-type
material into the N-type silicon channel. However, P-channel UJTs with an N-type Emitter
terminal are also available but these are little used.

The Emitter junction is positioned along the channel so that it is closer to terminal B2than B1. An
arrow is used in the UJT symbol which points towards the base indicating that the Emitter terminal
is positive and the silicon bar is negative material. Below shows the symbol, construction, and
equivalent circuit of the UJT.

There are 3 types of uni junction transistors

1. Original Uni-junction transistor

2. Complimentary Uni-junction transistor

3. Programmable Uni-junction transistor (PUT)

1. Original Uni-junction transistor or UJT is a simple device in which a bar of N-type
semiconductor material into which P-type material is diffused; somewhere along its length
defining the device parameter as intrinsic standoff. The 2N2646 is the most commonly used
version of UJT. UJTs are very popular in switching circuits and are never used as amplifiers. As
far as Applications of UJT are concerned, they can be used as relaxation oscillators, phase controls,
timing circuits and trigger devices for SCRs and triacs.

2. Complimentary Uni-junction transistor or CUJT is a bar of P-type semiconductor

material into which N-type material is diffused somewhere along its length defining the device
parameter as intrinsic standoff. The 2N6114 is one version of CUJT.

3. Programmable Uni-junction transistor or PUT is a close relative of thyristor; just like

thyristor, it consists of four P-N layers and has anode and cathode placed at first and last layers.
The N-type layer near the anode is known as anode gate. It is inexpensive in production.

Programmable Uni junction Transistor

Among these three transistors, this article talks about UJT transistors working features and its
construction in brief.

Construction of UJT

UJT is a three-terminal, single-junction, two-layered device, and it is similar to a thyristor compare

to a transistors. It has a high-impedance off state and low-impedance on state quite similar to a
thyristor. From off state to an on state, switching is caused by conductivity modulation and not by
a bipolar transistor action.

Construction of UJT

The silicon bar has two Ohmic contacts designated as base1 and base2, as shown in the fig. The
function of the base and the emitter are different from the base and emitter of a bipolar transistor.
The emitter is of P-type, and it is heavily doped. The resistance between B1 and B2 when the
emitter is open-circuited is called an inter-base resistance. The emitter junction is usually situated
closer to the base B2 than the base B1. So the device is not symmetrical, because symmetrical unit
does not provide electrical characteristics to most of the applications.

The symbol for uni-junction transistor is shown in the fig. When the device is forward-biased, it
is active or is in the conducting state. The emitter is drawn at an angle to the vertical line which
represents the N-type material slab and the arrow head points in the direction of conventional
current.

Operation of a UJT

This transistor operation starts by making the emitter supply voltage to zero, and its emitter diode
is reverse biased with the intrinsic stand-off voltage. If VB is the voltage of the emitter diode, then
the total reverse bias voltage is VA + VB = VBB + VB. For silicon VB = 0.7 V, If VE gets
slowly increases to the point where VE = VBB, then IE will be reduced to zero. Therefore, on
each side of the diode, equal voltages results no current flow through it, neither in reverse bias nor
in forward bias.

Equivalent Circuit of a UJT

When the emitter supply voltage is increased rapidly, then the diode becomes forward-biased and
exceeds the total reverse bias voltage ( VBB + VB). This emitter voltage value VE is called the
peak-point voltage and is denoted by VP. When VE = VP, emitter current IE flows through the
RB1 to the ground, that is, B1. This is the minimum current required for triggering the UJT. This
is called the peak-point emitter current and is denoted by IP. Ip is inversely proportional to the
Inter-base voltage, VBB.

Now when the emitter diode starts conducting, charge carriers are injected into the RB region of
the bar. As the resistance of a semiconductor material depends upon doping, the resistance of RB
decreases due to additional charge carriers.

Then the voltage drop across RB also decreases, with the decrease in resistance because the emitter
diode is heavily forward biased. This in turn results in larger forward current, and as a result charge
carriers are injected and it will cause the reduction in the resistance of the RB region. Thus, the
emitter current goes on increasing until the emitter power supply is in limited range.
VA decreases with the increase in emitter current, and UJT have the negative resistance
characteristic. The base 2 is used for applying external voltage VBB across it. The terminals E and
B1 are the active terminals. UJT usually gets triggered by applying a positive pulse to the emitter,
and it can be turned off by applying a negative trigger pulse.

