Fundamentals of Computers PDF

FUNDAMENTALS
OF
COMPUTERS
Dr. P. MOHAN
Department of Commerce and Management Studies
University of Calicut,
Kerala - 673635.
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MUMBAI NEW DELHI NAG PUR BANGALORE HYDERABAD CHENNAI PUNE LUCKNOW AHMEDABAD ERNAKULAM
Himalaya Publishing House
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Contents
1. Organization of Computer 1-34

Characteristics of computer 1
Limitations of computer 3
Central Processing Unit 4
Computer peripherals 8
Input devices 9
Output devices 13
Storage devices 16
Modem 22
Impact of computer on business and society 22
Computer crimes 26
2. Computer Memory 35 - 42
Main memory 36
Cache memory 39
Internal processor memory 40
Virtual storage 41
3. History of Computer 43 - 57
Generations of computer 48
Types of computer 51
Personal computer 54
4. Computer Software 58 - 90
Compiler 61
Loaders and Linkers 62
Operating system 63
Functions of operating system 65
Multiprogramming 66
Time sharing 69
MS DOS 70
Windows 77
Application software 78
Groupware 82
Virus 83
Security measures 86
5. Microsoft Windows 91 - 105
Installing Windows 93
Active desktop 94
Windows accessories 97
Calculator 98
Notepad 98
Paint 99
WordPad 100
Clipboard 101
Maintenance Wizard ' 102
Windows Explorer 104
6. Program Development 106 - 128
Algorithm 106
Modular programming 108
Structured programming 109
Basic programming structures 110
DFD 113
Pseudo code 116
Flowcharting 120
7. Word Processing 129-155
Features of word processing 129
Ms Word For Windows 132
Creating a document in MS Word 134
Formatting text 138
Copying 'and Moving 138
Finding and Replacing Text 139
Spell check 141
Thesaurus 142
Printing a Document in Word 146
8. MS Excel 156 - 194
Parts of worksheet 157
Function Wizard 160
Managing Workbooks In Excel 162
Selecting Text 166
Formatting Text 172
Creating Charts in Excel 175
Functions In Excel 176
Database In Worksheet 186
Goal seek 188
Solver 190
9. Database 195 - 210
Data and information 196
Field, record and file 197
File organization 198
Modes of File Access 200
File updating 200
Database system 202
Components of Database System 204
Database Management System (DBMS) 205
Database Administrator (DBA) 206
Database architecture 208
Data warehousing and mining 208
10. MS Access 211 - 232
Data types 211
Creating a table in Access 214
Entering data in Access table 219
Defining Relationships 219
Query Design In MS Access 225
Running a Query 227
Report Design In MS Access 228
11. Multimedia 233- 237
Multimedia components 234
Applications of multimedia 235
12. MS PowerPoint 238-262
Parts of a slide 239
Creating a presentation 243
Formatting slides 249
Slide master 254
Presenting animation 257
Printing a presentation 261
13. Programming Languages 263-275
Machine language 264
Assembly language 265
High level language 267
Popular high level languages 270
Characteristics of a Good Language 273
14. Networking 276- 288
Types of network 278
LAN topology 279
LAN Components 283
15. The Internet 289- 311
History of the Internet 290
Internet Protocols 291
Administration of the Internet 291
Growth of the Internet 292
World Wide Web 294
E-mail 295
Telnet 296
FTP 296
Usenet 296
Features of the Internet 297
Setting up website 300
Intranet 302
Extranet 303
Web browsers 305
Search engines 307
16. Modern Communications 312- 321
Satellite communication 312
Electronic communication 314
Voice mail 317
Teleconferencing 318
Video conferencing 318
Communication for collaboration 318
Groupware 319
INTRODUCTION
Computer is one of the marvellous inventions of the recent
times. It has grown beyond its original purpose of computing.
Today, it is used in all walks of human life. Its applications range
from simple data entry to complex global electronic commerce,
and online training to technology development. Ever since its
invention, the power of computer has been growing rapidly.
Strangely enough, the cost of hardware has been declining by
the year. A large number of application software packages are
now available that make computers highly productive, versatile
and easy to use. Some of the most popular areas of computer
use today include telecommunications, transportation,
education and training, entertainment, publishing, military and
police, engineering, production, healthcare and electronic
Commerce. The use of computer is spreading to more virgin
areas of human activities to make life more comfortable and
leisurely.
DEFINITION OF COMPUTER
Computer can be defined as an electronic device that
performs rapid computations and generates desired output for
users based on input data and programs.
Computer can capture, store, retrieve and process data.
The data may be numbers, characters, audio, video, images
2 Organisation of Computer
etc. Basically, computer can recognise only two states - whether

a signal is present or not. These two states are represented
using binary digits 1 and O. All forms of data are finally converted
into binary digits for the computer to recognise and process .
Instructions are also converted into binary digits . Digital
computer has the capability to manipulate series of binary digits
according to the instructions (software) given to it.
With software, computer can also be automated to carry
out a set of instructions with a preset sequence to complete a
task or tasks such as the tasks involved in a production control
system.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER
Computer is a versatile device. It can be designed to do
any kind of activity provided all data and instructions are made
available to it in digital form. The important characteristics of
computer are:
1. Speed
Modern computers have incredible speed of processing.
Computer speed is measured in units of millisecond (one
thousandth of a second), microsecond (one millionth of a
second), nanosecond (one billionth of a second), and picosecond
(one trillionth of a second). Advanced computers, including
recent microcomputers called super microcomputers, operate
in nanoseconds and can carry out millions of instructions per
second (MIPS).
2. Accuracy
Computer can ensure consistently very high degree of
accuracy in computations. ~t processes data according to the
sequence of instructions . Hence, if input data and procedures
are correct, the output will be consistently accurate.
3. Huge storage and fast retrieval
Computer has huge storage capability. For a personal
computer, 128 MB RAM is almost a standard toady. The main
memory can be upgraded further by inserting RAM chips that
are available in modules of 64 MB, 128 MB and so on. Cache
memory is also available in Pc. Cache memory is faster access
memory device and hence it improves processor performance.
Computer Fundamentals 3
Secondary or auxiliary storage devices are used for permanent
storage. Modern computers have enormous secondary storage
capacity, e.g., a PC hard disk can store more than 80 GB of
data. Pen drives, DVDs, CD-ROMs, CD-Rs, magnetic tapes etc.
are other secondary storage devices. A CD-ROM can store 650
MB and more of data on a single disk. Huge storage and fast
retrieval capability makes computer a very special tool for data
processing and communications.
3. Versatility
Though computers are basically designed to carry out only
arithmetic operations, yet they are capable of performing almost
any task that has a series of finite logical steps. Computers can
be used for communications, process control, research, weather
forecasting, healthcare, online trading, education, training,
defence applications and so on.
4. Free from fatigue
Computer is free from fatigue. It does not get tired of
work and never loses concentration. It can perform basic
arithmetic operations with the same degree of speed and
accuracy for any extent of time continuously, with the same
amount of efficiency as the first transaction.
5. Programmable
Computer can be programmed to function automatically
and this differentiates it from any other calculation device. It
functions as programmed for any stretch of time until the
condition to terminate is satisfied.
6. Networking capability
Computers can be interconnected into a network. Network
in turn can be connected to other networks. Networks extend
the capability of computers. The networks provide the basic
infrastructure for electronic communications, electronlc
commerce, online trading and information services.
LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTER
Computer is, no doubt, a marvellous tool. Yet it has some
limitations. Some of the major limitations of computer are as
follows.
1. Computer cannot think on its own. It has to be given

instructions to perform any operation. Research is
currently underway to impart artificial intelligence
to computer. Once this becomes possible computer
will be thinking on its own, then it will be a reasonable
replication of human mind.
2. It does not have intuition. It cannot draw a conclusion
without going through all intermediate steps.
3. It can do a task only if it can be expressed in a series
of finite steps leading to the completion of the task.
4. Similarly, it cannot handle a situation where a finite
number of steps generate an impossibly large number
of computational operations.
5. It cannot learn from experience. It will commit the
same error repeatedly and cannot learn from
experience. But changes are taking place in this area
as research progresses on artificial intelligence.
ELEMENTS OF COMPUTER
Charles Babbage provided the basic structure of computers
in the detailed drawings of his Analytical Engine. This engine
had a mill to process data, a control to regulate operations and
a store to hold data and results of processing temporarily. The
anatomy of computers, personal computers to super computers,
is basically the same. Let us see how' these components are
arranged into a computer system.
Computer is designed to carry out instructions for data
processing. It has components to receive inputs, process inputs
and communicate the outputs with users. The system is
organised as follows.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

CPU is the most important component of a computer. It
typically consists of a control unit, an arithmetic and logical
unit and a primary storage. CPU is the brain of a computer and
all processing takes place in the CPU.
Keyboard
Mouse [--I
I ALU
I I I cu
--I
CRT
Scanners
Voice Recognition
I RAM PRIMARY MEMORY
ROM Cache Registers
I Printers
Audio Response
Systems
Systems
1
Magnetic tape
Magnetic disk
Optical disk
Fig 1.1: Organisation of Computer
Primary Memory
Random Access Memory Read Only Memory
[Data and Instructions] [Mostly protected
program instructions]
Arithmetic Logic Unit
I Register 1 I I Reg~ster
I I Register 3 I ..... I Register n I
Control Unit
I Instruction I I Table of operation codes I

Fig. 1.2 Central Processing Unit
The functions of the components of CPU are as follows:
1. Primary Memory
A memory or store is required in a computer to store
programs and the data processed by programs. The main memory
is made up of a large number of cells with each cell capable of
storing one bit. The cells may be organised as a set of
addressable words, each word storing a string of bits. The
main memory provides random access. The main memory is
divided into Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory
(ROM). RAM is dynamic and volatile. ROM is read only memory
and this memory cannot be erased and rewritten. That is, ROM
is non-volatile.
2. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
ALU does all the arithmetic and logical operations.
Arithmetical operations involve manipulation of numerical data
such as addition, subtraction, division and multiplication. Logical
operations compare relative magnitudes of two numeric,
alphabetic or alphanumeric data items such as greater than,
less than, and equal to.
3. Control Unit (CU)
The control unit controls and co-ordinates all the operations
of the CPU and peripheral devices. Its functions are to ensure
that the program instructions are carried out in the desired
sequence and to control and co-ordinate the flow of data
between the CPU and the input-output devices.
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,, ,,
,,
,, ~----------- ...INPUT DEVICE ,,,
,
,,, , ,,
,,
,, ,, ,,,
, ,, ,
--- -~
,
,

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,
CU ~----------- ... MAIN
SECONDARY
MEMOR
y STORAGE
I ALU I
------------+ CO ntrol
----- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --. OUTPUT DEVICE

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- - - _ . Data
Fig. 1.3: Flow of data and control in a computer system

Modern computers operate on stored program concept. The
control unit is designed to execute the stored program. Its tasks
are:
a) Fetch the stored instruction whose address is in a
special storage area called the Instruction Address
Register (lAR), .
b) Decode the instruction, that is, decide what operation

is to be carried out and what data are to be used in
the operation
c) Replace the address with that of the next stored
instruction in IAR
d) Send signals to the rest of the system to ensure that
the indicated operation is carried out. For example,
for an input or output operation, the CU would activate
the I/O device and memory causing proper transfer of
data.
e) The above operations of the CU form a cycle and starts
from step1 over again.
COMPUTER SYSTEM
A computer system is made up of three major components:
hardware, software and humanware. The physical units of a
computer system (excluding the third component), constitute
its hardware. Hardware consists of mechanical, electrical and
electronic parts of the system. Sets of programmed instructions
constitute the software. Humanware is the people element in
the system.
COMPUTER SYSTEM
.. ~
SOFlWARE
Fig.1A: Computer system

I
1. HARDWARE
A computer, like human brain, receives data and
instructions, stores them and processes the data according to
the instructions given to it. It receives data from input devices,
stores them in memory and displays them through an output
device. The physical devices that make up a computer are
referred to as hardware. Computer hardware can be broadly'
classified into two: CPU and peripherals. The CPU is perhaps :,;.
the most important part of a computer. The other hardware
pieces like input devices, output devices, etc. are called
peripherals.
a. 'Central Processing Unit (CPU)

CPU is the brain of a computer. It has an arithmetic logic
unit (ALU) to perform arithmetical and logical operations. It
has a control unit to co-ordinate the. aclivities of the CPU and
main memory for primary storage.
HARDWARE
~
PERIPHERALS
SECONDARY
STORAGE
DEVICES
Fig.1.5: Hardware components
COMPUTER PERIPHERALS
The input/output and storage devices surround the central
processing unit (CPU). Hence, they are called the peripheral
devices. They are usually the electromechanical devices
connected to the CPU that exchange data and programs with
the CPU. The users interact with the CPU through these devices.
Thus, they act as interface between users and the CPU. The
interaction is difficult because of the language barrier. The CPU
uses machine language, which is difficult for most users. The
input- output (1/0) devices help in taking the translated version
of the input to the machine's memory and similarly, to render
the processed symbols into the language of the user.
During the first two decades of commercial use of
computers, 110 operation was performed mostly by punching
holes on cards and paper tape with a special device. More direct
and convenient 1/0 devices have been developed since then.
The peripherals connected directly to the CPU are called online
devices and devices not directly connected are called offline
devices. These peripherals can be further divided into input
devices, output devices and secondary storage devices.
INPUT DEVICES
Input devices allow the user to input data and instructions
to the computer. There are a variety of input devices. Direct
entry of data generally requires a keyboard. It may also use
other devices for direct data entry like a touch sensitive screen,
voice recognition system and scanners. The popular input devices
are discussed in the following section.
Keyboard
Keyboard is the most popular input device for direct entry
of data and instructions into computer. The standard QWERTY
keyboard is used for computer. The enhanced keyboard has 101
keys. In addition to them, the computer keyboard usually has
special keys like PageUp, PageDown, PrintScreen etc. The
computer keyboard is very much like the electronic typewriter
keyboard. But it has additional keys.
Computer keyboard has three types of keys:
Alphanumeric keys for typing character and numeric
data
Punctuation keys like comma, period, colon,
semicolon, question mark etc.
Special keys like function keys, control keys, arrow
keys, caps lock etc.
The keyboard is linked to the CPU and it is also linked to
the computer screen so that the data entered into the memory
can be seen by the user as he types in the data.
Mouse
A mouse is a small hand-held 'point and click' device that
is connected to the CPU through a cable. Douglas Engelbart
invented mouse in 1963at Stanford Research Institute. Xerox
Corporation's Palo Alto Research Center enhanced its capabilities
by adding analogue to digital conversion. In the early 1970's.
With the adoption of Graphical User Interface technology, mouse
became an essential input device for computer later in the
1980's.
There are three types of mouse: mechanical,

optomechanical and optical. The mechanical mouse has a
trackball at its bottom. It can be rolled across a flat and smooth
surface to control the position of the cursor on the screen. By
pointing and clicking on icons and menu options displayed on
the screen, it is easy for the user to control the computer with
a mouse. Mechanical sensors within the mouse detect the
direction the ball is rolling and move the screen pointer
accordingly. The optomechanical mouse is more or less the same
as the mechanical mouse, but it uses optical sensors to detect
motion of the ball. Optical mouse uses a laser to detect the
mouse movement. The mouse requires to be moved along a
special mat with a grid so that the optical mechanism has a
frame of reference. It has no mechanical moving parts. It
responds more quickly and precisely than mechanical or
optomechanical mouse. Optical mouse is more expensive than
the other two.
Light Pen
Light pen consists of a stylus connected by a cable to the
computer terminal. When the stylus is brought into contact with
the screen, a dot appears there on the screen. By moving the
stylus on the screen, lines and curves can be drawn on the screen
that can be stored and used as input.
Trackball
Trackball was originally built into the keyboard. Running a
hand over the trackball made the cursor on the screen to move.
The cursor is used to make selection from a menu displayed on
the computer screen.
Joystick
Joystick is a small vertical stick attached to a trackball for
easier mechanical movements. It is used mainly in game
programs.
Scanners
Scanners are direct-entry input devices. As the data entry
is automatic, the scanners ensure more accurate data entry.
These scanners include optical scanners and magnetic ink
character readers. The optical scanners use light for sensing
input and they include OCR, OMR and Barcode reader.
Optical Mark Reader
Optical mark reader (OMR) reads the presence or absence
of a mark on a paper optically. Light is directed on to the paper
and the reflected light is analysed for the detection of a mark.
If a mark is there on the surface of the paper, that area sends
back lesser light are to the OMR. It is used to read multiple
choice answers in a test and the data are transferred to a
computer for processing.
Optical Character Reader
Optical character reader (OCR) detects shape, and can
identify characters. It can examine each character as if it were
made up of a collection of minute spots. Once the whole
character has been scanned, the pattern detected is matched
against a set of patterns stored in the computer. The pattern
that matches or nearly matches is taken to be the character
read. Patterns that cannot be identified are rejected. It is used
in mail sorting and credit card billing.
Barcode Reader
Barcode is a set of small bars of varying thickness and
spacing printed on the packages of products, on the back cover-
pages of books, tags etc. The barcode reader uses an optical
scanner to read product code and converts it into electrical
pulses. The device is connected to a computer and the
information read is passed to the computer in digital form for
automatic bill generation and updating of files. Thus, it is a
direct data entry device and there is no need for an operator to
key in sales transaction data.
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) uses highly
stylised character shapes printed in a special ink containing
particles that can be magneti~ed. This ink induces a current in
a reading circuit, which is proportional to the area of ink being
scanned. The patterns of the varying currents can be compared
with and selected as bit patterns of the selected number e.g.,
the number on a cheque). The MICR reader can only identify
characters. Banking industry uses this device for sorting of
cheques. The MICR codes read from the cheques are transmitted
to an online computer for sorting and processing automatically.
Tag Reader
Retail clothing units use a tag reader system. Clothes have
price tags with data coded on card tags. The tag reader decodes
it and passes the data into the computer connected to it for
billing and file updating.
Point of Sale Terminal (POS Terminal)
The POS terminal consists of a numeric keypad and a few
control or function keys. The operator at the point of sale enters
the product code and quantity purchased by a customer. The
terminal generates bill and, if connected to a computer, the
system updates the related files automatically.
Voice Recognition Systems
A special microphone is used to capture voice .input. It
converts the voice into electrical pulses and then into digital
signals for onward transmission to a computer for processing. A
voice recognition system is provided with digital patterns of a
limited vocabulary of words and phrases. The system operating
in a training mode learns to recognise voice patterns by
comparing the spoken input with the stored digital patterns.
After identifying the input, the voice system generates'
appropriate code for the machine to accept input and operate.
Voice recognition systems are very useful in offices for word
processing. A manager can directly dictate letters and r.otes to
a word processor through a speech recognition system. Similarly,
the system can accept oral commands and execute them. These
systems are yet to become popular.
Graphic Tablet
This is a flat surface input device, which is attached to the
computer like a mouse. Its surface is pressure sensitive. A special
pen is used against the surface of the tablet and the cursor
moves in response to the movements of the pen on the tablet.
This input device is particularly useful for graphic artists.
Digital Cameras
Digital cameras are used to capture images and they can
record the images on reusable floppy disks. Images are used
with a digitiser for input to the computer. Once the image input
is stored in computer, the image can be used in any application.
Vision Systems
A computer can be equipped with sensors to 'see' objects
around. Robots with vision systems are used in industrial
engineering. They are used in complex operations like assembling
components requiring great precision.
OUTPUT DEVICES
Output device displays result of the computer processing
for user. The popular output devices are monitor, printer and
speaker (audio response systems). These are discussed in the
section belo'N.
Visual Display Unit or Monitor
Visual display units (VDUs) are television-like screens that
provide the user-interface in the form of display of text, numbers
and images. The VDUs may be monochrome or colour. The
support of monochrome or colour and clarity of display depend
on the type of video monitor and the video adapter installed in
the microcomputer.
The video display terminal (VDT) consists of a monitor or
CRT and a keyboard. The CRT serves as an output device and
the keyboard as an input device. Thus VDT is an input/output
device. If the terminal is provided with some memory and
certain processing capability, it becomes a smart or intelligent
terminal. A terminal without processing power is called a dumb
terminal.
Speaker and Audio Response Systems
Computer can produce verbal output where the output or
response can be standardised as replies to special requests for
information. The unit analyses the input and delivers the verbal
reply by assembling the responses from pre-recorded words and
phrases.
Printers
Printers are purely output devices. They produce hard copy
output. Computer printers vary widely in their technologies and
capabilities. They can be classified in a number of ways. First,
they can be classified into three broad groups: character
printers, line printers and page printers.
Fig.1.6 Types of computer printers
The character printers print one character at a time. Dot

matrix printer (DMP), daisy wheel printer, thermal printer and
inkjet printer are the various types of character printers. Drum
printer and chain printer are line printers. Laser printer and
magnetic printer are page printers.
They can also be classified into impact and non-impact
printers based on the basis of the printing mechanism. The
impact printing technology uses some mechanical pressure to
produce images on paper. The impact printers include dot matrix
printer, daisy wheel printer and chain printer. It is possible to
take multiple copies of output with impact printers. Non-impact
printers do not use mechanical force to produce output on paper
and hence they can produce only single copy output. Thermal
printer, Inkjet printer and laser printer are all non-impact
printers. Of these several types of printers, dot matrix printer,
inkjet printer and laser printer are very poplar.
Dot Matrix Printer (DMP)
DMP prints one character at a time as a set of dots produced
by the pins on the print head. It uses a nine or twenty-four pin
print head. The pins or printing wires are aligned into the shape
of the character to be printed before the print head strikes the
ribbon. The impact of the strike produces character shapes on
paper. The speed of DMP is measured in character per second
(CPS). A normal dot matrix printer with nine or twenty-four pin
print head can produce output ranging from 50 to 600 characters
per second. It prodUCES lot of noise when working. The popular
DMPs are Epson, Panasonic, Citizen, Wipro, TVSE and Lexmark.
The operating cost for DMP is the lowest among all types of
printers.
Inkjet Printer
Inkjet is a non-impact printer and is quiet when working.
It sprays ink particles through its nozzle. On leaving the nozzle,
the tiny particles of ink get electrically charged. The electrically
charged particles are then guided on to the paper to form
appropriate characters. Inkjet printers are as cheap as dot matrix
printers are; but their operating costs are far higher than those
of dot matrix printers. However, they give much better quality
than DMPs. They are available in black and white and colour.
The popular brands of inkjet printers are Hewlett-Packard, Epson
Stylus and Canon.
Laser Printer
Laser printer is a high-end printer. It is more expensive
than inkjet printers and its operating costs are also higher than
inkjet printers. It uses the same technology as that of Xerox
copier machines and it can produce both character and graphic
output. It gives the best quality output. Though expensive, laser
printer is becoming increasingly popular.
Daisy Wheel Printer
The daisy wheel printer has a wheel with a number of spokes
made up of metal and plastic. Each spoke carries a typeface at
the outer end. The wheel rotates until the appropriate character
comes under the hammer, which strikes to produce the
impression on paper. These wheels are inexpensive and
removable. It is slow and produces noise like dot matrix printer;
but it gives fine quality output.
Thermal Printer
The thermal printer generates heat to produce the required
character shape on specially coated thermal paper. The print
head, which carries electric current, burns the aluminium
coating on the paper into the character form. It is a quiet printer.
Drum Printer
It is a line printer. It has a drum that rotates at high speed.
A set of characters is embossed on the drum. It prints one line
of characters at a time. The hammer for a particular character
position is activated when that character on the drum passes
under it to produce character impression on paper.
Chain Printer
'The chain printer works like the drum printer. It consists
of a set of typefaces on a chain that rotates at high speed. The
printer composes one line at a time and the hammers are
activated to produce one row of characters as it is composed.
There is a hammer for each print position. As the characters
move around on the chain, the hammer strikes on the opposite
side of the print position to produce character impression on
paper.
Magnetic Printer
In a magnetic printer, a drum coated with magnetic material
captures the image of the page to be printed. These magnetic
spots attract dry ink particles, which are then pressurised and
transferred to paper to produce output.
Graphic Plotters
Plotters are used for plotting graphs and designs on paper.
Architects and designers use plotters to produce blueprints of
their designs on paper. It is a specialised output device for
preparing computer drawn charts and graphs. The most popular
type of plotter is the flat bed device. It plots on paper (or
other material) that is spread on a flat bed.
SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

Computer storage or memory can be of two types: primary
and secondary. Primary memory provides very fast access and is
used for storing frequently used programs and data. But, primary
storage is expensive and also volatile. Hence it is used for storing
data and instructions mostly temporarily. Large files and
databases are stored on secondary storage devices. Data and
instructions from the secondary storage are moved into the
primary memory for the CPU to access them.
Secondary storage is thus supplementary to primary storage.
It is, therefore, also called auxiliary storage. Secondary storage
has larger storage capacity and is cheaper than primary storage.
But access t.O secondary storage is slower than that to. primary
storage. Hence, secondary storage holds data and programs not
currently in use.
The secondary storage devices may be serial access or direct
access devices. Magnetic tape is a serial access device whereas
magnetic disk, optical disk and floppy diskettes are direct access
storage devices (DASD). In serial access storage, retrieving a
data element from a storage location requires going through
the earlier records right from the beginning of the file. On the
other hand, direct access storage device stores each data
element in a storage location with a specific storage address
that can be individually accessed without referring to other
data elements in storage.
A revolution is taking place in data storage technologies.
The storage devices are getting smaller and, at the same time,
the storage capacity is getting larger. The popular secondary
storage devices are magnetic disk, magnetic tape and CD-ROM.
Important secondary storage devices are explained below.
Magnetic Disks
Magnetic disks are made of rigid metals or synthetic plastic
material. The disk platter is coated on both the surfaces with
magnetic material and both the surfaces can be used for storage.
The magnetic disk provides direct access and is popular for both
small and large computer systems. The magnetic disk comes in
two forms: hard disks and floppy disks.
Hard Disks
Hard disk is a metal platter with magnetic coating on both
sides. Several such hard disks are stacked one on the other,
without touching each other, into a disk pack for large storage.
The disk pack, housed in metal container with a read/write
head assembly unit, is fixed inside a computer permanently.
Hard disks are highly reliable and accessing data from hard disk
is faster and more efficient than that from floppies.
A disk pack is a collection of disks stacked vertically one
on top of the other and it is mounted on a disk drive. The disk
drive has a head assembly with a read/write arm for each pair
of recording surfaces. Each disk has two surfaces for storage.
The top surface of the first disk and the lower surface of the
last disk are not used for recording as small dust particles might
settle down on them. The disk drive mechanism rotates the
disk pack at a constant speed. Each read/write arm has one
pair of read/write head, one for each surface. To increase the
speed of access, the read/write arm carries as many heads as
the number of tracks on the disk.
The access time is determined by two factors: the seek
time and the rotational delay. The seek time is the time required
to locate the track on the recording surface. Rotational delay
involves positioning the read/write arm at the right track of

the surface for reading/writing.
READ/WRITE HEADS
~ n ~SPINDLE
L DISKS
ACC ESS ARM

~
ASS EMBLE
U
/
RADIAL MOVEMENT OF ARM
Fig 1.7 Vertical Cross Section of Hard Disk and Arm

Assembly
Advantages of Hard Disks

They support direct access.
They have quick access rates.
They h~ve fairly large storage capacities.
Hard disks are essential for online systems.
Disadvantages of Hard Disks
Hard disks are expensive.
Hard disks are not always reliable. For example, hard
disks can crash. If they crash, the entire data on them
may be lost as data recovery is difficult and expensive.
Speed and performance of hard disks are slower than
that of CPU. Hence, they slow down overall speed of
performance of the computer.
Floppy Diskettes
These diskettes, made of synthetic plastic material, are
flexible. Hence they are called floppy diskettes or simply
floppies. Floppies are cheaper and more rugged than metal disks.
The floppies were introduced in the early 1970s and became
very popular with the arrival of microcomputers. The floppies
are popularly used on microcomputers. They are reliable and
portable. They are available in many sizes like 5 1.4 -inches and
3 Yz -inches and vary in storage capacity from 360 KB to 2.88
MB. The 5 1.4 -inch floppies are not used these days. The 3 Y2-
inch floppies, called microfloppies, are very popular and they
can hold 1.44 MB to 2.88 MB of storage. The current trend is
towards reducing the size and increasing the storage capacity
of the floppies.
Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tape is a serial access storage medium. It can
store large volume of data at low costs. The conventional
magnetic tape is in reels of up to 3600 feet made of mylar
plastic tape; the tape is one half inch in width and is coated
with magnetic material on one side. The reel of tape is loaded
on a magnetic tape drive unit. During any read/write operation,
the tape is moved from one spool to the other in the same way
as in the audiocassette tape recorder.
The conventional tape is replaced by cartridge tape that is
housed in a small box, that is cartridge, which is more convenient
to use. This eliminates the need to manually handle and thread
the tape for any read/write operation. The magnetic tape is
densely packed with magnetic spots in frames across its width.
A frame records one byte and each bit in the frame is read/
written by a read/write head for that bit position. The tape has
nine tracks, out of which eight are used as data tracks and the
ninth one for parity bit meant for error detection.
RECORD RECORD RECORD RECORD
Inter-record gap A frame represents

a byte
Fig. 1.8: Magnetic Tape
The head assembly, with one head for each track,

simultaneously reads from or writes bit streams on to the tape.
Organisation of Computer
One track is used only for parity, which will be a bit with a
value of either a 0 or 1 depending on parity convention followed.
In c)C of even ':;<ii';':y, the r,umber of 1s in the frame will be
even. If the ilumber of 1s in the data tracks is odd, the parity
bit will be 1 so that total number of 1s in that frame is even.
For example, if the data tracks carry the bits 00011100, then
the parity bit is 1, that makes the total number of 1s in the
nine bit stream an even number, that is four in the above
example. If the parity is odd, the value of parity bit will be 0 so
that the total number of 1s in the frame is odd.
Tapes. are ideally suited for large storage for serial
processing of data. They are generally used for backing up large
volumes of data required for serial processing. They are low-
cost and reliable storage devices. They can store fairly large
volumes of data and are ideal for batch processing applications,
storing historical data and backing up of important files.
It is also a cheap and effective secondary storage medium
for ensuring security of data by backing up data and keeping it
off-the-site. Besides tape formats are more standardised than
disk formats that facilitates transfer of data between machines.
It can rapidly transfer data to the CPU. The disadvantage is
that it permits only serial access and hence not suitable for
many applications requiring direct access.
Differences between Magnetic Tapes and Magnetic Disks
1. Magnetic tape supports only serial access. Magnetic
disk permits serial and random access.
2. Magnetic tape has much larger storage capacity than
a magnetic disk.
3. Magnetic tape is divided length wise into tracks and
data are recorded in tracks. In case of disk it is divided
into circular tracks and sectors. Data are recorded in
one sector fully before moving into the next.
4. Magnetic tape takes much more processing time than
magnetic disk, as the access is serial.
5. Accessing and updating of on-line disk files are much
faster than tape files.
6. A number of disk files affected by a single transaction
can be updated simultaneously whereas tape files have
to be updated separately.
7. Disk file updating process rewrites the old records,
and data files have to be backed up for security.
Optical storage
Optical storage technology uses light as the medium for
representing data. Laser beams are used to store and retrieve
data. Commonly used optical storage devices include CD-ROM,
CD-R, CD-RW and DVD.
CD-ROM
Compact-disk Read-Only Memory (CD-ROM) is the most
exciting development that has taken place in secondary storage
in recent years. CD-ROM can store huge quantity of data, of
about 650 MB, which is equivalent to 200,000 pages of ordinary
text on a single disk. It is relatively inexpensive and is used in
both small and large computer systems.
This disk is made of synthetic resin that is coated with a
reflective material, usually aluminium. When high intensity laser
beam is focussed on the disk, it forms tiny pits on it. The pit
represents I and the data are read using low intensity laser
beams. The pit reflects less intense light. The reflected light is
sensed to know the bit 0 from 1; the light will be more intense
in the case of the former as there is no pit.
A special feature of CD-ROM is its ability to store different
kinds of data such as text, pictures, animation, sound, video
and graphics. This makes it valuable for certain industries like
travel, entertainment and motion pictures.
The data stored on CD-ROM are read only as the name
indicates, that is, the data on CD-ROM cannot be modified.
Hence, it is well suited for storing relatively static data.
CO-R
This is Compact Disk -Recordable. It can be used to write
data on it once. The data on it can be retrieved as and when
needed.
CO-RW
Compact Disk Re-writable (CD-RW) is an optical disk that
can be rewritten many times. Th~ data store::! on it can be read,
erased and re-written as frequently as needed.
DVD
Digital Versatile Disk (earlier known as Digital Video Disk.)
is a large capacity secondary storage device. It stores seven
times CD capacity on a single side. Double-sided or dual layer
DVDs are also available with much larger storage capacity. DVD
uses a 5-inch disc for storage. That is, it is of the same size as
a CD ROM. Single layer, single-sided DVD has a storage capacity
of 4.7 GB. Wtih double-layer, double sided disc, it can store 17
GB of data on a single disk. (Single sided DVDs can store 4.7GB
for single layer and 8.5GB for dual-layer disks. Double sided
DVDs can store 9.40GB for single layer and 17GB for dual-layer
disks). With such huge storage capacity, DVDs are used to store
full-length commercial motion pictures, video albums etc. and
its viewing quality is much better than tape storage. DVD system
delivers a picture with over twice the definition of traditional
storage like VHS.
Pen drive
Pen drive is a compact secondary storage device. It can
b~ carried like a pen. Its capacity ranges from 128 MB upwards.
Computer Output Microfilm and Computer Output Microfiche
These are computer output media that use a film similar
to camera film. Microfilm consists of long filmstrips that are
rolled up. Microfiche is small rectangles of cut films of size 2
by 4 inches to 4 by 6 inches. These are compact and cheap
storage media. Since they can store large amount of data and
are not in human readable form, they are generally used for
archival purpose.
MODEM
The ordinary telephone lines transmit data in analog form.
Computers are digital devices and use digital signals for data
processing. Modems are used to connect digital computers with
telephone lines. Modem at the originating computer modulates
the digital signals and at the receiving computer demodulates
analog signals. It converts digital signals into analog signals for
transmission over telephone lines. At the other end of the
channel, the modem converts the analog signals back into digital
signals.
Digital signals Analog signals
/.
I Comp"'"
F7r Modem Channel
Fig.1.9 Modem and its working

Modem
Computer
Types of Modem
Internal modem: This is built on a card and the card is
fixed into a slot on the motherboard of a computer.
External modem: It is external to the system and is plugged
into RS 232 or RS 232 C connector for computer communications.
Acoustic coupler modem: This is not direct modem. It
requires telephone handset as intermediary equipment.
Modems come in different speeds like 9.6 kbps, 33.6 kbps
etc. The modem speed should at least be equal to bandwidth of
the communication channel that sets the maximum size of data
that can be sent at a time. If the modem speed is less than the
bandwidth, modem will become a bottleneck in communication
as it slows down the rate of data transfer.
IMPACT OF COMPUTER ON BUSINESS AND SOCIETY

Computer is the most wonderful and versatile tool ever
invented by man. Networking has added to its capabilities
manifold. The Internet is the most wonderful of all inventions
in recent times. Yet computer is not an unmixed blessing. It has
its negative impact on individuals, organizations, the society
and for the whole world. Any new technology solves a few
existing problems and creates many new problems for the
society. Computer is not an exemption. Its deployment in homes
and offices has given rise to many ethical, social and security
problems.
Ethical and social issues relating to Information Technology
Ethics refers to the principles of right and wrong that the
society accepts over a period of time. These are used in judging
behaviour of every member of the society. Since information
technology and information systems cause massive changes in

social and organizational spheres, they also cause some social
and ethical issues. For example, in organizations introduction
of information technology changes power structure. Some people
lose the power due to loss of control over data and information.
Similarly, the technology is misused for fraud, intruding into
privacy of individuals, business spying etc.
Protecting intellectual property rights in digital economy
is very difficult. Violation of such intellectual property rights
gives rise to new issues in protecting intellectual property rights.
MORAL DIMENSIONS OF COMPUTER USE

Some of the information technology issues with moral
undertones are discussed below.
Privacy and freedom in an information society
Privacy refers to the right of individuals to keep personal
information to themselves. Personal information like one's health
problems, income sources, spending habits, leisure activities
etc. may be of interest to some firms as they use it for business
planning. Some firms may gather such personal information and
sell it to other firms.
Individuals want to be left alone at home and workplace
without being subjected to any surveillance. Employers may
intercept emails and other communication by employees. The
security systems of organizations often involve surveillance or
interference that violate the privacy of individual employees.
Internet and privacy of individuals
The Internet -based new technologies pose serious
challenges to individual privacy. Every Internet user is tracked
without he or she being aware of it. Software like cookies tracks
the visitors to websites and their surfing behaviour. The data
are used for market research by business firms.
'Cookies' are pieces of special software that are stored on
the hard disk of the user's computer when he or she visits a
site. The users might feel they are not watched by anyone, but
it is not true. The cookies gather vital information about the
user's surfing habits, online buying habits etc. When they visit
the same website next time, the cookies pass information about
the users. Cookies, thus, track the Internet users.
Spamming is another serious challenge that every Internet
user faces and the threat is growing rapidly. It is the practice of
sending unsolicited emails for business promotion. It is nuisance
for a user as the mailbox gets filled with too many spam emails
and a few email from his contacts.
Intellectual property rights (IPRs)
IPRs cover any tangible or intangible properties of human
mind. These properties are subject to misuse. Hence legislation
is required to protect them. The protection is in the form of
trademarks, copyrights, and patents. Registered trademarks are
legal means to prevent misuse of trademarks etc. by others.
Copyright protects one's intellectual property from being copied
by others without permission of- the author.
In a networked environment, it is very difficult to ensure
protection for intellectual property. On the Web any digitized
content can be accessed and distributed without the author's
permission or knowledge. For example, the illegal copying and
distribution of MP3 music files over the Web was a major
challenge to music industry. Similarly, it is very easy to download
any publication from the Internet and it can be copied in any
other work.
Software piracy is another major threat in the networked
world. It is the unauthorized distribution or use of software.
Software firms lose their revenue because of software piracy
and do not get enough return for the effort involved in software
development.
Similarly, images, movies and sounds downloaded from the
Internet can be modified beyond recognition using scanners and
multimedia equipment. This leaves little remedy to the original
copyright holder.
SOCIAL ISSUES
The current intellectual property laws are not adequate to
meet the challenges of information age. Copying and distribution
of music, software piracy etc. affect further development of
technology adversely.
Quality of data and poor system performance
Software bugs and errors, hardware failures, poor input
data quality etc. affect the system performance. Large software
packages contain millions of lines of code and the package
cannot be expected to be free of any bugs or defects. If people

expect the software to be infallible, who is to be blamed for
that: the software company or the operator or the user? Similarly
poor quality of input data may cause business system failure.
Pornography
Certain adult material is freely distributed on the Internet
though the user hates it. Children are exposed to such obscene
stuff on the Internet. This is a very serious problem for parents.
For example, sex is the most sought after material on the
Internet. Similarly, employees in many firms use their valuable
time and office facility for searching for sex material and viewing
it at work.
Health Risks
The computer keyboard is a cause for the occupational
disease called repetitive stress injury.
Eyestrain, techno-stress caused by computer use etc. are
some health risks which the users are exposed to.
COMPUTER CRIMES
Computer crimes include theft of hardware and software
as well as wilful destruction of data etc. They are illegal acts
against computers or telecommunication facilities using
computers or telecommunications. They include:
Theft of hardware
Theft of software
Misuse of office computer for personal use
Stealing and misusing password to access databases
and sites without right to access them
Intercepting and misusing credit card information
Theft of corporate information
Hacking or cracking systems and sites
Hackers gain unauthorized access to computers and
telecommunication facility for the fun of it like hacking
into the NASA site.
Crackers gain unauthorized access to systems and
cause destruction to them. They may steal
information, destroy data, pirate software or deny
service.
IMPACT OF COMPUTERS ON INDIVIDUALS,

ORGANIZATIONS AND SOCIETY
Computers have their effect on individuals, organizations
and society. The impact in terms of benefits and harmful effects
are discussed in the following section.
Computers and individuals
Computer is a tool for enhancing human capability. It can
perform intellectual (for example, decision-making) as well as
physical tasks (cheque sorting). It is highly versatile and its use
is limited by human imagination.
Benefits to Individuals
Professionals like doctors, engineers, teachers, legal
practitioners and accountants are benefited in many ways.
Specialized applications for these professionals help increase
their efficiency. For example, a doctor can be at his home and
treat his patient online, perform surgery through the help of
robots at a distant hospital etc. A teacher can help thousands
of students use his materials and lecture classes through
computer networks. An engine~r can develop designs for
buildings easily and quickly. Legal practitioners use computers
for preparing their briefs. They are also immensely helped by
the database of court verdicts in preparing their briefs.
Consumers get better and quicker service at service
counters like at railway stations (booking on any train from any
of the booking counters, cancelling tickets from any booking
counter etc.) and bank counters or through Internet banking
etc.
Digital library, interactive online classrooms, multimedia
presentations, online examinations etc. have revolutionized
learning process for students.
Farmers can plan crops based on cropping pattern in other
regions and countries so that the crop they produce fetches
better prices.
Fishermen use computer-based information on weather and
fish movement for increasing their catch.
Harmful effects
Computer causes some harmful effects for the individual.
Some of these are mentioned below.
Computers increase efficiency. It increases the leisure time
available for people. It makes people lazy by doing things much
quicker and more efficiently. They depend less and less on their
brainpower. Too much dependence on computer over a long
period may lead to loss of memory and mental skills.
Computer skill has become an essential qualification for
many jobs. Hence every job seeker is forced to acquire computer
skill even though one might have an inherent dislike for it.
Loss of importance at work place is another fallout of the
computerization. As computer steals away the individual roles
at work places, the employees might feel insignificant and
helpless. It will add to their stress and frustration.
The individuals will be exposed to some heath hazards like
radiation etc. Frequent and continuous use of computer exposes
the individual to certain health problems due to radiation and
also due to faulty sitting and working postures.
Computers and organizations
Organizations that use computer are benefited in a number
of ways. It is used in every area of business starting from data
entry to strategic decision-making.
BENEFITS OF COMPUTER USE TO ORGANIZATIONS

Computer is extensively used in business organizations in
the following areas.
Computers in decision-making
Computers in planning and forecasting
Computers in financial and inventory control
Process automation
Computers in market research
Computers in communication
Computers in e-commerce
Harmful effects to organizations

