Cardiac muscle cells Cardiac muscle tissue is unique to the heart

- Striated in appearance
- Cells are shorter and wider than skeletal
muscle
- Commonly have one nucleus per cell
- Contraction is not under voluntary control so
they have special structural features
- Interconnected at the end
- Y shaped
- Specialized junction intercalated disc
consisting of double membrane and
containing gap junctions

Gap Junctions: provide channels of

connected cytoplasm allowing rapid ion
movement at low electric resistance
- Wave of depolarization passes easily
from cell to network of cells leading to
synchronization of muscle contraction

The sinoatrial node Signals from the sinoatrial node that cause
contraction pass directly from atria to
ventricles
- Cardiac cycle: Repeating sequence of
actions in the heart
- Systole: Contraction of chambers
- Diastole: Relaxation of chambers
The sinoatrial node is located in the wall of
the right atrium and is a collection of uniquely
structured cells that spontaneously initiate
action potential with no stimulation from
nerves
- Signal from SA doesnt pass from the

The delay in conduction
Coordination of contraction
Features of purkinje fibres
Causes of the sound of the heartbeat
The use of artificial pacemakers to regulate
the heart rate
atria to ventricle
- Signal reaches atrioventricular node
- Signal spreads via specialized heart
muscle tissue(purkinje fibres)
- Ventricles undergo systole
- Atrioventricular valves shut
- Once the ventricles empty the semilunar
valve closes and the ventricle begins to
diastole
- Atrioventricular valves open and ventricles
start filling with blood
- All four chambers are in diastole and filling
This delay allows time for atrial systole before
the atrioventricular valves close
Signal must conducted rapidly to ensure
coordinated contraction
1. Atrioventricular bundle receives from the
AV node
2. Transmits the signal rapidly to the point
where it splits: left and right bundle branches
3. Bundle branches conduct impulses
through wall between ventricles
4at the base(apex) of the heart the bundle
branches connect to purkinje fibres that
conduct fast because:
Multitude of features allow them to conduct
signals at high speeds
- They have relatively fewer myofibrils
- They have bigger diameter
- They have high density of voltage gated
sodium channels
- They have high numbers of mitochondria
and glycogen stores
Normal heart sounds are caused by the
atrioventricular valves and semilunar valves
closing causing changes in blood flow
Pacemakers are a medical device to help
maintain the cardiac cycle where there is a
fault in the heart's electrical conduction
system or a malfunctioning SA node. They
either provide regular impulses or stimulate

Use of defibrillation to treat life-threatening
cardiac conditions
Causes and consequences of thrombosis
Causes and consequences of hypertension
Factors correlated with greater incidence of
thrombosis and hypertension
the ventricle when a beat is not detected.
Cardiac arrest is when blood supply to the
heart is reduced and O2 deprivation.
- One of the first abnormalities is ventricular
fibrillation
Defibrillators give off an electrical discharge
to restore normal heart rhythm
Atherosclerosis: hardening of arteries caused
by plaques(atheromas) in the inner lining of
arteries
- Swollen and accumulate a diversity of
debris
- Develop because of high circulating levels
of lipids and cholesterol
- Reduce the speed of blood circulation
Can result in clotting (thrombosis) restricting
access of oxygen to tissues
Hypertension: when pressure in arteries
increases due to greater resistance of blood
blow
- Damage cells of the inner lining of arteries
leading them to become narrower and stiff
- Aneurysm formation and potential bursting
due to constant high blood pressure
- Stroke can also result due to weakening of
blood vessels in the brain causing them to
narrow, leak or rupture.
- Common cause of kidney failure as it
damages both the arteries leading into the
kidney and the capillaries within the
glomerulus
- Having parents who have had a heart attack
- Old age leads to less flexible blood vessels
- Risk in females increases post-menopause
correlated with low estrogen levels
- Males are at greater risk due to low
estrogen levels
- Smoking raises blood pressure
- High salt diet, excessive alcohol
consumption and stress are correlated with
hypertension
- Eating too much saturated fat and
cholesterol promotes plaque formation
 - Height effects blood pressure
- Sedentary lifestyles

Measurement and interpretation of the heart Variables influencing heart rate: Exercise,
rate Intensity of exercise, recovery from exercise,
relaxation, lying down, Breathing, Breath
holding, Exposure to cold stimulus, facial
immersion in water
Ways to measure heart rate: Pulse of
artery(wrist, neck), hand grip heart monitors,
ear clips, EKG sensors, wrist watches

Interpretation of systolic and diastolic blood Blood pressure(arterial pressure) is the

pressure measurements pressure put on the walls of arteries by
circulating blood
Systolic: when the ventricles contract
Diastolic: when ventricles relax and fill with
blood
Normal range is 90-120:60-80