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UJT Characteristics

The static emitter characteristic (a curve showing the relation between emitter voltage VE and
emitter current IE) of a UJT at a given inter base voltage VBB is shown in figure. From figure it is
noted that for emitter potentials to the left of peak point, emitter current IE never exceeds IEo . The
current IEo corresponds very closely to the reverse leakage current ICo of the conventional BJT.
This region, as shown in the figure, is called the cut-off region. Once conduction is established at
VE = VP the emitter potential VE starts decreasing with the increase in emitter current IE. This
Corresponds exactly with the decrease in resistance RB for increasing current IE. This device,
therefore, has a negative resistance region which is stable enough to be used with a great deal of
reliability in the areas of applications listed earlier. Eventually, the valley point reaches, and any
further increase in emitter current IE places the device in the saturation region, as shown in the
figure. Three other important parameters for the UJT are IP, VV and IV and are defined below:

Peak-Point Emitter Current. Ip. It is the emitter current at the peak point. It represents the
rnimrnum current that is required to trigger the device (UJT). It is inversely proportional to the
interbase voltage VBB.
Valley Point Voltage VV The valley point voltage is the emitter voltage at the valley point. The
valley voltage increases with the increase in interbase voltage VBB.

Valley Point Current IV The valley point current is the emitter current at the valley point. It
increases with the increase in inter-base voltage VBB.

Special Features of UJT. The special features of a UJT are :

1. A stable triggering voltage (VP) a fixed fraction of applied inter base voltage VBB.

2. A very low value of triggering current.

3. A high pulse current capability.

4. A negative resistance characteristic.

5. Low cost.

THYRISTORS

Thyristors or silicon controlled rectifiers, SCR are find many uses in electronics, and in particular
for power control. These devices have even been called the workhorse of high power electronics.

Thyristors are able to switch large levels of power are accordingly they used in a wide variety of
different applications. Thyristors even finds uses in low power electronics where they are used in
many circuits from light dimmers to power supply over voltage protection.

The term SCR or silicon controlled rectifier is often used synonymously with that of thyristor - the
SCR or silicon controlled rectifier is actually a trade name used by General Electric.

SCR discovery

The idea for the thyristor was first described by Shockley in 1950. It was referred to as a bipolar
transistor with a p-n hook-collector. The mechanism for the operation was analysed further in 1952
by Ebers.

Then in 1956 Moll investigated the switching mechanism of the thyristor. Development continued
and more was learned about the device such that the first silicon controlled rectifiers became
available in the early 1960s where it started to gain a significant level of popularity for power
switching.

Thyristor applications

Thyristors, or silicon controleld rectifiers, SCRs are used in many areas of electronics where they
find uses in a variety of different applications. Some of the more common applications for them
are outlined below:
 AC power control (including lights, motors,etc).

Overvoltage protection crowbar for power supplies.

AC power switching.

Control elements in phase angle triggered controllers.

Within photographic flash lights where they act as the switch to discharge a stored voltage
through the flash lamp, and then cut it off at the required time.

Thyristors are able to switch high voltages and withstand reverse voltages making them ideal for
switching applications, especially within AC scenarios.

Thyristor basics

The thyristor or silicon controlled rectifier, SCR is a device that has a number of unusual
characteristics. It has three terminals: Anode, cathode and gate, reflecting thermionic valve /
vacuum tube technology. As might be expected the gate is the control terminal while the main
current flows between the anode and cathode.

As can be imagined from its circuit symbol shown below, the device is a "one way device" giving
rise to the GE name for it the silicon controlled rectifier. Therefore when the device is used with
AC, it will only conduct for a maximum of half the cycle.

In operation, the thyristor or SCR will not conduct initially. It requires a certain level of current to
flow in the gate to "fire" it. Once fired, the thyristor will remain in conduction until the voltage
across the anode and cathode is removed - this obviously happens at the end of the half cycle over
which the thyristor conducts. The next half cycle will be blocked as a result of the rectifier action.
It will then require current in the gate circuit to fire the SCR again.

Thyristor symbol

The silicon controlled rectifier, SCR or thyristor symbol used for circuit diagrams or circuit seeks
to emphasis its rectifier characteristics while also showing the control gate. As a result the thyristor
symbol shows the traditional diode symbol with a control gate entering near the junction.
SCR / Thyristor symbol for circuit diagrams and schematics Other types of
thyristor or SCR

There is a number of different types thyristor - these are variants of the basic component, but they
offer different capabilities that can be used in various instances and may be useful for certain
circuits.