Poor return on investment in IT infrastructure
With rapid changes in information technology, the skill
set required for using information technology changes
drastically. This causes frustration to people involved
in information technology and the organization's
management.
Threat of unemployment and consequent insecurity
of staff will affect their morale and motivation.
The organization might become overstaffed.
Introduction of computers into routine activities in
the organization automates many activities or replaces
many jobs.
Introduction of compute~s and networks disturbs the
power structure in the organization. Some people lose
their power, some gain power. Power and politics in
organizations change and jockeying for regaining
power aggravates the organizational environment.
Computerization leads to loss of power for some people
who were the custodians of information till computers
were introduced. Once, computer networks are put
in place, information becomes an organizational
resource and freely available to every user. Those who
lost their hold over information (a source of power
for them) will try to regain the power through other
means which leads to more organizational problems.
Security risk and frauds may increase. Electronic frauds
are difficult to detect unless there are systems to
detect them in time and plug them.
Too much transparency makes the organization
vulnerable to competitive attacks. In a network,
information is made available freely for use. Some of
the employees of the organisation may misuse the
information thus available or competing firms misuse
such information against the organization.
System failure may bring entire operation to a halt.
Any computer system is susceptible to failure.
Computerized systems run the risk of system failure
and the consequent disruption of normal routines.
System malfunctioning is yet another problem. The

system may malfunction due to operator error, data
errors, software bugs or hardware problems.
Computer and the Society
Technology impacts on the social sphere in many ways. It
has both positive and negative consequences. Technological
pursuits have the objective of raising quality of human life. But
they often interfere with the nature and create imbalances.
Benefits to the Society
More effective use of technology
Computer is used in every technological pursuit. It
also improves efficiency of use of technology.
Better and cheaper communication. .
Computer is central to any communication technology
these days. Telecommunication uses computer
extensively for switching, billing, call forwarding,
caller identification services etc.
Internet-based communication has revolutionized
col11munication in the recent years. Email, instant
messaging, bulletin boards, Voice over IP etc. are the
popular Internet-based tools which are used for
communication globally.
Advances in medicine
Comput~r is used in hospitals for a variety of purposes such
as patient registration, patient appointment, diagnosis, online
medicare, patient billing and hospital administration. Medical
databases and medical expert systems are available to assist
phySicians in diagnosis and treatment. Medical databases give
information on diseases and their treatment, medical expert
systems r,elp in diagnosis and treatment. Computer~ are widely
used in pathological tests as well.
Apollo ~eartline, an online medicare of Apollo Hospitals,
Delhi, ensures critical care to heart patients over telephone.
Telephones at the hospital are connected to a computer with
special hardware and softwar-e boards. When a patient
experiences chest pain, he can telephone into the huspital.
Three probes attached to the patient's body monitor his
heartbeat and pulse rate and relay these data signals over the
telephone lines to the hospital. Doctors can advice the patient

on the treatment needed.
Weather forecasting
Computer is used in weather forecasting. Weather
predication requires continuous measurements and monitoring
of a large number of parameters such as temperature, humidity,
type of clouds, wind speeds and pressure from many different
places through remote sensing satellites etc. The volume of
data is enormous and it requires simultaneous capturing and
analysis of data. Very powerful computers, usually
supercomputers, are employed in weather prediction
applications.
Public service becomes more effective
Police, military service, public governance etc. are
facilitated by information technology in a big way.
Military and Police
Computer was originally developed for military applications
and it is widely used for such applications as simulated testing
of nuclear devices, fighter pilot training, launching, tracking
and intercepting of missiles, and military communications.
The Police use it for storing information about criminals
and in crime detection. For example, the cops use e-mail to
receive information about crimes and criminals. They store
fingerprints, photographs and other details of criminals. This
database is helpful in investigations as they can match the
photographs etc. with the description of criminals given by the
complainants. In most countries, the police force is setting up
special units with computer professionals to track and fight
computer-related crimes that are on the rise.
Education
Computer has made learning easier through multimedia and
interactive education software. In fact, interactive learning,
multimedia training etc. have revolutionized education.
Computers have made 'virtual varsity' possible and it has become
a reality. Institutes in India too have started offering educational
programmes over the Internet.
Electronic commerce
The Internet has global reach and it is a communication
and commerce platform. With the cost effective Internet
platform, companies can go global for business. They can procure
goods from any supplier and sell goods and services to any
customer anywhere in the world provided they have access to
the Internet.
Electronic governance
Governance is made easier through the use of computers.
It helps in communication between the public and the
bureaucracy. Information about government rules and regulations
is available at state sites, facility for online filing of applications
for various state services, online payment of taxes and other
fees etc. are facilities offered to the members of public.
Harmful effects to Society
Some of the harmful effects of computer to the society
are discussed below.
Unemployment
In countries with large populations like India,
computerization leads to unemployment. For example, the new
generation banks use small number of staff and limited number
of branch offices for banking. They are growing rapidly and are
extending banking services through networked banking; Internet
banking and Automatic Teller Machines. Though computerization
creates new jobs in countries like ours, the growth in new jobs
is not adequate to provide gainful employment to the teaming
millions who join labour pool every year.
Division in society due to new knowledge and skills
Computer literacy has become very essential these days.
It requires little bit of pr'Jficiency in th~ English language. But
for a vast majority of people, it is a luxury and cannot afford to
learn English language and computer use. But, some state
governments have started computer literacy missions to make
people computer literate.
Fraud increases.
Electronic fraud is on' the rise globally. Security and
surveillance systems fail in detecting frauds. Billions of dollars
worth assets are exposed to this threat on the Internet.
Security risk
Computers in strategic areas like defence may subject the
society to disaster due to machine errors.
Legal Dimensions of Computerisation
Computers and the Internet were not there when most of
the legislation was enacted. For instance, many of the pieces
of legislation in the country are over a century old. Indian
Evidence Act 1872, Indian Contract Act 1872, Indian Telegraph
Act 1885, Banker's Books of Evidence Act 1891 ,General Clauses
Act 1897 etc. are some glaring examples. There is a crying need
to enact comprehensive legislation to take care of legal issues
arising out of the use of computer and the Internet for Dusiness
and e-governance. The Information Technology Act 2000 is a
bold step in this direction. Though the Act addresses most of
the concerns of information technology users, yet it is not
adequate to meet some of the grave issues that have
international dimensions.
SUMMARY
Computer is a system of electronic components that
performs tasks according to the instructions given to it. The
system consists of central processing unit, input-output devices
and storage devices. The CPU in turn comprises an arithmetic
logic unit, a control unit and main memory.
Computer peripherals are devices that facilitate
communication between the CPU of computer and the users.
Input devices, output devices and storage devices are common
peripheral devices. Keyboard is the most popular input device
and printer the most popular hard copy output deVice. Among
secondary storage devices, magnetic disks are very popular.
Computer is useri in almost all walks of human life. With
the rapid spread of computer literacy and declining cost of
computer, the computer use is expected to grow more rapidly
in the future. The Internet has spawned a new way of computer
use for communication world wide at very low costs. Computer
is expected to reach homes very soon in a big way and it would
usher in a new way of life with computer assistance for shopping,
education, work and what not. Computer, like any other tool,
has both positive and negative effects on individuals, business
and society. It is to be used with utmost care for improving

efficiency of operations, and ultimately quality of human life.
QUESTIONS
1. Define computer and describe its features.
2. What are the characteristics of computer?
3. What are the limitations of computer?
4. CPU is the brain of the computer'. Explain the components
and functions of CPU.
5. What are the elements of a computer system?
6. What is computer peripheral?
7. Explain the functions of I/O devices.
8. Describe the working of any five input devices.
9. Describe the working of any three output devices.
10. Describe any two secondary storage devices.
11. What is MICR? What is it used for?
12. What are the types of printers?
13. What is secondary storage?
14. What is magnetic disk? How are data stored on it?
15. What is magnetic tape? How are data stored on it?
16. What are the differences between magnetic tape and
magnetic disk?
17. What is disk pack? How does it work?
INTRODUCTION
Computer storage can be divided into primary storage and
secondary storage. Primary storage or main memory in the
computer provides fast access storage. The processor can access
it directly for data and instructions. Frequently used files and
programs are stored in the primary memory. Since primary
storage is expensive, only a limited amount can be stored
therein. Cache memory is another memory device. CPU can
access it much faster than main memory. But it is very expensive.
The secondary storage is used for bulk storage of data and
instructions. Large files and databases are stored on secondary
storage devices. These devices include hard disk, optical disks,
magnetic tapes and floppy disks. Data and instructions from
secondary storage devices are transferred to main memory and
cache memory in small measures for the CPU to access them
for processing.
Magnt:t.ic core technology and semiconductor t~(hnology
have been used to make the main memory of a computer system.
But today semiconductor technology is widely used for it. The
main memory is made up of memory cells. Each of them can
store one bit of data. This memory consists 1f electronic
components called semiconductor chips. Each chip contains
several hundred thou.sand transistors; each transistor represents
the binary state of a bit; on or off. Since a bit can store only
one value either l' or 0, the bits are grouped into sets of eight
bits called bytes. One byte can store one character of data.
36 Computer Memory
Memory locations are numbered 0,1,2,3, ... ; the unique number
assigned to each location is called its address . Memory is
measured in terms of kilobytes (KB) (that is, 210 or 1024 bytes,
roughly taken as 1000 bytes) and megabytes (MB) (that is, 220
or roughly 1,000,000 bytes). Gigabytes (GB) and Terrabytes (TB
are the other units of measure of storage. The main memory of
a computer is measured in terms of two characteristics viz.,
capacity and speed of access.
Computer Memory
Fig.2.t: Computer Memory
MAIN MEMORY
The main memory is used to store data and instructions
currently required for processing. Main memory can be divided
into Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM).
These memories are manufactured by using integrated electronic
circuits .. Both RAM and ROM are random access memories and
both can be used for reading purposes. The distinguishing
feature is RAM's ability to alter data stored in it, which is not
possible with ROM. Typically ROM is used to store system
instructions which are relatively permanent in nature. RAM is
volatile; that is, it loses its contents if the device is electrically
disconnected.
RAM descrit.es the way computers store and retrieve dota
and instructions from memory. It means that the processor has
direct access to each memory cell. Once the address of the
location is given the processor can write one character in that
location or read one out from it into memory from that location
without reference to other cells in the memory.
Contents of some memory chips cannot be modified or
rewritten. These memory chips are used to store data and
instructions that are relatively permanent. This memory is called
Read Only Memory and is used to store programs that are
essential for the proper operations of computer system. ROM is
non-volatile. Many computers especially microcomputers come
equipped with ROM chips that contain the operating system and
application programs. Programs stored in ROM chips are often
called firmware; that is, software built into the hardware.
RAM
The word 'random' means that the computer can access
any memory cell without accessing all cells sequentially. That
is, a memory is said to be random access memory if any part of
it can be accessed directly (randomly) for reading or writing
data in the same time irrespective of its location. In other
words, access to this memory is independent of physical storage
location of information on the medium. RAM is volatile as any
interruption in power supply results in loss of data in RAM. The
contents of the memory remain there as long as electrical
current is available to sustain the memory's pattern of positive
and negative charges which represent the two bits 1 and O.lf
power fails, all the contents in the memory will be lost.
Types of RAM
The various types of RAM are DRM, SDRAM, static RAM, Vide/)
RAM and flash RAM.
Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM)
It is one of the least expensive RAMs. But it requires
frequent power refreshing to retain memory contents.
SDRAM
SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory) is a
generic name for the types of DRAM that are synchronised with
the clock speed of the processor. The speed of SDRAM is
measured in terms of Megahertz. If the speed of the SDRAM and
processor is optimised, the processor can improve its
performance.
Static RAM
Static RAM does not need frequent power refreshing as is
required for DRAM. Hence, it is much faster than DRAM. But, it
is more expensive than DRAM.
38 Computer Memory
Video RAM
It is used to storE: data for the video display monitor. It is
actually a buffer between the processor and the monitor.
Flash RAM
Flash RAM or flash memory is a non-voLatile memory. It can
be erased and reprogrammed. It is used in PC cards of notebook
computers, digital camera, cell phones, embedded controllers
etc.
ROM
This memory uses MetaL Oxide Semiconductor TechnoLogy.
RAM is read-write memory whereas ROM is Read-OnLy-Memory.
This memory is used to store frequently used programs in the
system. ROM can be further divided into PROM, EPROM and
EEPROM.
RAM
ROM
Fig.2.2: Main Memory Divisions
RAM and ROM

In Ci\se of RAM it is possibLe to randomLy seLect and use any
Location of this memory. Each memory Location can be as easily
and speedily accessed as any other Location in memory, that is,
it takes the same access time wherever the Location in the
memory. It is possibLe to read from and write into this memory
and hence this memory is aLso called read/ write m~mory.
A Read-OnLy-Memory is one in which information is
permanently stored. This memory cannot be written into. It
can onLy be read. When power is switched off, the contents of
ROM remain unchanged. The manufacturers suppLy ROM chips
aLong with the programs therein. A variation of ROM chip is PROM.
The PROM can be programmed to record information using a
special facility known as PROM programmer. But, once it is
programmed using this facility, it becom,2s a ROM. PROM is also
non-volatile. However, there is another type of memory chip
called EPROM which can be reprogramrr.ed several times. It is
possible to erase information stored in E:'ROM chip by exposing
it to ultraviolet light and reprogram it using a special PROM
programmer facility.
PROM
Programmable read-only memory cail be programmed once.
Special circuitry is used for programming it. Once programmed,
this becomes read-only memory (ROM).
EPROM
Erasable programmable read-only nemory can be erased
repeatedly and reprogrammed by the us=r. Erasing is done by
exposing EPROM to ultraviolet light of a specific frequency.
Reprogramming requires special EPROM Programmer kit.
EEPROM
Electrically erasable programmable read-only-memory can
be erased electrically and reprogrammed repeatedly.
Cache Memory
110 operations are very slow. CPU speeds are quite high
compared to the access time of main memory; thus the processor
performance is limited by the slow speed of the main memory.
To speed up fetching of instructions to CPU, a buffer or cache
(pronounced as cash) is used. Normal RAM is expensive and is
not fast enough to match the speed of CPU. To reduce the
processing time, certain computers use costlier and higher speed
memory devices to form a buffer or cache. This technique uses
a small memory with extremely fast access speed close to the
processing speed of the CPU. This memory is called cache and
it stores data and instructions currently required for processing.
Cache memory thus makes main memory appear much faster
and larger than it really is. It improves the memory transfer
rates and thus raises the effective processor speea.
The CPU searches cache before it searches main memory
for data and instructions. Cache is physically located close to
the CPU and hence access to cache is faster than to any other
memory.
40 Computer Memory
Often used instructions are kept in this cache to speed up
the fetching of instructions. Some processors use the cache as
a work area also for temporary storage of intermediate results.
Secondary
CPU Storage
Fig.2.3: Memory Hierarchy
Restricted use of cache memory can increase processing

substantially without increasing cost significantly. Cache memory
is of two types: L 1 and L2. One is built into the new
microprocessor chip and the other is placed close to the CPU so
that it can access it faster and more efficiently. This high-speed
memory increases the speed of processing by making data and
programs available to CPU at a rapid rate.
Internal Processor Memory
The internal processor memory is made up of a number of
registers used for temporary storage during processing. Register
is a special storage unit. A typical computer has ten to twenty
registers that are located in ALU and CU. They hold data,
instructions and memory addresses. They are volatile and are
designed to improve the efficiency of CPU.
Registers
The computer uses a number of special memory units called
registers to speed up the rate of information transfer between
various units of the computer. They are not treated as part of
main memory and are used to retain information on a temporary
basis. The number of registers varies from computer to computer.
Most computers use several types of registers each designed to
perform a specific function. These registers can receive
information, retain it temporarily and pass it on as directed by
the control unit. The length of a register depends on the number
of bits it can store. Thus a register which can store 16 bits is
normally referred to as 16-bit register. Although the number of
registers varies from computer to computer, some registers are
common to all computers such as instruction register, program
counter register, etc.
computer Fundamentals 41
Types of registers
1. Memory address register. This holds the address of
the active memory location. When an instruction is
read from memory, the addrE'ss is loaded from the
program into this register.
2. Memory buffer register. It hol,js the contents of the
memory word read from or written in memory. A word
to be stored in memory location must first be
transferred to this register frorn where it is written in
memory.
3. Program counter register. It holds the address of the
next instruction to be executed by the computer.
4. Accumulator register. It holds the initial data to be
operated upon, the intermediate results and also the
final results of processing operations.
5. Instruction register. It holds the current instruction
that is being executed.
6. Input - output register. This hoUs all input information
to be passed to the memory and also the output
information to be transferred to an output device.
Vir1ual storage
Primary storage imposed a constraint on program size of
ear:ier computers. Large programs that required greater memory
than the available main memory could not be run on the
machine. Virtual storage was the technique developed to get
aroJnd this problem.
This operating system technique divides the program into
pages or segments and each page or segment is loaded into
memory in turn. At any given time only the page actually required
is read into the memory from the backing store or secondary
storage. Another segment is loaded into memory when the
program instructions required are larger then the currently
loaded. So, this software technique treats secondary storage as
an extension of the main memory and parts of a program are
swapped in and out of the main store. Thus, it enables a
ccmputer to run a program that is larger than its available
memory size and it gives an illusion to the programmer or user
that the computer possesses practically unlimited memory.
42 computer Memory
SECONDARY STORAGE
MAIN MEMORY
PROGRAM
SEGMENTS
MEMORY
Fig.2.4: Virtual Storage.
Virtual Storage and Virtual Disk

In case of virtual memory, the backing store is made to
function virtually like internal memory through software. On
the other hand, virtual disk is part of internal memory (RAtA).
Using operating system software RAM is divided into main
memory and virtual disk. This speeds up CPU's access to memory.
SUMMARY
Computer requires storage for data and instructions before,
during and after processing of data. Computer memory is divided
into main memory and auxiliary or secondary memory. The main
memory is fast access memory and is used for storing data and
instructions used very frequently. This memory is usually made
of semiconductor chips: RAM, ROM, cache and registers
constitute the primary memory. RAM is volatile. ROM is non-
volatile and read-only memory. ROM has variations like PRJM,
EPROM and EEPROM. Cache is a fast access and expensive
memory. Registers are special memory units for temporary
storage.
QUESTIONS
1. What is computer memory? How is it measured?
2. What is semiconductor memory? How is information held
in it?
3. What is main memory? Can a computer system function
without main memory?
4. What is ROM? What are the types of ROM?
5. What are the differences between RAM and ROM?
6. What is register? What are the types of registers?
7. What is secondary storage? What are the popular secondary
storage media?
8. What is virtual storage? What is the benefit of it?
9. What is cache memory? What function does it perform?
CH ' ER
INTRODUCTION
Computer'is one of the marvellous inventions of the recent
times. Its impact is felt in every walk of human life today. It is
extensively used in communications, commerce, education,
healthcare, weather forecasting, military, research and so on.
Computer literacy is increasingly becoming essential for carrying
out almost any human activity. It all started with a search for
aids in computing. Very humble beginning. It took quite a long
period of time to develop a fully functional computer. Yet, its
diffusion was very quick. Networking, fusion of information and
communications technologies, evolution of the Internet and its
widespread use all over the world are other major developments
in the area of information technology. Information technology
infrastructure has gained strategic importance for organisations
and nations world wide.
Necessity is the mother of invention. Man always wanted
to do some counting or computing. To begin with he used pebbles
to keep a count of the cattle taken out every day for grazing.
Modern man can count or calculate small numbers with ease,
but his requirement for data processing is so enormous that he
needs a machine that can instantly process the data captured
from source and provide real time response. The early devices
such as abacus and slide rule cannot keep pace with his needs.
The progress of man from pebbles to PCs is a great march in
technological history of mankind. Every human activity is
becoming increasingly information intensive. There is a growing
need to collect, process, store, retrieve and exercise control
over huge quantity of data. Computer is the tool that performs
these operations with great speed and efficiency. But computers
took long years to reach the present level of sophistication.
t-\istory of Computers
The history of computers dates back to the age when man
started using tools for computations. The whole history of
computing can be divided into two periods based on the
technology used in computing devices such as mechanical era
and electronic era.
Mechanical Era
Probably the first computing device was the abacus used
by the Chinese in the fifth century Be. This was used for
systematic calculation of arithmetic operations. The abacus is
a manual device that can make extremely rapid calculations. In
the early 17th century AD John Napier invented a calculating
device. This device could be used to multiply numbers by
manipulating the rods in this device. Later in 1643 Blaise Pascal
invented the mechanical adding machine called the Pascaline.
He used geared counter wheels that could be set to any of the
positions zero to nine. The geared tooth was used for carrying
one to the next position when 9 was reached.
G. W. Leibuitz, a German Mathematician, invented a machine
in 1671 that was capable of doing all arithmetic operations. It
could control the amount of adding and was the first multiplying
machine capable of all arithmetic operations. Although there
. were a number of improvements in calculating devices, yet no
conceptual changes were made until the end of the 18th century.
In 1804 Joseph Marie Jacquard, a French inventor, devised
a loom that used punched cards to direct the weaving pattern.
Jacquard's loom is the first known device to use instructions on
cards to "program" the operations of a machine.
Charles Babbage designed several devices which he called
engines. In 1822 he designed Difference Engine to calculate
life tables (Statistics of expectation of life) for insurance
business. This machine could do all arithmetic operations and
perform a sequence of operations automatically. As Babbage
worked, he developed the unique idea of storing instructions
46 Evolution of Computer
within the machine. This work led to the development of

Analytical Engine, which he designed in 1833. But he was unable
to produce a working model of this machine, as the precision
engineering was not able to meet his level of precision. This
mechanical engine was designed to be completely automatic,
capable of performing all the basic arithmetic operations at a
speed of 60 additions per minute.
This machine had five components:
1. input device to pass data and instructions into the
machine
2. a store to hold numbers, both data and intermediate
results
3. a mill to perform arithmetic operations on the stored
data.
4. a control unit to direct the engine to do the desired
operations in the right sequence, and,
5. an output device to display the results of calculations.
INPUT OUTPUT
DEVICE DEVICE
Fig 3.1 Structure of Charles 8abbage's Analytical Engine
This machine could be programmed by instructions initially

coded on punched cards and later stored internally. This device
had provisions for inputting data, storing information,
performing arithmetic operations and printing out results. This
provided a base for modern computer.
At the end of the 19th century, Herman Hollerith and James
Powers designed a data processing machine for processing census
data of the USA. Hollerith developed codes for processing both
alphabetical and numerical data by punching holes in cards and
using a device to read such data into the computer memory.
George Stibitz constructed the first automatic computer
at the Bell Telephone Laboratories in New York in 1939. He wired
together ordinary telephone relays to perform arithmetic
calculations on computer. He represented each decimal digit
by a code of ones and zeroes such that four relays arranged in
the pattern of being energised or not could repres(":1nt a number.
This was the beginning of on-line communication to the
computer. Another major development was the building of MARK
I in 1940s which utilised electro-magnetic relays.
Electronic Era
In the late 1930s John v.Atansoff developed the first
electronic computer using valves at Iowa State University. It
was a small computer with an add-subtract unit and it employed
about 300 valves. It was developed as a special-purpose
computer to solve simultaneous equations. ENIAC (Electronic
Numerical Integrator and Calculator) was the first popular
general-purpose electronic computer, which was developed
under the guidance of John W.Mauchly and J.P.Eckert at the
University of Pennsylvania. John Von Neumann was consultant
for this project. ENIAC used nearly 18000 vacuum tubes and
weighed about 30 tons. It used decimal number system for its
operation
During the period 1946-52, John Von Neumann and his team
developed a high-speed digital computer using vacuum tubes
called lAS. This machine mainly served as a laboratory model
to test many notions of programming and coding used in modern
computers.
Transistor was invented in 1948 at AT&T's Bell Labs. The
transistors started replacing vacuum tubes in computers in the
1950s. Fabrication of integrated circuits was another major
development towards the end of 1950s and by the middle of
1960s integrated circuits replaced transistor circuits. Advances
in integration technology led to the development of medium
scale integration (MSI), large-scale integration (LSI) and very
large scale integration (vLSI) circuits. The first LSI chips became
available by 1970. With the availability of LSI and vLSI chips,
single-chip microprocessor could be developed. Intel Corporation
introduced the first microprocessor in 1971 and the first single-

chip microcomputer in 1976.
The first computer user in the USA was the US Census Bureau
which acquired a UNIVAC I in 1951. The first business firm to
acquire a computer (UNIVAC I) was the General Electric in 1954.
These computers used vacuum tube circuitry and are said to
belong to first generation computers. In India, first generation
computers were first used at the Indian Statistical Institute in
Calcutta and at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in
Bombay.
GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER
For simplifying and providing a framework for discussion
of the growth of computer industry, it is customary to break it
into generations of growth. Originally the term 'generation'
was used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies.
But since 1968, both hardware and software advances are
considered in the generations classification. These generations
represent major advances in computing technology.
First Generation (1946 - 1954)
The first electronic computer, ENIAC (Electronic Numerical
Integrator and calculator) was developed in 1947 at the
University of Pennsylvania, USA. This machine had vacuum tubes
as switching devices. Von Neumann introduced the concept of
stored program by around the same time and the first digital
computer using program, EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage
Automatic Calculator), was announced in 1949. Later Remington
Rand of the USA developed the first commercial computer,
Univer~;).l Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) using this technology.
These vacuum tube-based computers could perform
computations in milliseconds. They were very large in size,
consumed lot of power dnd emitted too much of heat. They
required to be housed in large air-conditioned rooms.
During this period, computer programming was mainly done
in machine language. Assembly language was invented in the
early fifties. The concept of operating system was yet to develop.
The user had to be both an electronics expert and a programmer
to use the computer for any task.
Second Generation (1955 - 1964)
A big revolution in electronics took place in 1946 with the
invention of transistors by Bardeen, Brattain and Shockley. The
transistors were highly reliable and easier to handle and maintain
than the vacuum tubes. They required much less power. These
transistors replaced vacuum tubes in computers during this
period. Transistor based computers of this generation performed
the same function with more accuracy and speed than the first
generation computers. They were less expensive as well. Another
technological breakthrough during this period was the invention
of magnetic cores for storage. The magnetic cores were used to
construct large random access memories. Magnetic disk storage
was also developed during this period. Commercial applications
rapidly developed during this period and dominated computer
use by mid 1960s. Honeywell 400, IBM 7030 and UNIVAC LARC
are examples of computers of this generation.
This period also witnessed development of high level
languages (like FORTRAN, COBOL, ALGOL, and SNOWBOL) and
operating systems.
Third Generation (1965 - 1974)
During this generation, silicon transistors replaced
germanium transistors. Integrated circuits were developed
by interconnecting transistors, resistors and capacitors
grown on a single chip of silicon. Integrated Circuit (IC)
chips were used in computers. ICs were small in size, less power
consuming and less expensive than the previous switching
technology. Small-scale integration, which had components in
the order of 10 on a chip, gave way to medium scale integration
with components in the order of 100 per chip. Advances in
storage technologies resulted in creating large capacity magnetic
,disks and tapes and large magnetic core based random access
memory. IBM 360/370, CDC 6600 etc. are examples of computers
of this period.
On software front, high level languages were improved.
Fortran IV and optimising Fortran compilers were developed.
Standardisation of COBOL (COBOL 68) was another major
development during this period.
Fourth G,eneration (1975 - 1989)
The fourth generation computers were made using very
large scale integration technology. Tens of thousands of
components were packed on a single chip, the size of a

fingernail. It led to the development of microprocessor. The
advent of microprocessor ushered in a PC revolution bringing
down the cost of machines and increasing the power of the
machine manifold. Magnetic core memories were replaced by
semiconductor memories. Another development during this
period was the development and spread of computer networks
and the gradual evolution of the Internet. Personal computer
operating systems were developed during this period. Availability
of PC DOS, MS DOS and Apple MAC operating system software
made computers more user-friendly. Graphic User Interface (GUI)
technology was exploited to offer more comfort to users. PCs
became more affordable and widespread during this period. IBM
PC, Apple II, VAX 9000 , CRAY etc. are examples of computers of
this period.
A significant development in software was the
development of concurrent programming languages like ADA.
Another notable development was the introduction of interactive
graphic devices and language interfaces to graphic systems ..
Table 3.1: Computer Generations
Generation Period Switching Device Storage Device
First 1946-1954 Vacuum Tubes Acoustic delay lines and

magnetic drum.
Second 19:;5-1964 Transistors Magnetic core for main

memory and tapes and
disks for secondary
storage.
Third 1965-1974 Integrated Circuits High speed magnetic

cores and large disks.
Fourth 1975- 89 Large scale integrated LSI Semiconductor

(LSi) semiconductor circults for memory and
circuits Winchester disk,
magnetic disk and optical
disk for secondary
storage.
Fifth Since 1990 Very Large Scale VLSI superconductlng

Integrated(VLSI) super circuits for memory:
conducting circuits Magnetic disk and optical
disk for secondary storage.
Fifth Generation (1990 onwards)
During this generation, Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI)
technology gave way to Ultra Large Scale Integration that led
to the development of microprocessor chip with several million
electronic components on each. Powerful laptops, notebook PCs
and desktops were the other developments during this period.
Advances in storage technologies such as micro floppies,
CD-ROM, DVD, flash memory etc. increased data storage
capability of computers in the fifth generation. This period also
witnessed the huge growth in Internet usage particularly the
popularity of WWW and e-mail.
The fifth generation is essentially about a new super-breed
of computers. These computers will be able to think and take
decisions. Artificial Intelligence is being built into the computer.
The revolutionary parallel processing is being used in the new breed
of computers in place of conventional Von Neumann architecture.
On the software front, effort is being directed at developing
languages to cope with su,h new generation computers.
Languages known as functional languages and object-oriented
languages such as C++ have been developed during this
generation. Development of more user-friendly operating
systems like MS Windows and Lynux, and Lynux based software
products are the other developments during this period.
TYPES OF COMPUTER
Computers vary widely in terms of their size and purpose
they serve. There are very small computers that can be held
on a palm. There are also large computers that take a whole
room to occupy. They are used by big organisations, public and
private. Organisations use computers for a variety of applications
ranging from scientific to commercial in nature. The most widely
used computers are called personal computers that typically fit
on a desktop.
Computers can be class:ified on several bases as follows.
1. On the basis of electronics or the operaLng principle,
they can be classified into:
Analog computer
Digital computer
Hybrid computer
2. On the basis of purpose of use, they can be classified

into:
Special purpose computer
General purpose computer
3. On the basis of size, they can be classified into:
Micro computer
a. Portable computer
b. Desktop computer
Minicomputer
Mainframe computer
Supercomputer
Analog Computer
Analog computer operates on inputs of continuously varying
electrical voltage. It measures the input rather than counting.
The name that is derived from the Greek word 'analog' denotes
that the computer functions by establishing similarities between
two quantities that are usually expressed as voltages or currents.
Analog computers are powerful tools to solve differential
equations. They are mainly used in scientific design and
production environments. Each one has to be constructed to
do a specific job and will respond very quickly to changes in the
measured inputs.
Digital Computer
A digital computer operates essentially by counting. All
quantities are expressed as discrete digits or numbers and
computations are done with numerical digits. Mathematical
expressions are represented as binary digits (0 and 1) and all
operations are done using these binary digits at a very high
rate. The digital computer basically knows addition. Remaining
operations, like multiplication and division, are first converted
-into addition and then calculated. Digital computer is much
faster than analog computer and the computations are far more
accurate. They come in various sizes starting from pocket size
to the large systems occupying big rooms. Most of the computers
available today are digital.
Hybrid Computer
Hybrid computer combines features of both analog and
digital computers. In this computer, some calculations are
done in the analog portion of the computer and some are done
in the digital portion of it. In a hospital, for example, analog
devices may measure patient's heart function, temperature and
other vital signs. These measurements may then be converted
into numbers and supplied to a digital component in the system.
This component is used to monitor the patient's vital signs and
to send an immediate signal to the nurse's station if any abnormal
readings are detected.
Special Purpose Computer
Special purpose computer is tailor-made solely to cater to
the requirements of a particular task or application, for example,
weather forecasting. It incorporates the instructions needed
into the design of internal storage so that it can perform the
given task on a simple command. It, therefore, does not possess
unnecessary options, and costs less.
General Purpose Computer
The general-purpose computer is designed to meet the
needs of many different applications. The instructions needed
to perform a particular task are not wired permanently into the
internal memory. When one job is over, instructions for another
job can be loaded into the internal memory for processing.
Thus, a general-purpose machine can be used to prepare pay-
bills, manage inventories, print sales reports, do scientific
calculations and so on.
Microcomputer
Microcomputer is the low end computer. It is built on a
single chip microprocessor. Microcomputers include (a) portable
computers and (b) desktop computers.
Portable Computer
Portable computer is a very small, easy to use
microcomputer. The users can carry it wherever they go. That
is, it provides mobile computing facility. Business executives,
travelling salesmen etc. carry it during travel for personal use.
This group includes personal digital assistant, pen-based
computer, hand-held computer, notebook computer and laptop
computer.
Laptop computer is small in size and fits on to the user's

lap. It is battery operated and hence it can be carried anywhere.
Notebook computer is even smaller than laptop computer. Hand-
held computer is smaller than notebook computer. The pen-
based computer uses an electronic writing pad and a light
sens.itive electronic pen. Input is entered into this computer by
writing on the electronic pad with the electronic pen. It is useful
for people who are always on the move like sales representatives,
delivery staff and insurance agents. Personal Digital Assistant
(also called Palmtop) is less powerful than PC or laptop
computer. It does not have disk drives.
Personal Computer or Desktop Computer
Personal computer is a microprocessor based, single user
computer. The peripherals for personal computer include a
keyboard and a mouse as input devices, monitor to display
information and a hard disk for storage.
The personal computer is also called desktop computer as
it is normally installed on a desktop and hence the name 'desktop
computer'. It is a self-contained system, usually designed for
use by one person at a time. Since the personal computers can
be easily linked to large computers, they form a very important
component of computer network. This type of computer is used
as home computer for family use or as personal compu,ter by
business executives or by small businesses whose volumes of
data and processing speed requirements are small.
The personal computers have been becoming faster, smaller
and cheaper. The latest microprocessors are very powerful.
The recent development in microprocessor technology is the
introduction of 64 bit computing which is a significant
advancement over the 32 bit computing. A computer
architecture is described as "64-bit" when it has integer registers
that are 64 bits wide. It directly supports dealing both internally
and externally with 64-bit "chunks" of data. Therefore, the
speed of processing data and instructions improves significantly.
Personal computers have a minimum of 128 MB main
memory and computing power of many million instructions per
second (MIPS). These microcomputers use either Pentium chips
from Intel Corp or equally powerful chips from other
manufacturers of microprocessor chips like Advanced Micro
Devices (AMO) and Cyrix. Most of the personal computers in use
currently are Intel microprocessor-based.
Components of Personal Computer
The following are the essential components of a personal
computer
1. Central Processing Unit
2. Keyboard
3. Cathode Ray Tube (Monitor)
4. Disk drives, and,
5. Storage Devices
Microprocessor is the CPU on a single integrated circuit
chip and it forms the core of the microcomputer. Computer
keyboard is very similar to the typewriter keyboard with some
additional keys. The monitor (Cathode Ray Tube) is for soft copy
output display on the screen. The microcomputer has limited
main storage like 128 MB or 256 MB. But most applications are
st0rage intensive. So disks are used to store data and instructions
that are not required for current processing. Floppy disk drive
and hard disk drive are thus essential parts of a microcomputer.
With optical disks becoming a standard storage medium, most
personal computers have a CD ROM or CD R/W drive.
Work Station
Workstation is a powerful computer which in terms of power
is between personal computer and minicomputer. It has high
resolution graphics monitor, large RAM and secondary storage.
Although it is a standalone system, usually it forms part of a
network and it uses Unix or Windows NT as operating system.
Workstations are used for specialised applications such as
desktop publishing, software development and engineering
designs.
Mini Computer
Minicomputer is a medium sized computer that is costlier
and more powerful than a microcomputer. It is in fact a scaled
down version of mainframe computer. This can support up to a
few hundred users at a time with multi-terminal, time-sharing
system. Minis are the popular data processing systems among
the business organisations today. They have many uses in
business such as payroll processing, process control, invoicing,
and stock control. They are mainly used as departmental
computers in large and medium-sized organisations. They are
also used in government departments, universities and R 8: D

establishments.
Mainframe
The earliest computers were callpd mainframes due to their
size. The term is still used for the large computers of today.
They have large storage capacities, very high speed of processing
(compared to micros and minis) and can support a large number
of terminals (Many hundreds to thousands) for use by a variety
of users simultaneously. They are kept in air-conditioned
environment in a special computer room. They are used by big
companies, banks, government departments, etc. as their main
computer.
Super Computer
It is the fastest and the most expensive computer. This has
extremely large storage capacities and computing speeds that
are at least ten times faster than that of other computers. It
can perform hundreds of millions of instructions per second.
The super computer is used for specialised applications such as
large-scale numerical problems in scientific and engineering
disciplines. These include applications in electronics, petroleum
engineering, weather forecasting, medicine and nuclear energy
research.
SUMMARY
Though a firm foundation of the basic computing technology
was laid down by Charles Babbage in the first half of the 19th
century, yet the mankind had to wait a century and a half for
its real benefit to reach it. Though computers were developed
in the 1940's it took a few decades for the popularisation of
this wonder machine. The development and availability of
microcomputer usherpd in an era of ubiquitous computing. The
arrival of microcomputer has brought computing power within
the reach of small firms and homes. The introduction of
computers into data processing has revolutionised the whole
concept of data processing with its speed and accuracy of
processing and storage capacity. Over the last few decades,
the cost of computer has dropped drastically and at the same
time the machine's power has gone up many times from
generation to generation of computers.
QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by "generation of computers"?
2. Explain the various generations of computers
3. What are the types of computer?
4. What is personal computer?
5. What are the elements of computer system?
6. What is digital computer?
7. What is an analog computer and how is it different from a
digital computer?
8. What do you mean by general-purpose computer?
9. What is microprocessor?
CH ER
INTRODUCTION
Computer needs to be given instructions to perform any
task. A set of instructions for a specific task is termed a routine
and a complete set of instructions to execute a related set of
tasks is a program. Computer programs or software can be
divided into two major categories: systems software and
applications software. Application programs consist of programs
written for specific applications such as payroll processing and
sales analysis. System software is machine oriented , which
creates an environment for, and facilitates, the execution of
application software.
Software programs vary widely in size. A simple program
may consist of a few hundred lines of instructions in a
programming language, while a large one may consist of tens of
thousands of lines of instructions.
System management programs General-purpose programs

System support programs Application specific programs
System development programs
Fig. 4.1: Computer Software

System Software
System software comprises programs designed to co-
ordinate the operations of the computer system_ It manages
the hardware, software and data resources of the computer
system_ It includes three types of programs: system management
programs, system support programs and system development
programs.
System Management Programs
These programs manage the hardware, software and data
resources of the computer system. It includes operating system,
database management system (DBMS) and telecommunication
monitors. Operating system is an integrated system of complex
programs that manages the resources of the computer and
provides a user-interface that is easy to manage. DBMS is a set
of programs that controls creation, maintenance and use of
database. It allows different applications to share data and
programs concurrently. It also secures data in the database from
misuses. DB2, Oracle, MS SQL Server etc are some of the
examples of database management systems.
System Support Programs
These are programs that support efficient operation of a
computer. They provide a variety of support services to users
and management of computer system. These support services
include utility programs, security monitors and performance
monitors. Utility programs consist of programs that are very
frequently requested by many application programs like
programs for transferring data from one medium to another,
formatting disk, backing up and sorting of meso
System Development Programs
These programs help users and system developers in
designing and building systems .. They help in dfiveloping programs
and procedures and prepare programs for computer processing.
These include language translators, programming tools and
Computer Aided Software Engineering (CASE) packages. Language
translator is a piece of system software that translates
application programs written in a high level language such as C,
C++ and FORTRAN into machine language. The language
translators may be assemblers, compilers or interpreters. It
has made programming easier, more enjoyable, and portable
across computers.
60 Computer Software
Hardware
System Software
Application Software
Fig. 4.2: Hardware, system software and application

software.
Operating System
Operating system establishes a link between application
programs and the computer itself. It also provides an interface
for the user with the machine. It executes application programs
by fully exploiting the available computing power. Today's
operating systems are highly sophisticated and are capable of
executing several programs simultaneously.
Assemblers
Programming in machine language is very difficult and
cumbersome. In their quest for more convenient language for
programming, the programmers began to use certain mnemonics
for each machine instruction and this language came to be called
assembly language. These mnemonics were translated into
machine language later for execution. Programs called
assemblers were written to automate the translation of assembly
language into machine language. The input to the assembler
program is called source program and the output in machine
language is called the object code.
An assembler is a program that accepts as input an assembly
language program-and produces its machine language equivalent
along with information for the loader. Assemblers are similar to
the interpreters except that each assembly language instruction
is translated into one machine instruction. In the interpreter
each instruction is translated into many instructions. The
assembler occupies less space in the memory of a computer
and it will operate faster than interpreters or compilers.
Compiler
The development of high level language made computer
programming a lot easier. But the computer does not understand
instructions in high level language. To overcome this
communication problem, system software was developed to
translate the instructions in high level language into machine
language instructions.
Compiler is a type of system software that translates source
code into object code and thus renders translator's job between
the machine and the user. The compiler is language specific
and each high level language requires a separate compiler for
it. For example a COBOL compiler can translate only source
program in COBOL into equivalent machine code. This software
is called compiler as it compiles a set of machine instructions
corresponding to each instruction in high level language. A
program in high-level language is called source program or source
code and after converting into machine language, it is called
object code or object program. The source program and object
program are basically the same but they differ in the stage of
development. They also differ in terms of the space occupied
in computer memory.
During compilation the compiler analyses each statement
in the source code and generates a sequence of machine
instructions to carry out precisely the same operation specified
by the statement. As the compiler analyses each statement it
uncovers certain types of errors called diagnostic errors such
as the following:
(a) Invalid characters
(b) Illegal combination of characters, and
(c) Wrong sequence of instructions in a source program
When errors are located during compilation, such errors
are displayed or listed by the compiler for the programmer to
modify the source program. Thus, it can locate syntax errors.
Each language has a set of syntax rules, a system of notations
to be used, etc. The compiler can detect only the syntax errors
and cannot detect logical type of errors, which the programmer
has to detect and correct.
Interpreters
Interpreter is another type of system software used to
translate the source code in high level language into machine
code. This translator program takes one instruction in high level

language and translates it into machine instruction for
immediate execution. Translation and execution alternate for
each statement in the high level program. This differs from a
compiler, which converts the entire source code into machine
code and is not involved in its execution. After compilation the
object code is permanently stored for future use. Whenever
the program execution is required the object code is used to
execute the job.
In the case of an interpreter, the object code is not
permanently saved as the translation and execution occur
alternatively for each statement in the source program. Every
time the program is run each of the statements in source program
is translated and executed one by one. In the case of compiler,
the source code needs to be translated into machine code only
once and the object code is used for repeated execution.
The advantage of an interpreter over compiler is fast
response to changes in source program. The interpreter
eliminates the need for separate compiling run after each
program change to add features or correct errors. Moreover, a
compiler is a complex program compared to an interpreter.
Interpreters are easy to write and they do not require large
memory space in the computer. The Interpreter, however, is a
time consuming translation method because each statement
must be translated every time it is executed from the source
program. Thus, a compiled machine language program runs
faster than an interpreted program.
Loaders and Linkers
Once the assembler produces an object program, it must
be placed into memory and executed. This loading of the object
code into the memory of a computer is done by a loader. A
loader is a program that places programs into memory and
prepares them for execution. In a loading scheme the assembler
outputs the machine language translation of a program on
secondary storage device and a loader is placed in main memory.
The loader places into memory the machine language version
of the users program and transfers control to it. Since the loader
program is much smaller than the assembler, this makes more
memory available to the user's program. The time taken for
loading and preparing an object program for execution is less.
Structured programs are designed in modules. Each module
represents a small program for a particular processing. The
translator program converts these modules into object codes.
These object modules must be combined to form a load module
for execution. The software that links these object modules
into a load module is called linker. Even if program is a single
unit without sub routines, it may have to be linked with sample
routines offered by the translator. These are called library
routines. The linker program links the program with these library
routines and enables it to use these routines during execution.
The load module, which is ready for execution is usually
stored on a secondary storage device. When the program is
run, the module is loaded into computer memory for execution
by a piece of system software called loader. Sometimes both
linking and loading are done by the same system software called
loaders and linkers.
Editors
Editors are system software to facilitate editing of text
and data. Editors are also required for coding and debugging.
For writing programs files are opened using an editor program.
The program file is saved on secondary storage device and
retrieved for correction of errors, modification, etc. The editor
permits adding and deletion of texts, blocking of texts, copying
the blocked text, moving the block and combining files.
OPERATING SYSTEM
Initially there was no operating system and early computers
were very large machines run from a console. The programmer
after writing the program in machine language would manually
load it into memory directly from the operator's console. The
programmer would monitor right from the starting to the
completion of execution of the program. If errors were detected,
the programmer would stop execution, check the contents of
memory and debug the program directly from the console. The
output was printed or punched on paper tape or cards. The
important feature of this environment was its interactive nature;
the programmer was also the operator of the computer system.
Later, advances in hardware and software technology led
to the development of card readers, line printers, magnetic
disks and tape etc. Assemblers, loader and linkers were designed
to ease the programming task. Libraries of common functions
were created. Common functions could then be copied into a
new program without being written again and again. Routines
that performed input - output operations were written for each
110 device called device driver, which knows how the buffers,
flags, registers, control bits and status bits for a particular device
should be used. Each device driver required careful programming
for the complex device specific operations. Instead of writing
the necessary code every time for each 1/0 device, the device
driver was simply used from the library. Later compilers made
coding much easier for the programmer.
Operating system is an integrated system of programs that
manages the resources of a computer, controls the various
activities of the computer and provides support services to users.
The two major purposes of operating system are to enhance
productivity of computer resources and provide user-friendly
interface. It consists of a set of programs that enables a
computer to manage its resources efficiently. It manages the
computer resources (such as input and output devices, memory
and processor) far more efficiently and effectively than a human
operator.
An operating system is designed as a huge modular program
that manages the overall operations of a computer. It is a master
control program that acts as a manager, housekeeper and traffic
police for the computer system. It allocates resources for running
different application programs, tracks the use of computer
resources and ensures efficient use of resources. Application
programs are run under the supervision of the operating system
in the environment set by it. It loads programs into memory,
performs input/output operations and communicates with the
user as to the state of processing, errors etc.
Operating system ~ets up the computer envirCl:1ment. A
personal computer requires a single-user environment. Many
. operating systems are available for personal computers. They
include MS DOS, 05/2, MAC for Apple Macintosh computers, XENIX
which is the microcomputer version of UNIX from the Microsoft
Corporation and MS Windows. Windows is rapidly growing in
popularity and has replaced disk operating systems such as PC
DOS and MS DOS on personal computers. A multi-user system
environment is provided by operating systems like UNIX, Windows
NT or Linux. A networked computer system requires a network
operating system like Novell NetWare.
Functions of Operating System
An operating system performs the following functions:
1. Resource management
Allocation of computer resources such as memory to various
jobs is done by the operating system. It manages hard disk
storage, the CPU, main memory and other peripheral devices.
2. Data management
Operating system provides data management facilities such
as data organisation and retrieval from secondary storage
devices. Files are created, named, read, deleted and renamed
by the operating system.
3. Job management
In multi-user systems, it selects new jobs for execution
according to the priority fixed.
4. Input/output management
It manages the flow of data and instructions between the
input/output devices and primary storage. It allocates and
manages 110 devices. It provides I/O instructions to start
printing, stop printing etc. If user intervention is required, for
example, when printer is run out of paper, the operating system
sends an appropriate message to the user.
5. Maintaining Security etc.
Maintain security, communication of error and error control
messages to the users, etc. are the other functions of the
operating system.
6. Conflict resolution
When two or more programs call for the same resource
simultaneously, it results in conflict. Conflict resolution is
another major function of the operating system in multi-user
systems. In resolving conflict between applications, the
operating system takes into account factors like criticality of
applications, priority of the user etc. and allocates resources
accordingly. Many operating systems have a set of modules that
can be tailored for the requirements of users.
The operating system offers various facilities like:

Job control language
Failure and recovery
File security
Logging
Accounting
Scheduling, and,
Communication with the operator
The operating system creates an environment for
interaction of users with the machine. The hardware pieces are
very powerful devices. The operating system functions as an
interface between the computer and the users. Another function
of operating system is to ensure efficiency in the use of hardware
resources. The CPU, memory and input-output devices are the
hardware resources. The application programs specify the way
in which these resources are to be used in performing a set of
tasks. There may be several users working on different problems
using different application programs. It is the operating system
that controls and co-ordinates the use of the computing
resources and sharing of these resources by the users. The
operating system thus creates an environment for the execution
of application programs. It is in fact a control program, which
supervises the execution of user programs and prevents errors
and improper use of computer. Yet the primary purpose of the
"operation system is convenience for users and the secondary
purpose is efficit.' "cy in operation. Thus, much of the operating
system theory concentrates on optimal use of resources.
Operating systems were developed to facilitate the use of
hardware. Changes in the hardware features simplified operating
system. Thus introduction of new hardware features is the
natural solution to man".' operating system problems.
Multiprogramming
Central processing unit (CPU) is very fast, but input/output
(I/O) devices are slow. Multiprogramming is a technique
developed to minimise the effect of this mismatch between
the CPU and I/O devices so that the CPU time is more efficiently
used.
Commercial applications are I/O bound programs. Contrary
to this, scientific and engineering programs involve very little
I/O operations and large amount of computations, that is, these
are the CPU bound programs. I/O bound operations are very
slow. Separate I/O processors manage I/O operations initiated
by the CPU. Multiprogramming increases CPU utilisation by
scheduling jobs for the CPU, so that it has a job to execute at
any time.
The multiprogramming requires more sophisticated
operating systems. The operating system keeps several programs
in memory simultaneously to have several jobs in ready state
for the CPU to execute. The operating system requires better
memory management, job scheduling and CPU scheduling
facilities. So multiprogramming requires large memories, fast
secondary storage devices and fast ALU.
The multiprogramming operating system runs one program
at a time. When that program requires some I/O operation,
which is a slow process, the CPU switches to another job for
execution when the first program execution waits for I/O
operation to complete. If the second job also requires I/O
operation, the CPU is allotted a third job and so on. Always a
program will be in one of the three states: ready, running and
blocked. Until the first program completes I/O operation, it is
blocked and once it completes I/O operation, it moves into ready
state. It moves into running state when the CPU switches back
to it on message from the operating system about completion
of I/O operation.
Thus, multiprogramming is introduced in operating systems
to overcome the problem of under-utilisation of the CPU and
main memory. Multiprogramming is the interleaved execution
of two or more separate and independent programs by the same
computer. The CPU switches from one job to another almost
instantaneously. At any time only one program has control of
the CPU. So, the CPU is almost always busy. The memory is
partitioned for several programs to reside in memory. Moreovef
the jobs awaiting entry into main memory are queued on a fast
secondary storage device such as a magnetic disk.
Multiprocessing
Multiprocessing systems have two or more CPUs, which have
the ability to execute two or more jobs simultaneously.
Instructions from several and independent programs are cz.rried
out by different CPUs at the same time. Multiprocessing systems
can be designed in limitless number of ways. In some systems

several small CPUs are inter linked to perform the major
processing. If one of the CPUs fail, another takes over and carries
on with the processing. In some others a network is formed by
interconnecting the CPUs and small CPUs, called front-end
processors, are used for I/O operations, scheduling and
controlling of jobs etc. In yet other systems, each CPU performs
only specific type of operations.
Multiprogramming is similar to time sharing environment
in which different applications share a single CPU. In time
sharing, like multiprogramming, the CPU is not dedicated to a
single user. The CPU switches between users so fast that the
users do not feel that the CPU is switching between users. The
multiple users can run multiple applications on a single CPU
computer simultaneously. Multiprocessing systems have several
CPUs.
Difference Between Multiprocessing and Multiprogramming
Multiprogramming is the interleaved execution of different
jobs by a single CPU in turn whereas multiprocessing is the
simultaneous execution of different jobs by different CPUs at
the same time. Multiprogramming involves execution of different
jobs segment by segment in the time slice allotted to each job
until each job is complete. Here, the CPU is busy all the time.
Multiprocessing enables the multiple CPUs to work on several
program segments of one or more programs at the same time.
Here, the task gets done quickly.
Advantages of Multiprocessing
1. Parallel processing improves systems efficiency by
increasing throughput and lowering turnaround time
of the system.
2. It also results in more efficient use of hardware
resources other than the CPU.
3. High reliability of the system is ensured by the
provision of automatic take-over of complete work by
other CPUs in case of breakdown of one of the CPUs.
Limitations
1. Large memory is required for multiprocessing as it
requires many programs and data to reside in memory
at any time.
2. The multiprocessing systems are expensive. It requires
not only high initial outlay but also high operation
and maintenance expenses to be incurred.
3. The system needs a highly sophisticated operating
system and highly skilled computer professionals to
design it.
Time-sharing or multitasking
Time-sharing system is a logical extension of
multiprogramming. It refers to the simultaneous use of a single
computer by many users. Time-sharing is done in a multi-user
environment. Each user .has a terminal connected to the cpu.
The computer time is sliced and each user is allotted a small
division of time in turn. Each user inputs data and instructions
into the machine using the terminal and gets the results of
processing on his monitor or on printer connected to his terminal.
The time-shared operating system uses CPU scheduling and
multiprogramming to allot a slice of CPU time to each user in
turn. It switches between users so fast that every user thinks
he is getting the CPU fully. The computer is capable of
performing millions of instructions a second.
In multiprogramming, jobs are taken up for execution on a
priority basis whereas in time sharing the CPU time is divided
equally among all the users of computer time on a scheduled
basis. Tbus, the basic idea of time-sharing is to allow many
terminals to use the same CPU in turn.
Most mainframe operating systems and microcomputer
operating systems like OS/2 and MS Windows offer multitasking
capability. It allows end-users to do two or more tasks like editing
text, printing file and playing music all at the same time.
Multitasking on microcomputers has been made possible by the
more powerful microprocessors like Intel 80386 and upward with
capacity to address much larger primary memory. This allows
the operating system to subdivide the memory into several large
partitions to open multiple applications simultaneously on
microcomputers.
Multitasking is essential for multi-user or time sharing
systems where several users share the same computer at the
same time. The number of applications that can be run
simultaneously depends on the available memory and the amount
of processing required by each application. If too many
applications are run concurrently, it slows down the response.
If memory and processing power are adequate, multitasking
permits users to switch from application to application and run
application in background mode; for example printing in
background.
Advantages of time-sharing
1. It utilises the CPU more efficiently by reducing CPU
idle time
2. It provides computing facility to many users
simultaneously.
3. It results in efficient use of software by allowing.access
to the same software for many users of the system.
4. It provides quick response.
Limitations
1. Since many users work with the same system
simultaneously, security and integrity of user programs
and data become a problem.
2. It requires data communication facilities, as the time-
shared system v"ill have remote terminals using it.
3. The time-shared system supports several users at the
same time operating even from remote terminals.
Therefore, its reliability must be ensured by back up
facilities as a safety measure which can be used in
the event of any system problem.
DISK OPERATING SYSTEM (~OS)
DOS is a master program that co-ordinates the flow of

information between computer and the disk, floppy or hard disk.
MS-DOS is the brand name of the disk operating system
manufactured by the Microsoft Corporation. Microsoft has given
licence to IBM to supply its DOS and when IBM supplies it, the
DOS is known as PC-DOS. MS-DOS is like a translator between
computers and users. It is basically a set of programs, which
enables the user to communicate with the CPU, the disk drives
and the printer, and manage these resources efficiently.
MS DOS is a popular operating system for machines based
on Intel processor chips. It is a single-user operating system
and has been in use for many years. IO.SYS, CONFIG.DYS and
COMMAND. COM are the disk operating system files. Autoexec.bat
is also used by the operating system in setting up the computing
environment on a personal computer. CONFIG.SYS contains
commands that set up various parameters for the computer
system. Each time the computer boots up, DOS searches for a
config.sys file and it uses the commands there to configure the
system. DOS uses the commands in autoexec.bat to further refine
the way it starts the computer system. If the autoexec.bat is
not set, the machine will be in default mode. This file is used
to run programs automatically on start up. The operating system
causes all the commands in this file to be executed before the
start up is completed.
The Disk Operating System integrates the computer system.
The major tasks of DOS are: -
.1. Control input-output devices
2. Enable user to load and execute progra'!1s
3. Maintain an orderly system of data on the disk.
Hardware requirement for MS-DOS
1. Two floppy disk drives or one hard disk drive and one
floppy disk drive, and,
2. A 16-bit personal computer with a minimum of 256 KB
of main memory.
MS DOS Commands
MS DOS has two types of commands: internal and external.
All the internal commands are included in one of the system
files, namely, Command.com. Once the computer is booted,
the command.com is loaded into main memory of the computer
and remains there until the machine is turned off. All the internal
commands will be executed when this file is in memory. The
external commands require separate modules to be read from
the disk for execution and if the module is not there, the
command cannot be executed.
Internal Commands
(Note: After typing in the commands, press enter key for
execution) .
1. Dir This command lists the contents of a directory in
the hard disk or floppy disk.
Other options are:
Dir/p The Ip option is used to list the contents page wise,
one screen at a time.
Dir/w This option lists contents width wise.
Dir [drive] to list the contents of another directory
For example dir a: This command lists all the files in drive
A while remaining in drive C.
Dir *. <extension> This lists all files with the extension
specified
For example dir *.exe lists all files with extension 'exe'.
Dir *. * This command lists all files in the current directory
just like dir command.
Dir com??? * This command lists all files beginning with
com and followed by any three characters and with any file
extension.
Dirls This lists not only subdirectories in the current
directory but also all files within those subdirectories.
2. MD or MKDIR, This command is used to create a
directory.
Syntax: MD <DIRECTORY NAME>
For example, if you want to create a directory for
employees then give the following command:
MD EMPLOYEE
3. CD This command is to change from one directory to
another.
Syntax: CD <SUB DIRECTORY NAME>
For example, if you are in root directory (that is C:\) and
want to enter EMPLOYEE directory give the following command:
CD EMPLOYEE
Then you will get:
C:\EMPLOYEE>
If you want to return to root directory, give the command:
CD\
Now you are back in C.
If you create a subdirectory in the directory EMPLOYEE such
as salary by giving the command:
MD EMPLOYEE
and then typing
CD EMPLOYEE
MD SALARY
CD SALARY
Now, DOS will show the prompt as:
C:\EMPLOYEE\SALARY>
If you want to go to the parent directory of SALARY, type:
CD.
4. RD This command removes a subdirectory.
Syntax: RD <SUBDIRECTORY NAME>
Example if the subdirectory SALARY is to be removed, type
in
RD SALARY
But this command will work only if the subdirectory SALARY
is empty and the command is issued from outside the Salary
subdirectory; that is, all files should be deleted before removing
the subdirectory by DEL command and move to its parent
directory.
5. COpy This command copies a file from one source
file to another file called the destination file.
Syntax: COPY SOURCE FILENAME DESTINATION FILE NAME
Example: COPY XFILE YFILE
This command duplicates XFILE by copying it into another
file called YFILE. Now you will have two files with the same
contents but different file names.
6. COpy CON This command is used to create Q file in a
directory
Syntax: COPY CON <FILE NAME>
Example: To create a file named XFILE type
COpy CON XFILE
Now you can type in the data and to save it, give the
command
AZ (Control + Z)
Press enter key as usual.
But if you do not want to save it you can quit without

saving by giving the following command instead:
I\Q and pressing enter key. (Control + Q)
7. REN This command renames a file.
Syntax REN <EXISTING FILE NAME> <NEW FILE NAME>
Example: REN XFILE XYFILE
It renames XFILE as XYFILE.
8. DEL This command deletes a file completely.
Syntax: DEL <FILE NAME>
Example: DEL XYFILE.
Now XYFILE will not be there, only YFILE remains.
Options:
DEL". DAT Deletes all files with the file extension DAT in
that directory.
DEL EMPLOYEE." Deletes all files with file name EMPLOYEE
followed by any file extension.
DEL COM???" Deletes all Tiles beginning with COM,
followed by any three characters and any file extension.
Examples of files deleted are
COMMON.EXE, COM-FB.DAT, COM125.BAT, COMXXX.TXT, etc.
DEL..... Deletes all files in the directory. This command
should not normally be used, as all the files will be lost.
9. PATH This command is used to set or reset the
sequences of directories to be searched for executable
files.
Example: PATH=C:\WINDOWS;C:\DOS6;C:\WS7;C:\UTIL
10. PROMPT, This command is used to change the prompt.
$P current default directory
$G > (the greater than sign)
$D system date
$T system time
$V version number
$$ $ sign.
The usual prompt is $P$G that displays C:\> when in root
directory.
11. VER This command displays the current version of
DOS.
(Example, MS-DOS VERSION 6.20).
12. VOL This command displays the label of the disk in
the specified drive.
13. CLS This command clears the screen.
14. DATE This command displays the system date. The
system displays current date and asks to enter new
date.
It displays:
Current date is Fri 01-04-96
Enter new date (mm-dd-yy):
15. Time This command displays the current time and
enables it to be changed if required.
It displays as follows:
Current time is 10:15:40
Enter new time:
16. Type This command displays the contents of a file.
Syntax: Type <filename>
17. Break This command enables or disables the control -
break key combination at every system call.
Break on / Break off
External DOS Commands
1. BACKUP This command is used to make back up copies
of the mentioned files or all the files in a directory or
drive.
2. RESTORE This command restores all files which were
backed up using backup command.
Example: RESTORE A: C:
3. TREE This command displays tree structure of the
specified directory.
4. ATTRIB This command is used to change the attributes
of a file. To hide a file or to make it read only or vice
versa.
Syntax: Attrib <filename> [+h] [-h] [+r] [-r]
Example: ATTRIB YFILE -H
This command causes YFILE to be hidden.
5. CHKDSK This command is used to check a disk's
formatted size and available memory space. It
indicates the amount of disk space consumed by system
files, data files and bad sectors.
6. DISKCOPYThis command copies entire floppy disk track
by track into another disk.
DISKCOPY A: B:
7. COMP This command compares two or more files to
see if they are the same.
COMP A:\RAJ C:\RAJESH
8. DISKCOMP This command compares diskettes, It is
generally used to verify diskcopy command.
DISKCOMP A: B:
It compares disk in A drive with that in B drive.
9. FASTOPEN It speeds up disk access by maintaining a
memory resident table of the most recently used
file and directory names with their memory
locations.
Syntax: FASTOPEN [DRIVE]: NUMBER OF FILES
Example: FASTOPEN C:50 This instructs DOS to remember
the location of the last 50 directories or files which were
accessed recently from drive C:
10. FORMAT This command is used to format a new disk.
FORMAT A:
This formats a disk in A drive.
FORMAT A: /S This formats and copies system files on to
the disk in A drive.
11. PRINT This command is used to print a file or a group
of files.
Syntax PRINT <FILENAME>
Examples: PRINT STUDENT. DAT (To print a file named
student.dat)
PRINT *. DAT (To print a group of files with file extension
DAT).
12. RECOVER This command recovers damaged file ( that

is file with bad sectors).
Syntax RECOVER <FILENAME>
13. REPLACE This command is used to update a set of
files in one directory or drive with another set of
similarly named files in another directory or drive.
Syntax REPLACE B:\*.* C:\EMPLOYEE
This command copies all files in root directory in B drive
to subdirectory EMPLOYEE in Drive C:-
14. LABEL This command is used to add or delete or modify
the volume label of floppy or hard disk.
LABEL A: DCMS
DCMS becomes the label of the disk in drive A.
OTHER OPERATING SYSTEMS

There are a number of other operating systems. Some of
the popular operating systems currently used are discussed
below.
Windows Series
Microsoft Windows 3.1 uses DOS operating system. It
employs graphic user interface (GU I) technology. The users can
activate programs from windows by clicking on icons or symbols
appearing on the monitor. An icon is a picture appearing on the
screen that represents an action or application that the
computer can implement. It requires a mouse to run. Multiple
windows open multiple applications that are invoked.
Windows is a highly integrated environment in which
different applications have the same 'look and feel', so users
familiar with one application can easily work in other
applications. For example, the icons for printing and saving file
are the same in Excel, Word, Access and PowerPoint.
Windows series such as Windows 95, Windows 98 etc. is
discussed in the next chapter.
UNIX
UNIX was developed by AT&T's Bell Labs in 1969. It became
popular in the early 1980's. It is widely used in multi-user
systems. It is a powerful operating system with multitasking,
multiprogramming and interactive features. Ol1e of the

disadvantages of UNIX is that it is not a single operating system.
There are many versions of UNIX and this can sometimes cause
confusion to users. Some of the popular versions are AIX, BSDI,
Digital UNIX, SCO UNIX, Solaris, Sun OS, etc. Compared to other
operating systems, UNIX is cryptic and not very user-friendly.
Yet, UNIX is a mature and technically superior group of operating
system with proven performance, reliability and security in
server environment.
OS/2
IBM's OS/2 Warp (Operating System 2) is a 32-bit operating
system. It supports multitasking and can run programs written
for OS/2 and other operating systems like MS DOS and MS
Windows.
OS/2 Warp
0512 warp is the name of the new version of OS/2
introduced by IBM in late 1994. It can run all applications written
for DOS and MS Windows. OS/2 Warp is bundled with a bonuspack
that includes a number of applications like a word processor, a
spreadsheet, personal information manager and easy Internet
access and other online services.
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Computer is a marvellous tool and its application possibility
is limited only by imagination. It is particularly helpful in carrying
out any repetitive kind of activity. The system software sets an
environment for carrying out tasks. Software is required to tell
the computer to process data or perform any activity. The
software that instructs the computer to perform activities
desired by users is called application software.
Application software can be developed in-house by
computer personnel or by hired staff (custom-built) or it can be
acquired from software vendors (off-the-shelf). Off-the-shelf
packages are available for general processing needs like
accounting, inventory management etc.
A software package is an integrated suite of programs
developed to carry out certain specified tasks. An application
system generally consists of a set of program~ and related
procedures to accomplish information processing. The cost of
developing a large application, that is custom-built package,
can be very high. There is a growing trend towards acquiring

generalised application software packages off-the-shelf for
applications like payroll processing, accounting, production
scheduling etc. Such off-the-shelf packages may require some
customisation; that is, tailoring a package to the requirements
of the user. Such customisation is done by internal information
system staff or by hired staff.
If the application is unique or rare, custom-built packages
are developed by firms to meet their unique processing needs.
The reason is non-availability of off-the-shelf packages for
unique processing needs of some business firms. As the off-the-
shelf packages are designed to meet processing needs of a large
number of users, they normally contain a large number of
modules with many options for the user to choose from.
Application programs are specific to user needs. A number
of off-the-shelf packages are available for these applications.
Some of these packages are for word processing, spreadsheet,
database management, accounting and inventory management.
These application programs can be classified into two: general
purpose-programs and special-purpose programs.
Application Software Packages
Fig.4.6: Types of Application Software Packages
General-purpose Application Software Packages

The general-purpose packages provide certain generalised
facilities. They provide a general framework and a set of tools
to manipulate data. The user can adapt these to suit his
requirements. Spread:::heet application packages like MS Excel
and database application packages like Oracle are examples of
general-purpose application programs. They can be used for any
purpose.
Special-purpose Application Software Packages
Special purpose application programs are specific to certain
applications such as project planning and monitoring, production
planning and control, inventory management etc.
Custom-built Software Packages

These are generally developed by the organisations to meet
their special processing needs. Organisations might have some
unique processing requirements that the available off-the-shelf
packages cannot meet. Hence these application programs are
internally developed either by hired staff or the information
system personnel or users. These applications include any
programs developed in an organisation to meet special
information needs.
Characteristics of Software Packages
The packages are developed to meet information-processing
needs of a large number of users. They must have some features
to make the packages acceptable to most users. Modular design
and user-friendliness are two such features that can satisfy most
users.
Modularity
The packages are modular in structure. The modules are
integrated into a large program. Each module is made up of a
number of Silb modules (small programs) with many options to
users to c~loose from. The modular design offers some advantages
to the '.sers. The user can select only those modules, sub-
modules and options that are required for his needs. This
minimises the computer res<?urces required for the package for
storage as well as when processing.
User-friend I iness
The users must be provided with features that make the
package easy to learn and use. These features include menus,
online help facility and user documentation. Menu-driven
packages are easy to learn and use. Online help facility helps
quicker learning and user documentation contains details about
features and how to USt lhcse features etc.
Advantages of off-the-shelf Software Packages
The following are some of the advantages of off-the-shelf
packages.
1. Off-the-shelf packages are less expensive than custom-
built packages.
2. They take less time for implementation as the system
is described in detail and the implementation steps
are clearly laid down.
3. Detailed system documentation, available with the
package, makes it user-friendly.
4. System design, coding and debugging work is minimum,
as the packages have been subjected to detailed
checks by the vendors.
5. If the packages have been in use for some time, user
feedback will be available so as to make an informed
choice before buying and implementing a package.
6. Generally off-the-shelf packages are more efficient
in terms of speed, accuracy and memory requirements.
Disadvantages of Off-the-shelf Software Packages
The disadvantages of off-the-shelf packages are:
1. Very limited customisation is possible with these
packages. Except for the built-in options, program
modification is difficult, as normally the source code
is not supplied with the package.
2. Though the cost of off-the-shelf package is falling,
the package gets upgraded too frequently. As the new
versions offer more efficient processing and user-
friendliness, the users are tempted to buy newer
versions. Many a time, such new versions may need
upgrading of hardware. Thus, eventually, it causes
large investment on hardware and software. Very few
users are bothered about productivity of these
investments.
3. They are not available for unique processing needs of
individual users or user-organisations. Hence, they may
have to develop software fOI such applications.
4. Security risk is another factor to be considered in
implementing off-the-shelf packages in large
organisations.
5. There is also a possibility of bugs lying undetected in
software packages sourced from outside. These bugs
might develop problems any time and might cause
system failure or malfunctioning.
Some Popular Packages
A few of the popular software packages are listed
below.
Popular database packages:
Oracle
MS SQL
Sybase, and,
Paradox
Popular Financial Accounting Packages:
E-X
Tally
Total
FACT
Popular Desk Top Publishing Packages:
Ventura Publisher
Page Maker
Corel Draw
Prakashak
Popular Graphic Packages:
Photoshop
I mage Alchemy
Paint Shopp Pro
Popular Anti-virus Software Packages:
Red Alert
Dr.Solomon's Anti-virus Toolkit
Norton Anti-virus
VX 2000
Fprot
MCAfee Virusscan
Nashot, and,
UTScan
COMPUTER VIRUS
Computer virus is a hostile program that generally replicates
itself and infests other files. These malicious programs are
developed by computer hackers and disgruntled programmers.
They are usually written in assembly language or high-level
languages like 'C'. Some of these may be harmless as they display
some messages or playa tune. But most of the viruses are highly
harmful to computer systems. The harm done to the computer
system depends on the type of virus and frequency of its strike.
Viruses are quite common in DOS and Windows environments.
They normally spread through floppy diskettes carrying pirated
software. With microcomputers joining the Internet, the spread
of virus is swift and wide through this global network.
A worm is a program that copies itself repetitively into
computer memory or disk drives until the memory or disk space
is exhausted. It can cause the computer to stop functioning as
it runs out of memory to load and run applications. Worm is an
autonomous agent capable of propagating itself without the help
of other programs. Most worms disrupt services and create
problems for system management. Some worms scan passwords
and other sensitive information and pass them to the attacker.
Some worms can install viruses that can cause destruction of
data or damage to systems.
Origin of Computer Virus
John Von Neumann first suggested the concept of self-
replicating programs in 1950. A few of the programmers at AT&T
started working on self-replicating programs as a game. The
game involved writing code to destroy other's code in the
computer memory and the one who has maximum number of
lines of code wins the game. The game was kept a secret and
was never released for the public. Later, Ken Thomson, co-author
of UNIX encouraged programmers to write programs like the
one at AT &T. Early viruses were developed by hackers to enter
other's systems.
Types of Viruses
There are thousands of viruses and several thousand
variations of these viruses. Some of the commonly found
computer viruses are:
Stone Marijuna Virus

This affects boot sector of floppy diskettes and the master
boot record containing partition table on hard disks. It displays
a message "Your PC is stoned".
The Vienna-648 Virus
This virus infects files with size larger than 10 bytes. It
usually infects' .com' files and increases infected file size by
648 bytes.
Joshy
This virus is of Indian origin and affects boot sector of floppy
diskettes and master boot record of hard disks. It becomes active
on the 5th of January every year and the computer system hangs
when the virus is active. If the message "Happy birth day Joshy"
is typed, the system starts functioning normally.
Dark Avenger Virus
It infects files with size larger than 1800 bytes and is very
difficult to remove. It affects' .com' and' .exe' files. It increases
the size of infected files by 1800 bytes, reduces RAM by 4 KB
and displays the message "Eddie Lives Somewhere in Time".
Stealth Viruses
Stealth viruses are hard to detect and are very dangerous.
They include 512A, Holocaust, V-2000 Whale, Murphy and Michael
Angelo. The Michael Angelo virus wipes out data on hard disk on
Friday the 6th of March, the birthday of artist Michael Angelo.
Flush Virus
It is a memory-resident virus that infects' .com' and' .exe'
files.
Jerusalem Virus
It affects' .exe' and' .com' files. It increases the size of
'.exe' files by 1808 bytes and that of' .com' files by 1813 bytes.
Perfume
It infects '.com' file and increases its size by 765 bytes. It
shoots a question and if the number 4711 (the name of a German
perfume) is typed, it functions normally.
Detection of Viruses
Viruses can be detected by running disk scanners special
programs for it.
Disk scanners, like UTScan, check the hard disk or floppy
diskettes for viruses and display the result of scanning.
Boot Monitors and File Monitors
They give an alarm to users if a virus attempts at infecting
boot sector or '.com' and' .exe' files.
Removal of Viruses
Anti-virus software is available for removing known viruses.
After locating a virus, the anti-virus software is run to remove
the virus from the affected files and the boot sector. For
example, UTScan has a scanning program, (Scan.exe) to scan
the disk for viruses and a cleaning program (Clean.exe) to remove
them. Other packages of anti-virus software include Nashot,
VirScan, Red Alert and Norton Anti-virus.
SECURITY ISSUES
The security threat may be either due to natural disasters
like flood, earthquake etc. or due to human error. The human
error may be malicious or inadvertent. Either way the
consequence can be disastrous. Particularly serious is the
malicious action that often causes security problems. The
security issues include loss of data, corruption of data, alteration
or mutilation of data etc. It may concern the integrity of data,
secrecy and security of data. The security aspect covers the
accidental or deliberate actions leading to loss of data.
Physical security
The measures to be taken to ensure physical security of
the system include:
Control access to systems and deny access to
unauthorized people.
Maintain systems under dust free environment under
controlled temperature.
Ensure continuous power supply by Installing UPS and
back up facilities.
Have facilities to prevent fire and fight it if it happens.
Prevent rodents, pests etc. from entering the rooms,
Data security
The steps to be taken to improve data security include:
Ensure fool proof transaction acceptance for online
or interactive transaction processing systems
Prevent loss, tapping etc. during data transmission
Keep the relevant old master file and transaction file
so that it is possible to reconstruct the current master
file anytime if it is tampered or destroyed by fire,
flood, earth quake etc.
Take proper care of archived data. Some times, data
are kept archived for months without reading the tapes
etc. Later, they may become unreadable or
irretrievable. It is a good practice to read the data
from tapes etc. once every few months.
Conduct proper audit of hardware every year
Keep track of software changes so that there will not
be software version conflict etc.
Never use pirated software, particularly application
software, that is most vulnerable to attacks.
Have planned monitoring of access to systems to
detect unauthorised access and prevent them.
SECURITY MEASURES
Organisations need to put in place certain safeguards for
protecting their computer and information resources against
unauthorized access, disasters and system failure.
Firewall
Firewall is a combination of software and hardware that
prevents hackers and others from infiltrating a computer or
internal network from an outside network. It is simply a barrier
between two networks. One of the networks is internal that is
trusted and the other is external to the organisation. The
external network is not trusted. Firewalls are designed to
protect an organisation's network, its data and systems. Fire
walls check incoming and outgoing packets of data and block or
let them flow in according to a set of rules defined by the
administrator.
Firewalls are particularly important in the Internet
environment. The firewall in the following illustration may
automatically allow or deny access to the web server based on
the set of rules coded into it.
Firewall Web server

Customer PC 1+----+
RDBMS
Fig.4.6: Use of Firewall for security
Password
Password, as the name indicates, is a set of characters
that form a string of certain length. Each user of a system or
network is given a login name and a password for identifying
him or her to the system. The password is used in controlling
access to information resources.
Each user is identified by the login name and password.
When the user turns on the machine, the system asks for typing
in his or her login name and password. If the login and password
are right, the system permits access to the information resources
that the user is authorized to access. If the login or password or
both are wrong, the user is denied access to it. Thus the
password-based access control protects information resources
by preventing unauthorised access.
Encryption
It is the altering of data so that it is not usable unless the
changes are undone, that is, de-encrypted. It is particularly
useful when sensitive data are transmitted over a public
network. Encryption is used to prevent unauthorized access to
any message sent over telecommunication networks. It involves
scrambling of data at the sender's end, transmitting scrambled
data over the communication line and unscrambling the data at
the recipient's end. A pair of keys (public key and private key)
is used to encrypt and decrypt the message. The sender encrypts
the message with the public key of the recipient. Only the
recipient's private key can decrypt the encrypted message.
88 Computer Sr ., j re
Sender Recipient
Fig.4.7: Use of public key and private key for sending

message
Digital Signature
A digital signature is the equivalent of an ink signature for
physical documents. It is used to verify authenticity of the sender
of the message. Electronic messages may be intercepted and
tampered. With digital signature, it is possible to know whether
the message has been tampered or not. The sender of the
message uses his private key to generate the 5lgnature. The
signature is attached to the message that is sent to a recipient.
Digital signature is an electronic identifier that uses
cryptography technology to ensure its reliability. It uses a digest
function to summarise the content of an electronic message.
The digest function reduces the message into more manageable
chunk of data. This data chunk is decrypted using the public
key of the recipient. The recipient uses his private key to decrypt
electronic message. The recipient can then use the same digest
function to decrypt data chunk received using the public keY'of
the sender. If the two digest results match, then the message
has been certified as signed. Thus it ensures security of data
sent over public communication networks and also authenticates
the source of the message.
Digital Certificate
Digital certificate is used to validate the identity of the
message sender to the recipient. It is used to protect the identity
of the users and to provide security for electronic transactions.
A trusted third party, called certifying authority, provides the
authentication. The certifying authority verifies the identity of
the digital certificate user and provides information about the
identity of the user and the public key allotted to that user.
The message recipient can use the public key in decrypting the
message received. The recipient can also send encrypted
message using the information from the certifying authority to
the sender of the message.
Disaster recovery plans
These are methods of restoring information processing
operations that were disrupted or ha i ted by destruction or
accident. It is required to restart operations quickly after any
disruption in its normal operations.
SUMMARY
Computer needs to be instructed to do tasks. The sets of
instructions to computer for carrying out tasks are called
program or software. Computer software is of two types: system
software and application software. The 5ystem software makes
the computer manage its resources optimally and offer a user-
friendly interface. The development of system software during
the second generation of computers was a great event in the
computer history. By enabling non-expert users to use the
computer with ease, it helped in spreading the computer use to
all walks of human activity. The system software aims at efficient
management of the system resources and greater convenience
to users. The system software is usually purchased along with
the computer. The application software is specific to the tasks
to be performed. It generates the information output required
by the user. Hence, development of application software starts
with the identification of user needs. Very often application
programs are developed using in-house resources. But the
growing trend in PC software is to move away from custom-
built packages to off-the-shelf packages, which are less
expensive and user-friendlier than the former.
QUESTIONS
1. What is operating system? What are the functions of
operating system?
2. What is multiprocessing?
3. What is multiprogramming?
4. How js multiprocessing different from multiprogramming?
5. What are the advantages and limitations of multiprocessing?
6. What is time-sharing?
7. What are the advantages and limitations of time-sharing?
8. What is DOS? What are the hardware requirements for DOS?
9. What do you mean by internal DOS command? Give a few

examples?
10. Differentiate system software from application software.
11. What is compiler? How is it different from an interpreter?
12. What is loader?
13. What is linker?
14. What is the use of an editor program?
15. What is the need for a translator program in a computer?
16. Differentiate an assembler from a compiler.
17. What is computer virus? How does it affect computers?
18. Describe the risks associated with information resources
and how to protect these resources.
INTRODUCTION
Microsoft Windows is an operating system for computers
from the legendary Microsoft Inc., USA. Windows is a highly
integrated environment in which different applications have the
same 'look and feel', so users familiar with one application can
easily work with other Windows-based applications. For example,
the icons for printing and saving file are the same in EXCEL,
WORD and ACCESS.
WINDOWS SERIES
Windows series includes the following operating system
packages.
Windows 3.1
Windows 3.1 expands on the DOS operating system. Windows
3.1 uses DOS operating system. It employs graphic user interface
(GUI) technology. Users can activate programs from windows
using icons or symbols. An icon is a picture on the screen that
represents an action or application that the computer can
implement. It requires a mouse to run. Multiple windows open
multiple applications that are invoked.
Windows 95
Windows 95 is a powerful operating system that enhances
the speed and performance of microcomputers. It uses about
92 Microsoft Windows
20 MB of disk space and eight MB of RAM. Windows 95, also

known as Windows version 4.0, is similar to Windows 3.1. Yet it
is a radical departure from windows 3.1 in that it is independent
of DOS and hence a complete operating system on its own. It
has 'plug and play' feature. Windows 95 also uses GUI technology
and user can run applications by clicking icons or menu.
options.
Windows 98
Windows 98 is the third in the series of windows operating
system software from the Microsoft Corporation. Internet
Explorer ( a graphic web browser) is bundled along with this
operating system package.
WINDOWS 98 includes tools that help personal computer
run faster than Windows 95 without adding new hardware. It
also includes a suite of programs designed to optimize the
efficiency of computers.
Windows 2000
Windows 2000 is another operating system package for
personal computers from the Microsoft Corporation. It is based
on Windows NT technology.
Mi-<:rosoft Windows Millennium Edition (Me)
Microsoft Windows Millennium Edition (Windows Me) is the
successor to Microsoft Windows 98. Windows Me looks very
similar to Windows 98, but under the hood, Microsoft has made
improvements to the core operating system and has added some
impressive digita1 media features.
But Miczrosoft has added more features to make Windows
Me much better than Windows 98 by including new protection
for 'system files, a method for restoring an old configuration,
faster start-up, and better hibernate/resume features. Since
Windows Me works with Windows 98 drivers and applications, it
appeals to users, who are usually fearful of upgrading. Additions
in Windows Me are system restore function, a newTCP/IP stack,
Windows Media Player 7 , Internet Explorer 5.5 and Movie Maker.
According to Microsoft, Windows Me will be the last
operating system based on the Windows 95 kernel. All future
operating systems from Microsoft will be based on the Windows
NT kernel.
Windows XP
Windows XP is the new version of Microsoft's ubiquitous
operating system for personal computers. Windows XP is
markedly different from earlier versions of Windows in that the
new operating system does not use icons. It allows users to pull
up programs from the 'Start' menu. It does not use icons on the
screen. The users of the operating system can set up their own
short cuts and icons on the screen if they want. XP includes a
host of new features such as better support for digital music
and photography and an instant messaging system complete with
audio and video. There is new help facility that allows someone
else to take remote control of the PC for fixing glitches.
Windows NT
Windows NT is a 32 bit microkernel-centred multitasking
operating system. NT stands for New Technology. It addresses
the physical memory using 32 bit integers. It combines many
features of the existing operating systems with the familiar look
and feel of the Windows operating system. Windows NT comes
in three forms:
Windows NT Workstation
This is designed for a system the resources of which are
used almost exclusively by a single user.
Windows NT Server
This is designed for server systems like file servers, print
servers, network name servers, etc.
Windows NT Server Enterprise Edition
This is designed for running distributed applications.
Installing Windows 98
Before you install Windows 98, make sure your computer
meets the following minimum system requirements:
486DX, 66 MHz or higher processor.
16 MB of RAM. (More memory improves performance.)
Adequate space available on your hard disk. The
amount of space required varies with your installation
method and the options you select during Setup.
CD-ROM or DVD-ROM drive_ (If you prefer to use floppy

disks instead of a CD, the Windows 98 box contains a
coupon for obtaining Windows 98 on 3.5-inch, high-
density disks. The CD-ROM version contains items not
included on the 3.5-inch disks.)
Microsoft Mouse or compatible pointing device .
Certain features have additional requirements:
For Internet access, 14,400 modem or fax modem and
a service provider, such as MSN. (The service provider
may charge a fee.)
For sound, a sound card and speakers; or headphones;
or USB speakers.
For DVD Video, a DVD-ROM drive and compatible DVD
decoder card (or DVD decoder software).
For broadcast reception, a Pentium processor and
compatible TV tuner card.
To run Setup, you need to have the Windows 98 CD (or
floppy disks) or network access to Windows 98 files. You also
need a blank 3.5-inch, high-density disk ready for formatting as
your Startup Disk. It is recommended that you read the Setup. txt
file on your Windows 98 disk for any installation specific
information. It is also recommended that you back up the
existing files on your computer.
Running Windows 98 Setup
You can install Windows 98 in two ways. If you are currently
using Windows 95, you can upgrade to Windows 98 and retain
your system settings. Or you can perform a new installation,
which will set up an entirely new copy of Windows 98 on your
hard disk-with no old system settings.
Active Desktop
Active Desktop interface lets the user put "active content"
from Web pages on the desktop. For example, one can put a
constantly updating stock ticker on the desktop. It is also
possible to add to the active desktop the items the user needs
to refer to on a regular basis: news, weather, sports, stock prices
etc. To use the Active Desktop, the new desktop must be installed
on the computer.
Active Desktop helps the user to customize the desktop,
launch programs, switch between files, and keep up with the
latest world news by integrating the Web and the desktop. With
Active Desktop, the user can turn Web elements into desktop
elements and update them at any time.
Creating a-shortcut
A shortcut i.s a quick way to start a program or open a file
or folder without having to go to its permanent location in
Explorer. Shortcuts are especially useful for programs, files,
and folders used frequently.
Steps to create a shortcut in a folder
In My Computer or Windows Explorer, click the folder in
which you want to create the shortcut.
On the File menu, point to New, and then click Shortcut.
Follow the instructions on the screen.
Steps to put a shortcut on tMe desktop
In My Computer or Windows Explorer, click the item, such
as a file, program, folder, printer, or computer, for which you
want to create a shortcut.
On the File menu, click Create Shortcut.
Drag the shortcut icon onto the desktop.
To change any settings for the shortcut, such as what kind
of window it starts in, right-click the shortcut, and then click
Properties. To delete a shortcut, drag it to the Recycle Bin. The
original item still exists on the disk.
Parts of a Window
The window is made up of title bar, menu bar, tool bars,
document area, status area and scroll bar. The title bar displays
the name of the current file and curcent program. Menu bar
displays menu options of the program like WordPad and MS Word.
Tool bars are displayed right below the Menu bar by default.
But it can be dragged into any other border part of the window.
Tool bar contains buttons for commands to be invoked. Each
button displays tool tip when the cursor is positioned on it to
help users. Document area is the area for the user to work on.
Title Bar M en u Bar T oo l Bars M in irnizc , maximize and

c lose buttons
Document Area
Scro ll Bar
Sta tus Bar
Fig. 5.1: Parts of a window
For example , in MS Word, user types in and edits text in

document area. The status bar displays information such as the
state of the computer, location in the window etc. Mi nimize
button hides the window without closing it. The window can be
activated by clicking the application or document displayed on
the task bar at the bottom of the screen. Maximize button
restores window ~.J full screen view and close button closes the
window. Scroll bar helps the user to scroll up and down a window.
It is useful when a large document is opened . All the text cannot
be viewed in a single window. So the user may need to move up
or down the document. The scroll button on the scroll bar can
be moved up or down f,J : i t.
Start Menu
Start menu is a quick way of accessing files on a computer.
Start button is located at the far left bottom corner of the
screen. Click 'Start' button. Windows displays program menus,
Settings , Find , Documents , Favorites, Help, Run, Log off and
Shut down on Start menu . On clicking the respective option,
the user can directly go to the concerned file or application.
Fig. 5.2 Start Menu of Windows 98
To add a program to the Start or Programs menu

1. Click Start, point to Settings, and then click Taskbar
& Start Menu.
2. Click the Start Menu Programs tab.
3. Click Add, and then click Browse.
4. Select the program you want to add, and then click
Open.
5. Click Next, and then double-click the menu on which
you want the program to appear.
6. Type the name that you want to see on the menu, and
then click Finish.
7. If Windows prompts you to choose an icon, click one,
and then click Finish.
WINDOWS ACCESSORIES
Microsoft Windows is a highly user-friendly PC operating
system. It has a large number of feature-rich applications.
Windows accessories are a set of utilities tucked away under
programs. These accessories can be used to perform various
tasks like creating and editing short documents, creating drawing

objects, making calculations, making Internet connections etc.
The utility under accessories can be activated as follows:
Click Start
Point to programs
Point accessories
Click on the utility to invoke it.
These accessories include communication, entertainment,
Internet tools, system tools, address book, calculator, imaging
pad, paint, WordPad, and Notepad.
Some of the more frequently used accessories are described
below'.
Calculator
Fig.5.3 : Windows Calculator
This calculator works just like any electronic calculator. It

can do all arithmetic operations, square root calculation etc.
Notepad
This can be used to create small documents. The documents
can be saved, retrieved and printed in Notepad. It has only
limited formatting options compared to WordPad.
CRATIHC SHORT DOCUMENTS IN NOTEPAD
Fig.5.4: Using Windows notepad to create a document
Since Notepad is a good document editor application, it is

used for creating HTML pages that can be viewed with a Web
browser. Notepad saves documents with . txt file extension.
Notepad can be used to create or edit text files that do not
require formatting and are small (Less than 64 KB in size).
Notepad opens and saves text in text format only. (WordPad
can be used to create or edit files that require formatting or
are larger than 64 KB in size).
Starting Notepad
Click Start
Point to Programs
Point to Accessories, and then,
Click Notepad.
Paint
This is a utility to create drawing objects. Objects can be
drawn, edited, painted, saved and printed in Paint. It can also
be used to edit graphic objects.
Fig.5.5: Using Paint for drawing
Windows Word Pad