Reverse conducting thyristor, RCT: Although thyristors normally block current in the
reverse direction, there is one form called a reverse conducting thyristor which has an
integrated reverse diode to provide conduction in the reverse direction, although there is
no control in this direction.

Within a reverse conducting thyristor, the device itself and the diode do not conduct at the
same time. This means that they do not produce heat simultaneously. As a result they can
be integrated and cooled together.

The RCT can be used where a reverse or freewheel diode would otherwise be needed.
Reverse conducting thyristors are often used in frequency changers and inverters.

Gate Assisted Turn-Off Thyristor, GATT: The GATT is used in circumstances where a
fast turn-off is needed. To assist in this process a negative gate voltage can sometimes be
applied. In addition to reducing the anode cathode voltage. This reverse gate voltage helps
in draining the minority carriers stored on the n-type base region and it ensures that the
gate-cathode junction is not forward biased.

The structure of the GATT is similar to that of the standard thyristor, except that the narrow
cathode strips are often used to enable the gate to have more control because it is closer to
the centre of the cathode.

Gate Turn-Off Thyristor, GTO: The GTO is sometimes also referred to as the gate turn
off switch. This device is unusual in the thyristor family because it can be turned off by
simply applying a negative voltage to the gate - there is no requirement to remove the anode
cathode voltage. See further page in this series more fully describing the GTO.

Asymmetric Thyristor: This device is used in circuits where the thyristor does not see a
reverse voltage and therefore the rectifier capability is not needed. As a result it is possible
to make the second junction, often referred to as J2 (see page on the device structure) can
be made much thinner. The resulting n-base region provides a reduced Von as well as
improved turn on time and turn off time.
Thyristor Structure & Fabrication

- details of the structure and fabrication of a thyristor detailing how this affects its operation and
circuit design

The thyristor structure is consists of four layers rather than the basic three layers used for a standard
transistor.

The thyristor structure is relatively straightforward and normally relies on processes that are well
established. As a result thyristors are plentiful and generally low cost.

Basic thyristor structure

The thyristor consists of a four layer p-n-p-n structure with the outer layers are referred to as the
anode (p-type) and cathode (n-type). The control terminal of the thyristor is named the gate and it
is connected to the p-type layer located next to the cathode.

Structure of a thyristor or silicon controlled rectifier, SCR

As a result the thyristor has three junctions rather than the one junction of a diode, and two within
transistors.

The three junctions are normally denoted as J1, J2, and J3. They are numbered serially with J1 being
nearest to the anode.

Thyristor materials

Although it is possible to use a variety of different materials for thyristors, silicon is the most
popular. The trade name for this type of device - silicon controlled rectifier - also indicates that
silicon is the most popular material.

Silicon provides good thermal conductivity as well as a high voltage and current capability.
Another advantage is that the processes for silicon are more mature, and hence cheaper to run,
than those for other materials.

However, other materials including silicon carbide, SiC; gallium nitride, GaN; diamond, C; and
semi-wide-gap semiconductor material gallium arsenide, GaAs as well, have been investigated
and according to the research they demonstrated promising properties under extreme conditions
of high power, high temperature and high frequency. Nevertheless silicon still remains the most
popular substance.

Thyristor semiconductor structure and fabrication

The level of doping varies between the different layers of the thyristor. The cathode is the most
heavily doped. The gate and anode are the next heavily doped. The lowest doping level is within
the central n type layer. This is also thicker than the other layers and these two factors enable a
large blocking voltage to be supported. Thinner layers would mean that the device would break
down at lower voltages.

Thyristor structure at the semiconductor level

In view of the very high currents and power levels that some thyristors are used to switch, thermal
considerations are of paramount importance. The anode of the SCR or silicon controlled rectifier
is usually bonded to the package since the gate terminal is near the cathode and needs to be
connected separately. This is accomplished in such a way that heat is removed from the silicon to
the package. Apart from the internal considerations, the external heat-sinking considerations for
the thyristor must be carefully implemented otherwise the device may overheat and fail.

Asymmetric thyristor structure

The asymmetric thyristor is characterised by what is termed a cathode short and an anode short. It
can be seen from the diagram that both the cathode and anode connections connect to n+ and the
p regions in the case of the cathode and the p+ and n regions on the case of the anode.

The "short" between the p and n regions has the effect of adding a resistor between the junctions,
i.e. cathode to gate in the case of the cathode connection. This has a variety of effects including
reducing carrier lifetime and improving the transient response time.

Asymmetric thyristor structure at the semiconductor level Thyristor Theory and

Operation

- operation of a thyristor together with the thyristor structure, fabrication and construction.

The thyristor theory and operation can be viewed from a number of levels. To look at the thyristor
theory and operation, the use of equivalent circuit helps describe the operation

In order to be able to utilise a thyristors, a knowledge of their operation and theory is required.

Thyristor theory and operation basics

The thyristor has three basic states:

Reverse blocking: In this mode or state the thyristor blocks the current in the same way
as that of a reverse biased diode.

Forward blocking: In this mode or state the thyristor operation is such that it blocks
forward current conduction that would normally be carried by a forward biased diode.
 Forward conducting: In this mode the thyristor has been triggered into conduction. It
will remain conducting until the forward current drops below a threshold value known as
the "holding current."

The thyristor consists of four semiconductor regions - p-n-p-n. The outer p region forming the
anode, and the outer n region forming the cathode as shown below.

Thyristor theoretical structure

For the thyristor operation,and looking at the simplified block structure it can be seen that the
device may be considered as two back to back transistors. The transistor with its emitter connected
to the cathode of the thyristor is a n-p-n device whereas the transistor with its emitter connected
to the anode of the SCR is a p-n-p variety. The gate is connected to the base of the np-n transistor.

Equivalent circuit of a thyristor or silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)

This arrangement forms a positive feedback loop within the thyristor. The output of one transistor
fed to the input of the second. In turn the output of the second transistor is fed back to the input of
the first. As a result it can be seen that the total current gain of the device exceeds one. This means
that when a current starts to flow, it quickly builds up until both transistors are fully turned on or
saturated.
When a voltage is applied across a thyristor no current flows because neither transistor is
conducting. As a result there is no complete path across the device. If a small current is passed
through the gate electrode, this will turn "on" the transistor TR2. When this occurs it will cause
the collector of TR2 to fall towards the voltage on the emitter, i.e. the cathode of the whole device.
When this occurs it will cause current to flow through the base of TR1 and turn this transistor
"on". Again this will now try to pull the voltage on the collector of TR1 towards its emitter voltage.
This will cause current to flow in the emitter of TR2, causing its "on" state to be maintained. In
this way it only requires a small trigger pulse on the gate to turn the thyristor on. Once switched
on, the thyristor can only be turned off by removing the supply voltage. . . . . . . .

Gate Turn-Off Thyristor, GTO

- description and information about the Gate Turn-Off Thyristor,GTO, its operation, applications,
structure and circuit design considerations.

The Gate Turn-Off Thyristor, GTO is a variant of the more standard form of thyristor. Rather than
the gate being used to turn the thyristor on, within a gate turn-off thyristor, GTO, the gate pulse
turns the device off.

These gate turn-off thyristors are useful in a number of areas, particularly within variable speed
motor drives, high power, inverters and similar areas. Although they are not nearly as well known
as the more standard forms of thyristor, the gate turn off thyristor, is now widely used as it is able
to overcome many of the disadvantages of the traditional thyristor. As a result the gate turn-off
thyristor is used in virtually all DC to AC and DC to DC high voltage conversion units The first
thyristors were developed in the mid-1950s and established their place in the market as a high
current high voltage switch. The gate turn-off thyristor, GTO was not developed until later and
only entered the market around 1973. Accordingly it is not as well known in many circles as the
more familiar thyristor, although within its own area, it is widely known and used.

Gate turn-off thyristor basics

The gate turn off thyristor is behaves somewhat differently to a standard thyristor which can only
be turned on and cannot be turned off via the gate. The gate turn off thyristor, GTO can be turned-
on by a gate signal, and it can also be turned-off by a gate signal of negative polarity.

The device turn on is accomplished by a "positive current" pulse between the gate and cathode
terminals. As the gate-cathode behaves like PN junction, there is a relatively small voltage between
the terminals.

The turn on phenomenon in GTO is however, not as reliable as that of a standard thyristor and
small positive gate current must be maintained even after turn on to improve reliability.
Gate turn-off thyristor structure

Like the standard thyristor, the gate turn-off thyristor is a four layer device having three junctions.
Again the layers are p-n-p-n with the outside p layer providing the anode connection, and the
outside n layer providing he cathode connection.To attain high emitter efficiency, the cathode
layer is highly doped to give an n+ region. This has the drawback that it renders the junction
nearest to the cathode (normally referred to as J3) with a low breakdown voltage - typically 20-
40 volts.