Word Pad is a text editor for short documents. Word Pad
permits creating and formatting documents with various font
and paragraph styles.
Steps to start Word Pad
Click Start,
Point to Programs,
Point to Accessories, and then,
Click WordPad.
To create a new document in WordPad
1. On the File menu, click New.
2. Click the file type to be created, click OK,
3. Begin typing the text
4. Text can be formatted using different fonts, font sizes,
colour, bullets etc.
5. It is also possible to insert objects from other files by
clicking Object in Insert menu.
CREATING A DOCUMENT IN WORDP AD
F;g.5.6: Using WordPad for creating a document
6. To save the new file, click File menu, click Save As,
and then type a name in File name.
WordPad saves the file as .doc file. It can be opened in
WordPad or in MS Word.
Clipboard
Clipboard is a temporary storage that Windows uses for storing
all kinds of data. When user cuts or copies any text, image or
data, Windows moves the object or text etc. to the clipboard. The
user can paste it to any file or location from the clipboard.
Clipboard content changes with every copy or cut operation of the
user. The contents disappear whenever the user quits Windows or
shuts down the computer. The contents from the clipboard can
also be saved to the disk using file menu of clipboard viewer.
To move anything to the clipboard, select the object or text
etc., then choose cut or copy from the Editmenu. The keyboard
short cuts (Ctrl+C for copy and Ctrl+X for cutting) can also be
used. It copies the content copied to the clipboard. The clipboard
content can be moved to other files by clicking paste on Edit menu
(or Ctrl + V). The user can use Clipboard Viewer to view the contents
of the Windows clipboard. To start Clipboard Viewer:
Click Start,
Point to Programs,
Point to Accessories,
Point to System Tools, and then,
Click Clipboard Viewer.
The content on clipboard can be deleted by displaying it
with clipboard viewer and pressing Del key.
System Tools
The system tools in accessories contain a few useful tools.
These tools include disk defragmenter, maintenance wizard,
scandisk etc.
Disk Defragmenter
Disk Defragmenter optimizes the speed with which the
computer loads and runs programs. With quick startup and
shutdown, the user can work, play games, and explore the
Internet faster and more efficiently.
Using Disk Defragmenter to speed up access to your hard disk
The user can use the Disk Defragmenter to rearrange files
and unused space on the hard disk so that programs run faster.
Disk Defragmenter can be started by clicking Start, pointing to
Programs, pointing to Accessories, pointing to System Tools, and
then clicking Disk Defragmenter.
Maintenance Wizard
Maintenance wizard helps in getting the best performance
from the computer system. Maintenance wizard makes programs
to run faster, checks hard disk for problems, and frees hard
disk space. By scheduling these utilities to run on a regular
basis, it can be ensured that the computer is performing at its
best. For example, by leaving a computer on overnight, it can
be scheduled to run them at a specified time each night, once
a week, or other intervals of user's choice.
Starting the Maintenance wizard.
Maintenance wizard can be started by clicking Start,
painting to Programs, pointing to Accessories, pointing
to System Tools, and then clicking Maintenance wizard.
The computer must be on during scheduled
maintenance tasks.
Windows 98 will attempt to wake up some computers
to run the scheduled Maintenance task. If the computer
supports Advanced Power Management (APM) 1.2 or
Advanced Configuration and Power Interface (ACPI)
the tasks will attempt to run when the computer is in
suspend mode.
Scandisk
This is another useful system tool to cneck floppy disk and
hard disk for problems. It checks the total disk space, errors on
the disk and reports to the user after completion of the scanning
of the disk for errors.
Entertainment
The entertainment applications include CD player, sound
recorder, Interactive CD Sampler and Windows media player.
The entertainment applications can be activated as follows:
Click start
Point to Programs
Point to Accessories
Point to Entertainment, and,
Click on the application to activate it
Internet Tools
These tools are Internet connection Wizard, NetMeeting,
Personal Web Server and Web Publishing Wizard.
Communications
The communications facilities include Dialup Networking
and Phone Dialer.
Drive Converter
Drive Converter (FAT32) is an improved version of the File
Allocation Table (FAT) that allows hard drives over two gigabytes
to be formatted as a single drive. Drive Converter uses smaller
clusters than FAT drives, resulting in more efficient space use.
Windows 98 includes a graphical Drive Converter conversion
utility, which quickly and safely converts a hard drive from the
original FAT to FAT32.
Introduction to Task Scheduler
By using Task Scheduler, a user can schedule tasks (such as
Disk Defragmenter) to .run at a time that is most convenient for
him/her. Task Scheduler starts each time Windows is started,

and runs in the background.
With Task Scheduler, it is possible to:
Schedule a task to run daily, weekly, monthly, or at
certain times (such as system startup).
Change the schedule for a task.
Stop a scheduled task.
Customize how a task runs at a scheduled.
E-mail
Windows 98 includes a mail icon that launches user's default
e-mail program. Outlook Express provides the user with secure
and p.ersona l ized features for e-mail and newsgroup
communications. To start Outlook Express, click Start, point to
Programs, point to Internet Explorer, and then click Outlook
Express.
Windows Explorer
Windows explorer is a tool for search ing and organlZlng
files and folders on any drive of the computer. It can be activated
by clicking 'Windows Explorer' in programs menu of the Start
Fig.5.l: Windows Explorer

button. Explorer can be used to open, close, move, delete,
rename or print a document. The Explorer displays file and folder
information in two parts. It displays drives and folders on the
left part and sub folders and files on the right part of the screen.
SUMMARY
MS Windows is a user friendly operating system software.
It is the most popular PC operating system software in the world.
Windows accessories are a bundle of utility programs. These
utilities are grouped under accessories in programs menu. These
accessories include Notepad, WordPad, Disk Defragmenter, Paint,
Calculator, Communications tools, Internet tools, Scandisk,
Entertainment tools CD player, sound recorder, etc.
QUESTIONS
1. What is Windows? Explain its features.
2. How do you install Windows operating system?
3. Explain the various Windows accessory utilities.
4. What is the use of Notepad in Windows?
5. Explain the process of creating and formatting a document
in WordPad.
6. What is 'Paint' in Windows? Explain its use.
7. Explain the working of clipboard? What are its uses in
information management?
8. What is the use of task scheduler?
REFERENCE
1. Microsoft Windows 98 SE online help.
CH
INTRODUCTION
Computer based problem solving requires coding of a
sequence of operations leading to a solution. The problem is to
be analysed to develop the logic for solving it. The program
design is represented by means of flowcharts, pseudo code,
structured English etc. and checked before being coded in a
programming language. Presentation to and discussion of the
program logic with other programmers lead to detection and
correction of logical errors.
When code is written up, it is checked for errors
(independent inspection). Usually the program is written in a
high level language and the language compiler detects syntax
errors. The program is modified and compiled again and again
until it is free from syntax errors. When the source code is
free of syntax errors, it is .due for test runs (called dry runs).
These test runs help in detecting logical errors.
Algorithm
Computer-based problem solving should proceed
systematically. There should be a step-by-step progression
towards a solution. The small steps or operations to be
performed are arranged in their natural order or sequence. This
sequence of instructions for solving a problem is called
algorithm. That is, algorithm represents the logic of processing.
Thus, algorithm is a sequence of precise and unambiguous
instructions for solving a problem in a finite number of
operations. If these operations are sequentially carried out, it
results in the desired output.
Developing an algorithm requires a high degree of
ingenuity. It specifies a sequence of operations in order to
achieve a goal. The sequence of instructions to be called
algorithm should possess the following characteristics:
i. Each and every instruction should be precise and
unambiguous.
ii. Each operation must be capable of being performed
in a finite time.
iii. No operation shall be repeated infinitely that prevents
termination of the algorithm.
iv. The algorithm should lead to the solution of the
problem.
The following is an example of algorithm to find the total
number of male and female employees in an organisation.
Step 1 Initialise the Total-males and Total-Females as zero
Step 2 Open the Employee file for input
Step 3 Start at the first record
Step 4 Read the record
Step 5 Check the sex field whether it is 'M' or 'F'
Step 6 If the sex is 'M' add 1 to Total-Males
Step 7 If the sex is 'F' add 1 to Total-Females
Step 8 IF file-end is not reached, go to Step 4
Step 9 Print Total-Males and Total -Females
Step 10 Stop
Techniques for Program Development
Program development is a laborious task requiring a great
lot of brain and skill. A lot of tools and techniques have been
developed to aid designing and programming work. Some of the
techniques employed for greater efficiency in program
development are:
Modular programming,
Structured programming, and,
Top down and bottom up design.
108 Program Development
Modular Programming
An effective approach to program development is to break
down a large problem into a series of smaller and more
understandable tasks. Modular programming employs systems
approach to programming. Large problem is divided into less
complex sub problems. The sub-problem is further divided into
small manageable problems. This refinement process is carried
out until the original problem, which is too complex, can be
directly solved. Thus when all the modules or sub-programs
written to solve sub-problems are integrated, it gives a master
program that solves the original problem.
The concept of modular programming is that all programs
should consist of a number of modules with little interaction
between them. Each module is made up of a group of
instructions. Each module should be performing one identifiable
function largely independent of other modules so that
modification can be done easily without affecting other modules.
Complex programs are difficult to design, code, test and
debug. To simplify the entire program development work,
modular programming divides a large program into a number of
small and simple modules. Since the modules are so designed
that they are independent of other modules, they can be coded,
tested and debugged by small groups of programmers separately.
Initially, general modules are designed, coded and tested. These
modules are than used by other modules. Modular programming
facilitates easy coding, testing and debugging of large and
complex program. It also helps in allotting program development
work among a number of programmers.
Thus the programmer may first develop a main program
that is used to outline the major segments that are needed to
solve a problem. The main program specifies the order in which
each subordinate module in the program will be processed. The
programming analysis stage continues until every module has
been reduced to the point that the programmer is confident
that a solution can be worked out at that level. All the modules
required for the main problem is integrated wfth the main or
control program and as and when required each module is
invoked to perform the task it is designed to carry out. An
instruction in the control program, such as CALL PROCEDURE
NAME, sends control to the module and loads those instructions

into memory and performs the specified task. After that the
module, if not required for processing immediately, is removed
from memory by giving a command like CANCEL PROCEDURE
NAME. The control then is passed to the next module depending
upon the sequence of processing tasks. Thus the modular
program design nests programs within programs, each module
or subroutine forming a small program.
Advantages of Modular Programming
i. Complex program becomes manageable and simple
when modular design is employed for programming.
ii. Program development is faster as programmers or
groups of programmers are simultaneously working
upon modules independently.
iii. Programming efficiency improves as a number of
standard modules developed into a library of modules
can be used in the program, obviating the need for
coding of such modules every time such routine is
required to be part of a program.
iv. Modular design helps in fast debugging as the errors
can be localised into the respective module and
corrected there itself.
v. Modular structure always carries more user-friendly
features and the users can use them effectively.
Structured Programming
Large programs are difficult to understand. Hence complex
programs are written using three logic structures: sequence,
selection and iteration. A sequence construct is a set of
instructions serially performed without any looping. A selection
construct involves branching within but the branches join before
the exit point. An iteration construct contains loops in it but
has only one exit point. If these constructs are used in
conjunction with other principles such as minimum coupling,
maximum binding and single entry and single exit, the result is
structured program.
Modular design and structured programming make program
development more understandable and quicker. The sub
problems or program segments are distributed among a few
programmers who write the codes for the sub problems
distributed to them. All of the programmers use standard
methods for coding. Coding and debugging are facilitated as
the program is properly segmented and errors can be localised.
Each module, which performs a given task after debugging, is
integrated with other modules to form a full program.
Programming work is faster and programmer productivity is
higher than unstructured programming. Structured programming
employs modular program design.
Advantages of structured programming
takes less time for programming
program is divided into functional modules; each
module performs one simple function and is easy to
understand,
each module can be coded and debugged
independently,
programming work can be shared by a number of
programmers, each working independently of others,
errors can be localised as the errors in one module
can be located and corrected before being integrated.
Disadvantages
Code duplications and subroutines slowdown execution
resulting in lower execution efficiency.
Several layers of modules in hierarchy can complicate
logic and debugging.
Basic Programming Structures
The basic programming structures include sequence,
selection and iteration.
(i) Sequence: Tfle normal flow of control is in the natural
ortler, that is from top to bottom, from left to tight unless there
is an intervening control structure (example a loop) that changes
the flow of control. Thus the first instruction in the program is
executed first, then control passes to the next instruction in
that sequence.
(ii) selection
Here a decision is required and the flow of control depends
on" the selection.
Selection constructs:
(a) If ... then
If condition
then
statement
If condition
then
statement(s)
b) If ... then ... else
If conditions
then
statement (i)
else
statement(s)
(c) If ... else ... if
If condition(1)
statement(1 )
else
if condition(2)
statement (2)
else
if condition (3)
statement (3).
(iii) Iteration
This construct allows repeated execution of a set of codes
without repeating codes in the program. It saves the trouble of
writing the same codes again and again in the program.
Loop Properties
1. Do ... while -Loop exit is pre-tested
-Loop exit when loop condition
evaluates false
While condition -loop "may be skipped
do
statements
enddo.
2. Repeat. ... until
Repeat ... -loop exit is post tested
-loop exit when loop condition
evaluates true
-must be executed at least once.
Until condition.
3. For... next
for i in range 1 to N -loop exit after a specific number
of iterations
do -loop exit when loop counter
exceeds the end-value
statements
enddo. -loop is pre-tested
-loop may be skipped
Example:
For i in range 1 to 5
accept name;
display name;
enddo.
These three iteration constructs or loop constructs execute
the statements given within the loop until certain condition is
satisfied. Loop represents a reversal in the program flow.
Loop Components
A loop has four components, such as:
i. loop initialisation. It is the preparation required
before entering a loop: setting accumulators and
counters.
ii. loop body. This represents the main process of the

loop.
iii. loop modification. Values calculated in the loop body
are rolled in to accumulators, and
iv. loop exit. A condition to check for exiting the loop.
Top-Down and Bottom-Up De~ign
In top-down approach, system design starts at the system

level. The first step is to develop a control program that outlines
and controls subprograms. The entire system work is divided
into a number of subtasks. Each subtask is performed by a
subprogram. The main control program is then tested for logical
correctness. Undefined subtasks are represented temporarily
by stubs (dummy subprograms). The stub is defined and replaced
by subprograms. Each such subprogram is tested and debugged
and integrated with other higher level programs. Top-down
design uses modular programming. Structured programming can
also be used with top-down approach to program development.
In bottom-up approach to development, programs are
developed first for specific tasks and they are integrated into a
complete system. This approach can be employed where the
precise processing steps are well defined at the task level. The
subprograms are integrated after all subprograms are developed.
Data Flow Diagram (DFD)
A DFD models a system and gives an overview of the system
as to what data flow into the system, how they are processed
and how the output data flow. It depicts the flow of data from
an external entity into a process which transforms the data
into output and transfers it to the other processes or entities or
files. Data from files may also flow into the process as input.
The DFDs are structured in such a way that each one can be
expanded into a number of DFDs that give finer details of the
processing and other operations within the system.
DFD is a graphical representation of the flow of data. It
presents the logical data flow in terms at' its source, processing
and storage in a sink. The process may require some data stored
elsewhere other than that originating from the source. Similarly
the process may require intermediate data store which is
required for subsequent processing.
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Fig. 6.1: Data Flow Diagram
Data Dictionary
Any computerised system will have a large number of data
types and large volume of data to be stored and accessed. Details
about these data types, data store etc. are stored in a data
dictionary for reference. A single data item may be referred to
by different names. Each data type must have a unique name
and other users should know aliases if they are used. For
example, inventory code may be labelled as I-code, inv-code,
invent-code, inventory-code etc. The data dictionary helps in
avoiding redundancy in data storage. It provides a complete
documentation of all elements of DFD namely data items, data
flows and data stores.
Data Type: data item/ data store/ data flow.
Data Name: name of data item/data store/data flow.
Data aliases: alternate names used for convenience by
multiple users.
Data Description: a short description of data, explained in
simple terms.
Data Characteristics: characteristics of each data type such .
as numeric or alphanumeric, and width.
A data store is characterised by its composition (set of
data terms) organisation sequential, indexed, random), etc. A
data flow is characterised by its origin, destination, etc.
Decision Table
A decision table is similar to a flowchart in construction
and use. It shows conditions and actions in a simplified and
orderly manner. By presenting logical alternatives under various
operating conditions, it enables a decision-maker to think
through a problem and present its solution in compact notation.
It permits a computer problem to be divided into logical
segments that provide multilevel structure in the problem
analysis. At the highest level, decision tables can be used for
an overall system by referring to lower level tables, resulting in
a modular approach. The purpose of a decision table is to
assemble and present complex decision logic in such a way as
to facilitate easy understanding of its meaning. This can be
used independently of, or as complementary to, the flowcharts.
Example: A company classifies its customers into class I,
class II, class III categories based on the amount due and duration
for which the amount was due. Class I if the period is less than
one month, class II if a customer owes Rs 25,000 or more for a
period not less than two months and if he owes less than Rs.
25,000 for more than three months, other customers are
categorised as class III.
Amount Less than Rs.25000 Y Y Y Y N N N N
Less than one month Y Y

Cundition Period 1-2 months Y Y
2-3 months Y Y
More than 3 months Y Y
One X X
Action Class Two X X X
Three X X X
Fig.6.2 Decision Table
Once a decision table is prepared, it is easy to code the

decision logic into program. Logical errors can be checked before
the program is fully developed.
Steps in Constructing a Decision Table
Define the problem to be solved
Identify the conditions to be checked in the problem
Identify the corresponding actions to be taken with

each condition or combination of conditions, and,
Tabulate the conditions and actions
Decision Tree
Decision tree is another way of representing program logic
especially when the number of alternatives is too many.
Combinations of conditions are represented along the branches
of a decision tree. The outcome of each combination of condition
is given at the end of the final branch.
Prionty treatment
No Priority treatment
Priority treatment
No
No Priority treatment
Legend
1. Customer for 10 years or more?
2. Transaction value more than Rs.100,000?
3. Transaction value more than Rs.500,000?
Fig. 6.3: Decision Tree
Pseudo code
Pseudo code is another analysis tool that helps in developing
and checking program logic. 'Pseudo' means false or imita.tion
and 'code' means program instructions. It describes the program
logic using English language and certain programming language
control words such as if ... then. It is in fact a description of
logic independent of any programming language. It lists in plain
English language the sequence of operations necessary to solve
a problem. Sentences are generally written line by line, each
line for one sentence, with proper indentation. For Pseudo
code rules of syntax are not strict. The purpose is to allow easy
readability and proper documentation. Pseudo code is not
language oriented and uses plain English for detailing the
sequence. The lines are properly intended for ease in reading
and understanding the sequence of operations. Iteration
constructs (repeat ... until and Do while ... Enddo statements), and
selection constructs (if .. then .. else and if .. else if .. statements)
are also used in detailing the processing.
Differences between Pseudo Code and Flowcharts
Pseudo code is self-explanatory since it is in plain English.
It does not require separate documentation. It uses a structure
similar to that of basic program. Whereas flowcharts tend to
extend in all directions and their paths of instructions do not
conform to the final basic code.
Advantages of Pseudo code over Flowchart
Less cumbersome and time consuming,
Easier to modify,
Easier to code directly from Pseudo code, and
Easily readable and understandable due to the use of
proper indentation and program structures.
Procedure for computer based problem solving
Computer-based problem solving proceeds systematically
from problem to solution. The steps in computer-based problem
solving can be identified as follows:
i. Define the problem and understand it thoroughly.
ii. Draw up a list of variables that are needed to solve
the problem.
iii. Design the layout of output format.
iv. Select the programming technique that is able to solve
the problem.
v. Code, test and debug the program.
vi. Use data validation procedure to guard against
processing of wrong data.
Example 1. Write a pseudo code for accepting two numbers
as input and to display the larger number.
DISPLAY "ENTER ANY TWO NUMBERS";
ACCEPT NUM-1, NUM-2;
IF NUM-1 > NUM-2 .
THEN
DISPLAY" THE LARGER NUMBER IS", NUM-1;
ELSE
DISPLAY" THE LARGER NUMBER IS", NUM-2;
ENDIF.
Example 2. Write a pseudo code to find the sum of first N
natural numbers and display the sum after accepting N from
the user.
DISPLAY" ENTER A NUMBER TO FIND SUM OF N NUMBERS";
ACCEPT N;
SUM = 0;
FOR I IN RANGE 1 TO N
DO
SUM <- SUM + I;
ENDDO;
DISPLAY" THE SUM OF", N, "NUMBERS IS", SUM.
Example3: Write a pseudo code for the following. A
wholesaler offers a trade discount of 3% on orders up to 5000
units and 5% on orders exceeding 5,000 units. Accept product
code, quantity and rate as input and display product code,
quantity, gross amount, trade discount and net amount as output.
DISPLAY "ENTER PRODUCT-CODE, QUANTITY, RATE";
ACCEPT PROD-CODE, PROD-QTY, PROD-RATE;
IF PROD-QTY <= 5000
THEN
DISCOUNT-RATE <- 0.03;
ELSE
DISCOUNT-RATE <- 0.05;
GROSS-AMOUNT <-PROD-QTY * PROD-RATE;
TRADE-DISCOUNT <- GROSS-AMOUNT * DISCOUNT-RATE;
NET-AMOUNT <- GROSS-AMOUNT- TRADE-DISCOUNT;
DISPLAY PROD-CODE, PROD-QTY, GROSS-AMOUNT,
TRADE-DISCOUNT, NET-AMOUNT.
Characteristics of a good programmer
A good programmer should have the following
characteristics.
(a) Technical skills. He should have adequate knowledge
of programming languages and practices.
(b) Communication skills. He should have good
communication skills as he has to interact with
analysts, designers and users.
(c) Patience and self-discipline. Program logic
development follows a step-by-step approach to
solution. The programmer should thoroughly check the
program logic several times to find better ways of
solving it.
(d) Balanced personality. A good programmer should
acknowledge his weaknesses and deficiencies and
should welcome constructive criticism from other
analysts, designers, programmers and users.
Characteristics of a good program
A good computer program should have the following
characteristics.
1. It should be correct. It should give the correct result
in terms of the algorithm being exercised.
2. It should be reliable. That is it should function properly
for a long time.
3. It should not break down when running, that is, it
should be robust.
4. It should be efficient in development.
5. It should be efficient in execution.
6. It should be easy to use.
7. It should be maintainable.
8. It should be testable.
9. It should be portable.
10. It should be unique. That is, in any situation it should
give one and only one result.
FLOWCHARTING
Program flowchart is a tool that aids program
development. Before writing a program, it is usual to draw
program flowchart to arrive at the correct program logic. A
flowchart is a diagrammatic representation of program logic.
Program logic refers to the order in which the computer executes
the statements in a program. It illustrates the sequence of
operations to be performed to arrive at a solution. The
operations are placed in boxes and arrows connect the boxes in
the order of execution. A structured flowchart is thus a diagram
that depicts an algorithm. Flowcharting is the process of
representing system's processes and sequences of operations
through charts.
The flowcharts simplify the reasoning process and present
the sequence of steps to the solution. Construction of flowchart
is a valuable exercise in arriving at the right logical solution of
a problem. Flowcharts are widely used to facilitate better
understanding of methods, processes or systems. The
construction of flowcharts is in conformity with human tendency
to read from left to right and top to bottom. A deviation from
this natural flow is allowed if it improves the presentation.
Kinds of Flowcharts
There are several types of flowcharts. The flowcharts most
often used in structured programming are (a) System flowchart
and (b) Program flowchart.
(a) System Flowchart
The system flowchart defines the broad processing in an
organisation showing origin of data, file structure, processing
to be performed, output to be generated and necessity of any
off-line operation. System analysts use it to describe the data
flow and operations for a data processing cycle. It depicts the
flow of data through all parts of a sy~tem with a minimum of
detail. Generally it shows the entry of input into the system,
how the input is processed and how it is passed out in the form
of output.
(b) Program Flowchart.
Programmers normally use it to represent pictorially the
sequence of operations to solve a problem. It is used to check
the program logic and perfect it. It plans the program structure
and serves the purpose of documentation of a program.
Advantages of Flowcharts
They are mostly used to help the programmers in developing
the program logic and also to serve as documentation for a
completed prograf!l. It also has several other advantages.
1. It is a convenient method of communication
2. It indicates very clearly just what is being done.
3. It is a key to correct programming
4. It is an important tool in planning and designing a
new system
5. It avoids many inconveniences that may arise in future
and serves the purpose of documentation for a system
6. It provides an overview of the system and also indicates
the relationship between the various steps.
7. It facilitates trouble shooting.
8. It promotes logical accuracy.
9. It makes sure that no logical path is left incomplete
without any action being taken.
Program Flowchart Symbols
a) Terminal symbol: This is used to indicate the beginning
or ending of a program.
b) Input I Output .Symbol: 1/0 symbol is used to denote
inputs into, or output from, the process.
c) Process symbol: This represents some processing of
data. There is one entry into the process box and one
exit out of it.
d) Decision symbol: This shows a decision situation.
There is one entry into the box and two or three exits
out of it. But good programming restricts exits to two.
e) Sub-routine Symbol: This denotes that a separate
module is designed to handle a task. It helps in
simplifying a complex program by giving an overall
idea of the program logic.
f) Flow line symbol: This shows the direction of flow of
program. This symbol connects all other symbols.
g) Connector symbol: This is used to avoid loops criss-
crossing each other on a program chart.
C_____) Terminal (Start, Stop)
Input/Output
L--/___7
Process
0 Decision
Sub-routine
II
04
~
" Flow line
Connector
0
F;g.6.4: Flowchart symbols
Flowcharting: Examples
1. Draw a flowchart to find and print the largest of the
three distinct numbers X, Y and Z.
( START)
+
No
Fig. 6.5: Flowchart to find the largest of three numbers.

2. Draw a flowchart to print each 2-digit even number

and its square.
(Hint: Two digit even numbers: 10, 12, 14 ... 98).
START
N=98? 7>---'1 N=N+2
~
~
Fig.6.6: Flowchart. to print each two-digit even number
and its square.
,.
Program Development
3. Draw a flowchart to print factorial of N numbers.
INPUTN
FACT=l
C=2
FACT=FACT xC
C=C+l
PRINT FACT
STOP
Fig. 6.7: Flowchart to print factorial of N.

4. Draw a flowchart to add N terms of the series: 5 = 1 +
4 + 9 + 16 + ... and display the sum.
( START)
INPUTN
SUM=Q
A=l
SUM=SUM+(A x A)
A=A+l
PRINT SUM
STOP
LPRINTSUM 7
Fjg.6.8: Flowchart to add and djsplay N terms of the
series s= 1+4+9 ....
COMPILING
Programming is done in a high level language. Computer
dOs not understand high level language. Therefore, the high
level program (source code) must be converted into machine
language program (opbject code). Compiling is the process of

converting source code into object code. Each programming
language has a compiler for this conversion. The compiler also
checks the program for syntax errors. The syntax errors detected
are displayed for correction. After correcting each error, the
compiling is repeated until all the errors are corrected. Once
the source code is translated into object code, it has to be
combined with other programs for input and output operations
etc. The object program may further be linked to some routine
programs to make it an executable program. The program is
now ready for execution as and when needed.
DEBUGGING
Debugging is the process of removing errors from a program.
The program may have various types of errors. If a program has
any error, it cannot produce the desired output. Hence, all errors
must be detected and removed. A program may have three types
of errors.
TYPES OF ERRORS
Syntax errors
Each programming language has a character set and certain
rules for programming. For example, each language has certain
rules for combining characters into words, for variable types
and names etc. If these rules are violated, they result in syntax
errors. Syntax errors can be detected at the time of compiling.
Logical errors
This type of errors occurs due to error in processing data.
For example, to find the value of a purchase by a customer, the
program must find the product of the unit price and the number
of units purchased by the CJstomer. If the program finds the
sum of these two numbers, it results in logical error.
Run-time errors
These errors occur only when the program is executed. So,
they are called run-time errors. For example, a program may try
to open a file which is not created. Since it needs that file for
input or output operation, the program cannot complete its
execution.
PROGRAM TESTING
Program may have errors. Testing is the process of checking
the program for errors. Testing starts once the programmers
finish coding work. The test is done in three stages: unit testing,
integration testing and system testing. These will be followed
by acceptance testing.
Unit Testing
Large programs are divided into a number of modules for fast
coding and testing. A module is part of a large program. Many such
parts make up a single program. Each module is then assigned to a
programmer or a group of programmers. So, many teams of
programmers work on different modules of the program. Once a
module is fully coded by a team, it starts testing the module.
Module level testing is called unit testing. Each module is tested
for errors according to a pre-decided test plan. The errors in each
module are detected and corrected at the unit test stage.
Integration testing
This test is done step by step by integrating one module
with another module. It starts with a root module. It is combined
with its subordinate module and tested for accuracy. Then, more
modules are added one by one and tested. Each time any error
detected is corrected. This process is continued until all modules
are connected together and all errors are removed. This kind of
testing helps in localising errors and correcting them quickly.
System Testing
The procedure of integration testing is followed in system
testing. Here modules and programs are tested a number of
times for errors. At this stage, instead of modules, programs
are integrated into system. Errors are located and corrected as
integration progresses. This process is continued till the software
system does not throw up any error s.
Acceptance Testing
Acceptance testing is the last stage of testing. It is done
with real transaction data at the user's site. This may be done
in two stages- alpha and beta. Alpha testing is done with
simulated data. Beta testing is done by the user with live data.
Acceptance testing means whether the user is satisfied with
the software. If the software meets his needs, he accepts it by
signing off on the system. The sign off is the end of software
development and installation.
SUMMARY
Program development requires a thorough understanding of the
problem to be solved. For better understanding and development of
sound program logic, a number of aids have been developed.
Flowcharts, pseudo code, decision table, decision tree and data flow
diagrams facilitate the problem solving and program design. Flowcharts
are aids to human understanding of complex phenomena and they
are frequently used by information systems people as aids in systems
design. Structured programming helps in improving programmer
productivity and quicker development of applications.
QUESTIONS
1. What is structured programming? What are the programming
constructs used in structured programming?
2. Explain any two iteration constructs.
3. What is DFD?
4. What is DD? What is its role in systems development?
5. What is decision tree?
6. What is pseudo code? How is it different from program
flowchart?
7. What are the characteristics of a good programmer?
8. What are the characteristics of good program?
9. What is flo'.Nchart? What are the kinds of flowchart?
10. What is system flowchart?
11. What is program flowchart?
12. What are the symbols used in program flowchart?
13. What are the advantages of flowchart?
14. Draw up a flowcharl to accept any twa numbers and display
their product.
15. Draw a flowchart to find and display the largest of any
three numbers.
16. Draw a flow chart to find and print the sum of the series
1,5,9, ... ,n.
17. "Flowcharting is a programming aid". Justify the statement.
CH
INTRODUCTION
Word processing is one of the most popular applications of
computer. It is used for creating and manipulating text
documents. Word processing on computer significantly reduced
the labour involved in document creation, communication and
. management. Basically, a word processor does all that a
typewriter does. But the similarity ends there. With a word
processor, documents are electronically produced, stored or
communicated. If a hard copy output of the document is needed,
the printer connected to the computer generates it.
Word processing means the process of manipulation of text
using computers. It includes entering, editing, formatting and
manipulation of text on a computer screen and printing of the
processed text. The text is saved on the computer as a file for
future use. It avoids retyping to correct an error or omission.
The document can be modified easily without retyping the whole
text. Document templates can be designed and stored for future
use. It saves lot of labour. Documents can be combined, and
blocks of text can be moved back and forth. Automatic spelling
check, grammar check, insertion of images from other files etc.
are some other useful features of word processors.
Features of Word Processing
Word processing software makes document generation and
management veryfficient. The currently available word processing
software has a large number of features that take the drudgery
130 Word Processing
out of the traditional document creation and manipulation. Some

of the important features of word processing software are:
It permits printing selected text
It allows to change font and size of fonts
It allows to adjust page size and margins
Facility to right justify, left justify and justify selected
text within the document
Adjustable line spacing and character spacing
Layered indentation facility
Facility to add bulletins and numbers to lines or
paragraphs etc.
Facility to move text within the document
Facility to define headers and footers in a document
Creating multiple column documents
Indexing a document
Preparing table of contents
Facility to check spelling and grammar
Choosing most appropriate word using bUilt-in
thesaurus
Word processors are highly flexible. Text is entered using a
keyboard into the electronic document. The text typed in is
displayed on the screen as it is typed. The user can format the
text easily. Font formatting, paragraph formatting, page setting,
page numbering, insertion of symbols, images etc. are some of
the other important features of word processors.
Advantages of Word Processing
1. Word processing software produces error-free
documents. Word proce-:sing software like MS Word marks out
errors by underlining the word having error in red ink. If it is
grammatical error, such error is marked in green. The user can
correct the error. MS Word has. facility to automatically correct
errors . It helps the user in producing error free documents.
2. It avoids retyping documents. If there are errors, the
errors can be corrected without retyping the whole document.
The user can see the document on the screen and manipulate
the text until satisfied without retyping the whole document as
is required in the case of typewritten documents .
Computer Fundam entals 131
3. It permits in printing multiple copies of the document.
Once a document is created, any number of copies can be printed
out of it. If the document is printed on dot matrix printer,
multiple copies can be produced in just one printing.
4. It permits in checking spelling and grammar
automatically. Word processing software checks spelling of words
with a built-in dictionary. It allows the user to add new words
to the dictionary. The software checks spelling and grammar of
the document as the user types in the text. It also suggests a
list of words in place of the words wrongly spelt. Similarly it
suggests grammatically correct sentences for the user to select
and insert.
5. It helps in choosing the most appropriate word in a
context. If the user does not get the right word to be used in a
sentence, he can invoke the built in thesaurus. The thesaurus
suggests synonyms for the user to select to replace the word
typed in.
6. Facility to generate beautifully formatted documents.
The word processing software provides lot of formatting features
like page set up facility, headers and footers, font formatting,
numbering and bulletins etc.
7. Word processing software provides facility to choose
right fonts and format them. It normally contains a large number
of font types for the user to choose from. After choosing the
right font, the font size can be changed, its fore colour and
back colour can be changed, it can be subscripted,
superscripted, etc. It also offers numerous special characters
to be inserted into the text.
8. Another advantage of word processing is mail merge
facility. It helps in personalising mail if the user sends documents
to a large number of people frequently. It saves a lot of labour
by avoiding retyping the name and address of the recipients
every time the document is sent to them. The address of the
people is entered in a document called the data document, and
the text in another document. The word processor merges these
documents and produces personalised letters.
9. Word processing software permits producing documents
in different quality of printing. The printer'options permits in
printing draft, near letter quality etc. on dot matrix printers and
economy, normal and fine quality in inkjet printers etc.
132 Word Processing
10. New word processing software like MS Word has

additional facilities such as inserting objects from other files
and linking of documents through hypertext.
MS WORD FOR WINDOWS

MS word is a word processing software developed by Microsoft
Corporation, USA. MS Word is the most popular word processing
software in the world today. It comes bundled with MS ACCESS, MS
EXCEL, MS POWERPOINT etc. in Microsoft Office. It runs on Windows
operating system. Word runs on Mac operating system also.
Starting MS Word
MS Word can be started from the Desktop by double clicking
on the Word icon. It can also be started by clicking on START button
and choosing Word from the programs listed by Windows. The uses
of Word range from simple tasks like lTIail correspondence to
specialised tasks like Desk Top Publishing (DTP). In addition to
menus and short cuts, Word includes toolbars which allow quick
formatting etc. Word also includes a number of letter templates
and style gallery in addition to Wizards.
Fig. 7.1: Opening Screen of Word

PARTS OF A WORD WINDOW
The parts of the MS Word Window include menu bar,
formatting toolbar, scroll bars, document window and status
area. These are explained below.
Menu Bar
Normally, menu bar is displayed on the top of the screen.
To invoke any task the user must point and click on -the task in
drop-down menu.
For example, if a file is to be printed, click 'Print' on 'File'
menu. Word will display the print dialog box. Just enter the
required parameters and press 'OK' to print document.
Toolbars
Word contains over a dozen toolbars. By default, only two
toolbars are displayed: standard and formatting toolbars. The
user can choose the appropriate toolbar depending upon the
task on hand. The tools can be displayed by clicking 'Toolbars'
on 'View' menu. Microsoft Word 2000 displays 16 toolbars
followed by customize option. These toolbars are:
Standard
Formatting
AutoText
Clipboard
Control toolbox
Frames
Picture
Reviewing
Tables and Borders
Visual Basic
Web
Web tools
WordArt
Customize
The toolbar contains buttons, drop-down menus and other
controls for formatting text etc.
134 Word Processing
Ruler
Ruler sets margins and indents. It also permits changing
margins and indents of paragraphs. To turn the ruler off, click
'Ruler' on 'View' menu. Word stops displaying the Ruler on the
screen. To restore it, click 'Ruler' again on View menu.
Status Bar
The Status Bar dis'plays the status information at the bottom
of the document. Word turns off the status bar if 'Full View'
option is chosen from the 'View' menu.
Creating a New Document in Word 2000
When Word is invoked, it automatically opens a document
in an edit window and gives it the name 'Document 1'. The user
can straight away type text into it. As the user types on, Word
automatically aligns the text and wraps text to the next line by
using word wrap feature. The user need not press 'enter key'
unless a new paragraph is to be started.
The paragraph indent and margin can be reset by changing
ruler settings. Instead of using space bar or tab key, alignment
buttons can be clicked to align text left, right and centre. If a
table is needed to enter any data, it can be inserted from table
menu. Line spacing, alignment and indentation can be changed
by changing default settings in the 'Paragraph' dialogue box
that Word opens up on clicking 'Paragraph' on 'Format' menu.
Word displays all these tools on the toolbar.
Saving a Document
Once the typing is over, the user can save the document by
clicking 'Save' on the toolbar or choosing 'Save As' option from
'File' menu. Word opens a 'Save As' dialogue box. Choose the
folder for saving the file and enter name for the file. Word
displays the first line of the document as the name in the file
name box. If the user wants a different file name, he can type
the file name and click 'Save' button.
Editing a Document
If a document is created, it can be easily edited in Microsoft
Word. Editing may require, copying, pasting, moving, inserting,
deleting and replacing text. The user may want to change header
or footer to make the document more presentable. For editing,
often the user may want to select characters, words, lines of
text and images. There are shortcuts to make selection of text,
movement within a document etc. quicker. For instance, double
click a word to select it. Similarly, click a line keeping the control
key down (Ctrl+click the line) to select a line.
Selection of Text
The text and graphics in Word can be selected using mouse,
keyboard short-cut etc.
(a) Selecting text and graphics by using the mouse
To select Do this
Any amount of text Drag over the text.
A word Double-click the word.
A graphic Click the graphic.
A line of text Move the pointer to the left of the line until it
changes to a right-pointing arrow, and then click.
Multiple lines of text Move the pointer to the left of the lines until it
changes to a right-pointing arrow, and then drag up
or down.
A sentence Hold down CTRL, and then click anywhere in the

sentence.
A paragraph Move the pointer to the left of the paragraph until

it changes to a right-pointing arrow, and then
double-click. Or triple-click anywhere in the
paragraph.
Multiple paragraphs Move the pointer to the left of the paragraphs until
it changes to a right-pointing arrow, and then
double-click and drag up or down_
A large block of text Click at the start of the selection, scroll to the end
of the selection, and then hold down SHIFT and click.
An entire document Move the pointer to the left of any document text
until it changes to a right-pointing arrow, and then
triple-click.
(b) Selecting text and graphics by keyboard short-cuts

Select text by holding down SHIFT and pressing the key
that moves the insertion point.
136 Word Processing
Press To extend a selection
SHIFT +RIGHT ARROW One character to the right
SHIFT +LEFT ARROW One character to the left
CTRL+SHIFT +RIGHT ARROW To the end of a word
CTRL+SHIFT +LEFT ARROW To the beginning of a word
SHIFT+END To the end of a line
SHIFT+HOME To the beginning of a line
SHIFT+DOWN ARROW One line down
SHIfT +UP ARROW One line up
CTRL+SHIFT +DOWN ARROW To the end of a paragraph
CTRL+SHIFT+UP ARROW To the beginning of a paragraph
SHIFT +PAGE DOWN One screen down
SHIFT+PAGE UP One screen up
CTRL+SHIFT +HOME To the beginning of a document
CTRL+SHIFT+END To the end of a document
ALT+CTRL+SHIFT+PAGE DOWN To the end of a window
CTRL+A To include the entire document
CTRL+SHIFT +F8, and then To a vertical block of text

use the arrow keys;
press ESC to cancel
selection mode
F8+arrow keys; press ESC To a specific location in a document

to cancel selection mode
(c) Select text and graphics in a table

Press To
TAB Select the next cell's contents
SHIFT+TAB Select the preceding cell's contents
Hold down SHIFT and press Extend a selection to adjacent cells

an arrow key repeatedly
Click in the column's top Select a column

or bottom cell. Hold down
SHIFT and press the
UP ARROW or DOWN
ARROW key repeatedly
CTRL+SHIFT+F8, and then Extend a selection (or block)

use the arrow keys;
press ESC to cancel
selection mode
SHIFT+F8 Reduce the selection size
ALT +5 on the numeric

keypad(with NUM LOCK off) Select an entire table
It is also possible to select rows, columns, or the entire

table by clicking in the table and then using the Select commands
on the Table menu.
Paragraph Selection
Position the cursor anywhere in the document and click
the mouse three times in succession. Word selects the entire
paragraph and displays it in reverse video. A paragraph can also
be selected by double clicking on the selection bar at the
beginning of the paragraph. The selection bar is the invisible
strip that runs vertically down on the left extreme edge of the
document window.
Selection of Graphics and Objects
Click anywhere in the graphic or object to select it. Word
will display border of the object usually with handles. The
handles are small black boxes.
Undo
MS Word tracks changes made to a document. If the user
wants to undo some changes made to the document, he can use
the undo feature. It can be invoked either from the Edit menu
or from the standard toolbar. It removes the latest change to
the document. If the undo feature is invoked repeatedly, it
removes changes made to the document one after the other
starting from the latest change, then the previous one and so
on.
Redo
If the user wants to reverse the changes undone, Word
provides Redo option for it. The last change made to the
document before the Undo option was invoked will be restored.
If the user clicks the Redo button again the previously undone
change will be restored.
138 Word Processing
FORMATTING TEXT
There are several ways of formatting text in Word. They
include toolbars, menus and keyboard short cuts.
Aligning Text
The first align button from the left, aligns text left. The
second button centres text, the third button aligns text right
and the last one makes the selected text fully justified.
Underlining, Boldfacing and Italicizing Text
To format with toolbar, select the text and then point and
click on the appropriate icon on formatting toolbar. Word will
change the style of the text depending upon the icon clicked. If
B is clicked, it makes the selected text boldfaced. If I is clicked,
it italicises the selected text. If U is clicked, it underlines the
selected text. For example, to print ttle word" Microsoft" in
bold face and italicised, choose the text "Microsoft' and then
click on B and I in the formatting toolbar.
Automatic Bullets and Numbering
Text can be easily bulleted and numbered by clicking
'Bullets and Numbering' on Format menu. To add bullets and
numbering, the procedure is as follows:
Select the items to add bullets or numbers.
On the formatting toolbar, click bullets to add bullets or
click 'numbering' to add numbers.
To create a bulleted or numbered list automatically as the
user types, type 1. or * (asterisk), press SPACEBAR or TAB, and
then type any text. When the user presses Enter key to add the
next list item, Word automatically inserts the next number or
bullet. To finish the list, press Enter key twice. It can also be
done by pressing BACKSPACE to delete the last bullet or number
in the list.
Copying and Moving - Using Cut, copy, and Paste
Text or objects can be copied or moved from one place in
the document to another easily by cutting and copying the text
or object and pasting it to the appropriate place or places in
the document. Steps for cutting and pasting text in a document
are:
Computer Fundamentals 1 39
1. Select the text
2. Click 'cut' on ' Edit' menu or use cut butfon on the
toolbar. It can also be done by the keyboard shortcut Ctr+X.
3. Move the cursor to the place where the text is to be
moved or copied.
4. Paste the text by choosing Paste from Edit menu or
clicking Paste button . It can also be done by the keyboard
shortcut Ctrl+V.
cuning cq>ying the text or object to the clipboard and posting from the clipboard to
appropriate place or places in the document. Step; for cutting and pasting text m a documel11:
1. "rmtttJtt;'
Choose cutfrmn Edit meoo or use cll! button on the toolbar. It can also be done by the uy,oanl
shortcll! Ctr+X. MS Word moves the selected text to the clipboanl.
2 Move the CUISor to the place where the text is to be moved or copied.
3. Paste the text bychoosing Poste from EdJ! morru or clicking on Paste bu!ton It can also be
do"" by the keyboard shortcll! Ctrl+V .
F~ and Repw ing Text in Won! Document

Choose Find from Edit menu
Type the text to search and locate In the 'Find What' box,
Click on '~,~~e' tob and type the text to "'place the located text
ng.7.2: Formatting too/bar
Finding and Replacing Text in Word Document

To find and replace any text, the procedure is as follows:
Choose Find from Edit menu
Type the text to search and locate in the ' Find What' box,
Click on 'Replace' tab and type the text to replace the
located text
Click 'Find Next'
Word will replace th 0 fi rst word located with the other
word if 'Replace' option ( 'e ked.
140 Word Processing
If the 'Replace All' option is clicked Word will replace the

word at all the places it appears in the document with the
word to replace it.
Fig. 7.3: Find and Replace
Changing Text Formatting with AutoFormat

When AutoFormat runs, it scans the document and identifies
headings, auto numbering and bulletin lists etc. AutoFormat
checks the document and suggests changes. The user can accept
or reject such changes. After suggesting change, it allows the
user to review those changes one by one.
Steps to run AutoFormat:
First, save a copy of the file the user wants to
AutoFormat
Click 'AutoFormat' on the 'Format' menu
Specify whether user wants to AutoFormat plain
document, a letter, or an email message. The
formatting applied is slightly different in each case.
Click 'OK' to run it
AutoFormat gives an option of reviewing the changes

with a choice to the user to accept or reject the
changes.
AutoFormat also provides access to the styles gallery
that permits changing of document styles.
Fig. 7.4 AutoFormat
Checking Spelling and Grammar

Word has a spell checker that it shares with other
applications in MS Office. It includes a custom dictionary. It
also has facility to check grammar. Word provides several ways
for checking spelling and grammar of text.
Automatic checking of spelling and grammar
Word can automatically check spelling and grammar. For
automatically checking spelling and grammar the AutoCorrect
feature must be used that appears in dialogue box when the
spellchecker is run.
Automatically checking spelling and grammar as the user types
Word has an automatic spelling and grammar checking
facility that checks for spelling and grammar mistakes. As the
142 Word Processing
user types in the text Word automatically checks spelling and

grammar and marks the errors with wavy underlines.
Similarly, Word has many more features like checking.
spelling and grammar all at once, checking the spelling and
grammar of text in another language etc.
Fjg. 7.5 : Spell checkjng and grammar
MS Word also contains a grammar checker. It suggests

changing passive voice into active voice, cutti ng long .sentences
into short sentences, subject-verb disagreement etc.
Thesaurus
MS Word has a thesaurus that supplies synonym or antonym
for words. Thesaurus helps ir,enriching the text by choosing
the most appropriate words for each context.
To look up words in the thesaurus the steps are:
Select or type a word for which you want to find a
synonym, an antonym, or related words.
On the Tools menu, point to Language, and then click
Thesaurus.
Select the options you want.
If the thesaurus command is not displayed on the Language

submenu, it must be installed on the computer.
Protection of Document with Password
MS Word provides an option to protect document with
password. Once a Word document is password protected, it
cannot be opened without typing in the password to open it.
Steps to protect document with password are:
Click 'Save as' on 'File' menu.
Click 'Tools'
Choose 'General Options'
Word displays a message box with many options. Click the
text box for entering 'Password to open' and type a password.
Click 'OK' button.
Now close the file and try to open it again; Word will prompt
the user to enter password to open it. If the right password is
not entered into it, Word will not open the document.
Creating Headers and Footers
Every page of Word document has header and footer. If the
user does not put anything in headers and footers they remain
invisible. MS Word reserves space for headers and footers; but
it does not print them if the user does not put header and footer
into the space reserved for them.
Steps to create a header
Click 'Header and Footer' on View menu. Word displays
print layout view and displays the header and footer toolbar. It
also turns the body text into grey and highlights the header
area of the page.
Enter the matter to be displayed in the header. If footer is
to be used, click the 'Switch Between Header.and Footer' button
toolbar. Word displays the footer area and allows text, graphic
etc. to be entered therein. Click the close button on the Header
and Footer toolbar to return to the document window.
If the print preview button on the toolbar is clicked now,
MS Word will display the body text with header and footer.
144 Word Processing
_ ti~oC!~( __________________________ __ _ _ _ __ _ ________________ ,
,:1 ''
~--------------------------- - -------
".V,)HJj X--:~}~:;.n>
. --
.>~,>\\"';
- -- ----------------- :
Header and Footer
Fig. 7.6: Inserting header and footer
Adding a Table to a Document

Table can be inserted into a document. To insert a table,
do the following:
Move cursor to the place where the table is to be created
and click there.
Click 'Insert' on Table menu and click Table. Word displays
an Insert Table dialog box as shown in Fig. 7.7.
Click on the AutoFormat button to choose from the pre-
designed table formats of Word.
Otherwise, enter the number of columns and rows
required.
Click 'OK'. Word wil l insert a table with the specified
number of columns and rows . Use table properties to format
the table.
Create a letter with Letter Wizard
MS Word has a letter Wizard facility that helps in writing
letters quickly and easily. The wizard provides frequently used
letter elements - such as salutations and closings - that can
be selected from lists. The wizard also helps in structuring letters
based on frequently used letter styles.
Computer Fu ndamentals 145
Fig. 7.7: Inserting table
If the Office Assistant is installed on the computer, follow

the steps below to write a letter with the Letter Wizard. If the
Office Assistant is not installed, the Letter Wizard can be started
by clicking 'New' on the File menu, clicking the 'Letters & Faxes'
tab, and then double-clicking' Letter Wizard'.
1. Type a salutation that starts with the word "Dear,"
followed by a name and a colon or comma - such as 'Dear Manu,'
or 'Dear Sir:' - and then press Enter key.
2. In the Office Assistant, click 'Get help with writing
the letter'. .
3. Follow the instructions in the Letter Wizard. To skip a
step or gCi to a specific panel, click one of the tabs.
For Help,on an option, click the question mark (?) and then
click the option.
To use the Letter Wizard to modify or complete an existing
letter, open the letter in Word, and then click 'Letter Wizard'
on the 'Tools' menu.
146 Wo rd Processing
Fig. 7.8: Letter Wizard
Printing a Document in Word

To print one copy of the current document, click print
button on the toolbar. Word will print one copy of the document.
If the're is only one printer this is convenient. If there are two
or more printers installed, click 'Print' on the 'File' menu to
choose a printe," other than the default printer or specify the
type of print (like multiple copies, fine print or coarse print)
etc. It opens up a Print dialogue box for the user to set printer
properties, number of copies, pages to be printed etc. It is
better to preview the document before a print out of the
document is created.
Print Preview
The print preview allows the user to get a bird's eye view
of the document. The user can see how the document will appear
on paper without actually printing it. Single page or multiple
pages can be seen in print preview mode on the screen. Word
2000 can display as many as sixty pages in print preview mode.
This feature is extremely useful if the user wants to check the
layout of the document like where titles , graphics, tables, page
Computer Fundamen tal s 147
numbers etc. are given. It is also possib le to edit the text, change
margi ns and move objects on the print preview screen .
.._.. _.._-----_.-
_-_._ .. _.
-_....
--- _._- _
___ '1_'_.
... __..._-
...
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . . . .l J _
........
_ _ _ ' - 11 _ _ _ _ _ _ _
--_..- ---_.._._.
::---::=-.:--=::.:.:.:.~:-.::=
....... _ .. _a __ _
MI _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . _
.. ._.'.1..._____ ...I_..
==-.:'':'~:=.'=:l:-=:::=--:.!~
:::-.:::...=:.:=Wf-:..~--
.'._
.... _-_ .. _
..._..............-.....
..
~_.n_._._.I_._
-_
1_ _ _ 1 _ _ _ _ _ _
--._--_- ...._._-_
__._-
. ....
::==!.-:.-:':--:.-:=,!!:~:~:
.-
:~'=~":':'=.'==.::a=-=:~-:,=:
::.:::: ............
==:~=~-::=
_
..:::.::.-:.-::
1_. ___...-
_ . _ _ _ 11 _ _ _ _ _
--______
_1 ____ -.'_'--'_
_'''__'''l1li_'_----_.
_ _ ...... _ 1_
~=..:.==.:a=---.--.
:-.:::===.:-
!==--=
Fig. 7.9 Print preview
Background Printing
Word allows the user to work on document and print a
document in the background. Word uses Windows background
printing facility for it. The computer may get a little slower
when background printing is on. The user can turn off the
background printing, if needed. The steps to turn off this feature
are:
Click 'Option' on the 'Tools' menu
Click on print tab
Click the box for background printing again to clear the
box
To restore this feature, repeat the above ste~s.
Merge Printing
Merge printing is a facility in Word to print personalized
form letters. This can be used to print personalized letters when
the text of the letter to be sent to many persons is more or less
148 Word Processing
the same. The letter is personalized by inserting name and

address etc. of the persons in the letter when printed. Mail
Merge uses two files for merge printing. The first document file
is called the main document and it stores text. A database file
is opened to read name, address etc. of each person into the
main letter. In addition to form letters, Word's mail merge
capabilities can be used to send customized email messages or
faxes to a large number of persons.
Fig. 7.10: Mail merge helper
Word's Mail Merge Helper contains extensive support for

mail merge.
Steps in Merge printing
Create the static part of the form letter
Choose 'Mail Merge' from Tools menu
Follow the steps in the Mail Merge helper to set main
document and attach a data source.
Use the mail merge toolbar to insert merge fielc~ into
the form letter
Merge the form letters into a file and save the new
merged file. Check the new merged file to know
whether merging is properly done. If it is right, print
the merged file to generate the letters.
Let us illustrate the use of Mail Merge to send call letters
to 30 candidates short-listed for interview. Let us first type the
letter as follows:
DOTCOM SOLUTIONS LIMITED
II Floor, K. K. Chambers , East Andheri , Mumbai
EMAIL: dsl@vsnl.com Website: www.dotcomsol.com
Date : June 20 , 2006.
Dear
Sub: Interview for the post of Asst.Manager.