The doping level of the p region for the gate is graded. This is to provide good emitter efficiency
for which the doping level should be low, while providing a good turn off characteristic for which
a high doping level is needed.

The gate electrode is often interdigitated to optimise the current turn=off capability. High current
devices, i.e. 1000A and above may have several thousand segments which are all connected to the
common gate contact.

Another key parameter for a gate turn-off thyristor is the maximum forward blocking voltage. This
is determined by the doping level and thickness of the n type base region. As many devices may
need to block voltages of several kilovolts, the doping level of this region needs to be kept
relatively low.

Gate turn-off thyristor structure

Gate turn off thyristor operation

Many aspects of the Gate turnoff thyristor, GTO are very similar to that of the ordinary thyristor.
It can be thought of as being one PNP and one NPN transistor being connected in a regenerative
configuration whereby once turned on the system maintains itself in this state.

Equivalent circuit of a gate turn off thyristor

When a potential is applied across the gate turn-off thyristor between the anode and cathode, no
current will flow because neither device is turned on. Current would only flow if the voltage
exceeded the breakdown voltage and current would flow as a result of avalanche action, but this
mode would not be wanted for normal operation. In this non-conducting state the gate turn-off
thyristor is said to be in its forward blocking mode.

To turn the device on it is necessary to inject current into gate circuit of the device. When this is
done, it turns on TR2 in the diagram. This pulls the collector of this transistor down towards the
emitter voltage and in turn this turns on the other transistor - TR1.

The fact that TR1 is now switched on ensures current flows into the base of TR2, and thus this
feedback process ensures that once the gate turn-off thyristor like any other thyristor is turned on
it remains on.

The key capability of the gate turn-off thyristor is its ability to be turned off by the use of the gate
electrode on the device. The device turn off is achieved by applying a negative bias to the gate
with respect to the cathode. This extracts current from the base region of TR2. The resulting
voltage drop in the base starts to reverse bias the junction and thereby stopping the current flow in
this transistor - TR2.

This then stops the injection into the base region of TR1 and this prevents current flow in this
transistor.

In terms of the physics of the turn off phase, it is found that during the turn off phase of the GTO,
current is crowded into higher and higher density current filaments in areas that are most remote
from the gate region. These high current density areas become hot, and can cause device failure if
the current is not extinguished quickly.

When the current filaments are extinguished, the overall current flow stops and the depletion layers
around the junctions grow - the gate turn-off thyristor enters its forward blocking state again.

The gate turn off thyristor is similar to the ordinary thyristor in many ways, but its capability of
being able to be turned off by voltages on the gate provide more capability for the device and
enable the gate turn off thyristor to be used in areas where the standard thyristor cannot be used.
Accordingly the gate turn off thyristor is a useful tool for many applications.

Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor

The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistoralso called an IGBT for short, is something of a cross
between a conventional Bipolar Junction Transistor, (BJT) and a Field Effect Transistor,
(MOSFET) making it ideal as a semiconductor switching device.

The IGBT transistor takes the best parts of these two types of transistors, the high input impedance
and high switching speeds of a MOSFET with the low saturation voltage of a bipolar transistor,
and combines them together to produce another type of transistor switching device that is capable
of handling large collector-emitter currents with virtually zero gate current drive.

Typical IGBT

The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor, (IGBT) combines the insulated gate (hence the first part
of its name) technology of the MOSFET with the output performance characteristics of a
conventional bipolar transistor, (hence the second part of its name). The result of this hybrid
combination is that the IGBT Transistor has the output switching and conduction characteristics
of a bipolar transistor but is voltage-controlled like a MOSFET.

IGBTs are mainly used in power electronics applications, such as inverters, converters and power
supplies, were the demands of the solid state switching device are not fully met by power bipolars
and power MOSFETs. High-current and high-voltage bipolars are available, but their switching
speeds are slow, while power MOSFETs may have higher switching speeds, but highvoltage and
high-current devices are expensive and hard to achieve.
The advantage gained by the insulated gate bipolar transistor device over a BJT or MOSFET is
that it offers greater power gain than the standard bipolar type transistor combined with the higher
voltage operation and lower input losses of the MOSFET. In effect it is an FET integrated with a
bipolar transistor in a form of Darlington type configuration as shown.

Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor

We can see that the insulated gate bipolar transistor is a three terminal, transconductance device
that combines an insulated gate N-channel MOSFET input with a PNP bipolar transistor output
connected in a type of Darlington configuration. As a result the terminals are labelled as:
Collector, Emitter and Gate. Two of its terminals (C-E) are associated with the conductance path
which passes current, while its third terminal (G) controls the device.

The amount of amplification achieved by the insulated gate bipolar transistor is a ratio between
its output signal and its input signal. For a conventional bipolar junction transistor, (BJT) the
amount of gain is approximately equal to the ratio of the output current to the input current, called
Beta.

For a metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor or MOSFET, there is no input current as
the gate is isolated from the main current carrying channel. Therefore, an FETs gain is equal to
the ratio of output current change to input voltage change, making it a transconductance device
and this is also true of the IGBT. Then we can treat the IGBT as a power BJT whose base current
is provided by a MOSFET.

The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor can be used in small signal amplifier circuits in much the
same way as the BJT or MOSFET type transistors. But as the IGBT combines the low conduction
loss of a BJT with the high switching speed of a power MOSFET an optimal solid state switch
exists which is ideal for use in power electronics applications.
Also, the IGBT has a much lower on-state resistance, RON than an equivalent MOSFET. This
means that the I2R drop across the bipolar output structure for a given switching current is much
lower. The forward blocking operation of the IGBT transistor is identical to a power MOSFET.

When used as static controlled switch, the insulated gate bipolar transistor has voltage and current
ratings similar to that of the bipolar transistor. However, the presence of an isolated gate in an
IGBT makes it a lot simpler to drive than the BJT as much less drive power is needed.

An insulated gate bipolar transistor is simply turned ON or OFF by activating and

deactivating its Gate terminal. Applying a positive input voltage signal across the Gate and the
Emitter will keep the device in its ON state, while making the input gate signal zero or slightly
negative will cause it to turn OFF in much the same way as a bipolar transistor or eMOSFET.
Another advantage of the IGBT is that it has a much lower on-state channel resistance than a
standard MOSFET.

IGBT Characteristics

Because the IGBT is a voltage-controlled device, it only requires a small voltage on the Gate to
maintain conduction through the device unlike BJTs which require that the Base current is
continuously supplied in a sufficient enough quantity to maintain saturation.

Also the IGBT is a unidirectional device, meaning it can only switch current in the forward
direction, that is from Collector to Emitter unlike MOSFETs which have bi-directional current
switching capabilities (controlled in the forward direction and uncontrolled in the reverse
direction).

The principal of operation and Gate drive circuits for the insulated gate bipolar transistor are very
similar to that of the N-channel power MOSFET. The basic difference is that the resistance offered
by the main conducting channel when current flows through the device in its ON state is very
much smaller in the IGBT. Because of this, the current ratings are much higher when compared
with an equivalent power MOSFET.

The main advantages of using the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor over other types of
transistor devices are its high voltage capability, low ON-resistance, ease of drive, relatively fast
switching speeds and combined with zero gate drive current makes it a good choice for moderate
speed, high voltage applications such as in pulse-width modulated (PWM), variable speed control,
switch-mode power supplies or solar powered DC-AC inverter and frequency converter
applications operating in the hundreds of kilohertz range.

A general comparison between BJTs, MOSFETs and IGBTs is given in the following table.

IGBT Comparison Table

Device Power Power IGBT

Characteristic Bipolar MOSFET

Voltage Rating High <1kV High <1kV

Very High >1kV

Current Rating High <500A Low <200A High >500A

Input Drive Current, hFE Voltage, Voltage, 4- VGE

20-200 VGS 3-10V 8V

Input Impedance Low High High

Output Impedance Low Medium Low

Switching Speed Slow (uS) Fast (nS) Medium

Cost Low Medium High

We have seen that the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor is semiconductor switching device that
has the output characteristics of a bipolar junction transistor, BJT, but is controlled like a metal
oxide field effect transistor, MOSFET.
One of the main advantages of the IGBT transistor is the simplicity by which it can be driven
ON by applying a positive gate voltage, or switched OFF by making the gate signal zero or
slightly negative allowing it to be used in a variety of switching applications. It can also be driven
in its linear active region for use in power amplifiers.

With its lower on-state resistance and conduction losses as well as its ability to switch high
voltages at high frequencies without damage makes the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor ideal
for driving inductive loads such as coil windings, electromagnets and DC motors.