Ref: Your application for the post.
You have been short listed for personal i nterview for the post mentioned above .
You are therefore requested to report at 9 am in our office at the above address
on July 15 , 2006 . You will be paid second-class train fare from your city to
Mumbai and back. Please confirm your attending the interview by email or a
letter before July 10, 2006.
Thank you .
Yours faithfully,
For Dotcom Solutions Limited
Umesh Rao,
Senior Manager, HR .
Now create a data source with the name and address of

these 30 candidates. Create data source option from 'Get Data'
of the dialogue box which can be used to create a database for
merge printing. Suppose the thirty candidates' names and
addresses are entered one by one as in fig. 7.11:
Word displays 'Insert Merge Field' just above the document
window on the left. Click on the box and choose the field to be
inserted there like Name first, House Name second, and so on.
150 Wo rd Processing
Fig. 7.11: Data form
DOTGQM SOLUTIONS LIMITED

II Floor. KK . CMmb.". Eas t ~!t!~
EMAIL: ds!@Y>nJ.com K~ www.dotcomsol.com
Date: JLrle 20, 2006
Fig. 7.12: Inserting merge fields

Finally click on Merge in the Mail Merge Helper dialogue
box to create the merged document. The first form letter of
the merged document will appear as follows:
DOTCOM SOLUTIONS LIMITED
II Floor, K. K. Chambers, East Andheri, Mumbai
EMAIL: dsl@vsnl.com Website: www.dotcomsol.com
Date: June 20, 2006.

Ajay,
Ajay Villa,
Tilak Nagar,
Hyderabad,
Andhra Pradesh,
500044.
Dear Ajay,
Sub: Interview for the post of Asst.Manager.
Ref: Your application for the post.
You have been short listed for personal interview for the post mentioned above.
You are therefore requested to report at 9 am in our office at the above address
on July 15, 2006. You will be paid secondclass train fare from your city to
Mumbai and back. Please confirm your attending the interview by email or a
letter before July 10, 2006.
Thank you.
Yours faithfully,
For Dotcom Solutions Limited
Umesh Rao,
Senior Manager, HR.
Graphics
There are two basic types of graphics available in Microsoft
Word for enriching documents: drawing objects and pictures.
Drawing objects include AutoShapes, curves, lines, and WordArt
drawing objects. These objects are part of Word document. Use
the Drawing toolbar to change and enhance these objects with
colors, patterns, borders, and other effects.
Pictures are graphics that were created from another file.
They include bitmaps, scanned pictures and photographs, and
clip art. The user can change and enhance pictures by using the
options on the Picture toolbar and a limited number of options
on the Drawing tool bar.
152 Word Processing
Word also contains decorative text. Use Insert WordArt on

the Drawing toolbar to enhance the text features. You can create
shadowed, skewed, rotated, and stretched text, as well as text
that has been fitted to predefined shapes. Because a special
text effect is a drawing object, you can also use other buttons
on the Drawing toolbar to change the effect - for example, to
fill a text effect with a picture. .
You can add callouts, labels, and other text to your graphics
by using text boxes. After you have inserted a text box, you can
use the options on the Drawing toolbar to enhance it as you
would for any other drawing object. Or you can add text to an
AutoShape and use the AutoShape as a text box.
There are two types of pictures: pictures that cannot be
ungrouped - such as most imported pictures, and pictures that
can be ungrouped"- such as metafiles from the Clip Gallery.
After you ungroup a picture, you can convert it to a drawing
object, and then edit it by using options on the Drawing tool bar .
Microsoft Word comes with its own set of pictures in the
Clip Gallery. Most clip art is in metafile format, which means
you must ungroup an image and convert it to a drawing object
in order to enhance it. The Clip Gallery includes a wide variety
of clip art that makes it easy for you to enhance your documents
with professionally designed images.
Temp.late
Every Microsoft Word document is based on a document
template. A template determines the basic structure for a
document and contains document settings such as AutoText
entries, fonts, key assignments, macros, menus, page layout,
special formatting, and styles. The two basic types of templates
are global templates and document templates. Global templates,
including the Normal template, contain settings that are
available to all documents. Doc~ment templates, such as the
memo or fax templates in the New dialog box, contain settings
that are available only to documents based on that template.
For example, if you create a memo using the memo template,
the memo can use the settings from both the memo template
as well as the settings in any global template.
Create a document template
1. Do one of the following:
To base a new template on an existing document, click
Open on the File menu, and then open the document you want.
To base a new template on an existing template, click New
on the File menu. Click a template that is similar to the one
you want to create, click Template under Create New, and then
click OK.
2. On the File menu, click Save As.
3. In the Save as type box, click Document Template.
This file type will already be selected if you are saving a file
that you created as a template.
4. The default folder is the Templates folder in the Save
in box. To save the template so that it will appear on a tab
other than General, switch to the corresponding subfolder within
the Templates folder.
5. In the File name box, type a name. for the new
template, and then click Save.
6. In the new template, add the text and graphics you
want to appear in all new documents that you base on the
template, and delete any items you donnot want to appear.
7. Make the changes you want to the margin settings,
page size and orientation, styles, and other formats.
8. Click Save, and then click Close on the File menu.
Using wizards and templates
You can use several wizards and templates to save time
creating many common types of documents, such as legal
pleadings, memos, letters, faxes, reports, theses, directories,
newsletters, manuals, brochures, calendars, Web pages,
agendas, resumes, purchase orders, and invoices.
When you first install Word on your computer, the Setup
program makes many wizards and templates available. If you
click Install Now, some of these wizards and templates are
installed directly on your computer. Others are loaded by the
Windows installer the first time you try to use them. For
example, when you double-click the template or wizard in the
New dialog box, Word immediately creates a new document if
the template or wizard is located directly on your computer. If
154 Word Processing
it is not on your computer, the installer loads it, and then Word
creates the document.
If you click Customize instead of Install Now when you
first run the Setup program, additional templates and wizards
are available for you to select and install.
To make all Word templates and wizards available on your
computer, run the Setup program again and select More
Templates and Macros (expand Microsoft Word, and then
expand Wizards and Templates).
Mailing labels
You can use the Envelopes and Labels command to print
the same address on a single label, or on an entire sheet of
labels. You can also use this feature to create other types of
labels and cards, such as file folder labels, name badges,
business cards, rotary cards, and postcards. After you create
the labels, you can print them right away. Or you can save the
labels in a new document for later editing and printing.
Using Table in Word
A table is made up of rows and columns of cells that you
can fill with text and graphics. Tables are often used to organize
and present information, but they have a variety of other uses
as well. You can use tables to align numbers in columns, and
then sort and perform calculations on them. You can also use
tables to create interesting page layouts and arrange text and
graphics.
Creating new tables
You_can quickly create a simple table by using the Insert
Table command, or you can use the Draw Table tool to quickly
create a more complex table - for example, one that contains
cells of different heights or a varying number of columns per
row. Using Draw Table is similar to drawing a rectangle on graph
paper - first, draw a line from one corner of the table to the
corner diagonally opposite in order to define the boundary of
the entire table, and then draw the column and row lines inside.
Format painter
Format painter helps in copying a format from a paragraph
to another in a document or in any other document. To copy
character formatting, select the text that has the formatting
you want to copy. On the Standard toolbar, click Format Painter,
and then select the paragraph or text you want to apply the
formatting.
SUMMARY
Word processing is one of the most popular applications of
personal computer. Computer-based word processing
significantly improves efficiency of office workers involved in
document creation, communication and management. With a
word processor, documents are electronically produced and
stored. It minimizes the wastage in creating error-free
documents as the document is generated only after all
corrections and modifications are done on the screen.
MS Word is the most popular word processing software
available today. It has enormous features for creating, editing,
format~ing and printing documents. Any kind of document
management work starting from simple documents to desk top
publishing work can be done in MS Word.
QUESTIONS
1. What is word processing? What are the advantages of
computer -based word processing?
2. What are the features of word processing software?
3. Explain the advantages of word processing software.
4. Describe the process of creating a document in MS Word.
5. What is scrolling? How do you use it in MS Word?
6. What are the text formatting facilities available in Word?
7. How do you insert a table into a Word document?
8. How do you insert header and footer in a word document?
9. Explain the use of AutoFormat feature of Word?
10. Explain the parts of a Word window
11. Explain how a document is printed in Word.
12. What is merge printing? Explain how it is done in MS Word?
CH ER
INTRODUCTION
Electronic spreadsheet stores information in the memory
of computer, performs data manipulation and displays results
quickly. Spreadsheet software can be saved, moved or printed.
The spreadsheet serves the needs of a wide range of computer
users. Spreadsheet applications include preparation of reports,
payrolls, bills, income statements, budgets, loan analysis,
investment analysis, inventory control and production analysis.
There are many spreadsl1eet packages, and of them Microsoft
Excel is the most popular one.
Microsoft Excel 2000 comes in a software suite called
Microsoft Office 2000. MS Office contains five most popular and
powerful windows applications. They are Access, Word, Excel,
PowerPoint and Outlook. Access is a relational database
application, Word is a word processor, Excel is electronic
spreadsheet, PowerPoint is presentation application and Mail is
electronic communication software. Microsoft Office permits
data in one of the applications to be copied, inserted or imported
to any of. the other applications in the package.
Advantages of Spreadsheet
calculation can be done easily and quickly
it produces accurate results
data in a worksheet can be displayed and manipulated.
data can be converted into graph
the entire worksheet or part of it can be printed.
facilitates carrying out 'what if' analysis
the data in a worksheet can be transferred to other
programs easily.
Microsoft Excel 2000
Microsoft Excel is a powerful spreadsheet application. It is
very easy to learn and use just like any other Windows-based
application from Microsoft Corporation. The spreadsheet has
integrated three components: worksheet, graph and database
into it. It is possible to enter data into the worksheet, perform
calculations and generate graphs and charts. Excel also permits
creation and management of database.
Microsoft Excel is a Windows product and uses almost the
same Windows features as Microsoft Word. The menus and tool
bars are almost the same. They also permit transfer of files
between applications.
Excel's basic file format is a workbook. Each workbook can
hold many worksheets. Excel workbook contains three blank
worksheets by default. An index tab at the bottom of the
worksheet identifies each worksheet as sheet 1, sheet 2 etc.
Excel worksheet data, charts and graphs can be easily
transferred to MS PowerPoint and MS Word.
Worksheets are made up of cells arrayed in columns and
rows. The rows are identified by numbers 1,2, ... and the columns
by letters like A, B, ... Each cell has a unique address made up
of the column and row labels like A1, B5 etc.
Parts of a Worksheet
Microsoft Excel follows most of the Windows conventions.
The Windows 'look and feel' is seen in Excel as well. Excel
worksheet contains toolbars, menu bar, status area, formatting
toolbar and control boxes.
Rows and Columns
The worksheet is made up of rows and columns. By default
Excel displays nine columns and eighteen rows. Each worksheet
contains 256 columns and 65 .536 rows. Each column is labeled
as A, B, C and so on. Each row is numbered 1, 2, 3 and so on.
158 Microsoft Excel
Fig. 8.1 Excel Workbook
Cell, Active Cell and cell address

The area formed by the intersection of row and column is
called a cell. Each cell is uniquely addressed by the column
label and the row number such as A1 , A2 , B1, B2 and so on. The
cell with the cell pointer is called active cell. By default A1 is
the active cell when Excel workbook is opened.
Range
A cell range consists of one or more cells. It is a rectangular
area in the worksheet formed of one or more cells. It can include
a number of columns and rows . But, they must form a rectangle
to be valid for any range operation in Excel. Range is defined
by specifying the first and the last cell in the range like B5:F10,
which includes 30 cells .
Features of Excel
Like Word, Excel has rich features that enable it to be
used for a variety of purposes like investment analysis,
accounting applications, statistical analysis, scientific
calculations, model building etc. Some of the major features of
Excel are discussed below.
Automatic number formatting
If the user enters a "%" sign into a cell like "28%", Excel
recognizes that, and cells in that column are formatted as the
user enters data into the column.
Automatic summation
If the Excel summation tool bar on the toolbar menu is
clicked after entering certain numbers in a column, Excel
automatically outlines the column of numbers and displays a
summation equation for the range of numbers.
Fig. 8.2 Automatic summation
It saves a lot of time for the user if numerous calculations

are to be done on the data.
160 Microsoft Excel
Automatic worksheet formatting

Excel's AutoFormat contains sample formats. The user can
select the desired format from it 'If a format is selected, Excel
applies the format to the entire worksheet.
Built-in spelling checking
Excel has a built-in spell checker to check the spelling of
words entered on a worksheet.
Tip wizard
Excel's Tip wizard displays a variety of tips and techniques
based on the type of work the user is doing with the worksheet.
Shortcut menus
If the right mouse button is clicked, Excel displays shortcut
menu. When working on the worksheet, Excel displays
appropriate commands when the right mouse button is clicked.
The shortcut menu is extremely useful to the Excel user.
Function Wizard
The Function Wizard helps the user in complex formula
creation. It leads the user through the steps required to use
the built-in functions in Excel. For example, if a user wants to
find the monthly equated installment for a loan, he can use
Excel's function, PMTO. To run the function, click on the function
button (fx) on the toolbar. Excel's Function Wizard opens up a
dialogue box to fill values of the variables with comments about
the data to be entered.
Toolbars
Excel has a variety of toolbars. The user can choose any of
them by clicking 'Toolbars' on the 'View' menu. The toolbars
include standard, formatting, drawing, database, external data,
forms, picture and pivot table. The users can also design tool bars
of their choice and moddy them in Excel.
Intelligent AutoFiII
Intelligent AutoFill can be used to fill row and column labels
when formatting wo~ksheets.
Chart Wizard
Chart Wizard helps in drawing and formatting charts. It
contains numerous chart types. User can choose any type and
apply it in chart creation.
Fig. 8.3 :Use of Funct;on Wizard
Scenario manager
The Scenario Manager helps in performing 'what if' analysis
in Excel. For example, if the finance manager wants to know
the effect of price changes on profitability of products, he can
use Scenario Manager and provide the data to it to generate
the information.
Presentation features
Excel's slide show feature can be used for presentations.
The slide show can contain worksheets, charts, graphics and
sound.
Macros
A macro is a series of commands and functions that are
stored in a Visual Basic module and can be run anytime the user
wants to perform that task. When a macro is created, Excel
stores information about each step done to perform a series of
commands. The macro can be run to repeat the tasks whenever
needed, For instance, if a macro is developed to format text
,entered in a format, then that macro can be run to format- text
entered in any other cell. Macros save a lot of time and effort.
162 Microsoft Excel
MANAGING WORKBOOKS IN EXCEL
Creating A New Workbook In Microsoft Excel

Excel opens a workbook when it is invoked and names it
Book 1 by default. To create a new workbook click New on the
Workbook menu. To create a new, blank workbook, click the
General tab , and then double-click the Workbook icon.
Opening an existing Workbook
To open an existing workbook, click open on the Workbook
menu. Excel displays a 'Look in' list. In the Look in list, click
the drive, folder, or location that contains the workbook the
user wants to open, and then locate and double-click the folder
that contains the workbook.
Saving a workbook
Click 'Save' on the toolbar or click 'Save as' on File menu
to save a workbook. When a workbook is to be saved for the
first time, Excel asks for a workbook name and the location to
store the workbook. Each time changes are made to the
workbook, Excel updates the workbook with the latest changes.
Saving workbooks automatically while working
Excel can be set to save documents automatically. To turn
on the 'AutoSave' option, click 'AutoSave' on the 'Tools' menu.
If the AutoSave command is not on the 'Tools' menu, it must be
installed first. Select the' Automatic save every' check box. In
the 'Minutes' box, the user must enter how often Microsoft Excel
should save workbooks. The user can select any other options
listed if desired.
Saving a workbook for use in another program
If the user saves a Microsoft Excel 2000 workbook in a
different workbook forma .. , formats and features unique to Excel
2000 will be lost. If the user wants the Workbook to retain Excel
features and formats, he must open the workbook he wants to
save for use in another program. Then, choose 'Save As' option
from the 'Workbook' menu and type the new name of the
workbook in the 'Workbook name' box. In the 'Save as type'
list, the user must select a workbook format that can be opened
in the other program. Then, save the workbook by clicking
'Save' .
Closing a workbook
Open Excel workbook can be closed by clicking 'Close' on
the File menu. To close all open workbooks without exiting the
program, hold down SHIFT and click 'Close All' on the Workbook
menu.
Copying a workbook
An Excel workbook can be copied from one folder to another
by the following steps. In the 'Look in' box, click the drive or
folder list that contains the workbook to be copied. In the folder
list, double-click folder that contains the workbook to be copied.
Right-click the workbook to be copied, and then click 'Copy' on
the shortcut menu. A copy of the workbook is copied to the
clipboard.
Now, click the drive or folder to which the workbook is to
be copied. Right-click in the folder list (make sure a workbook
is not selected), and then click 'Paste' on the shortcut menu.
The workbook is copied from clipboard to the folder selected.
Deleting a workbook
An Excel workbook can be deleted as follows:
Click 'Open' on the Workbook menu.
In the 'Look in' box, click the drive or folder that contains
the workbook to be deleted.
In the folder list, double-click the folder that contains the
workbook to be deleted.
Right-click the workbook to be deleted, and then click
'Delete' on the shortcut menu.
To delete multiple adjacent workbooks at one time, click
the name of the first workbook in the sequence, hold down
SHIFT and click the name of the last workbook, and then press
DELETE. To delete nonadjacent workbooks, click t~e name of
one workbook, hold down CTRL and click the name of each
additional workbook, and then press DELETE. If a workbook is
wrongly selected, hold down CTRL and click the workbook name
again. It gets de-selected.
Moving a workbook
An Excel workbook can be moved from one location to
another by the following steps.
164 Microsoft Excel
'Click' Open
the workbook to be moved.
In the folder list, double-click folders until the folder that
contains the workbook opens. If the workbook is not found, it
can be found by the 'search' feature.
If the workbook is not found in the folder list, the user can
search for it.
Right-click the workbook to be moved, and then click 'Cut'
on the shortcut menu.
In the 'Look in' box, click the drive or folder to which the
workbook is to be moved.
In the folder list, double-click folder to open it, into which
the workbook is to be moved.
Right-click in the folder list (make sure a workbook is not
selected), and then click 'Paste' on the shortcut menu. The
'Paste' command is not available if a workbook is selected in
the foldef iist.
Renaming a workbook
A workbcok can be renamed by the following procedure.
Click 'Open' on File menu
the workbook to be renamed.
In the folder list, double-click the folder that contains the
workbook to be renamed. The folder is open now and displays
the workbooks.
Right-click the workbook to be renamed, and then click
'Rename' on the shortcut menu.
Type the new name, and then press ENTER.
An open workbook cannot be renamed. To rename it, close
it first and do the above steps.
Entering numbers, text, a date, or a time in the worksheet
Click the cell where the data date is to be entered. Type
the date and press ENTER or TAB. Use a slash or a hyphen to
separate the parts of a date; for example, type 1/5/2006 or 5-
January-2006.
To enter a time based on the 12-hour clock, type a space

and then 'a' or 'p' after the time; for example, 9:00 p.
Otherwise, Microsoft Excel enters the time as AM.
To fill in rows of data in a list, enter data in a cell in the
first column, and then press TAB to move to the next cell. At
the end of the row, press ENTER to move to the beginning of
the next row. If the cell at the beginning of the next row does
not become active, click 'Options' on the 'Tools' menu, and
then click the 'Edit' tab. Under 'Settings', select the 'Move
selection after Enter' check box, and then click 'Down' in the
'Direction' box.
Keyboard Shortcuts:
To enter today's date, press CTRL+; (semicolon).
To enter the current time, press CTRL +SHIFT +:
Entering the same data into several cells at once
If the user wants to enter the same data into several cells
in the worksheet, it can be done as follows:
Select the cells where data are to be entered. The cells
can be adjacent or nonadjacent.
Type the data and press CTRL +ENTER.
Copying data within a row or column
Copying of data within a row or column can be done as
follows:
Select the cells that contain the data to be copied. Drag
the fill handle across the cells to be filled, and then release
the mouse button. Excel replaces the existing values or formulae
in the cells by the data copied. Excel also copies the formatting
of the cells copied.
If values such as numbers or dates are incremented through
the selected range instead of copied, select the original values
again and hold down CTRL as the fill handle is dragged to copy.
Filling in a series of numbers, dates, or other items
Select the first cell in the range to be filled, and then
enter the starting value for the series.
To increment the series by a specified amount, select the
next cell in the range and enter the next item in the series. The
166 Microsoft Excel
difference between the two starting items determines the

amount by which the series is incremented.
Select the cell or cells that contain the starting values.
Now, drag the fill handle over the range to be filled.
To fill in increasing order, drag down or to the right.
To fill in decreasing order, drag up or to the left.
To specify the type of series, use the right mouse button
to drag the fill handle over the range, and then click the
appropriate command on the shortcut menu. For example, if
the starting value is the date JAN-2006, click 'Fill Months' for
the series FEB-2006, MAR-2006, and so on; or click 'Fill Years'
for the series JAN-2006, JAN-2007, and so on.
Moving and scrolling through a worksheet
To move between cells on a w0rksheet, click any cell or
use the arrow keys. The cell clicked becomes the active cell. To
see a different area of the worksheet, use the scroll bars. One
row up or down, the user can click the arrows in the vertical
scroll bar. To move one column left or right, the arrows in the
horizontal scroll bar can be clicked. For moving one window up
or down, click above or below the scroll box in the vertical
scroll bar. To move one window left or right, click to the left or
right of the scroll box in the horizontal scroll bar. Drag the
scroll box to the approximate relative position to move quickly
up or down in a large workbook. In a very large worksheet, hold
down SHIFT while dragging.
The size of a scroll box indicates the proportional amount
of the used area of the sheet that is visible in the window. The
position of a scroll box indicates the relative location of the
visible area within the worksheet.
SELECTING TEXT, CELLS, RANGES, ROWS, AND

COLUMNS
It is possible to select cells or a range of cells and copy or
move text, data and images between them.
Selection of Nonadjacent cells or cell ranges
Select the first cell or range of cells, and then hold down
CTRL and select the other cells or ranges. To select a large
range of cells, click the first cell in the range, and then hold
down SHIFT and click the last cell in the range.
Selection of adjacent rows or columns
Drag across the row or column headings. Or select the first
row or column; then hold down SHIFT and select the last row or
column.
Selection of Nonadjacent rows or columns
It may be needed to select nonadjacent rows and columns
in a worksheet. To select them follow the procedure below:
Select the first row or column, and then hold down CTRL
and select the other rows or columns.
If the user wants to select more or fewer cells than the
active selection, it can be done by holding down SHIFT and
clicking the last cell to be included in the new selection. The
rectangular range between the active cell and the cell clicked
now becomes the new selection.
Moving from one worksheet to another sheet in a workbook
The workbook has three worksheets by default. More
worksheets can be inserted. The user may want to move form
worksheet to worksheet in a workbook. This can be done by
clicking on the sheet tab for the other sheet.
If there are many worksheets, click the tab scrolling buttons
to display all the tabs, and then click the tab of the required
sheet. That worksheet becomes the active worksheet.
Editing cell contents
The data entered in a cell can be edited. The steps are:
Double-click the cell that contains the data to be edited.
Make any changes to the cell contents.
Press ENTER key to effect the changes to the cell.
To cancel the changes, press ESC.
To turn editing directly in cells on or off, click 'Options' on
the 'Tools' menu, click the 'Edit' tab, and then select or clear
the 'Edit directly in cell' check box.
To quickly add to the end of cell contents, select the cell
and press F2.
168 Microsoft Excel
It is also possible to edit any formula entered on a
worksheet.
Clearing or deleting cells, rows, or columns
When certain cells are deleted, Microsoft Excel removes
them from the worksheet and shifts the surrounding cells to fill
the space. When cells are cleared, Excel removes the cell
contents (formulae and data), formats (including number
formats, conditional formats, and borders), or comments, but
it leaves the blank cells on the worksheet.
Steps in clearing contents, formats, or comments from cells
are:
Select the cells, rows, or columns to be clea, ed.
On the 'Edit' menu, point to 'Clear', and then click
'All', 'Contents', 'Formats', or 'Comments'.
If any cell is clicked and the DELETE or BACKSPACE key is
pressed, Microsoft Excel removes the cell contents but does
not remove any comments or cell formats.
If you clear a cell, Microsoft Excel removes the contents,
formats, comments, or all three from a cel.f. The value of a
cleared cell is 0 (zero), and a formula that refers to that cell
will receive a value of O.
Built-in number formats
Excel contains many built-in bulletin formats. To see a
complete list of these formats, click 'Cells' on the 'Format'
menu, and then click the 'Number' tab. The formats appear in
categories on the left, including accounting, date, time,
fraction, scientific, and text. The 'Special' category includes
formats for postal codes and phone numbers. Options for each
category appear to the right of the 'Category' list.
To display numbers as a percentage of 100, include the
percent sign (%) in the number format. For example, a number
such as .08 appears as 8%; 2.8 appears as 280%.
Entering Text and Data in Worksheet
Let us take an example to illustrate how to use Worksheet.
Enter the following information in the worksheet.
Sales 30,00,000
Variable cost 18,00,000
Fixed Expenses 7,00,000
Using the above information we can find contribution,
profit-volume ratio, break-even point and margin of safety.
Let us enter the data in the worksheet, Move the cell
pointer to the cell A1. By default, Excel positions the cell pointer
in A1. If A1 is not the active cell, press Home (CTRL + HOME) to
1\
move to A1. Type 'Sales' and press enter key (Down arrow can
also be used to move down by one row). The cell pointer moves
into A2. Type 'Variable cost' and press Enter key. Again the cell
pointer moves down by one cell into A3. Type 'Fixed Expenses'
and press Enter key.
Now, click cell 'B1', type '3000000' into the cell and press
Enter key. The cell pointer moves down into B2. Type '1800000'
in B2 and press Enter key again. The cell pointer moves into B3
now. Type '700000' and press Enter key. The data is on the
worksheet now.
Fig. 8.4: Entering text and numeric data in Excel

170 Microsoft Excel
Click in cell A5, type 'Contribution' and press Enter key

Type 'Profit/Volume Ratio' and press Enter key.
Type 'Break -even Point Sales' and press Enter key.
Type' Profit' and press Enter key.
Type 'Margin of Safety'.
To find-contribution, click in cell B5 and type the formula.
Excel will calculate the result of any formula and insert the .
result in the cell where the formula is entered. It will not display
the formula. The formula typed in B5 is shown in D5. Text and
formula may look alike. To differentiate the formula from text,
start the formula with a '+' or '=' sign. In the formula always
use cell address. This will help Excel in recalculating results
automatically whenever changes are made in the cell values.
The arithmetic symbols used in Excel are:
+ for addition
- for subtraction
for multiplication
I for division
1\ for exponentiation
The + and - signs can also be used to indicate the sign of
the number, that is, whether a number is positive or negative.
Let us now use some formula for calculating the above.
Contribution=Sales - Variable costs
To calculate contribution, we need to subtract Variable
costs from Sales. Sales figure is entered in cell B1 and variable
costs in B2. The value of contribution is to be placed in B5.
Hence, click in B5 and type the formula as =B 1-B2. Excel
subtracts the value of cell B2 (1800000) from the value i"n
B1 (3000000) and places the result (1200000) in cell B5 (where
the formula is entered).
Next, we need to find Profit-Volume Ratio and put the value
in B6. For that the formula is:
Profit-Volume Ratio = (Contribution/Sales) x 100
The value of contribution is in cell B5 and that of sales in
B1.
Now, click B6, type the formula as: = (85/81 )*100 and press
Enter key.
Excel inserts 40 in cell B6 .

. Next, let us find the sales at Break-even point level. The
formula for this is:
Break-even Point Sales = (Fixed Expenses / Profit-Volume
Ratio) x100
The value of fixed expenses is in cell B3 and that of Profit-
Volume Ratio in cell B6.
Now click cell B7, type the formula as =(B3/B6)*100 and
press Enter key.
Excel calculates the value (1750000) and inserts the value
in cell B7.
Next, let us find Profit. The formula for finding profit is:
Profit := Contribution - Fixed Expense's
The value of Contribution is in cell B5 and the amount of
fixed expenses in cell B3.
key.
-
Click in cell B8, type the formula =B5-B3 and press Enter
Excel enters the result (500000) in cell B8.

Margin of Safety is calculated either by subtracting Break-
even Point Sales from Sales or by dividing Profit by Profit-Volume
Ratio.
Let us use the second method to find Margin of Safety,
that is,
Margin of safety = Profit/Profit-Volume Ratio.
Now click cell B9, type the formula =(B8/B6)*100 and press
Enter key.
Excel inserts the result (1250000) in B9.
To understand how formula is entered in the worksheet,
the formulae entererl in cell range B5:B9 are shown in the range
D5:D9 without using '=' sign.
Now try changing the amount of sales figure or variable
costs or fixed expenses in the worksheet cells. Excel recalculates
the results and displays them instantly.
For example, change the amount of sales to Rs.40,00,000
and variable costs to Rs.30,00,000. Observe the changes.
172 Microsoft Excel
Fig. 8.5 Using Worksheet for Calculations
It is possible to change the sheet tabs in a Workbook. To

change the name of sheet tab from sheet1 to BEP, the steps are
as follows:
Double click the sheet tab 'Sheet1'. (Sheet1 tab gets
selected now).
Type the new name as BEP and press Enter key
Excel displays the new name BEP and the other sheets
display their original names.
Formatting Text
Let us insert a row for entering labels for columns as
'Particulars' and 'Amount' ,
To insert a row at the top of the worksheet click anywhere
in row1 and click 'Row' on 'Insert' Menu. Excel pushes down
the text and numbers already entered and inserts a blank row
there.
Now, click in A1, type 'Particulars' and press right arrow
on the keyboard. Cell pointer moves to B1. Type 'Amount' in B1
and press Enter key. To make the labels boldface, select them
by clicking in left margin of the first row and click B on
formatting tool bar. The worksheet now appears as follows.
1000000
....: 25
2800000 .
300000
1200000 .
Fig.8.6: Inserting rows in a worksheet and formatting text

To centre the labels in the cell, choose the labels and click
on 'Centre' icon on the formatting toolbar.
To give the worksheet a title, click 'Header and Footer' on
'View' Menu. Excel displays the Page Setup dialogue box as
follows.
Click Custom Header. Excel opens another Header dialogue
box. Type in the centre section as follows :
DOTCOM SOLUTIONS LIMITED, press Enter key.
BREAK EVEN ANALYSIS.
Click OK on Header dialogue box.
Click OK on Page Setup dialogue box.
The worksheet is ready for printing now.
But before printing let us now take a print preview of the
worksheet. Click the print preview tool on the standard toolbar.
It is possible to change the margins of the worksheet in print
preview. Click 'Margins' and pull left margin to the right a bit
174 Microsoft Excel
Fig. 8.7: Page Setup dialogue box for inserting a Header

in a Worksheet
to centre the text in the print preview. The worksheet is

displayed as follows in print preview.
To know how the printout will be like, click the print
preview button on the formatting toolbar.
Close the print preview by clicking 'Close'. Let us now save
the workbook. Click 'Save as' on 'File' menu. Excel opens a
'Save in' dialogue box. S.elect the folder for saving the workbook,
type the workbook name 'BEP-Analysis' in the file name box
and click 'Save'. Excel adds file extension .XLS by default to
the workbook.
Printing the Worksheet
To print a worksheet, open the workbook containing the
worksheet. Click the sheet tab of the worksheet to be printed.
Click 'Print' on 'File' menu
Excel displays the Print dialogue box. Excel allows printing '
a range selected, active worksheet or the entire workbook. It is
also possible to print a range of pages in Excel.
Fig. 8.8: Print Preview
Creating Charts in Excel

Chart helps by converting numeric data into visual displays.
Once the numbers are converted into charts and graphs, it is
easy to identify the trends and patterns in the data at a glance.
Excel's ChartWizard helps in generating charts and graphs
quickly in just four steps. All that a user needs to do is to enter
data into the worksheet, and click on Chart Wizard. After that,
Chart Wizard guides the user in making and formatting charts
and graphs. The user can choose from dozens of chart types in
Excel. Let us enter some data into the worksheet first.
Month Net Sales Total Cost Profit

(Rs. Lakhs) (Rs.Lakhs) (Rs.Lakhs)
Jan 2006 22 18 4
Feb 2006 24 19 5
Mar 2006 32 24 8
April 2006 26 23 3
May 2006 30 24 6
June 2006 34 25 9
176 Microsoft Excel
Select the data entered in the worksheet including the

labels and click on the Chart Wizard on the toolbar. Chart Wizard
displays a dialogue box as follows.
Fig. 8.9: Using Chart Wizard
The user can select the type of chart from the Chart Wizard,
(by default the column type is selected), and click 'Next'. Chart
Wizard displays the data range selected and the chart formed.
Click 'Next' if the data selected is right (otherwise, select the
data area including labels by mouse click). Now, Chart Wizard
asks the user to specify the location for creating it: either as an
object in the same worksheet or as a new sheet. If the user
wants it in the same sheet, he can click 'Finish'. Now the chart
created can be formatted. For instance, the legend can be
placed on the right top corner of the chart area, the data labels
can be formatted to accommodate long data labels etc. The
chart created is displayed in Fig. 8.10.
FUNCTIONS IN EXCEL
A function is a predefined formula in Excel. It performs
calculation by using specific values, called arguments, in a
particular order, or structure. For example, the SUM function
F;g. 8.10: Creat;ng a Chart
adds values or ranges of cells, and the PMT function calculates

the loan payments based on an interest rate, the length of the
loan, and the principal amount of the loan.
Using the AutoSum tool
Excel provides an AutoSum tool for finding totals . To use
this simple tool, select the numbers you want to add and just
click the AutoSum tool (L) on the toolbar. Let us choose the
numbers in Net Sales column in the worksheet and click AutoSum.
Just press Enter key. Excel places the total of the cells
selected in B8.
Mathematical Functions
Excel provides a number of Mathematical functions . The
use of some of these Mathematical functions is illustrated below.
SUM Function
The sum function calculates the sum of values.
For example, if you click cell E4 and type=SUM(12, 34,40),
it calculates the sum of these numbers and displays the sum of
these numbers (86) in E4.
178 Microsoft Excel
Sales Total CosfProfit

?f ~ r 18 .... ..
24
:l . 19
: 24 32
... ~6 ~ : . 23 3
May-02: 30 : 24 6
J~n-02I~ __ ~_~~25 m + 9
, _=SUM- . .
,
.................... : ......................; ....................... .................... ,..... .
. .........+... _.................L.
. .
..~ -.-- f-- ~.~- ---;.-~- ~--.~~
Fig. 8.11 Using AutoSum
If we type =SUM(B2: B7) in B8, Excel calculates the sum of

the values in cells B2, B3, B4, B5, B6 and B7. It displays the sum
of the values in the range B1 to B7 in cell B8 as 168.
ABS Function
This function calculates absolute value of a number. For
example, if we type ABS(-26.89) in cell E5, Excel displays 26.89
in E5. Thus Excel converts a negative number into a positive
number by this function .
INT Function
This function rounds off numbers down to the nearest
integer. For example, if we type INT(26.89) in E6, Excel displays
26 in E6. If we type INT(-26.89), Excel returns -27.
COUNT Function
This function counts the number of items in a group of
cells. The syntax is:
=COUNT(Value1, Value2, ... ).
For example, if we type =COUNT(B2:B7) in Cell B8, Excel
counts the items in the B2:B7 and displays 6 in B8.
ROUND Function
This function can be used to round off numbers. Rounding
changes the number of decimal places.
For example, if we type =ROUND(26.889,2) in B9, Excel
rounds off the number to two decimal places and displays 26.89
in B9. On the other hand, if we type =ROUND(26.889, 1) in B9, it
rounds off the number to one decimal place and displays 26.9
in B9.
EXP Function
This function returns "e' raised to the power of a given
number (en). For example, if we type =EXP(2), Excel displays
7.389056.
LOG Function
This function calculates the natural logarithm of the
number. If we type =LOG(26.89) in B10, Excel displays 1.429591
in B10.
Financial Functions
Some of the commonly used financial functions in Excel
are explained below.
NPER Function
This function calculates the number of periods required to
pay back a loan. It returns the number of periods for an
investment based on periodic, constant payments and a constant
interest rate.
Syntax
NPER(rate, pmt, pv, fv, type)
Rate is the interest rate per period.
Pmt is the payment made each period; it cannot change
over the life of the annuity. Typkally, pmt contains principal
and interest but no other fees or taxes.
Pv is the present value, or the lump-sum amount that a
series of future payments is worth right now.
Fv is the future value, or a cash balance after the last
payment is made. If fv is omitted, it is assumed to be 0 (the
future value of a loan, for example, is 0).
180 Microsoft Excel

Type is the number or 1 and indicates when payment is
due. If payment is made at the beginning of the period , type 1.
If payment is made at the end of the period, then type
omit this entry. Let us take an example. A customer approaches
or
a Bank for a car loan of Rs. 200000. The bank charges @12%
interest per annum on car loan. The customer is willing to repay
the loan @ RsAOOO at the end of each month. NPER(0.01/12, -
4000,200000,0,0) returns 69 .66. That is, approximately 70
months.
Fig .8.12 Using NPER Function
PMT Function
This function calculates the payment for a loan based on
constant payments and a constant interest rate.
Syntax
PMT(rate,nper, pv, fv, type)
Rate is the interest rate for the loan.
Nper is the total number of payments for the loan.
Pv is the present value, or the total amount that a series
of future payments is worth now; also known as the principal.
Fv is the future value, or a cash balance after the last

payment is made. If fv is omitted, it is assumed to be 0 (zero),
that is, the future value of a loan is O.
Type is the number 0 (zero) or 1 and indicates when
payments are due. Same as in the case of NPER.
Fig.B.13 Using PMT Function
The monthly installments for a loan of Rs.200,000 @12%

per annum (1% per month) for 60 installments is Rs.4448.89.
The payment returned by PMT includes principal and
interest but no taxes, reserve payments, or fees sometimes
associated with loans. Make sure that the interest rate (rate)
and number of periods (nper) are consistent. If monthly
payments are made on a five year loan at an annual interest
rate of 12 percent, use 12%/12 for rate, that is 1% , and 60,
that is, 5x12 for nper. If annual payments are made on the same
loan, use 12 percent for rate and 5 for nper. To I ind the total
amount paid over the duration of the loan, multiply the returned
PMT value by nper.
182 Microsoft Excel
Fig.8.14: Using PMT function
NPV Function
The NPV function calculates the net present value of an
investment by using a discount rate and a series of future
payments (negative values) and income (positive values).
Syntax
NPV(rate, value1, value2, ... )
Rate is the rate of discount over the length of one period.
It is 12 % in the example given below.
ValLie1, value2, ... are 1 to 29 arguments representing
the payments and income.
Value1, value2, ... must be equally spaced in time and 0ccur
at the end of each period.
NPV uses the order of value1, value2, ... to interpret the
order of cash flows. Be sure to enter the payment and income
values in the correct sequence.
Arguments that are numbers, empty cells, logical values,
or text representations of numbers are counted; arguments that
are error values or text that cannot be translated into numbers
are ignored.
If an argument is an array or reference, only numbers in
that array or reference are counted. Empty cells, logical values,
text , or error values in the array or reference are ignored.
In the example given below, we have taken investment of
Rs.500,000 for Project 1and Rs.800 ,000 for Project 2. These
investments are cash outflows and hence they are shown as
negative numbers. The investment is assumed to be made in
Year 0 and the income to be received in the next ten years.
Fig.B. 15: Calculation of NPV

To find NPV, click cell C17 (where we want Excel to display
the NPV computed) and click FunctionWizard (fx) on the toolbar.
Excel displays a number of functions. In the Paste Function box,
click 'Financial'. Choose 'NPV" from the 'Function name ' list
displayed on the right. Excel displays a dialogue box for entering
discount factor and values. Click in the discount rate box in the
dialogue box and then click the cell C3 (after entering the
discount factor 0.12 in C3). Click Values1 box and choose the
range 85 to 815. Excel' displays the NPV of Project 1 in C17.
Now pull the handle of the cell C17 to the right cell 017 to copy
the function to it. Excel displays the value of NPV of Project 2
in 017.
184 Microsoft Excel
Statistical Functions
There are a number of statistical functions in Excel. The
use of some of these is explained below.
AVERAGE
This function calculates average (arithmetic mean) of the
numbers. To use the function , click the cell where Excel should
display the computed value and click Function Wizard. Click
'Statistical' in the Paste Function' box and AVERAGE in the
Function name box. In the dialogue box either enter the numbers
or specify the range of numbers. Excel calculates the arithmetic
average and displays the value in the cell chosen.
Syntax
AVERAGE(number1,number2, ... )
Number1, number2, ... are 1 to 30 numeric arguments
for which the average is to be computed.
STDEV
Estimates standard deviation based on a sample. The
standard deviation is a measure of how widely values are
dispersed from the average value (the mean).
Syntax
STDEV(number1 ,number2, ... )
Number1, number2,... are 1 to 30 number arguments
corresponding to a sample of a population. Instead of typing
numbers, it is also possible to specify a range of numbers by
selecting them by mouse.
VAR
This function estimates variance based on a sample. For
finding variance, follow the steps as in average and click VAR
instead of AVERAGE. Specify the range of numbers in Value 1
box and click OK. Excel inserts the calculated value of variance
of the range of numbers in the cell from where the function
was invoked.
Syntax
VAR(number1 ,number2, ; .. )
Number1 ,number2,... are 1 to 30 number arguments
corresponding to a sample of a population.
Fig. 8.16: Calculation of average, variance and standard

deviation
CORREl
The CORREL function returns the correlation coefficient
of the array1 and array2 cell ranges. Use the correlation
coefficient to determine the relationship between two
properties. Syntax
CORREL(array1,array2)
Array1 is a cell range of values.
Array2 is a second cell range of values.
Excel also has a number of statistical tools for testing of
inference such as Z t,est, F test and T test.
ZTEST
Returns the two-tailed P-value of a z-test. The z-test
generates a standard score for x with respect to the data set ,
array, and returns the two-tailed probability for the normal
distribution. This function can be used to assess the likelihood
that a particular observation is drawn from a particular
population.
186 Microsoft Excel
Syntax
ZTEST(array,x,sigma)
Array is the array or range of data against which to test
x.
X is the value to test.
Sigma is the population (known) standard deviation. If
omitted, the sample standard deviation is used.
FTEST
This function returns the result of an F-test. An F-test
returns the one-tailed probability that the variances in array1
and array2 are not significantly different. This test can be used
to determine whether two samples have different variances.
Syntax
FTEST(array1,array2)
Array1 is the first array or range of data.
Array2 is the second "array or range of data.
DATABASE IN WORKSHEET
Database is a collection of related data organized in a
meaningful way. Data is stored in tables in a database. A table
is a collection of related records. Each record contains a number
of fields. For example, in case of an inventory file the fields
can be Inventory code (Inv-code), Inventory Description (Desc),
Inventory Quantity (Qty) and Rate.
Only flat databases can be created in Excel. The database
in Excel can at best be described as a list. In a flat database,
column represents fields and row repr~sents record.
Creating a Database in Excel
A database can be created anywhere in a worksheet. But,
it must be separate from other data in the worksheet. This is
necessary for the worksheet to recognize the database. A number
of database functions are available in Excel like DMAX, DMIN,
DAVERAGE and DCOUNT.
The following rules may be observed in creating a database
in Excel.
The first row of the database must be used for field
names (that is, the column headings)
The field names must be unique.
Records must be entered without leaving any empty
row between field names and the first record in the
database.
Each row must contain one full record.
Let us now create an inventory database in Excel as follows.
8.17: Database ;n Excel

The database can be sorted in any order. For instance, Excel
has a quick sorter on the toolbar. The sorting can be in ascending
((A " Z) or descending order (Z - A) . To perform a quick sort,
select the database including the field names and just click on
sort tool (AZ). Excel sorts the database on the first field.
Database can also be sorted using sort tool on Data menu.
To use the sort tool, select the database (including the header
row), click Sort on Data menu, specify the order in which Excel
should sort the database and click OK.
188 Microsoft Excel
Fig. 8.18: Sorting a database.
Goal Seek
Goal seek helps in getting a target value, say a profit of
Rs.5 per unit by varying input values of some cells (say cost or
sales price). For example, if you take a car loan of Rs.200,000
at 12 %interest per annum for five years, the monthly installment
can be calculated as follows.
Using the PMT function, the amount to be paid monthly is
calculated as Rs.4448.89. Suppose one wants to find out the
rate of interest at which he or she should borrow so that the
monthly payment is only Rs.4000. For this we can use Goal Seek.
Move to the result cell B8. Click Tools and select Goal Seek
from the pull down menu. Set cell is automatically selected as
B8. Enter 4000 in the box against 'To value' , click the next box
against 'By changing cell' and choose B5. Click OK or press Enter
key, EXCEL calculates the rate of interest as 0.074201. That is,
if the borrower gets the loan of Rs.200000 at 7.4201 % interest
per annum for five years, the monthly installment will be
Rs.4000.
-200000
0.12
60
Monthly Installment $4.448 .89
Fig .8.19: Using PMT to find monthly instalment.
-200000
0 .074201 ;
<.<-- -- ........"".
60 ;
Monthly In?tallrnenil $4.000 .00 L
Fig. 8.20: Using Goal Seek to find the new interest rate.
190 Microsoft Excel
Solver
Solver is another EXCEL tool that can be used to
determine the maximum, or minimum value of one cell by
changing other cells - for example, the maximum profit you
can generate by changing advertising expenditures. The cells
you select must be related through formulae on the
worksheet. If not related, changing one cell will not change
the other.
Some times the Solver may not be displayed on tools
menu. In that case it must be installed by clicking 'Solver
add-in'. Let us now see how the solver tool can be used to
define and solve a problem.
1. On the Tools menu, click Solver.
2. In the Set Target Cell box, enter a cell reference
or name for the target cell. The target cell must contain a
formula.
3. To have the value of the target cell be as large as
possible, click Max.
To have the value of the target cell be as small as
possible, click Min.
To have the target cell be a certain value, click Value
of, and then type the value in the box.
4. In the By Changing Cells box, enter a name or
reference for each adjustable cell, separating nonadjacent
references with commas. The adjustable cells must be related
directly or indirectly to the target cell. You can specify up
to 200 adjustable cells.
To have Solver automatically propose the adjustable cells
based on the target cell, click Guess.
5. In the Subject to the Constraints box, enter any
you want to apply.
6. Click Solve.
7. To keep the solution values on the worksheet, click
Keep Solver Solution in the Solver Results dialog box.
To restore . the original data, click Restore Original
Values.
Applications in accounting
EXCEL can be used for routine accounting tasks. EXCEL
can be used for accounting in most small firms that do not
keep elaborate records. The transactions can be entered into
a worksheet. Preparation of ledgers and final accounts
involves the following steps:
Complete journal entries in the first worksheet, let us
call it Journal worksheet.
Save the worksheet in a different name. This leaves the
original journal worksheet intact.
Sort the new journal worksheet on ascending or
descending order after selecting all the entries
Now all the transactions with the same account heads
appear together.
Insert a line at the end of each such collection of same
account heads like salaries, wages etc.
Find the total of such account heads
Click next worksheet, (let us call it Trial Balance work
sheet) enter account heads there such as salaries, wages
etc.
Click the amount column against salary in the Trial
Balance worksheet, type '=' and click the cell where total
of the salary account is put in the journal worksheet.
Now the total of salaries paid during the period appears
in the cell against salary in the Trial Balance worksheet.
Continue this way for all the account heads.
When the Trial Balance preparation is completed, open
another worksheet for Trading, Profit and loss Account.
Enter the account heads of all expenses and incomes in
the Trading and pal worksheet.
In the next column click the cell and enter '=" in that
cell in the Trading, Profit and loss worksheet against all
expenses, and click the amount against each corresponding
item in the Trial Balance worksheet.
Similarly, against each income head of account, click
the cell and type '=' and then click the corresponding cell in
Trial Balance worksheet.
192 Microsoft Excel
Complete the entries and then find the totals of the

two columns, put the difference in the column with the
smaller amount. This difference will be either profit (if
income column total is more than expense total) or loss (if
income total is less than expense total).
Open another worksheet for balance sheet and complete
it the same way as Profit and Lass account was prepared.
Now change one transaction amount in the sorted
worksheet and total it again, the cha'nge is reflected in Trail
Balance, Profit and Loss account and Balance Sheet
automatically.
Applications in Finance
EXCEL contains a number of built-in financial functions.
They can be applied in a few steps to generate useful
information. These functions include finding Internal Rate
of Return, Present Value, Net Present Value, PMT function to
find monthly installment payments for a loan, functions to
find principal component and interest component in the loan
installment, functions to calculate depreciation etc.
Applications in Marketing
EXCEL's worksheet, database and graphic facilities make
data analysis and presentation very handy for planning and
controlling marketing activities. The following are some of
the specific uses of EXCEL in marketing management.
Goal seek tool can be used in marketing
management to find out relationship between sales
price and profits, distribution cost and sales,
promotion and sales etc.
Marketing Department can plan promotion and sales
activities based on projected market scenarios and
likely saleS by using scenario tool.
Customer database can be created in EXCEL and it
can be searched, analysed etc. for information
about customers.
EXCEL has a variety of statistical tools to analyse
the sales, customer and market data for planning
marketing activities.
SUMMARY
Spreadsheet serves the needs of a wide range of
computer users. There are many spreadsheet packages and
of them Microsoft Excel is the most popular.
Microsoft Excel 2000 is a spreadsheet software. It is part
of the MS Office suite from the legendary Microsoft
Corporation, USA. The spreadsheet can be used for any kind
of computing tasks ranging from simple calculations to
complex statistical analysis for research purposes. Excel
organizes worksheets into workbooks. Each workbook can
contain several worksheets. Every worksheet is made of 256
columns and 65,536 rows, and it can hold huge quantity of
data.
Excel has simple charting techniques like the
ChartWizard that takes the user through four steps to make
a neatly drawn chart. It has many chart types to choose from.
Excel also has a number of mathematical, statistical and
finance functions for data analysis.
QUESTIONS
1. What is spreadsheet? What are the features of a
spreadsheet?
2. What are the advantages of spreadsheet?
3. What is MS Excel? How is a workbook opened in Excel?
4. What are the parts of a worksheet?
5. How do you print a worksheet in Excel?
6. Explain the use of AutoFormat in Excel.
7. Explain the use of Excel's Function Wizard.
8. How do you format a worksheet in Excel?
9. What is Print Preview? How do you use it in Excel?
10. How do you create a chart in Excel?
11. Explain some of the mathematical functions in Excel.
194 Microsoft Excel
12. Explain some of the financial functions in Excel.

13. Explain some of Excel's statistical functions.
14. Explain the use of AutoSum function in Excel.
CH ER
INTRODUCTION
The primary memory of a computer is limited and hence
programs and data are deleted from primary memory once their
use is over. These programs and data are organised into files for
permanent storage on secondary storage device for reuse. These
files are structured in a particular way depending upon the type
of access required and the media on which they are stored. If
the data requires quick access, it is stored on disks and if it
requires only serial processing the data is usually stored on tape.
The file is made up of a number of records. The records
are a group of fields and each field is made up of some bits of
data. Each file is given a name for its identify. The name
generally consists of two parts: the first is a single-word name
and the second, a three-letter extension name to indicate the
type of file. For instance .COB, . PRG etc. for program files and
.OBF, .OAT etc. for data files. For example, in stock.dat, stock
is the first part of the file name and .dat is the extension.
A file holds records of logically similar data. Each record
consists of a set of fields for data. Each field holds. data of
defined nature like date field holds only dates, name field holds
only names, etc. The computer files are organised on physical
storage devices like magnetic tape, disk and CD-ROM.
196 Database System
Data and Information

Dat,a is the result of measurements of various attributes of
entities such as product, student, inventory item and employee.
The measurements may be recorded in alphabetical, numerical,
image, voice or other forms. Thus, the raw and unanalysed
numbers and facts about entities constitute data. On the other
hand information results from data when they are organised or
structured in some meaningful ways. The processed data have
to be placed in a context for have them to derive meaning and
relevance. Relevance in turn adds to the value of information
in decisions and actions. Data processing requires some infusion
of intelligence ( meaning, purpose and usefulness) into data to
generate information. The application of intelligence may be
in the form of some principles, knowledge, experience and
intuition to convert data into information.
Definition of Information
The term 'information' is a very common word and it
conveys some meaning to the recipient. Itis very difficult to
define it comprehensively. Yet, Davis and Olson 1 give a fairly
good definition. They define information as "data that has
been processed into a form that is meaningful to the recipient
and is of real or perceived value in current or prospective actions
or decisions".
This implies that information is:
Processed data
It has a form
. It is meaningful to the recipient
It has a value, and,
It is useful in current or prospective decisions or
actions.
Differences between data and information
Though the words 'data' and 'information' are often used
interchangeably, there is clear distinction between the two.
Some of the major differences are as follows:
Data are facts but information, though based on data,
is not fact.
Though information arises from data, all data do not
become information. There is a lot of selective filtering
of data before processing them into information.
Data are the result of routine recording of events and
activities taking place. Generation of information is
user-driven which is not always automatic.
Data are independent of users whereas information is
user dependent. Most information reports are designed
to meet anticipated information needs of a user or a
group of users. That is, information for one user is
very likely to be data for other users.
Field, Record and File
A file is a collection of related records. A record is made
up of a number of fields to hold data items. Each field is made
up of a number of storage spaces. Each storage space can hold
a byte of information. A collection of logically related files
forms a database. It usually contains quite a few files holding
data, which can be accessed by many users.
Roll No. Name Sex Address
7 bytes 30 bytes 1 byte 50 bytes
9501101 ARUN GOKUL M 2I3422-B, CIVIL STATION, CALICUT
9501105 RAJESH KUMAR M AISWARYA, MG ROAD, TRICHUR
9501112 ROSHINI JOHN F R-VILLA, K-PALAYAM, BANGALORE
9501240 BIMAL KISHAN M ARATHI, NEW STREET, MADRAS
Roll no, name, sex and address are the field names. Each
field reserves some spaces for storage of respective data. For
example, Roll No has a 7 byte storage space, Name has 30 bytes
storage and so on. Roll No field holds data items 9501101,
9501105 and 9501112 as roll numbers of students. ARUN GOKUL,
RAJESH KUMAR etc. are data items in the name field. Each line
of fields relates to an entity: student. Attributes of the student-
entity such as roll no, sex and address become the field names.
Data fields hold the basic elements of data in them. All
attributes of an entity taken together form a record. When
such related records are put together, that collection is called
a file. Record d,esign can be logical or physical. Logical design
represents the logical relationship among the data items in the
field. The physical record design means the way data items are
physically stored on some media like disk and tape,
198 Database System
File Organisation
The file organisation means the way the records are written
up in a file and depends on:
(i) File activity,
(ii) Volatility of information, and
(iii) Storage device
File activity means the properties of records processed in
one run. If only a few records are accessed in a single run,
activity is low. If the file activity is low, it can be stored on disk
device for efficient file processing. On the other hand, if a
good number of records are accessed in any given time, the file
activity is high and such files can be stored on tapes so that
processing is more efficient and less costly.
File volatility means the proportion of record changes. If
records are changed very frequently, the volatility is very high.
For high volatility files such as seat reservation files in a
transport firm, disk medium is more efficient and offers a finite
access. If only.magnetic tapes are available, then files are
organised in sequential organisation. On the other hand
magnetic disks offer more flexibility as they support both
sequential access and direct access.
Other considerations in file organisation are:
(i) Response time; direct access for quick response
(ii) Cost of storage medium
(iii) Volume of storage, and,
(iv) Security of data
Methods of File Organisation
1) Serial file organisation
2) Sequential organisation
3) Indexed sequential organisation
4) Direct file organisation
1. Serial file Organisation
The records in a serial file are stored randomly and are
generally appended at the end of a file as the data originate.
The logical order of records with respect to a key field does not
bear any relation to the order of physical storage of such records
in the file. It is also referred to as non-keyed sequential file.
2. Sequential file organisation
This file can be created on a magnetic tape or disk. Each
record is written up on the tape or disk one by one logically
ordered on one or more key fields. For example, ordering can
be in the ascending order of roll no in case of a student file.
The records are stored on a sorted order. If new records are
added or existing records are deleted, the file has to be re-
sorted in case of disk file. If the file is stored on a magnetic
tape, another new file has to be created to update the existing
file with the changes to be effected since creation or last update
of the file. This is done to maintain the proper sequence of the
records in the file. The advantages of sequential file are simple
organisation and ease in accessing records sequentially.
To minimise the cost of update, the new records are
bunched in a transaction file and the master file (that is the
original file which is relatively permanent) is updated in a single
run leading to the creation of a new master file. This file update
is called grand father-father-son update, as there will be three
files any time.
3. Indexed-sequential file organisation
An index is a combination of key and storage address of
records. This file organisation creates an index file in addition
to the data file created. The index file holds pairs of key and
storage address of records in the data file. The index file helps
in randomly locating records in the data file as the physical
storage location of the record is obtained from the index file.
This file organisation supports both sequential access ard random
access of records in the file.
4. Direct File Organisation
These files are created on disks or CD-ROMs. In direct file
organisation a hashing technique is used to generate storage
address of records in the file. There are quite a number of ways
of converting a key (such as roll no for a student file, and
product-code for an inventory file) to a numeric value. The keys
may be numeric, alphabetic or alphanumeric. In the case of
alphabetic and alphanumeric keys, numeric key value has to be
generated. Direct mapping is done by performing some
arithmetic manipulation of the key value, called hashing. The
hashing function, h (k), generates a value for each key, WhlCh is
200 Database System
used as an address for storage location. Direct file supports

direct access of files and minimises the access time of records.
The records need not be sorted before storage as in an indexed-
sequential file.
Modes of File Access
The computer file can be accessed in three modes:
sequential, random and dynamic.
1.Sequential Access
This means that for accessing a record sequentially, the
file has to be read from the beginning, that is record 1, record
2, and so on until the required record is reached. The access
time of a single record depends on where in the file the record
is stored. That is, if it is the first record in the file, it takes
much less time to access than a record that is at the end of the
file.
2.Random Access
This method takes the same time for accessing the record
in the file wherever the record is physically located in the file.
The storage location of the record is obtained by converting
the key value of the record into its numeric location address by
hash function. Then the record is located directly.
3.Dynamic Access
This mode combines both sequential and random modes of
access. At times, it may be required to start sequential access
from a given record only. For example a file holds 2000 records
and records numbered 1220 to 1250 are to be accessed for
processing. In this case, it is better to locate the record number
1229 randomly and access the remaining records in sequential
mode.
File Updating
Updating of files means making" the file current by
incorporating changes to the records held in it or adding new
records to it. If data are very large or are likely to change
occasionally, such data are held in a master file. Master files
are relatively permanent and are used for referring to the data
there in when required. Data arising out of day-to-day
transactions change very often and they are, therefore, held in
a temporary file called transaction file.
The master files have to be made current by incorporating
changes in data to the master files. This process is called file
updating. There are three ways in which these changes are
effected: addition of a record to master file, deletion of a record
from, and modification of a record held in, master file.
Methods of Updating Sequential file
Sequential files can be updated in two ways: direct updating
and grand father-father-son updating.
Direct updating
In case of direct update, the data are processed online
and files are updated directly, that is no back up files are
maintained. The direct update keeps all files updated and
enables real-time response. It saves disk space as transaction
files are not opened for temporary storage of data. But it is
very difficult to recreate a file if it is corrupted or deleted
accidentally. Deletion of records is also not possible. For direct
updating, the data must be stored in random access files.
Examples of random access storage devices are magnetic disks,
magnetic drums and CDROMs.
Grand Father-Father-Son update
In this method two files are used as input files and they
result in the creation of a new updated master file. The two
input files are the master files requiring updating and the
Transaction file containing the transaction data of the period.
Both the files are to be sorted in the same order on the same
key before updating starts.
Updating Process
Both the master file and transaction file are read
(1) The keys are then compared
(2) If the master file key is less than the transaction file
key, no change is required. The record is copied to
the new master file.
(3) If the master file key is equal to Transaction file key,
then the record is to be either deleted or modified.
(4) If the master file key is greater than transaction file
key, then it means that the transaction file record is
new and is therefore to be copied to the new master
file.
202 Database System
(5) Three generations of files are maintained always.
Hence the name Grandfather-father-son update.
Indexed File Updating
Indexed file has random access capability. Indexed files
allow direct updating. Whenever any change in data takes place,
the particular record is randomly accessed and updated. The
disadvantage of direct updating is that no back up files are
maintained and it may be difficult to undo changes effected.
Indexed file or Indexed sequential file organisation keeps
in addition to data files an index or table that lists the address
of records on disk (namely, track and sector number) according
to the contents of the key field. The key chosen must be able
to identify a record uniquely. Any record in the file can be read
at any time. Updating is easier in case of indexed files as only
those records requiring modification need only be read and
modified. Indexed file is highly suitable where quick response
is required; for example, airline reservation or railway
reservation requires direct updating.
Database System
A database is a set of logically connected data files that
have common access methods between them. It stores
transaction data. It does not contain any input or output data.
The input data may cause a change to operational data but are
not part of the database. Similarly, the output data mean the
reports or query responses from the system. The input data and
output data are transient and they are not stored in the
database.
The database system gives centralised control over the
database resources. The advantages of centralised control over
the data are 1 :
Redundancy can be reduced,
Inconsistency can be avoided,
The data can be shared,
Standards can. be enforced,
Security restrictions can be applied, and,
Integrity can be maintained.
The concept of IRM calls for treating information as an
organisational resource. In traditional file management system,
applications owned their own data and it was not shared with
other applications. Each application defined its data, created
its file structure and stored the data conveniently to be accessed
by its application program. Thus applications like payroll,
inventory management etc. owned their own data. Several
applications stored the same data item in many files. This caused
a lot of duplication in data storage and the consequent data
inconsistency, as the related files were not updated
simultaneously. Often application programs had to be modified
to use data files of other applications.
Database is a centrally controlled, integrated collection
of logically organised data. The central control ensures data
sharing among applications and enforces database security
procedures. The data items in the database are logically related
and this helps in integration of database.
Advantages of Database Systems
The database system approach has the following advantages
Data independence
The data are logically designed into databases and they
are independent of applications. Since the data are program-
independent, any application can use them without any
modification to the code.
Data shareability
Database permits simultaneous multiple access to the
database. Thus, multiple users can share the same data.
Data integrity
Access to the database is controlled by the database
management system. The system authorises personnel for
entering, editing and deleting data. It also authorises people to
access data for various data processing activities. Since the
database stores one data item only in one place and updates it
with fresh transaction data automatically, there is little chance
of inconsistency in the database.
Data availability
The database is centrally controlled and access to data is
permitted through an authorisation scheme. The data resources
204 Database System
are therefore available to the users in the organisation subject
to the authorisation procedure.
Data evolvability
The database is flexible and can store huge quantity of
data. It can evolve as the number of applications and queries
increase to meet their data requirements.
Components of Database System
The common database components are:
Database files
The database files store the transaction data.
DBMS
It is a set of programs that manages the database. It
performs a number of tasks like controlling access to the
database, making security checks etc.
Host level language interface system
This system interacts with application programs and
interprets their data requests that are issued in high-level
language.
Natural language interface
DBMS needs to process queries and data requests issued to
it in natural languages called English-like language. The natural
language interface performs interpreting the queries and
requests in natural language. It also facilitates managerial
interac;tion with the database for decision support applications.
Application programs
The application programs request for data from the
database. The data independence permits the applications to
use the data for a variety of purposes.
Data Dictionary
The data dictionary contains schema of the database. It
defines each data item in the database, lists its structure,
source, person authorised to modify it etc.
Report generator
The system generates output for users in the form of query
response or reports. It might also produce documents like invoice
and process ad-hoc queries and special report requests.
Users of Database Systems
There are three broad classes of users for organisational
database systems. They are:
1. Application programmers who write application
programs that manipulate the data in the database.
2. End-users who access the database by invoking
application programs or through a structured query
language, and,
3. Database Administrator who is responsible for
planning, designing, creating and maintaining the
database.
Database Management System (DBMS)
DBMS is a set of system programs that manages the entire
database. It controls access to files. It updates files and retrieves
data from the files on request by applications for processing.
DBMS maintains database by adding, deleting and modifying
records in database. It permits multiple users to access the
same files simultaneously. It acts as an interface between the
application programs and the data in the database. If the user
wants some data from the database, the DBMS processes the
request, locates the data in the database and displays them for
the user. In traditional file management system, the user needs
to specify both the data and its storage location. DBMS requires
storing the database on direct access storage devices.
DBMS is general-purpose system software. It works in
conjunction with the operating systems to create, process, store,
retrieve, control and manage data. Its tasks include defining,
constructing, and manipulating database for applications.
Defining database involves specifying data types, data
structures, storage constraints etc. Constructing database means
storing the data on storage medium under the control of the
DBMS. Database manipulation includes merging databases,
generating reports, processing queries etc.
The three main components of a DBMS are data definition
language, data manipulation language, and data dictionary.
206 Database System
Data Definition Language

The contents of database are created using the data
definition language. It defines relationships between different
data elements and serves as an interface for application
programs that use the data.
Database Manipulation Language
Data is processed and updated using a language called data
manipulation language. It allows a user to query database and
receive summary or customised reports. The data manipulation
language is usually integrated with other programming
languages, many of which are 3GLs or 4GLs.
Each database package has its own query language with
unique rules and instruction formats. Hence there is no universal
query language. Query language is used to access the data for
report generation, query processing and other data processing
activities.
Structured Query Language (SQL) is a non-procedural
language that deals with data, data integrity, data manipulation,
data access, data retrieval, data query and data security. Most
DBMS packages use some version of SQL whose primary purpose
is to allow users to query a database and generate ad-hoc reports
that provide customised information.
Data Dictionary
Data dictionary is an electronic document that contains
data definition and data use for every data type in the database.
It describes the data and its characteristics such as its location,
size and type. It identifies its origin, use, ownership and methods
of accessing and security of data. DBMS uses data dictionary to
store all details of data such as data definition, data storage,
data use and access privileges.
Database Administrator (DBA)
Organisations that implement database systems constitute
a function called database administration to supervise the
organisational database resources. Database administrator
supervises the database administration function. The job of
database administrator is to plan, design, create, modify and
maintain the database of the organisation with special emphasis
on security and data integrity. He is not much concerned with
the details of the application programs that access the database
for data. He maintains the schema and data dictionary. Any
change in the form of data item, its creation etc. can only be
done by the database administrator.
His specific responsibilities include:
Guiding the initial design of the database, and later
developing and extending it to meet growing
organisational requirements.
Establishing the database and monitoring the use of
it.
Deciding on the content of the database. He has to
see that the relevant data are collected and stored in
the database.
Establishing and monitoring database control and
- security policies and procedures.
Servicing database users by educating and training
them in the use of the database.
Disadvantages of Database
The following are some of the disadvantages of database:
Higher data processing costs
The database system causes higher data processing costs.
This is due to the strict and elaborate procedure for data access,
updating and processing.
Increased hardware and software costs
It requires more direct access memory capacity, greater
communication capability (including communication software),
and additional processing power. This increases the hardware
and software costs.
Data insecurity and integrity
Most of the security and integrity problems are related to
the fact that many users have access rights to the database.
Elaborate security systems are implemented to protect the
database and to prevent unauthorised access.
Insufficient database expertise
Database technology is complex. Most organisations do not
have enough personnel with necessary expertise to implement
and manage database systems.
208 Database System
Database Architecture
The purpose of database is to facilitate huge storage and
quick retrieval of data from the database. There are three basic
ways of organising data in a database. They are hierarchical,
network and relational structures.
Hierarchical Structure
The relationships between records form a hierarchy. The
records or aggregates of data are logically conceived to be stored
at different levels of hierarchy. The structure looks like a tree
with branches turned upside down. The relation between entities
is structured in such a way as to link it with only one data item
at the higher level. In a hierarchical database, the relationship
between records is one of parent-child. One record can be linked
to only record at the higher level. Data stored in a lower level
node (child record) can be accessed only through the higher-
level node (parent record).
Network Structure
This structure can represent more complex logical
relationships. This structure permits multiple relations between
data items. One entity linked up to any number of other types
of entities. That is, it allows many-to-many relationships among
records. Any data element can be related to any number of
other data elements.
Relational Structure
Relational Slructure is the most recent of these three
structures. All data elements stored in the database are
conceived to be stored in tables. Different data tables are
linked up using common type of data item in different tables.
The table is called a relation; the columns of the table are
called domains and the r0WS are called tuples. A tuple contains
values of data items called data elements of an entity.
Data Mining and Data Warehousing
Large organisations have huge quantity of data in their
databases and they are still growing. Until recently, business-
computing technologies concentrated on data capture storage
and retrieval. But, the need to interpret and find patterns in
the huge data is growing and computing technologies are making
it possible now. Data mining is the focus of the new class of
technologies being developed to help business find meaning in
data lying idle. The data mining helps in drawing inferences
from the data and in understanding the customer, products and
markets betteT.
Data mining employs a host of techniques; some very old
like the statistical techniques including linear programming, and
others are recently developed and are known as data analysis,
machine learning, online analytical processing etc. These
techniques help in discovering new patterns in data.
Huge databases have necessitated the need for data
- warehousing. Data warehousing means organising large amounts
of data and making them available company-wide to users. Data
warehousing is an integral part of data mining. The quality and
quantity of data available for data mining is a function of data
warehousing. Data mining helps in identifying preferences of
customers groups and deciding on promotional material to
influence their buying habits. The information can be used in
product development, product customisation and target
marketing. Data mining represents a new trend in the use of
information technology. The focus has shifted from data storage
and retrieval to data analysis for making inferences.
SUMMARY
The information in the computer is held in files, which are
made up of logically related records. The files are organised in
any of the four modes: serial, sequential, indexed-sequential
or direct. Only the last two can support direct access and are
stored on direct access media such as magnetic disk. File
updating is the process of making files current by incorporating
changes into the files and the modes of file update are direct
update and grandfather-father-son update.
Database technol~gy is one 01 the fastest growing
information technologies. The database system stores huge
quantity of data and facilitates quick retrieval of data. The
database permits concurrent sharing of data resources to
multiple users. It avoids duplication in storage and data
inconsistency. In short, it facilitates managing information as
an organisational resource.
210 Database System
QUESTIONS
1. What is file?" How is it organised?
2. What are the methods of file organisation?
3. What is file updating? How is it done?
4. Describe how direct file updating is done.
5. What is sequential access?
6. What is direct access? Compare direct access and sequential
access.
7. What is master file? How is it updated?
8. What is database? What are the advantages of database
system?
9. Why should an organisation have a database system?
10. What is DBMS? What are the components of DBMS?
11. Why should an organisation have a database administrator?
12. What is database structure? What are the basiC database
structures?
13. What is data mining?
REFERENCE
1. Date, c.J., An Introduction to Database Systems Vol.1.,
Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi 1996, pp11-12.
c
INTRODUCTION
Microsoft Access is part of Microsoft Office suite. It is a
relational database application. Large quantity of data can be
stored and managed with Access. The data can be easily
retrieved for business applications. Access contains facilities
to create queries and generate reports for meeting managerial
and operational needs for information in an organisation.
Table is a basic unit of storing data in Access. Each row in
the table represents a record made up of a number of fields.
Queries are designed to extract a set of data from a database
for use. For example, if a Bank Manager wants to know the list
of customers with overdue loan accounts on a particular date,
a query can be designed for it. On running the query, Access
will generate the list of customers with overdue accounts and
display it for user on the screen. Report is another useful facility
in Access. Report presents information based on data drawn
from multiple tables. Report can be designed easily with the
Report Wizard in a few steps. If the user wants, report design
view can be used to design flexible reports.
Data Types in MS Access
Data type is a detailed coding scheme recognized by system
software, such as a DBMS, for representing organizational data.
Each database system will specify the choices of data type
available for users. Data types in MS Access are: Text, Memo,
212 MS Access
Number, Date,/Time, Currency, Auto number, Yes/No, Ole

Object, Hyperlink and Lookup Wizard.
Designing Database in Access
Before Microsoft Access is actually used to build tables,
forms, and other objects that will make up the database for a
group of users, it is important to take time to design the
database so that the database created is effective, accurate ,
and efficient.
Steps in designing a database
1.. Determine the purpose of your database
The first step in designing a database is to determine its
purpose and how it is to be used . You need to know what
information you want from the database. From that, you can
determine what subjects you need to store facts about (the
tables) and what facts you need to store about each subject
(the fields in the tables).
Talk to people who will use the database. Brainstorm about
the questions you and they would like the database to answer.
Sketch out the reports you would like it to produce. Gather the
forms you currently use to record your data. Examine well-
designed databases similar to the one you are designing.
2. Determine the tables you need in the database
Determining the tables can be the trickiest step in the
database design process. That is because the results you want
from your database - the reports you want to print, the forms
you want to use, the questions you want answered - do not
necessarily provide clues about the structure of the tables that
produce them.
You do not need to design your tables using Microsoft Access .
In fact, it may be better to sketch out and rework your design
on paper first. When you design your tables, divide up pieces of
information by keeping these fundamental design principles in
mind:
A table should not contain duplicate data, and data
should not be duplicated between tables. In this
respect , a table in a relational database differs
from a table in a flat -file application such as a
spreadsheet.
When each piece of data is stored in only one table, you
update it in one place. This is more efficient, and it also
eliminates the possibility of duplicate entries that contain
different information. For example, you would want to store
each customer address and phone number only once, in one
table.
Each table should contain data about one subject.
When each table contains facts about only one subject,
you can maintain data about each subject independently from
other subjects. For example, you would store customer addresses
in a different table from the customers' orders, so that you
could delete one order and still maintain the customer data.
3. Determine the fields you need in the tables
Each table contains data about the same subject, and each
field in a table contains individual facts about the table's
subject. For example, a customer table may include company
name, address, city, state, and phone number fields. When
sketching out the fields for each table, keep these tips in mind:
Relate each field directly to the subject of the table.
Do not include derived or calculated data (data that
is the result of an expression).
Include all the information you need.
Store data in its smallest logical parts (for example,
First Name and Last Name, rather than Name).
4. Identify fields with unique values in each record.
In order for Microsoft Access to connect data stored in
separate tables - for example, to connect a customer with all
the customer's orders - each table in your database must include
a field or set of fields that uniquely identifies each individual
record in the table. Such a field or set of fields is called a
primary key.
5. Determine the relationships between tables
Now that you have divided your data into tables
and identified primary key fields, you "1eed a way
to tell Microsoft Access how to bring related data
back together again in meaningful ways
6. Refine your design
214 MS Access
After you have designed the tables, fields, and relationships

you need, it is time to study the design and detect any flaws
that might remain. It is easier to change your database design
now than it will be after you have filled the tables with data.
Use Microsoft Access to create your tables, specify
relationships between the tables, and enter enough sample data
in your tables so you can test your design. To test the
relationships in your database, see if you can create queries to
get the answers you want. Create rough drafts of your forms
and reports and see if they show the data you expect. Look for
unnecessary duplications of data and eliminate them. If you
find problems, refine the design.
7 Enter data and create other database objects
When you are satisfied that the table structures meet the
design principles described here, then it is time to go ahead
and add all your existing data to the tables. You can then create
any queries, forms, reports, data access pages, macros, and
modules that you want.
S Use Microsoft Access analysis tools
Microsoft Access includes two tools that can help you to
refine the design of your Microsoft Access database. The Table
Analyzer Wizard can analyze the design of one table at a time,
can propose new table structures and relationships if
appropriate, and can divide a table into new related tables if
that makes sense.
The Performance Analyzer can analyze your entire database
and make recommendations and suggestions for improving it.
The wizard can also implement these recommendations and
suggestions.
CREATING A TABLE
Microsoft Access provides two ways to create a table. You
can create a blank (empty) table for entering your own data, or
you can create a table using existing data from another source.
Database can be created with Database Wizard or without using
Database Wizard.
Creating a database using the Database Wizard
1. When Microsoft Access first starts up, a dialog box is
automatically displayed with options to create a new database
or open an existing one. If this dialog box is displayed, click
Database Wizard, and then click OK.
If you have already opened a database or closed the dialog
box that displays when Microsoft Access starts up, click New
Database on the toolbar.
2. On the Databases tab, double-click the icon for the
kind of database you want to create.
3. Specify a name and location for the database.
4. Click Create to start defining your new database.
Creating a database without using a wizard
1. When Microsoft Access first starts up, a dialog box is
automatically displayed with options to create a new database
or open an existing one. If this dialog box is displayed, click
Blank Database, and then click OK.
If you have already opened a database or closed the dialog
box that displays when Microsoft Access starts up, click New
Database on the toolbar, and then double-click the Blank
Database icon on the General tab.
2. Specify a name and location for the database and click
Create.
After you create a blank database, you must perform
additional steps to define the objects that will make up your
database.
The difference between importing and linking
Microsoft Access provides two choices for using data from
an external data source. .
Import data into a new Microsoft Access table, which
is a way to convert data from a different format and
copy them into Microsoft Access. It is also possible to
import database objects into the current Microsoft
Access database or Microsoft Access project.
Link the data, which is a way to connect to data from
another application without importing them so that
the data in both the original application and in an
Access database can be viewed and edited.
216 MS Access
You can import or link data from a variety of supported

databases, programs, and file formats.
Importing data
Importing data creates a copy of its information in a new
table in your Access database or Access project. The source
table or file is not altered in this process.
When importing data, you cannot append data to existing
tables (except when importing spreadsheet or text files).
However, once you have imported a table, in an Access database
you can perform an append query or in an Access project you
can use a stored procedure to add the table's data to another
table.
You can also import database objects other than tables,
such as forms or reports, from another Access database or Access
project.
Linking data
In an Access database, linking data can be used to read
and in most cases, update data in the external data source
without importing. The external data source's format is not
altered. The user can add, delete, or edit its data by using
Microsoft Access as well. You can link a table only in an Access
database, not an Access project.
Microsoft Access uses different icons to represent linked
tables and tables that are stored in the current database. If
you delete the icon for a linked table, you delete the link to
the table, not the external table itself.
Open an Existing Microsoft Access database
The steps are:
1. On the File menu, click Open.
2. Click a shortcut in the Places Bar, or, in the Look In
box, click the drive or folder that contains the Microsoft Access
database that you want.
3. In the folder list, double-click folders until you open
the folder that contains the database.
4. If you cannot find the database that you want to open,
click Tools and then click Find. In the Find dialog box, enter
additional search criteria. For Help on an option, click the
question mark and then click the option.
To open the database for shared access in a multi-
user environment, so you and other users can read
and write to the database, click Open.
To open the database with exclusive access, click the
arrow next to the Open button, and then click Open
Exclusive.
To open the database for read-only access so that you
can view it but cannot edit it, click the arrow next to
the Open button, and then click Open Read-Only.
To open the database for read-only access and also
prevent other users from opening it, click the arrow
next to the Open button, and then click Open
Exclusive Read On Iy.
Access displays a few options to create blank database,
database wizards and existing database. It also displays a few
existing databases for the user to open. To open a new database,
select the radio button of Blank Access Database and click OK.
Fig.10.1 : Database Creation

218 MS Access
Let us name the new database Inventory and create table

in the Inventory Database. Click on Table and then on New. Access
displays a screen as shGwn in Fig.10.2. Choose Design View to
proceed to design the table.
Fig. 10.2: Creation of a table in Design View
Now let us design our table with following fields:

FIELD NAME DATA TYPE
INV-ID TEXT
INV-DESCRIPTION TEXT
UNIT TEXT
EOQ NUMBER
LEAD TIME (DAYS) NUMBER
USER DEPT TEXT
MINIMUM STOCK NUMBER.
Select 'INV-ID' field and click on the tool for 'primary key'
on the tool bar menu to make the field the primary key field.
Close the Design View after defining data structure as above.
Access will ask for a name for the table. Give it the name
'Inventory Master'.
Computer Fu ndamentats 219
p;;j M,crosoll Access (INVENTORY MASTER Table! f!IIr;]EJ
RAW MATERIAL IDENTITY NUMBER

"[)WCRIPTION"OF THE RAW MATERiAL
UNIT OF PURCHASE AND ISSUE
ECONOMIC ORDER QUANTITY
DAYS "TAKE"N FOR DELIVERY AFTER ISSUE OF ORDER
CONSUMING [)EPARTMENT
" QUANTITY FOR LEAD TIME CONSUMPTION
Fig.tO.3: Table creation in Access
Entering Records
The table 'Inventory Master' can be used to store data about
the inventory items. Let us now enter the data about our
inventory items as shown in Fig. 10.4.
Inventory Master table is now having some data. We can
use the data for running queries, report generation etc.
Defining Relationships
After you have set up different tables for each subject in
your Microsoft Access database, you need a way of telling
Microsoft Access how to bring that information back together
again. The first step in this process is to define relationships
between your tables. After you have done that , you can create
queries , forms, and reports to display information from several
tables at once .
Display the Relationships window
1. If you have not already done so, switch to the Database
window. You can press F11 to switch to the Database window
from any other window.
220 MS Access
Fig.10A: Entering data in Access table.
2. Click Relationships on the toolbar.

The Relationships window is displayed. If the relationship
layout was saved previously, the saved layout is displayed. If
not, the Show Tables dialog box is displayed to select tables or
queries to add to the Relationships window.
Define relationships between tables
1. Close any tables you have opened . You cannot create
or modify relationships between open tables.
from any other window,
4. If your database does not have any relationships
defined, the Show Table dialog box will automatically be
displayed. If you need to add the tables you want to relate and
the Show Table dialog box is not displayed, click Show Table
on the toolbar. If the tables you want to relate are already
displayed, skip to step 6.
5. Double-click the names of the tables you want to
relate, and then close the Show Table dialog box.
6. Drag the field that you want to relate from one table
to the related field in the other table.
To drag multiple fields, press the CTRL key and click each
field before dragging them.
In most cases, you drag the primary key field (which is
displayed in bold text) from one table to a similar field (often
with the same name) called the foreign key field in the other
table. The related fields do not have to have the same names,
but they must have the same data type (with two exceptions)
and contain the same kind of information. In addition, when
the matching fields are Number fields, they must have the same
FieldSize property setting. The two exceptions to matching data
types are that you can match an AutoNumber field with a Number
field whose FieldSize property is set to Long Integer; and you
can match an AutoNumber field with a Number field if both
fields have their FieldSize property set to Replication ID.
7. The Edit Relationships dialog box is displayed. Check
the field names displayed in the two columns to ensure they
are correct. You can change them if necessary.
Set the relationship options if necessary. For information
about a specific item in the Relationships dialog box, click the
question mark button, and then click the item.
8. Click the Create button to create the relationship.
9. Repeat steps 5 through 8 for each pair of tables you
want to relate.
When you close the Relationships window, Microsoft Access
asks if you want to save the layout. Whether you save the layout
or not, the relationships you create are saved in the database
Define a many-to-many relationship between tables
1. Create the two tables that will have a many-to-many
relationshi p.
2. Create a third table, called a junction table, and add
fields with the same definitions as the primary key fields from
each of the other two tables to this table. In the junction table,
the primary key fields function as foreign key. You can add other
fields to the junction table, just as you can add to any other
table.
222 MS Access
3. In the junction table, set the primary key to include

the primary key fields from the other two tables. For example,
in an Order Details junction table, the primary key would be
made up of the OrderlD and ProductlD fields.
4. Define a one-to-many relationship between each of
the two primary tables and the junction table.
5. To add data to the tables, do one of the following:
Create a query that works with more than one table.
Create a form that works with more than one table.
Delete a relationship
1. Close any tables you have open. You cannot delete
relationships between open tables.
4. If the tables whose relationship you want to delete
are not displayed, click Show Table on the toolbar and double-
click each table you want to add. Then click Close.
5. Click the relationship line for the relationship you want
to delete (the line will turn bold when it is selected), and then
press the DELETE key.
Edit an existing relationship
1. Close any tables you have open. You cannot modify
relationships between open tables.
4. If the tables whose relationship you want to edit are
not displayed, click Show Table on the tool bar and double-click
each table you want to add.
5. Double-click the relationship line for the relationship
you want to edit.
6. Set the relationship options. For information about a
specific item in the Relationships dialog box, click the question
mark button, and then click the item.
View existing relationships
3. To view all the relationships defined in the database,
click Show All Relationships on the toolbar.
To view only the relationships defined for a particular table,
click the table, and then click Show Direct Relationships on
the toolbar.
If all of the tables related to the selected table are already
displayed in the Relationships window, clicking the Show Direct
Relationships button will have no effect because it only adds
tables related to the current table. If you want to view only the
direct relationships for one table, click Clear Layout on the
toolbar to remove all tables from the Relationships window (this
will not delete the tables or relationships, it just removes them
from the Relationships window), add the table back, and then
click the Show Direct Relationships button. To add a table,
click Show Table on the toolbar, double-click the table, and
then click Close.
Referentiallntegrjty
Referential integrity is a system of rules that Microsoft
Access uses to ensure that relationships between records in
related tables are valid, and that you do not accidentally delete
or change related data. You can set referential integrity when
all of the following conditions are met:
The matching field from the primary table is a primary
key or has a unique index.
The related fields have the same data type. There
" are two exceptions. An AutoNumber fjeld can be
related to a Number field with a FieldSize property
setting of Long Integer, and an AutoNumber field with
a FieldSize property setting of Replication 10 can be
related to a Number field with a FieldSize property
setting of Replication 10.
Both tables belong to the same Microsoft Access
database. If the tables are linked tables, they must
224 MS Access
be tables in Microsoft Access format, and you must

open the database in which they are stored to set
referential integrity. Referential integrity cannot be
enforced for linked tables from databases in other
formats.
When referential integrity is enforced, you must observe
the following rules:
You cannot enter a value in the foreign key field of
the related table that does not exist in the primary
key of the primary table. However, you can enter a
Null value in the foreign key, specifying that the
records are unrelated. For example, you cannot have
an order that is assigned to a customer that does not
exist, but you can have an order that is assigned to no
one by entering a Null value in the CustomerlD field.
You cannot delete a record from a primary table if
matching records exist in a related table. For example,
you cannot delete an employee record from the
Employees table if there are orders assigned to the
employee in the Orders table.
You cannot change a primary key value in the primary
table, if that record has related records. For example,
you cannot change an employee's ID in the Employees
table if there are orders assigned to that employee in
the Orders table.
If you want Microsoft Access to enforce these rules for a
relationship, select the Enforce Referential Integrity check
box when you create the relationship. If referential integrity is
enforced and you break one of the rules with related tables,
Microsoft Access displays a message and does not allow the
change.
You canoverride Lie restrictions against deleting or
changing related records and still preserve referential integrity
by setting the Cascade Update Related Fields and Cascade
Delete Related Records check boxes. When the Cascade Update
Related Fields check box is set, changing a primary key value
in the primary table automatically updates the matching value
in all related records. When the Cascade Delete Related
Records check box is set, deleting a record in the primary table
deletes any related records in the related table.
QUERY DESIGN IN MS ACCESS
Status information can be retrieved from a database by running
a query. For example, when sales clerk gets an order from a
customer, he may want to check the stock status before confirming
the order. He may run a query to know the current stock balance
at that point in time. Designing query is easy in relational databases
like MS Access and Oracle. MS Access provides facilities to design
query in design window for users. They can choose multiple tables
and define relationships between tables to draw data conforming
to the query criteria from multiple tabtes. Query Wizard is another
facility in MS Access that helps in designing queries in a few steps.
Large relational database systems like Oracle and MS SQL Server
have easy to use query languages. Users can issue queries to retrieve
data from relational tables.
Query Types
Select query
Append query
Cross tab query
Update query
Delete query
Make table query
DeSigning Select Query
select query helps in viewing a list of fields from one or
more tables . For example, if you want to view a few fields like
Inventory id, description , lead time and EOQ from the inventory
file , you can design a select query and run it whenever you
want to view these fields from the table .
A select query is the most common type of query. It
retrieves data from one or more tables and displays the results
in a datasheet where you can update the records (with some
restrictions). You can also use a selec1 query to group records
and calculate sums, counts, averages, and other types of totals .
Create a simple select query with a wizard
The Simple Select Query Wizard creates queries that
retrieve data from the fields you specify in one or more tables
or queries. If you want, the wizard can also sum , count , and
average values for groups of records or all records , and it can
calculate the minimum or maximum value in a field. You cannot
limit the records it retrieves by setting criteria, however.
226 MS Access
1. In the database window click Queries under Objects,

and then click New on the Database window toolbar.
2. In the New Query dialog box, click Simple Query
Wizard.
3. Click OK.
4. Click the name of the table or query you want to base
your query on, and then select the fields whose data you want
to retrieve.
5. Click an additional table or query if desired , and then
select the fields you want to use from it. Repeat this step until
you have all the fields you need.
6. Follow the directions in the wizard dialog boxes . In
the last dialog box, you can choose either to run the query or to
see the query's structure in Design view.
Creating Select Query without Wizard
In the database window click Queries under Objects, and
then click New on the Database window toolbar. Access displays
tables created in the database. Choose. the database and click
on 'Add' button. If you need more tables, click on each one of
them and click 'Add' button. Close the dialogue box.
Fig.tO.S: Query design with Design View

Now drag down fields from the table listed above into the
respective fields in the design view.
Fig. 10.6 : Dropping down required fields from table
If you have included all the relevant fields required, close

design view and give a name to the query.
Running a Query
To run a query, double click on the query after closing it or
click on the run button while in design view. Access will display
the required fields in the datasheet view as follows.
Fig.10.7: Running a query to view data.

228 MS Access
REPORT DESIGN IN MS ACCESS

Database packages contain built-in report design facility.
For example, MS Access has report design facility that allows
designing, formatting and printing of reports. MS Access has
facilities for AutoReport design, Report design with Wizard and
design window. With the AutoReport, user can select one record
source . and either columnar or tabular layout for report.
AutoReport uses all the fields from the record source and applies
the last autoformat employed by the user to generate the report.
The report wizard prompts the user to specify the record
sources, fields , layout, and report format and creates a report
based on the answers given to the questions.
Creating a report using AutoReport
AutoReport creates a report that displays all fields and
records in the underlying table or query.
1. In the Database window, click Reports under Objects.
2. Click the New button on the Database window toolbar.
3. In the New Report dialog box, click one of the
following wizards:
AutoReport: Columnar. Each field appears on a
separate line with a label to its left.
AutoReport: Tabular. The fields in each record appear
on one line, and the labels print once at the top of
each page.
4. Click the table or query that contains the data you
want to base your report on.
5. Click OK.
Microsoft Access applies the last autoformat you used to
the report. If you have not created a report with a wizard before
or have not used the AutoFormat command on the Format menu,
it uses the Standard autoformat. . -
Creating a report with a wizard
1. In the Database window, click. Reports under Objects.
2. Click the New button on the Database window toolbar.
3. In the New Report dialog box , click the wizard that
you want to use. A description of the wizard appears in the left
side of the dialog box.
4. Click the table or query that contains the data you
want to base your report on.
5. Click OK.
6. If you clicked Report Wizard, Chart Wizard, or Label
Wizard in step 3, follow the directions in the wizard dialog
boxes. If you click AutoReport: Tabular or AutoReport:
Columnar, Microsoft Access automatically creates your report.
If the resulting report does not look the way you want, you
can change it in Design View.
Creating a Report in Design Window
The design window allows the user to design the report
with lot more flexibility. Let us use the Design Window to design
a report based on our Inventory Master table.
Click 'Report' and choose 'Create Report in Design View'.
Click 'New' to start the designing of report. Access displays a
dialog box as follows. Choose the table from the dialog box and
click OK.
Fig. 10.8 : Choosing a table to create a report in Design

View.
230 MS Access
Next, let us design our report as follows.

Let us give it a title as "INVENTORY REPORT' in page header.
This will be displayed at the top on each page of the report.
Now let us select labels and field values in the details part of
the report design window.
Fig. 10.9: Report design in Design View of Access
Access displays the fields in the selected table. Drag down

the fields in the appropriate places into the report design
window. After placing the boxes appropriately, click Print
Preview tool tG see how the report looks. If changes are. required,
format the report and click Print Preview again. The report now
looks as in Fig. 10.10.
There are a large number of features to format the report.
Explore these features and try them on the report to understand
how impressively one can make a report in MS Access.
computer Fundame ntals 231
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using Inventory Mas t er.
SUMMARY
MS Access is a relational database from the Microsoft
Corpo ration. Access permits creation and manipulation of
databases . Query design and report design facilities have rich
features to view and manipulate data from databases. Query is
a conveni ent tool in Access for accessing status information. It
is quite user fri endly as it does not require the user to be
proficient in computing . Reports present summarised
information. Access permits creation of reports with
autoformat , Report Wizard and Design Window. Users can design
customised reports to suit their information requirements using
Design Window. The reports can be pri nted and presented to
decision makers. MS Access is ideal for small organisations that
have small number of transactions and need only low levels of
database security.
232 MS Access
QUESTIONS
1. What is MS Access? What is its use?
2. How do you create a table in MS Access with Database
Wizard?
3. How do you create a table in MS Access without using
Database Wizard?
4. What is relationship in Access and how referential integrity
is maintained?
5. Describe the various types of queries that can be created
in Access.
6. Describe the steps in creating a simple query in MS Access.
7. Explain how database is created and data entered in MS
Access.
8. Explain the steps in creating an update query using query
builder.
9. How do you run a query in MS Access?
10. How do you design a report in MS Access?
11. Describe the steps in report design in Access.
12. Describe the steps in designing a report in Access using
Report Wizard.
13. Explain how you design a report in Access in Design Window.
R
INTRODUCTION
Multimedia computing and communications are attracting
a lot of interest these days. It is a term generally used to mean
any application or technology that is used to manipulate text,
audio, video, images and graphics. It can provide certain amount
of interactivity to users. It is used extensively in education,
business advertising, publishing, website design, entertainment
and video games. The increasing popularity of multimedia opens
up large number of career opportunities for the youth like video
editor, Visual effects designer, Animator, Cartoon Animator,
Software editor, Software mixer, Audio and Video Specialist,
Visual effects Professional, Author, Script Writer, Set Designer,
Audio Editor, 3D Animator, Character Animator, and Special
Effects Manager.
Meaning of Multimedia
The tem 'multimedia' means use of multiple media for
communicating information. The common media used include
text, graphics, animation, audio and video. Use of two or more
of these media for presenting information is, therefore, called
multimedia presentation. Multimedia software can handle
different types of data and hence it enhances the effectiveness
of communication.
In addition to different media mentioned above, the term
'media' can also be understood in terms of data representation
234 Multimedia
medium like ASCII and EBCDIC, image representation through

JPEG and MPEG formats, presentation medium like paper, screen
and speaker, data storage medium like floppy disk, hard disk
and CD-ROM. The medium may also mean transmission medium
like wired or wireless networks.
MULTIMEDIA COMPONENTS
The multimedia. components include text, graphics,
animation, audio and video. Two or more of these components
are combined into presentations or creations for desired effects
with the target audience.
Text
Text contains d.ata in alphanumeric form. Hardware
required for text precessing requires keyboard, optical scanners,
display screens and printers. The software required for text
processing includes word processors for editing and formatting
text with different fonts, hypertext features etc.
Animation
Computer animation is the use of graphic tools to create
visual effects. The visual effects can be in the form of changes
in shape, colour, lighting, position etc. Computer animation gives
movement to objects. Graphic software is used to create such
objects. Computer animation is used in cartoon films, electronic
advertisements, video games and virtual reality applications.
Indian mythological characters like Hanuman, Ram and Lakshman
are being recreated in cartoon films with animation. Animation
application areas include movies, television production, product
promotions, computer based training and education, graphics
in publishing, web design, virtual reality for simulations,
engineering, advertising and fashion design.
Audio
Audio is an important component of multimedia. Audio or
sound is produced by vibration of matter. As the matter vibrates,
variations in air pressure around it is propagated in a wave like
motion. Audio techniques deal with processing of these sound
waves. Audio component deals with synthesizing, recording and
play back of audio. It is extensively used in education and
training software. Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) is
another technology that helps in enhancing audio special effects.
Video
It is a sequence of moving images of a real life situation.
Properties of human eye and neuronal processing are critical
factors in video systems. With 30 frames per second, video
motion appears smooth and continuous.
Images
Image is a spatial representation of an object. Images are
represented in computer with a matrix of numeric values to
manipulate pixels. That is, digital images are stored as two-
dimensional array of values. Each value represents the data
associated with a pixel.
Graphics
Computer graphics deal with the generation and
manipulation of digital objects. The objects may be drawn with
graphic software or scanned-in with digital scanners. The objects
can be animated by controlling speed, portion of the total scene
in view etc.
APPLICATIONS OF MULTIMEDIA
The flexibility of using different types of data for
communication makes multimedia especially suitable for some
applications like education, training, entertainment,
advertisement, cartoon movies, video games etc.
Multimedia in education
Multimedia is particularly suitable for developing digital
content for education and presenting it attractively. The
students can view text in a text box which can be scrawled up
and down. Simultaneously, they can listen to audio that reads
out the text. Drawings and animation are used to make objects
appear real life with movements.
Multimedia in Training
Another important use of multimedia is in training. Voice,
text, images, movies and animation are used in developing
training material. The trainees can interact with the software.
Multimedia makes the presentation visually attractive and
stimulates thinking.
236 Multimedia
Special effects in movies
Multimedia technology is used in movies for special effects.
Movies with multimedia effects are much in demand. Jurassic
park, Spiderman, Harry Potter and Titanic are examples where
multimedia helps in creating special effects.
Multimedia on the web
With multimedia, emails, instant messaging and websites
can be made much more attractive and lively. It can be used to
enrich the content and provide interactivity for the users. It
can attract more visitors to the site. The Web has become the
standard medium for global communications.
Multimedia in Printing and Publishing
Multimedia is used in printing and publishing to improve
quality of print and layouts. With a variety of font designs,
colours, graphics etc. multimedia can be used to enhance quality
of printing and publishing.
Multimedia in Designing
Computer graphics and 3-D object modeling help designing
in creating designs of objects with ease. A range of colours,
forms, textures and tones enable them to experiment with
designs. Multimedia, thus, enables designers to give shape to
their imagination virtually.
SUMMARY
Multimedia software can handle different types of data
simultaneously and this capability makes it extremely useful
for attractive presentation of information. It makes any
presentation rich with audio, video and animation. Its use is
growing very rapidly and it opens up large number of career
opportunities for creative IT professionals. the multimedia
professionals are in short supply worldwide.
QUESTIONS
1. What is multimedia? Describe it.
2. What are the applications of multimedia?
3. Describe the components of multimedia.
4. How does multimedia presentation make education and
training more effective?
5. Describe the reasons for the popularity of multimedia.
c
INTRODUCTION
Microsoft PowerPoint is a presentation software. It is part
of Microsoft Office suite of products. It helps in quickly creating
effective slide show presentations. Each presentation can consist
of as many slides as the user wants. Each slide can carry text,
graphics and sound. The slides can be animated to make them
more attractive. It is highly user-friendly and it helps in creating
presentations with multimedia effects.
PowerPoint lets users create and edit individual pages called
slides. There can be a large number of such slides in a
presentation. PowerPoint provides ready-to-use templates for
slides. PowerPoint can be used to create:
Video slide show on the computer screen
Colour transparencies for overhead projector
Black and white transparencies for overhead projector
Speaker notes. Speaker notes are printed on paper
and can contain exact speech or reminder notes, back
up information or combinations of them.
35 mm slides for slide projector
Printed handouts. These are printed copies of all or
some of the slides to be given to the audience at a
presentation. The can be one slide per page or up to
six that can fit in a paper.
Presentation files. The presentation file includes all
the slides of a particular PowerPoint project. These
files have the file extension' . ppt' , e. g., Strategy. ppt.
Parts of a Slide
A fully designed slide will have six parts:
The title that appe~rs at the top of the slide
Body text that is the main part of the slide.
Graphics. Some slides may have pictures or video clips
Date and time. If they appear, they are displayed at
lower left corner of the slide.
Footer. The footer usually appears at the bottom of
the slide.
Slide number. The slide number is usually displayed
at the lower right corner of the slide.
Parts of a Slide
Title
Body text
Graphics
Oata and time
Slide r-urrber
Body text
Graphics
Data and time
Slide Number
Fig. 12.1 :Parts of a PowerPoint window
Most presentations start with a title slide. It contains the

title of the presentation , the name of the speaker and other
240 Powerpoint
introductory details. Other slides also may have titles of sub

themes presented in them.
PowerPoint Views
Microsoft PowerPoint comes with different views to help
the user while creating presentation. They are slide view, slide
sorter view, notes pages view and slide show view. Of them
normal view and slide sorter view are important. To easily switch
between views, click the buttons at the lower left of the
PowerPoint window.
Normal View
Normal view contains three panes:
the outline pane,
the slide pane , and,
the notes pane.
These panes let users work on all aspects of presentation
in one place. The users can adjust the size of the different
panes by dragging the border of the pane borders.
Outline Pane
This view helps in organising and developing the content
of the presentation. Users can type the text to be presented
and rearrange bullet points, paragraphs and slides.
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Fig. 12.2: Outline view

Notes Pane
This pane can be used to add speaker notes or other
relevant information to share with the audience. If graphics
have to be added to the notes, the users must add the notes in
notes page view.
These three panes are also displayed when the user saves
the presentation as web page. The only difference is that the
outlines pane displays a table of contents so that the user can
navigate through the presentation.
Slide sorter view
It permits the user to see all the slides in a presentation
on a screen displayed in miniature. In this form, it is easy to
add, delete or move slides. It also enables the user to add
timings, and select animated transitions for moving from slide
to slide. It is also possible to preview animations on multiple
slides by selecting the slides the user wants to preview and
then clicking 'Animation preview' on the 'Slide Show menu'.
Working with an outline is the best way to organise and
develop content of the presentation because one can see all
titles and main text on the screen as one works. The user can
rearrange points within a slide, move entire slides from one
position to another, and edit titles and body text. For example,
to rearrange slides or bullet items, just select slide icon or
bullet for the text to be moved and then drag it to its new
location.
Slide View
After designing each slide, one can use slide view to know
how the slides will look when presented.
Different ways of delivering a presentation
Microsoft PowerPoint allows a presentation to be delivered
in many ways such as on screen presentation, presentation with
a live speaker, self-running presentation, online meeting,
presentation broadcasting and presentation on the web.
On-screen Presentation
PowerPoint contains special effects and features to make
an online (electronic) presentation exciting and complete. Slide
transitions, timings, movies, sounds, animation, and hyperlinks
can be added to slides to make the presentation attractive.
242 Po w er point
Computer so.ftware
Database
Telecommunications
Networking
The Internet
Fig.12.3: Slide view
Presentation with a live speaker

PowerPoint's Projector Wizard can be used to make a
presentation in large room with a monitor or projector. The
Projector Wizard will automatically set and restore correct
screen resolution for the target projection system .
Self-running Presentation
It is also possible to set up a presentation to run unattended
in a kiosk or boot h at a trade show or convention. A self-running
presentation restarts when it is finished. It also restarts when
it remains idle on a manually advanced slide for longer than
five minutes.
Online meeting
Microsoft NetMeeting program with PowerPoint allows users
to share a presentation and exchange information with people
at different sites in real-time as if everyone were in the same
room. In an online meeting, users share programs and
documents, send text messages in chat, transfer files, and work
on Whiteboard. By collaborating, participants can take control
of the presentation to review and edit its contents. During an
online meeting, users can work in chat or' the Whiteboard
simultaneously if collaboration is turned off.
Presentation on the Web
In PowerPoint, presentations can be specifically made for
the World Wide Web. The 'Save as Web Page' command on the
File menu can be used to publish the presentations. To publish
a presentation means to place a copy of the presentation in
HTML format on the Web.
CREATING A PRESENTATION
Creation of a presentation involves choosing slides, entering
content, formatting text and images of slides, animating slides,
inserting audios and videos etc. A PowerPoint presentation can
be made in several ways.
The AutoContent Wizard is one method. It suggests contents
and design for the presentation.
Creation of presentation can also start with an existing
presentation and user can change it to suit his or her needs.
Another way to start creating a presentation is by selecting
design template that determines presentC\.tion's design and not
the content.
Yet another way to create a presentation is to start with .
an outline that can be imported from another application or
with a blank presentation that has neither suggested content
nor design.
It is also possible to create a presentation in PowerPoint
from scratch. .
Click 'New' on File menu to create a presentation.
PowerPoint displays a dialogue box as follows with four options
such as AutoContent Wizard, Design Templates, Blank
Presentation, and Open an Existing Presentation .
Create a presentation based on a design template
1. On the File menu, click New, and then click the Design
Templates tab.
2. Scroll to see all the design templates , click the one
you want, and then click OK.
3. Scroll to see the slide layouts, and then select a layout
for your title slide.
4. Type the title and any other content you want on the
title slide.
244 Powerpoint
F;g. 12.4: Opt;ons for creat;ng a new presentat;on ;n

PowerPo;nt
5. On the Formatting toolbar, click Common Tasks, click

New Slide , and then select a layout for the next slide.
6. Add the content you want.
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 for each new slide .
8. When you finish, click Save on the File menu.
9. Name your presentation, and then click Save.
Create a presentation based on an eXisting presentation
1. On the Standard toolbar, click Open, and find and
open the presentation you want.
2. Change the presentation to suit your needs.
For example, you can change text, add or remove slides,
change the color scheme, or use the slide master to change
items on the background or to change the appearance of the
font. .
3. On the File menu, click Save As.
4. In the File name box, enter a name for the new
presentation.
5. Click Save.
Create a presentation based on suggested content and design
1. On the File menu, click New, and then click the
General tab.
2.. Double-click AutoContent Wizard, and then follow the
instructions in the wizard.
PowerPoint opens a sample presentation that you can add
your own words and pictures to.
3. Change the sample presentation to suit your needs.
For example, type your text in place of the sample text,
add or delete slides, and add pictures or other items that you
want.
Create a presentation from an existing outline
You can import an outline created in another program, such
as Word. You can also insert an outline into an existing
presentation.
You can use text created in other programs to make a new
presentation or to add slides to an existing presentation.
PowerPoint can import Word documents, and documents in Rich
Text Format (.rtf), plain text format (.txt), or HTML. format
(.htm).
When you import a Word document, an HTML document, or
a Rich Text Format document, PowerPoint uses the outline
structure from the styles in the document. A heading 1 becomes
a slide title, a heading 2 becomes the first level of text, and so
on. If the document contains no styles, PowerPoint uses the
paragraph indentations to create an outline. When you import
a plain text document, tabs at the beginning of paragraphs define
the outline structure. The slide master in the current
presentation determines the format for the title and text.
Create a presentation from scratch
1. On the Standard toolbar, click New, aild then select
the layout you want for your title slide.
2. Type the title and any other content you want on the
title slide.
246 Powerpoint
You can add text in either the slide pane or the outline
pane.
3. Click Common Tasks on the Formatting toolbar, and
then click New Slide. Scroll to see more layouts, and then select
a layout for the next slide.
4. Add the content you want.
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 for each new slide.
6. Change the presentation to suit your needs .
CREATING A BLANK PRESENTATION

To create a blank presentation , choose File, New, General ,
Blank presentation or
Cli ck the 'New' icon on the standard tool bar.
PowerP6int Starts with a single sli de. The user can choose
the slide type from the Slide/Auto Layout dialogue box.
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Fig. 12.5: SHde types listed from AutoLayout
Click the slide layout desired and click ' OK'. Now, the user
can-start entering content of the slide.
Click to add titl e
Click to add , 1lbtitle
Fig. 12.6: Insert;ng a new sUde
Click the title area and enter the titl e of the presentation.
Next click the box below to add sUbtitle and other relevant
details of the presentation like name of speaker etc. For
example, let us create a pres~ntation on 'I nformation
Technology'. Let us enter' Information Technology for Business'
in the title area and speaker details 'By Arun and Arati' in the
subtitle area.
TEDWOlOOV FOR
BUSINESS
BY
ARU'-l S. AAATI
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
FOR BUSINESS
BY
ARUN &ARATI
F;g.12.7: Add;ng content to a sUde

248 Powerpoint
Now, the title slide is created. The user can format the
text in edit mode.
The presentation can be formatted adding colour to it by
clicking 'Slide colour scheme' on Format menu. To add another
slide to the presentation, click 'New slide' on Insert menu. Click
the title box of the new slide and enter 'Information Technology'.
Next, click the text box below and type as follows.
Computer Hardware
Computer Software
Database
Telecommunications
Networking
The Internet
It would look better if we add bullets to the points typed
in. Select the text just typed in and click on 'Bullets and
Numbering' in format menu.
Fig. 12.8: Choosing bullets for the slide points.
Click the bullet type that you want to use. PowerPoint

inserts the bullets. Next, insert as many slides as required. It is
good practice to list a few points on a slide to avoid clutter and
to make the presentation more appealing.
Changing Slide Layout
It is possible to change slide layout of a presentation already
created. The steps are:
1. In normal or slide sorter view, select the slide you
want to change.
2. On the Formatting toolbar, click Common Tasks, and
then click Slide Layout.
3. Use the scroll bar to view all layouts, click the one
you want, and then click Apply.
4. Rearrange any overlapping or hidden objects to fit the
new layout.
Formatting slides
The slides designed in PowerPoint can be formatted with
slide text formatting, colour scheme formatting, adding
transitions, adding animation, recording voice narration etc.
Adding transitions to a slide show
1. In slide or slide sorter view, select the slide or slides
you want to add a transition to.
2. On the Slide Show menu, click Slide Transition.
3. In the Effect box, click the transition you want, and
then select any other options you want.
4. To apply the transition to the selected slide, click
Apply.
To apply the transition to all the slides, click Apply to All.
5. Repeat the process for each slide you want to add a
transition to.
To view the transitions, on the Slide Show menu, click
Animation Preview.
Changing slide background
You can change the appearance of your slide background
by changing its color, shade, pattern, or texture. You can also
use a picture as a slide background, but you can use only one
type of background on a slide or master. For example - you can
have a shaded background, a textured background, or a picture
as the background, but you can use only one of these on a single
slide. When you change the background, you can apply the
250 Powerpoint
change to only the current slide or to all the slides and the
slide master.
Formatting Slides with Colour Scheme
Fig.12.9: Formatting colour scheme of slides.
The slides can be rearranged in slide sorter view. Slides

can be dragged or cut and paste can be used to cut a slide and
paste it in any order in the presentation file. If the user is
satisfied with the presentation created, it should be saved by
clicking 'Save' on File menu. Type a file name and click 'Save'.
Thus, a presentation is created and saved in PowerPoint. It can
be reviewed, rehearsed and modified to make it more attractive
and effective. Colours and special effects can be added to the
slides to make them more attractive. The user can also add
narration to the presentation. Save the presentation after all
the modifications are carried out.
Running a Slide Show
PowerPoint has a large variety of options to choose from
for running a presentation. Open a presentation and click 'Slide
Show' on View menu to run an existing slideshow. Mouse click
or arrows can be used to navigate through the slides in a
presentation file. The slide show we created will appear on the
screen as follows when run.
FOR BUSINESS
BY
ARUN &ARATI
Fig 12.10: Appearance of title slide when slide show is run
Use mouse click to move on with the presentation. The up

arrow can also be used to move to the next slide.
Computer hardware
Computer software
Database
Telecommunications
Networking
The Internet
Fig. 12.11: Content slide with bulle ted points

252 Powerpoint
Inserting pictures
Pictures can be inserted in a slide. Pictures from the clip
art of saved file can be inserted in a slide.
N TECHNOLOGY
The Internet
Telecommunications
Networking
The Internet
Fig. 12.12: Inserting picture in a slide from Clip Art.
Now, run the presentation to see the slide after the picture
is inserted.
Computer hardware
Computer software
Database
Telecommunications
Networking
The Internet
Fig.12.13: Picture in a slide

Applying Templates
Design templates contain color schemes, slide and title
masters with custom formatting (see next section), and styled
fonts, all designed to create a particular look. When you apply
a design template to your presentation, the slide master, title
master, and color scheme of the new template replace the slide
master, title master, and color scheme of the original
presentation. After you apply a design template, each slide you
add has the same custom look.
PowerPoint has a number of design templates. The user
can choose any of them and apply to the presentation which he
or she is currently working on. The steps in applying a design
template are:
1. Open the presentation you want to apply a different
design to.
2. On the Formatting toolbar, click Common Tasks, and
then click Apply Design Template.
3. Find and select the design you want to use - or any
presentation whose design you want to use - and then click
Apply.
Fig.12.14: Choosing a deign template
PowerPoint comes with a wide variety of professionally

designed templates. In addition, you can create your own
254 Powerpoint
templates. If you create a special look for one of your

presentations, you can save it as a template.
After PowerPoint lists design templates choose one of the
design templates for the presentation that is being made.
Fig.12.15: Applying Design Template
After choosing the design template, click Apply on the right

bottom corner of the dialogue box. PowerPoint applies the design
template to the presentation.
Slide Master
The slide master controls the format and placement of the
titles and text you type on slides, while the title master controls
the format of the title slide and any other slide you designate
as a title slide, such as a section opener. Masters also hold
background items, such as graphics you want to appear on every
slide. Any change you make to a slide master is reflected on
each slide. If you want an individual slide to look different from
the master, you can make changes to that slide without changing
the master. .
Co mputer Fundam entals 255
POWERPOINT
PRESENTATIONS
Parts of a Slide
Title
Body text
Gmphics
Data and time
Slide Nwnber
March 18, 2006
Fig . 12.16: Presentation after applying the Design

template 'Straight Edge' .
Click to edit Master title H?tyl~

Click to edit Master text styles
Second level
Thi rd level
" F()IJth level
Fifth level
.............. ......... ................................9I?~.t_.~~~.~.~~.~~~~~_ .. i

~;~ea:
Fig. 12.17: Slide master

256 Powerpoint
Colour Scheme
Color schemes are sets of eight balanced colors designed
for use as the main colors of a slide presentation -for text,
background, fill, accents, and so on. Each color in the scheme
is used automatically for a different element on the slide. You
can pick a color scheme for an individual slide or for an entire
presentation . When you apply a design template to a
presentation, you can choose from a set of pre-designed color
schemes made to go with that design template . This makes it
easy to change color schemes for a slide or an entire presentation
and know that the new color scheme will harmonize with the
rest of the slides in your presentation.
Slide layouts
When you create a new slide , you can select from 24 pre-
designed slide layouts: for example, there is a layout that has
placeholders for a title, text, and a chart; and there is another
with placeholders for a title and clip art. The title and text
placeholders follow the formatting of the slide master for your
presentation. You can move, resize, or reformat the placeholders
so that they vary from the slide master. You can also change the
layout of a slide after you create it. When you apply a new
layout, all text and objects remain on the slide , but you might
need to rearrange them to fit the new layout.
Record a voice narration
To do this procedure, you need a microphone.
1. On the Slide Show menu, click Record Narration.
A dialog box appears showing the amount of free disk space
and the number of minutes you can record.
2. If this is the first time you are recording, do the
following:
Click Set Microphone Level, and follow the directions to
set your microphone level.
To insert the narration on your slides as an embedded object
and to begin recording, click OK.
To insert" the narration as a linked object, select the Link
narrations in check box, and then click OK to begin recording.
4. Advance th rough the slide show, and add narration as
you go.
At the end of the show, a message appears.
5. To save the timings along with the narration, click
Yes. To save only the narration, click No.
Insert music or sound on a slide
1. Display the slide you want to add music or sound to.
2. On the Insert menu, point to Movies and Sounds.
To insert a sound from the Clip Gallery, click Sound from
Gallery, and then locate and insert the sound you want.
To insert a sound from another location, click Sound from
File, locate the folder that contains the sound, and then double-
click the sound you want. .
A sound icon appears on the slide.
4. A message is displayed. If you want the sound to play
automatically when you go to the slide, click Yes; if you want
the sound to play only when you click the sound icon during a
slide show, click No.
5. To preview the sound in normal view, double-click the
sound icon.
PRESENTING ANIMATION
Animate text and objects

1. In normal view, display the slide that has the text or
objects you want to animate.
2. On the Slide Show menu, click Custom Animation,
and then click the Effects tab.
If you are animating a chart created in Microsoft Graph,
click the Chart Effects tab.
3. Under Check to animate slide objects, select the
check box next to the text or object you want to animate.
4. Under Entry animation and sound and Introduce text
(if you are animating text), select the options you want.
For Help on an option, click the question mark and then
click the option.
258 Powerpoint
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 for every object you want to

animate.
6. Click the Order and Timing tab.
7. To change the order of animation, select the object
you want to change under Animation order, and then click one
of the arrows to move the object up or down in the list.
8. To set the timing, select the object and then do one
of the following:
To start the animation by clicking the text or object, click
On mouse click.
To start the animation automatically, click Automatically,
and then enter the number of seconds you want to have elapse
between the previous animation and the current one.
9. To preview animations, click Preview.
Add an effect to an animated object after it appears
1. In normal view, display the slide you want to add an
effect to.
2. On the Slide Show menu, click Custom Animation,
and then click the Effects tab.
3. Under Check to animate slide objects, select the
object you want to add an effect to, and then click an option
under After animation.
4. Repeat the procedure for each object you want to
add an effect to.
Create a hyperlink to a custom show or a location in the current
presentation
1 . Select the text or object you want to represent the
hyperlink.
2. Click Insert Hyperlink.
3. Click Place in This Document.
4. In the list, select the slide or custom show you want
to go to.
5. To assign a tip to be displayed when you rest the mouse
pointer on the hyperlink, click Screen Tip and then type the
text you want.
If you do not specify a tip, the path or URL of the file is
used.
6. Click OK.
7. To preview how a hyperlink will appear in the slide
show, click Slide Show at the lower left of the PowerPoint
window
MAnON TECHNOLOGY
Telecommunications
Networking
The Internet
Fig. 12.18: Inserting hyperlink
Inserting Slide Number, date and Time

1. On the View menu, click Header and Footer.
2. To add the information to your slides, click the Slide
tab.
To add the information to notes pages and handouts, click
the Notes and Handouts tab.
3. Select the options you want.
4. To add the information to only the current slide, click
Apply.
To add it to all slides in the presentation, click Apply to
All.
Insert a picture from the Clip Gallery
1. Display the slide you want to add a picture to.
260 Powerpoint
2. (tick Insert Clip Art on the Drawing toolbar, and then

click the Pictures tab.
3. Click the category you want.
,
4. Click the picture you want, and then click Insert Clip
on the shortcut menu.
5. When you are finished using the Clip Gallery, click the
Close button on the Clip Gallery title bar.
Insert an animated GIF picture on a slide
1. Display the slide you want to add the animated GIF
picture to.
To insert an animated GIF picture from the Clip Gallery,
click Insert Clip Art on the Drawing toolbar and then click the
Motion Clips tab.
To insert an animated GIF picture from a file, on the Insert
menu, point to Picture, and then click From File.
If you clicked Insert Clip Art in step 2, click the animated
GIF picture you want to add to your slide, and then click Insert
Clip on the menu that appears.
If you clicked From File (Insert menu, Picture submenu)
in step 2, locate the folder that contains the animated GIF
picture you want to insert, and double-click the picture.
4. To preview how the animated GIF picture will appear
in the slide show, click Slide Show at the lower left of the
Microsoft PowerPoint window.
Insert an organization chart
1. Display the slide you want to add an organization chart
to.
2. On the Insert menu, point to Picture, and then click
Organization Chart.
3. Use the Organization Chart tools and menus to design
your chart.
For Help on creating a chart, click Index on the Organization
Chart Help menu.
4. To return to PowerPoint, click Exit and Return to
Presentation on the Organization Chart File menu.
Slide Transition
Transitions can be added to a slide to make it more attractive.
Follow the following steps to add transitions to a slide.
1. In slide or slide sorter view, select the slide or slides
you want to add a transition to.
2. On the Slide Show menu, click Slide Transition.
3. In the Effect box, click the transition you want, and
then select any other options you want.
4. To apply the transition to the selected slide, click Apply.
To apply the transition to all the slides, click Apply to All.
5. Repeat the process for each slide you want to add a
transition to.
To view the transitions, on the Slide Show menu, click
Animation Preview.
Printing a Presentation
To print a presentation, open the presentation and click 'Print'
on File menu. Choose the slides in the 'Print What' selection box
in the Print dialogue box. Slides can be printed in the following
ways.
Slides one slide per page
Notes page. Each page contains one slide and speaker notes .
1 ItIe
Body tellt
Q"aphiCs
Data ard tllnEI
Slide I\l.Irrber
Fig.12.19: Printing a presentation

262 Powe~point
Handouts (2 slides per page)

Slides can also be printed vertically or horizontally on paper.'
The slides can also be printed in black and white even though
they are having colours.
SUMMARY
Microsoft PowerPoint is a presentation software. It comes
bundled together in Microsoft Office with other office applications
like MS Word, MS Excel, MS Access etc. It helps in quickly creating
presentation slides, speaker notes, handouts etc. with considerable
ease. The PowerPoint software has a large number of features,
like animation, adding narration etc., which make the slide show
a very attractive way of presenting information. It is an easy way
to create multimedia presentation as well.
QUESTIONS
1. Describe the different views in Microsoft PowerPoint.
2. Explain the steps in creating a presentation in PowerPoint.
3. Explain the use of AutoContent Wizard in PowerPoint.
4. Describe the various parts of slide.
5. How do you create a blank presentation in PowerPoint?
6. How do you create presentation with design template in
PowerPoint?
7. How do you run a presentation in PowerPoint?
..
8. Describe the steps in adding voice narration to a slide .
9. Describe how you will insert hypertext in a slide.
10. Describe how you will insert date and time in a slide.
11. How do you insert slide number in a slide?
1'.
.~ .. ..
CH" '<.k,R
INTRODUCTION
Computers are to be directed to do any task and these
directions are called instructions. A set of instructions to carry
out a task is called a program. The program instructions to
computers are in the form of strings of binary digits. These
instructions are to comp l,' with some notation system called
language. Over the past several decades, three types of
languages have been developed. They are machine language,
assembly language, and high-level language.
Of the above languages computer directly understands only
machine language, which is the natural dialect of the machine.
The machine instructions are in binary codes of 0 and 1. But
writing machine language instructions is laborious, as it requires
thorough understanding of the machine configuration and
programming as well. Later assembly language was developed
to facilitate programming. This language employed mnemonics
such as READ, LOAD, etc. in place of operation codes. But still
there was lot of difficulty in programming. High-level languages
were later developed to make programming easy. The
instructions in high-level languages resemble ordinary English
statements and are easy to learn and use. High-level languages
(HLL) require a translator to convert high-level langua'ge
instructions into machine language instructions. This translation
program is called a compiler and each HLL requires a compiler.
264 Programming Languages
Machine Language
A sequence of machine instructions in binary systems to
the machine to perform a task is a machine language program.
The machine instruction has two parts: an operation code and
an operand address. The operation code specifies the op.e ration
to be carried out and the operand address specifies the address
in memory where the operand or instruction is stored or to be
stored. Both the operation code and the operand address are
represented in the form of a string of binary digits.
Some of the first programmers wrote their programs in
binary system. Later the programmers preferred the more
familiar decimal system to write the program leaving the input
device to convert these inputs into binary. A set of machine
instructions written in binary or decimal system in accordance
with the specific design of the computer is called machine code
or language. The program design is determined by some features
of the machine such as the type of registers , word length of
registers and memory, etc. Because of the computer
architecture's influence on programming, the language is called
machine dependent language .
Machine language is a set of instruction codes , which can
be directly recognised by the CPU without the help of a translator
program. The program instructions in machine language are thus
directly converted into electrical signals to execute them.
Advantages
i. Machine language requires less memory space than
other languages.
ii. Programs in machine language can be executed
directly.
iii. It does not require any translating program.
Disadvantages
i. The programs in machine language are not portable
across machines unless the processors are the same
as the language is machine dependent.
ii. Programming in machine language is laborious and
tedious as it requires keeping track of memory
locations, operation codes, state of execution of
commands , intermediate results, etc.
iii. Programming in machine language is error prone as it
taxes programmer's memory so much and limits his
ability to think logically through the coding.
iv. It is very difficult to locate and debug errors in machine
language. The machine language programmer has to
remember all the operation codes, what each code
does and how it affects various registers of the
processor.
v. Besides he has to keep track of all the operands and
know exactly where they are stored in memory.
vi. It requires deep knowledge of the internal structure
of the computer and hence only computer experts can
program a computer in machine language.
Assembly Language
To overcome the problems of programming in machine code
mnemonics were introduced. These mnemonics are just memory
aids as these abbreviated words are easy to remember than a
series of digits. Thus the first step in the evolution of
programming language was the development of assembly
language. In this language, mnemonics, which are usually two
to four letter words, are used in place of operation codes in
machine language and strings of characters to indicate addresses
of location. This language is designed to replace each machine
instruction with a human understandable mnemonics (such as
MUL for multiply, DIY for divide and SUB for subtract, etc. and
each address with an alphanumeric string. The coding should
be matched with specific design of a computer processor
structure. Therefore a programmer requires a thorough
knowledge of programming techniques as well details of the
internal logical structure of the machine. The symbolic code in
assembly language should be translated into its machine code
equivalent. The mnemonic operation codes should be translated
into absolute numeric operation codes. The symbolic address
of operands should also be translated into absolute numeric
addresses. This translation requires a special program called
assembler, usually supplied by the manufacturer along with the
machine. It is called assembler because it assembles the codes
after translation into machine codes in the memory ready for
execution.
Mnemonics Function
ADD to add one byte or word to another byte or word
INC to increment one byte of word by one
SUB to subtract
DEC to decrement by one
MOV to copy a byte or word from a given source to
specified destination
XCHG to exchange bytes or words
CALL to call a procedure
RET to return from a procedure to calling program
The computers can be programmed to recognise certain
combinations of letters or numbers and substitute them with
the equivalent numeric codes. For example, every time MUL
appears in a program, the machine can be programmed to
substitute it with its corresponding numeric code. Similarly, the
machine can be trained to translate a symbolic code into
machine. The language which substitutes letters and symbols
for the letters and symbols in the machine language is called
assembly language and the system software that does the
translation is called assembler.
The source code is developed first using the instruction
set in a text editor. Assembler converts the source code into
object code and a linker program links the object code into a
directly executable program.
Advantages of Assembly Language
Both the machine and assembly languages, being oriented
towards the internal structure of the machine, are referred to
as low-level languages. Yet assembly language has a number of
advantages over the machine language.
i. Assembly language is easier to understand and use than
_machine language as it employs easy to understand
symbols in place of numeric codes .
. ii. It is easier to locate and correct errors in assembly
language. Fewer errors occur while coding and these
errors can be more easily removed.
iii. The program in assembly language can be more easily
modified which is very difficult in machine language.
Recording of the logic is preferred to modifying a

program in machine language in case of errors.
iv. Greater flexibility in writing programs in assembly
language matching the computer as all the details of
the processor are available to the programmer.
Disadvantages
i. It is machine dependent. The programs are not
portable across machines as each program is written
keeping in mind the specific design features of the
machine.
ii. Programming in assembly language is difficult. It
requires expert knowledge of the internal structure
of the processor and the assembly language
programming techniques.
iii. Assembly language programming is time consuming.
High Level Language
It was realised that the enormous potential of computer
could be realised only if a non-expert user con effectively use
the computer for problem solving. This necessitated the
development of high-level language. The focus shifted from
machine-oriented language to problem-oriented language. Such
problem-oriented languages enable a programmer to write
appropriate algorithms to solve problems in natural languages
like English.
The two-part machine instruction in numbers was thus
replaced by notation systems made up of natural language words.
Such notation systems used to represent algorithms are called
high level languages. A high level language to represent
algorithms adequately must have some features such as:
i. facility to describe the data items and data structures.
ii. operators which are appropriate to the data items and
data structures in the languages
iii. a set of characters using the symbols and definition
of the precise meaning of the symbols or things of
such symbols (for example * for multiplication).
iv. a set of words with each having a precise and
unambiguous meaning.
v. a set of syntax rules which specify the permissible

combination of the words and operators.
vi. a set of semantic rules which assign meaning to each
valid syntactic structure
vii. the syntax and semantic rules of the language besides
being precise should aid in understanding of the
program, and,
viii. control structures to sequence the operation to be
performe'd.
Since the high level language is not machine dependent
the programs in high-level language are portable, that is
executable on any machine, though it may require some
modifications. The programmer saves a great deal of time using
high-level language for programming. But it makes the work of
computer harder as the program requires translation into
machine language before execution. This requires a specially
written program, which may be either a compiler or an
interpreter. These programs are pre-stored in the machine.
The compilers are written by professional programmers,
and they are machine independent. That is, the same compiler
can be used on any computer regardless of its configuration.
There are some fixed rules for writing programs in HLL. They
resemble grammar of any language. These are called the syntax
rules of the language. If these rules are violated, the compiler
will detect them and list them while translating instructions in
HLL to machine language i.e. source code into object code.
Examples of HLL are COBOL, BASIC, FORTRAN, etc.
Advantages of High Level Languages
i. It is easy to learn and use. High-level language is easy
to learn and use as it is close to a familiar language
like English.
ii. Better documentation. High-level language to a large
extent is self-documenting, as it is more like the
language of the problem.
iii. Portability. Programs written in high level language
are portable across machines, as the language is
machine-independent.
iv. Programming efficiency. Programmer productivity is
very high as the programmer can code several times
more lines of program than in any other language.
v. Improved debugging facility. Error detection and
removal is easier in high-level language as the program
is easily readable and only logical errors need be
checked. Syntax errors are detected and displayed by
the compiler for correction.
vi. Fewer errors. Since the programmer is not required
to remember all the small steps to be carried out by
the machine, fewer errors are likely to be there in
the code.
vii. Programs in high-level languages are easier to maintain
than those in the low-level languages.
Disadvantages
i. Lower efficiency. The machine takes more time and
main memory to run a program in high-level language.
The object program tends to be less efficient in terms
of storage utilisation and running time.
ii. Less flexibility. The high level language is less flexible
than machine language as the automatic features of
the high level languages always occur and are not
under the control of the programmer. A large number
of rules are to be adhered to in programming.
iii. High-level language requires translation. A translator
program (interpreter or compiler) is required in
translating source code into object code.
Types of High Level Language
High-level languages are divided into two classes such as:
procedural languages, and non-procedural languages. In case
of procedural language the program control is with the
programmer and he decides in what sequence the instructions
are to be carried out. In the case of non-procedural languages
the program control is left to the system but the programmer
instructs the system to produce certain results and does not
specify the small steps required in achieving the result. COBOL
is a procedural language. There are some non-procedural
languages that fall in fourth generation language (4GL) category.
POPULAR HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES

Some of the popular high-level languages are briefly
introduced in the following section.
BASIC
Prof.John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz developed the BASIC
language in the year 1964 at Dartmouth College in the USA.
Their purpose was to develop a language that would be very
easy to learn and program. The purpose has been achieved to a
large extent. A person with little or no knowledge of computers
and programming can learn BASIC programming in a short period
of time.
In BASIC as a program is being entered, its statements are
checked for syntax errors which can be immediately corrected.
This feature of BASIC makes it one of the most popular computer
languages used in microcomputer systems. Though simple and
easy to learn, yet it is quite flexible and reasonably powerful.
It can be used both for business and scientific applications.
Probably the greatest drawback of this language is that it has
not yet been standardised. The language varies significantly from
one computer system to another. Thus a BASIC program written
on one computer may not work on another unless modified.
FORTRAN
FORTRAN (FORMULA TRANSLATION) is one of the oldest and
popular high-level languages. It was originally developed by IBM
for its 704 computer in 1957 to solve scientific and engineering
problems. The language, designed as an algebra-based
programming language, is oriented towards mathematical
problems. Any mathematical relationship can be easily expressed
as a FORTRAN instruction. FORTRAN program consists of a series
of statements. These statements supply input / output,
calculation, logic operation and other basic instructions to the
computer.
A simple program in FORTRAN for finding the maximum of
two given numbers:
READ A, B
IF (A.GTR.B) GO TO 20
WRITE 'B IS GREATER'
STOP
20 WRITE' A IS GREATER'
STOP
END
The first statement accepts the values of the variables A
and B. The second one compares A and B. If A is greater than B
the control is transferred to line 20 and prints the result as "A
IS GREATER". Otherwise it prints" B IS GREATER".
PASCAL
This language is named after the French Mathematician
Blaise Pascal and was first introduced in 1971 by Prof.Niklaus
Wirth of the Federal Institute of Technology, Switzerland. It is
the first language to fully embody in an organised way the
concepts of structured programming. The language is relatively
easy to learn and it allows the programmer to structure the
programming problem. The program is designed as modules and
a main module, which controls the program, calls the other
modules. This language can be used for both scientific and
commercial applications.
Example of simple Pascal program
program add up(input, output)
var. maximum,sum,number,l:integer
begin
sum:= 0;
read(maximum);
for i := 1 to maximum do
begin
read(number);
sum:=sum+number;
end;
writeln ('Total= 'sum);
end.
ADA
This language is named after lady Ada Agustha, daughter
of Lord Byron and the first computer programmer. She was also
an associate of Charles Babbage. ADA is a general-purpose
language developed in 1980 at the Honeywell Computer Company

by a group of scientists headed by Ichbiah on request by the
Department of Defence of the US government for military
applications. ADA is an extremely complicated language with a
very large number of features and capability to use normal
packages. Another feature of ADA is the use of tasks. Tasks are
used to allow concurrent programming which is very useful for
military applications.
C
C is a relatively new language and was designed at Bell
Telephone Laboratories, USA. C is fast becoming the most
popular language. Like PASCAL, C is a block structured language
and has several features that allow the user of various concepts
of structured programming. A special feature of C is that it
allows the manipulation of internal processor registers of the
computer. Thus the language also enjoys the advantage of having
some of the powers of assembly language. Because of this
feature, C is now being extensively used for systems
programming like design of compilers and operating systems.
Most computer vendors of today supply this language along with
their computer systems.
COBOL
COBOL is a very structured language and it has very powerful
data organisation and file handling capabilities. The programmer
can define convenient data structures, design input and output
formats and pet form operations on these data structures using
COBOL statements. COBOL is a programming language developed
during the 1960's and later standardised by ANSI. It is a
procedural language and compared to fourth generation
languages (4GLs), programming in COBOL is a bit too
cumbersome. But its closeness to English language and its
superior and powerful file handling facility make it most suitable
for business data processing.
JAVA
Java is an object oriented programming language. The Java
executable code is machine independent and will run on 2"'\1
system like Macintosh, x8S, Pentium, silicon-graphics or SUio
Spare. Recently all major operating system vendors have
announced to incorporate Java in their operating system.
Other Languages
There are a large number of other high level languages. Of
which, some are very popular such as Visual Basic, C++ and
JavaScript. Similarly there are a number of programmer
productivity tools that are called fourth generation languages
(4GL).
Fourth Generation Languages
These l-anguages are considered to be superior to high-level
languages. These are some programming packages with built in
database management facilities etc. that help in defining data,
validating data, designing input and output forms, handling
queries etc. Compared to high-level languages, these languages
require much less coding. ORACLE, INGRES, SYBASE AND
INFORMIX fall in this category.
Characteristics of a Good Language
A good programming language should have the following
characteristics.
1. Simplicity
The Language should be simple and easy to understand and
use. Simple and easy to learn and use languages like BASIC are
very popular.
2. Naturalness
Most languages are developed for some area of applications.
A language should be natural to the application area for which
it was developed. That {s, it should provide appropriate
operators, data structures, control structures and a natural
language syntax to facilitate easy coding by programmer _
3. Efficiency
The programming language should facilitate efficiency in
coding and execution of programs. It should take minimum
resources like computer memory and coding and execution time
etc.
4. Structured ness
The language should have constructs for controlling
sequence, selection and iteration to facilitate structured
programming.
5. Compactness
The user should be able to concisely code applications
without being too verbose.
6. Extensibility
A good programming language should allow extension
through simple and natural mechanisms.
7. Suitability to Environment
The programming language should be suitable for the
environment for which it is designed. For example, a language
designed for developing real-time applications should be"
interactive. A real-time application system developed in a
language designed to support batch processing cannot be
efficient and robust.
SUMMARY
Over the past few decades, three computer languages have
been developed such as the machine language, the assembly
language and the high level language. The machine language is
the natural dialect of the computer and it processes instructions
in machine language with maximum efficiency. Assembly
language was a step towards making computer a popular data
processing tool. It uses mnemonics as memory aids for the
programmers and made programming easier. Assemblers were
developed to translate programs in assembly language into
machine langu?ge. The high level language is more like the
natural human language. Interpreters and compilers are
developed to translate high-level language programs into
machine language.
QUESTIONS
1. What is computer language?
2. What are the types of computer language?
3. What is machine language? What are the advantages of
machine language?
4. What is High Level Language? What are the advantages of
high-level language?
5. Briefly explain any two high level languages.
6. What are the characteristics of a high level language?
7. What is procedural language?
8. What are the characteristics of a good programmin.g
language?
9. What is fourth generation language?
II
CH _PTER
INTRODUCTION
Computer networking is the process of inter connecting
two or more computers so that the users can communicate with
each other, share resources and overcome other limitations of
stand-alone systems. The network can be established with a
variety of combinations of computers such as a network of only
microcomputers, microcomputers and one or more
minicomputers, and a set of microcomputers connected to a
mainframe computer. The computers in a typical network are
autonomous in the sense that they have processing capability
independent of the network.
With standardised hardware and software, the
microcomputer provides a user-friendly environment. It meets
the computing requirements of most users. But, the need for
interaction with other computer users and with other computer
systems for exchange of data etc. has increased over the years.
Networks are increasingly meeting this need.
It is also possible for computers to communicate between
them. Electronic data interchange (EDI) facilitates the kind of
application to application communication between computers
both having network connectivity.
Advantages of Networking
Networking has become an essential requirement for data
communications. It may be done through wired connections or
wireless connections. It is a critical information technology
infrastructure for any business firm. Once an organisation
connects the computers into a network, it acquires a capability
to communicate innovatively and economically with employees,
distributors, customers and suppliers. The main advantages of
networking are:
i. Resource sharing: Network enables sharing of
expensive resources such as processo~ storage space and
peripherals like modem, fax, and laser printer.
ii. Sharing of Data files: The network permits concurrent
access to the same datafile by many users in the network. Thus
corporate databases are shared by users in many areas like sales
department, production centre, inventory department etc.
iii. Sharing of Software: Any user in a network can load
and use the software installed on any of the computer or
fileserver in the network.
iv. Communication: The Network enables people in an
organisation to communicate among them. It is also possible to
communicate with trading partners and customers outside the
organisation with a connectivity to the Internet. E-mail, voice
mail, instant messaging, video conferencing etc are some of
the communication facilities that can be used for communication
among users on a network.
v. Decentralised Data Processing: In a network, the data
processing can be decentralised by enabling local offices to
capture and store data, and generate information to meet most
of their requirements at local level itself.
vi. Centralised data processing: It is possible to
centralise all data processing activities through a network.
Online trading in securities like that on National Stock Exchange
uses the network to centralise all transaction processing.
vii. Implementation of uniform security measures: With
centralised control over a network, policies concerning data
security can be implemented uniformly.
viii. Electronic commerce: With Internet connectivity
between manufacturing and marketing organisations, it is
possible to do electronic commerce between them and also with
customers.
ix. Implementation of enterprise application systems:
Enterprise application systems like Enterprise Resource Planning
278 Networking and Communications
(ERP) requires a network as essential infrastructure for
implementing them.
TYPES OF NETWORK
The networks can be classified into three: local area
network (LAN), metropolitan area network (MAN) and wide area
network (WAN). They are explained in the following sections.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
WAN is made up of a number of autonomous computers
distributed over a wide geographical area. WANs were originally
developed in the late 1960s to enable communication between
computer centres and sharing of hardware, software and other
communication facilities. WAN can be implemented using private
or public networks. In a private network, an organisation takes
on lease telephone lines to connect such sites into a network.
It is also possible to connect computers in different locations
using microwave or satellite transmission. Public networks are
installed by the Government owned telecommunication
agencies. WAN spans large geographic distances. It is also called
long-haul network. WAN is usually operated at lower speeds than
MAN and involves delay.
Most organisations use private networks for communication.
Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Transactions (SWIFT),
a non-profit organisation of banks, owns a private network. The
network exchanges financial transactions between the
participating financial institutions, about 3000 in number in over
60 countries. The terminals of these participating banks are
hooked with SWIFT's access centres. The network offer.s data
communication service 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.
NICNET, SBINET and WELCOMENET are some of the private
networks in India. NICNET is a network of National Informatics
Centre that connects all the district headquarters in the country.
SBINET is a private network of State Bank of India and connects
its branches across the country. WELCOMNET connects the hotels
of the Welcome Group.
Public Networks
Public networks came up first in the 1970s to facilitate
data communication and to provide value-added services to
users. The US AT&T's Advanced Communication Services, British
Post Office's Prestel, the US Telenet, DATAPAC of Bell Canada,
TRANSPAC of France etc. are some examples.of Public Networks.
They are run by both private corporations and
Telecommunication Departments of the state.
Metropolitan area network
Metropolitan area network covers a wider area than a local
area network. Usually MAN covers a large metropolitan city and
is a scaled down version of wide area network. It operates at
high speeds over distances sufficient for a metropolitan area.
LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)

A LAN is a system of interconnected microcomputers,
sharing common resources like disks, printers etc. It links a
number of computers (workstations) together to allow many
people to use the same software and data files. Each user in
such a multi-user environment accesses the resources through
his microcomputer workstation. The network operating system
integrates all the network components and makes operations
smooth and transparent. LAN works in restricted geographical
area such as within a large building or offices within a few
kilometres.
In other words, LAN is an interconnection of computers
that need to communicate with each other in a limited
geographical area. The network may have other sharable devices
attached such as fax, laser printers and copiers. The network
includes a central facility with huge storage capacity. The
processing may be centralised or decentralised depending upon
the requirements of the organisation. It also has a network
operating system for managing the network.
LAN TOPOLOGY
The design of network requires selection of a particular
topology and an architecture for the interconnection of network
components. Topology refers to the way the computers are
physically connected into the network. The network architecture
includes the specifications of the components that can be
connected to the network. IBM's Systems Network Architecture
(SNA) is an example of vendor developed network architecture.
Such network architecture specifies network components such
as terminals, workstations, printers, cluster controllers, host

computer and communication controllers.
There are a number of network topologies. Of them ring,
star, bus and tree are popular network topologies.
Star Topology
In a star network, the nodes( workstations) are connected
to a central computer called the host computer. The nodes
cannot communicate directly. Each node can communicate with
the host computer. The host computer takes the message and
routes it to the other node or nodes.
Work~tation
Fig.14.1 Star Network
In a star network, centralisation of control over the network

resources is easy. It is also possible to network minicomputer or
mainframe with other microcomputers and dumb terminals. It
eliminates single point failure of a common wire. If one of the
workstations fails, it does not usually affect the others in the
network. But the hub becomes a central point of failure in a
ring network. If the host computer breaks down, the entire
network breaks down.
Ring Topology
In a ring network the computers can communicate directly
with each other and also with the central computer. The nodes
are connected to a line that is closed like a loop. The ring
network is more reliable than star network. Even if the central
computer in the network fails, the other computers can continue
to communicate with each other.
Workstation
Workstation
RING
WorkstatIOn
Workstation
F;g.14.2 Ring Network
Bus Topology
A bus network configures computers to a single non-looping
channel. The computers connected to the network share the
same bus or communications channel. Bus wiring is easy and
needs much less wiring for small segments.
Fig. 14.3 Bus Network
Old Ethernet bus wiring is prone to cable failure. If the bus

wiring connection is broken at any point, the entire network
fails.
Tree Topology
This is a kind of complex bus topology. The branching cable,
which does not have closed loops, serves as the transmission
medium in a t1ee. The cable begins at a point called the headend
and it branches to connect the workstations or nodes to the
network. Each branch can have additional branches to connect
more workstations.
Fig. 14.4 Tree Network
In most cases, instead of a single topology, a combination

of topologies may be used for greater flexibility and reliability.
Features of LAN
The features of LAN include the following.
limited geographical area, say, within a few kilometres
Common communication link for sharing information,
software and peripheral devices without regard to
proximity of user to such resources on the network.
High transmission capability.
Low error rate as the network contains built in
component for detecting and compensating for system
errors.
Private ownership by the user.
Not subject to regulation by the telecom services.
LAN interconnects computers and components within a
limited geographical area. Such LANs are normally set up within
a single site like a university campus, a business complex, a
hospital, an office-building etc. The site can have one or more
buildings but they should not be too for away, say less than 5
kilometres. A LAf'.I can also interconnect a number of
organisations. The network can also include a variety of
computer systems and devices such as workstations,
microcomputers, file servers, plotters, scanners, graphic
terminals and printers.
A large personal computer or mini computer serves as LAN's
hub. A high capacity hard disk is attached to the hub as data
files and software are stored on the network file server. Users
can load the software on the file server and retrieve data files
for processing. The output can be directed to the printer
attached to the LAN.
LAN Components
The components of LAN are file server, workstation, network
operating system, LAN cable, active and passive hubs etc.
Workstation
It is a single-user microcomputer with high power
communication facilities. It can exchange message with other
workstations or fileserver.
Workstations can be of two types: User workstation and
server workstation. User workstation is a microcomputer on
the network, which is used to access the network. Service
workstation performs service to other workstations on the
network. User workstation normally does not process requests
from other workstations. Server workstation makes available
all sharable network resources to other workstations. More than
one server workstation may be added to the network such as
printer server and fileserver. Normally the server workstation
is the mot powerful workstation. Server workstation may be
dedicated or non-dedicated. In case of dedicated workstation,
it is not available for other user applications. Non-dedicated
server workstation doubles as an individual workstation and at
the same time performs network-related functions.
File Serv~r
File server is actually a process running on a computer that

provides the clients access to files on that computer. The term
is loosely applied to mean computer that runs file server
software. In this sense, it is a powerful computer with special
software to serve files to other workstations on the network.
The files, which may be program files or data files, are
simultaneously shared by a number of workstations. Novell
"'IetWare is a popular network operating system.
Gateway
The gateway assists in communicating between LANs. A
workstation may be dedicated to serve as gateway. This is
required particularly when two networks with different
technologies have to communicate with each other. Gateway
may also be used to connect LAN with a mainframe computer.
Network Interface Unit
The network interface is a printed circuit board installed
in the microcomputer. It may be called network card, network
adapter or network interface unit. It connects the workstations
functionally and physically with the network.
Active Hub
Hub is an electronic device to which multiple computers
are attached usually using twisted pair cables. Active hub is a
powered distribution point with active devices that drive distant
nodes up to one kilometre away. It can connect up to eight
nodes on the network. The maximum distance carried by an
active hub is about 2000 ft.
Passive Hub
This hub is a distribution point that does not use power or
active devices in a network to connect up to four nodes within
a short distance. The maximum distance covered by a passive
hub is nearly 300 ft.
LAN Cable
LAN requires superior cable capable of transferring data
at high speed. Coaxial cables or fibre optic cables may be used
for networking computers.
Network Operating System (NOS)
The NOS integrates all the network components. The NOS
facilitates file and print serving along with other functions like
communications and e-mail between workstations. In most LANs
the NOS exists along with the computer's operating system. The
computer's operating system processes the system requests first
and processes them if they can be done with the workstation
resources. If it is not a local request, meaning that the network
resources have to be used, the request is transferred to NOS for
carrying it out. Thus, the NOS are responsible for controlling
access to data, storage space and sharing of other peripheral

resources.
Application Software
Another component of LAN is application software. It has
to be ensured that the application software works in the multi-
user environment.
Protocols
Data transmission between devices requires protocol.
Protocols are sets of rules and procedures to control the data
transmission between computers and other devices. They are
common technical guidelines for communication between
devices. They specify the order in which signals will be
transferred, the signal for completion of transfer etc. Only
Devices using the same protocol can communicate directly. Both
the sending and receiving devices must use the same protocol
for effecting communication. For communication between
devices using different protocols requires intermediate
interpretation device or software.
The protocol performs the following functions.
Set up a link with the other device involved in the
communication.
Identify the component to other components in the
communication (sending device's channel ID).
Send and interpret the data
Provide a continuous feedback on data transmission
like data are not being received and understood.
Request for retransmission of garbled data.
Engage recovery procedure when error occurs.
Provide an acceptable way of terminating transmission
so that all devices have completed the process.
The protocol is embedded in communications software
designed to use a particular protocol. The user need not bother
about the protocol as the components involved in the
communication perform the protocol matching. The data
communication protocols are of two main types: asynchronous
and synchronous. The synchronous protocol permits continuous
data transmission. The devices in communication must be
synchronised with the other. The transmission is governed by a
time interval and not by start-stop bits. For example, clock, in
the modem, sets the time interval.
INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK (ISDN)

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a generic name
for any form of network that connects users with service firms
such as banks, investment companies, airlines, cinema theatres
etc. using a digital network. The users can be homes, educational
institutions, business firms etc. One important feature of this
network is its ability to connect a wide variety of users and
services to the network using the X.25 interface protocol.
Telephone companies offer digital network service.
DISTRIBUTED SYSTEM
A distributed system interconnects computer locations with
facilities to capture and process data, stores data and sends
information to other computer locations called nodes. Large
organisations interconnect their computer systems at different
offices and plants into network. With Internet technology,
connecting offices across the globe into a single network is
possible at very low costs.
The data processing in such a network can be distributed.
This allows offices, plants etc. to collect, store and process
data as they occur and use the information locally. The
information relevant to other offices and head office is
transferred to the computer location at the headquarters. The
computer facility at the head office can be easily accessed from
multiple nodes on the network. Thus the local offices are able
to capture and process operating data in their own way and at
the same time head office receives all information it needs
from such local offices.
By permitting data transfer and proceSSing at other sites,
the distributed system permits load sharing between nodes. It
also permits sharing of software. It is possible to run software
on re'mote location and the results can be downloaded at the
accessing node.
The distributed system lowers data communication costs
by storing data close to the users. But the system is likely to
have inconsistent data if the same is kept are multiple locations.
Client/Server Computing
A client/server system is a distributed system with a server
and one or more clients. The server is a powerful computer,
usually a mainframe or a minicomputer. The clients are usually
small computers: PCs or workstations. The server and the clients
are interconnected using a network, normally a LAN. The server
and the clients share tasks and processes. The server stores
common programs and data used by several user systems. The
clients request the server for data and programs. The server
processes the requests' and makes available the requested data
and programs.
In addition to the hardware, the client/server (CIS)
computing requires special software at front-end (client side)
and back-end (server side). The friend-end sOftware provides
user interface, facilitates data manipulation and handles
communication with server. The back-end software takes care
of data acquisition and integrity, transaction management and
data recovery in the event of system failure.
Client/server environment is different from a LAN
environment. In a LAN environment the host transfers, on
request, the entire program file or data file to the workstation
for processing. This requires lot of data traffic between the
server and the workstations. In CIS environment the server
processes the request and transfers the data or program
requested by the client; it does not transfer the entire file.
This reduces the data traffic on the network.
SUMMARY
Networks are an essential part of modern information
systems and their importance is fast growing. Communication
networks link computer f acil ities across offices and plants. This
makes possible quicker and more economic forms of
communication, sharing of processing tasks, sharing of expensive
hardware and software resources etc. They also open up new
dimensions for business competition. Internet, Intranets and
extranets have opened up great opportunities for all forms of
communication.
QUESTIONS
1. What is LAN? What are the components of LAN?
2. What in network topology? Explain the popular network
topologies.
3. Explain the meaning and purpose of communication
protocols.
4. What is distributed system?
5. What is client/server computing?
THE INTERNET
'"
INTRODUCTION
The Internet is a giant global network. It is in fact an
amorphous collection of networks and millions of computers
across the globe. It all started with the Advanced Research
Project Network (ARPANET) set up by the Defence Department
of the United States. It wanted to create a large computer
network for military communication with no controlling centre .
ARPANET was used primarily by res'earch institutions until the
mid-1980s when its use was widened. By 1990 the network came
to be known as Internet and since then its growth has been
phenomenal.
The Internet has changed the entire c0m munication and
business paradigm. Though its growth was limited in t h, +;rst
two decades from the early seventies, it grew astronomically in
the 1990s. It is sweeping the entire world by its sheer reach
and ease of use. Millions of host comp i.J ters and users form the
global Internet community that is now opening opportunities
on a scale unheard of before. The Internet technology has
changed the way people communicate, the way companies do
business, the way they distribute products, the way they collect
payments, the way they serve customers, etc. The Internet has,
indeed, caused a paradigm shift and is going to have long-term
impact on society in general and the business in particular. The
business has taken note of the potential of the Net, though
290 The Internet
belatedly, and most business firms are trying to integrate this
technology into their overall business strategy.
The Internet is made up of three kinds of networks'.
High speed backbone networks such as the
supercomputers at San Diego, Cornell, Pittsburgh and
Illinois
mid level networks such as those at universities and
companies, and,
small networks connected to the Internet such as
individual LANs, and computers at companies
The computers, whether networked or not, having Internet
connectivity vary widely in hardware and software resources.
The interconnection of these networks and computers resulted
into a gigantic network, which uses a common communication
protocol: Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP /
IP). The TCP breaks message into small packets and each packet
carries source and destination addresses and sequence number.
The packet stream is assembled at the other end in the order.of
the sequence number to recreate the full message. The IP is
the physical address of the computer on the Net. Every computer
forming the network has a unique IP address and it helps in
routing the message on its way to its destination.
History of the Internet
In the aftermath of the launch of Sputnik by the USSR, the
US Defence Department set up Advanced Research Projects
Agency (ARPA), ~a ter: renamed as Defence Advanced Research
Projects Agency (DARPA), to establish superiority in military
technology. ARPA sponsored a study on computer networking
for communication that cannot be disrupted by the destruction
of a few installations in enemy action. The first ARPANET was
formed by networking four computers at universities of California
Los Angeles, Stanford Research Institute, University of Utah and
University of California, Santa Barbara in 1969.
One of the goals of the ARPANET was research on distributed
computer systems as the US military wanted to develop a failure
tolerant computer network for communication. The purpose was
to have a communication infrastructure without a central syste,"
so that even if a part of the system 'breaks down or is destroyed
by enemy action, rest of the communication system should not
be disturbed. A large number of universities and research
institutions joined the network by connecting their computers
to ARPANET in the early 1970s.
The Tep liP protocols were developed in the mid 1970s by
Vinton Cerf of Stan"ford University and Robert Kahn of BBN
(between 1973 and 1978) and since 1983 they became the
standard protocols for network communication. In the same year
the US government spun off MILNET from ARPANET. By 1984 over
1000 hosts formed part of the Internet.
Meanwhile the Xerox Corporation developed Ethernet
technology for networking computers and around this time TCP I
IP protocols were built into the UNIX operating systems. TCP liP
over Ethernet became a common way for workstations to connect
to one another2 PCs with add-on Ethernet cards and TCP/IP
software made them to talk to UNIX systems. By the middle of
1980s~ TCP liP protocols were used for LANs and WANs and this
period marked the beginning of a period of explosive growth of
the Internet.
Internet Protocols
There are a large number of Internet related protocols.
Some of the important Internet protocols are:
TCP/IP. The Transmission Control Protocol I Internet Protocol
and related protocols are the basic Internet technology which
has paved the way for fast growth in Internet use. This set of
protocols permits any comput~r to communicate with any other
computer regardless of the platform.
HTML The Hyper Text Markup Language defines how text,
images and sound are delivered to users.
HTTP The Hyper Text Transport Protocol decides how HTML
documents are to be served via the Internet.
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol enables the bac;ic text
based message communication between users.
Other support protocols include Telnet, File Transfer
Protocol, Common Gateway Interface etc.
Administration of the Internet
Internet is not controlled by anybody. National Science
Foundation, being instrumental for the creation of Internet has
greater influence on Internet's use. It is responsible for
292 The Internet
maintaining the Internet backbone which is a series of cables

connecting hardware pieces for high speed data communication.
Yet some international bodies like Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF), Internet Resource Task Force (IRTF) and Internet
Architecture Board (lAB) share responsibility for certain
technical aspects of Internet like maintaining protocols, etc.
The ultimate authority on technical matters concerning the
Internet rests with the Internet Society. It monitors the growth
of the Net and deals with the social, political and technical
issues in the use of the Internet.
Internet Society (ISOC)
Internet Architecture Board (lAB)
Internet Engineering Steering Group

Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
Area Director Area Director Area Director

Area Directorate Area Directorate Area Directorate
Fig 15.1: Internet Governance hierarchy.
(Source: Adapted from Ravi Kalkota and Andrew B. Whinston, Frontiers of E-

Commerce, Addison -Wesley, New Delhi~ 1999, p121.)
Growth of the Internet

The setting up in the mid 1980s of the National Science
Foundation Network (NSFNET) by connecting five supercomputers
and providing access to these supercomputer data centres was
a landmark event in the history of the Internet. The growth in
tlle number of Internet hosts is phenomenal since the middle of
1980s. The Internet is the result of collaborative research among
defence department, research institutions and_ universities. The
landmark events in the history of the Internet are given in Table
15.1.
Table 15.1: Landmarks in the History of the Internet
1957 ARPA was formed

1969 ARPANET was commissioned for research into computer networking
1971 E-mail and e-mail utility became available
1973 First international connections to ARPANET. University College of
London and Royal Radar Establishment, Norway.
1974 Telnet
1975 Operational management of the Internet transferred to DCA (DISA).
1979 USENET; ARPA established the Internet Configuration Control Board
(ICCB).
1982 TCP / IP suite declared as standard of Department of Defence.
1983 MILNET separated from ARPANET.
1984 Domain Name System introduced; number of hosts exceeds 1000.
1985 Domain name registration system introduced
1986 NSFNET was established; IETF and IRTF came into existence under
the lAB . .
1988 Internet Relay Chat developed.
1989 Number of hosts exceeds 100,000.
1990 ARPANET ceases to exist; Dial up Internet connections by ISPs
1991 WAIS, Gopher and World Wide Web
1992 Internet Society is chartered; Number of hosts breaks 1,000,000
Veronica released
1993 Business and media take note of Internet; Mosaic takes the Internet
by storm.
WWW proliferates, grew by 341,634 % a year; Gopher grew by 997
%.
1994 ARPANET /Internet celebrates 25th anniversary; shopping malls C~
the Internet.
1995 NSFNET reverts back to research network
Main US back bone traffic re-routed through interc~nnected
network providers.
Search engines developed.
1996 Government restrictions on the Internet use around the world.
(Source: http://www.lsoc.org/zakon I Internet! History IHIT.htmal)
294 The Internet
Services available on the Internet
The following are the services available on the Internet.
World Wide Web
Electronic Mail
Usenetl News groups
FTP
Telnet
Internet Relay Chat
The services are briefly explained in the following section.
World Wide Web
One of the ways of accessing information on the Internet
is through the World Wide Web (WWW or the Web in short). The
Web had its origin in 1989 at the European Centre for Particle
Physics (CERN), Geneva. It was the brainchild of Tim Berners-
Lee. Berners-Lee conceived it as a way of publishing hyperlinked
scientific documents over the Internet. The concept allows users
to follow ideas from one document to another irrespective of
where the documents are stored. The links connect documents
on one computer to documents on the same computer or to
those on other computers in the same location or in distant
locations. The concept was extremely useful in collating data
present in scattered locations.
Meanwhile IBM was working on a concept similar to the
one Berners-Lee was working on and that was later standardised
by the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) as
the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). This language identifies
each element in a document like heading, addresses, paragraphs,
body text etc. with mark up code or tags.
The Web is basically a bunch of resources linked together
with hypertext pointers that allow users to move from one
resource to another on the Net. Each clickable item that
connects the user to more information is a link. All these links
put together is called the Web. The Internet uses client/ server
technology. Any computer on the Internet that uses Hyper Text
Transport Protocol is called a server and the computer that
requests to the server for a service is called a client. The client
computer runs a browser software for requesting, receiving and
presenting information to users.
The Web was restricted mostly to scientific community until
the arrival of Web browsers. The Web caught the imagination of
business and common user communities once the web browsers
became available. The business firms started putting up websites
to provide information about the firm and its products etc. to
users.
A Uniform Resource Locator (URL) that gives the type of
data available and its address identifies each Web site. The
URLs are usually in the form http://www.microsoft.com. where
the term http refers to HyperText Transfer Protocol, the Web's
native format. The graphical Web browsers, like Netscape and
Internet Explorer, give the Web a real touch of class. They are
extremely user-friendly.
E-mail
E-mail is the earliest and most popular Internet tool today.
It began with developers exchanging notes over the ARPANET in
the early 1970s. E-mail systems were later developed for
mainframe platforms and local area networks. E-mail service
providers sprang up offering value added services. All these
environments could exchange e-mail over the Internet using
gateways. The e-mail is the most widely used service on the
Internet and this form of communication is quicker and more
convenient than any other form of communication. It is reliable
and identifies the sender of the message. It works similar to
the paper mail, except that everything is electronic here. The
sender can send message at his convenience. Delivery occurs
immediately if the path to the destination is clear. The recipient
can open the mailbox and read at his convenience. Most e-mail
packages have utilities to reply to the message, forward the
message received to others, to store addresses, to send a
message to multiple destinations etc.
At the e-mail originating an~ destination points e-mail
programs called user agents help the users in typing, editing,
addressing, or viewing messages. The e-mail package in turn
depends on one or more message transfer agents (again
programs) to move the mail across networks from the source to
its destination. These message transfer agents co-operate in
transporting the message over the Internet to deliver it"to the
addressees.
296 The Internet
Telnet
Telnet is a remote login facility. It allows a user with a
microcomputer or a terminal to get connected to a powerful
host far away and use its processing capacity. The user's PC
becomes a terminal of the host telnetted to and can do
processing on the Net. It makes the user believe that the
computer he is currently working on is directly connected to
the host computer or the server he is telnetted to. The low
Internet charges have made telnet a cheap alternative for
computing. Telnet requires opening account on host systems by
the users. With very powerful personal computers available now,
the telnet service is not popular among common users of the
Net.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
FTP can be used to transfer files between computers. Such
file transfer access requires the user to have accounts. But there
are hundreds of anonymous ftp servers from which the user can
download files without opening accounts. These anonymous ftp
sites accept 'anonymous' as login ID and by convention the user's
email address is entered as password.
Internet Relay Chat (lRC)
IRC is a facility for fascinating discussions. It is basically a
chat program that allows several users spread all over the globe
to chat simultaneously. All the people using IRC are split up
into channels representing common topics.
Usenet
Usenet is a worldwide discussion medium. It is also referred
to as Network News or Netnews. Millions of users read Usenet
articles daily and post their views. It is more like a huge bulletin
board service wRh hundreds of message areas or news groups.
The news groups in the Usenet are organised hierarchically with
categories, groups and subgroups. For example, the 'sci'
category includes several subgroups such as Mathematics and
Physics. The Physics subgroup again has a number of subgroups.
Examples of Usenet News Groups
alt. bbs. internet List of Internet accessible
bulletin boards
alto Internet.access. wanted Internet access options by
location
comp.os.ms-windows.misc Microsoft Windows
sci. space. news . NASA and other space news
soc. culture. indian Culture of India.
Internet Hosts and Domains
A host is a computer which is directly connected to the
Internet with a unique address. Domain Name System is an
inter-network system used to keep order in computer addresses
by converting computer host names into numeric IP addresses.
There has been a phenomenal increase in the number of hosts
in the 1990s. A study by Mark Lottar of Network Wizards in July
1995 put the number of hosts at 6.642 million with 120,000
domains. The number of hosts and domains in January 1995 were
4.852 million and 71,000 respectively. These numbers have
increased rapidly ever since.
Number of Hosts and Domains
Network Solutions Inc. (NSI) is responsible for allocating
Internet domain names for companies and organisations wanting
to put up Web sites under the major international top level
domains. The statistics from NSI reveal that it allocated four
times more second level domain names in 1996 as compared to
that of 1995. At the end of 1995, it had issued 198,741 second
level domain names but this number increased to 897,567 by
the end of 1996.
CORE FEATURES OF THE INTERNET

There are some characteristics of the Internet that gave it
the potential to deliver a special s.et of business benefits over
and above existing IT technologies. Some of these features are
discussed below.
Simplicity of Use
The software that accesses the Internet (the Web browser
software) is comparatively easy to learn and simple to use. It
298 The Internet
can operate on a wide range of operating system platforms and
can access any mainstream application like SAP and Oracle. The
flexibility of the Web, combined with the simplicity of the
browser software, has resulted in reduced staff training costs,
lower development costs and an increase in the range of users
who can have access to the organisation through its website.
Breadth of Access
The Internet is a global network like the telephone network.
Its access is not conditioned by geographic boundaries. Unlike
the telephone network, the cost involved in global connection
is not related to the distance involved. No other communication
medium has had access to such a large audience and range of
people which increases the ability to leverage the value of
information to a scale that has never before been possible.
Synergy with other Media
Apart from using the existing telecommunication
technology, it supports qr complements other media. Internet
services have demonstrated a high degree of synergy with other
media as can be seen, from the following examples:
book, magazine and newspaper publishers have used
the Web to supplement and extend their written
products.
Publishers of CD-ROMs have ,used the Web to maintain
the currency of the information they can deliver.
Microsoft's encyclopaedia CD-ROM, Encarta, allows
seamless interface to information accessed from the
company's Web site.
Publishers of software and games now deliver their
products directly over the Internet.
Entertainment companies regularly provide extracts
of their films and music recordings to promote the
real products.
Low relative cost
The cost involved in conducting a process using Internet
technology is less than that involving other methods. The
Internet access requires telephone line for most individual users.
The pricing of telephone service is one which is independent of
distance. The charge for the usage of telecommunication line
is based on local charge rate irrespective of what. is sent over
the line or how distant the recipient is.
Extension of existing IT resources
Resource sharing was underlying rationale for the
development of the Internet. It allows the IT resources to be
shared by multiple users in organisations and also with others
related to the organisation such as customers and suppliers.
Flexibility of communications
The Web browsers greatly extend the ways in which
individuals can communicate. They support text, voice and
multimedia formats and can provide immediate access to shared
information. These facilities are available for intra-company
communication as well as that between individuals in separate
organisations.
Security
Security has been a major issue in Internet as any security
breach can cause financial loss, leak of sensitive information,
etc. Standards for secure electronic transactions have been
developed and reasonable security is in place now.
Speed and availability
The transmission speed is very low and it takes a bit too
long for downloading files. However, compared to other means
of communication, it is indeed fast. It also provides a wide
range C?f communication services that are inexpensive and
relatively easy to access fqr millions of users through a standard
set of protocols.
Internet Backbones
These are like the spines of the Internet that connect the
individual and organisational links of the Internet. It is made up
of telephone circuits that connect the routers together. Ali users
of the network share the circuit. Internet Service Providers (ISPs)
hire telephone lines from telephone companies and maintain
large network backbones. These backbones vary in their
bandwidth. Small network backbones have the bandwidth in
kilobits per second (14.4 KBPS to 56 KBPS) whereas large network
backbones have bandwidth in many megabits (1.544 MBPS or
more). Since the Internet is a network of networks, the
transmitted data can take different routes through different
300 The Internet
network backbones on its way to its destination. The speed of
transmission therefore depends on the path chosen to its
destination. If a network backbone is congested, the data
transmission along that path will be delayed.
Packet Switching
The Internet uses the s,ame packet switching technology
that the telephone and satellite carriers employ for data
transmission. The computers in the network are connected
physically with cables or through satellite channels or with
wireless technology. The computers on the network serve as
conduit for data traffic. Messages are broken into small packets.
Each packet has source address, destination address and a serial
number. Each node that receives the packet routes it to another
node closer to its destination. They retain packets addressed
to them and pass on those addressed to other computers on the
Net. On receipt of the data packets, the receiving computer
assembles the packets in the right sequence and recreates the
original file and stores it at appropriate locations.
Internet -2
In the US scientists are working on new ultra high speed
'Internet 2' project which is partly funded by the US government.
The purpose of the project is to spin off the business data traffic
to a new 'Internet like service' for the business. The proposed
Internet 2 will be 2.4 Gbps (Gigabits per second) network
connecting more than 100 academic institutions across the
country by expanding an existing research-based network.
SETTING UP A WEBSITE
World Wide Web is the fastest growing service on the
Internet. It is truly global in its reach since the Internet has an
easy to access globQl network. The web is basically a bunch of
resources held together by hypertext pointers that allow users
to quickly move from document to document on the World Wide
Web. The Web pages are built using hypertext mark up language
(HTML). This language contains commands that tell the web
browser how to display text, graphics and multimedia content.
The website may have three types of pages such as home
page, intermediate page, and content page. The home page is
the first page a visitor sees. The intermediate pages are one
level down. They can be accessed from the home page. Each
intermediate page usually has a link back to the home page.
The content pages hold details and are usually accessible from
intermediate pages. The content page may also include link
back to the home page and to other relevant resources. Web
publishing as the name indicates is the publishing of anything
on the Web. A web publication consists of a home page and
many other pages linked to the home page.
Steps in setting up a website
1. Identifying a domain name
Before registering a name, it must be ensured that others
do not use the same name. This is to avoid any legal issues
"later. The names are allotted on a first-come-first-served basis.
Checking the proposed name at search engines is a sure way of
ensuring that others do not use the same name. The name is to
be registered with the appropriate authorities. A fee has to be
paid for this. The domain name has to be renewed every year
by paying renewal fee. The major domains are .com, .org, .edu
etc. If it is a commercial firm, it must use .com domain as part
of its Uniform Resource Locator (URL). Thus, National Stock
Exchange of India Limited is allotted the URL www.nse-
india. com. It advertises the URL to attract people to the site.
Customers just type the URL to access the NSE's site.
2. Registration of the name
If the proposed name is not in use, the next step is to
register the name. For registering the name, the proposed name,
server address etc. must be submitted with the registration fee.
3. Website Design
There are many web page design tools. Web pages are
designed using any of the web design software packages like
Microsoft FrontPage, Dreamweaver from Macromedia and Fusion
from netobjects.
4. Hiring server space
Internet Service Providers provide hosting services. The ISP
allocates storage space on its server for the website. The storage
space required depends on the content the site should have.
The storage space can be hired on a rental basis. The server
performance and bandwidth, cost of hosting etc. are some of
the core considerations in choosing the service.
302 The Internet
5. Uploading of web pages
The web pages and associated files are to be stored in a
directory on the web server. If the server is remote, FTP package
is used to copy web page files onto the remote server.
6. Promotion of website
The organisation should promote the website. The URL
should be part of letter head of the organisation, every
advertisement it releases to the press and it may give banner
advertisements at popular websites.
7. Maintenance of website
Now the site is up and running. The URL allotted can be
used to access the site. Web site administrator can use the
login and password to update content as and when needed. The
site should contain rich content and it should be updated
frequently to attract more user traffic to the site.
INTRANET
The intranet is basically a communications environment
created within an organisation using Internet technology. It is
an internal Web site that utilises the Internet technology such
as protocols for efficient internal communication. Internal
corporate communication in the form of multiple copies of
documents of all important internal communication costs a quite
a bit of money. With Intranet, such documents can be created,
saved, retrieved and distributed at very low cost. Such
documents can be created on any device and displayed on client
PCs using the Internet technology. Creating such an Intranet
requires a host computer or server (with hardware platform
and operating system such as Unix or Windows NT, etc.) and
Web browser software.
Intranet is a local area network that uses Internet
technologies for communication within an organisation. It is not
accessible for outsiders. Internet Protocol suit such as TCP liP,
SMTP, WWW, FTP and remote login are used for communications
within an organisation. The internal applications are integrated
with email.FTP.Webserver.Mail server etc. It requires a local
area network to be set up and then the network resources are
integrated with the Internet technologies. Users browse the
network with a web browser to access information within an
organisation. The web browser becomes a simple user interface
for sharing data. The Intranet need not be connected to the
Internet. Intranet is implemented within organisations.
Intranet uses TCP liP and network technologies besides
Internet resources such as WWW, e-mail, telnet and FTP. But
the network is not open to people outside the organisation. The
intranet is separated from the Internet using a firewall that
prohibits access to the intranet from outside the organisation.
Intranet allows electronic collaboration between people
in the organisation. Groupware technologies are employed to
support online brainstorming, group meetings and other
collaborative work. It also facilitates videoconferencing
between people in various parts of the country or world.
Intranet improves internal communication. One of its most
important advantage is the quick access it provides to published
documents. It is very useful when large amount of constantly
changing information has to be communicated simultaneously
to a large number of people within an organisation.
Intranet requires:
Network
TCP/IP on servers and clients
Browsers
Hardware for hosting Internet services
Software for hosting web services
Advantages of Intranet
Easy availability of information
Fast access to information
Low cost of communication
Organisation wide access to critical information
Facilitates collaboration among employees in an
organisation
Extranet
When an organisation allows its intranet resources to be
accessed by its business partners, like suppliers and customers,
the intranet becomes an extranet. External organisations are
provided access to information relevant for them.
304 The Internet
Extranets are presently being used ass:
Project management tools for companies and
collaborating third parties.
Sharing proprietary ideas with a select group.
Online training for resellers
A way of using high volumes of data using Electronic
Data Interchange (EDI)
Sharing product catalogs and inventory levels
exclusively between trading partners
Collaborating with other companies on joint
development efforts
Providing services offered by one organisation to a
group of other companies, such as an online banking
application managed by one organisation on behalf of
affiliated banks
Share news of common interest exclusively with
partner companies
SEARCHING
The Internet is often described as a massive jungle where
it is almost impossible without search tools to find the
information one is searching for. Navigation tools were developed
to help a user to access the required information on the Net.
The navigation tools enable burrowing through the disorganised
and fast growing Web for information. The Net has grown too
large and lacks centralised control. With rapid growth in the
number of hosts and services offered, it became a necessity to
have some tools to locate the hosts and the services.
Navigational tools have been developed in the 1990s to help
the surfers in locating the services on the Internet. The
navigational tools developed early include Archie, Veronica,
Netlink, Wide Area Information Servers (WAIS) etc.
BROWSING
The Internet is a huge jungle of information. The user neec's
to search for information. Browsing is the process of seeking
information on the Web with the help of browser software. The
Web is a huge collection of hypertext documents. The hypertext
Computer Fundamental s 305
facilitates moving from documents to documents quickly. When
user clicks on a hypertext in a document, the browser opens up
another window and displays the new document retrieved from
the same computer or a different computer usually far away.
Web Browsers
A Web browser is a program that allows a user to easily
retrieve relevant information available on the Internet. The
browser follows the link in the document that was made possible
by the HTML. It does not require a user to login from remote
location to get information from a web server. By following the
Uniform Resource Locator of sites , browser enables users to
visit the sites and access information.
Mosaic
The first Web browser, named Mosaic, was developed by
Marc Andreessen at the National Centre for Supercomputing
Applications, University of Illinois. It was released in June 1993 .
Soon a number of other browsers became available for browsing
the Web. Mosaic could perform searches across many Internet
services. Mosaic versions became available for various platforms
such as MS Windows, Macintosh and X window system under
UNIX. Mosaic allowed images and videos to be downloaded and
viewed. The mosaic and WWW server enable delivery of
multimedia documents. With the arrival of Netscape and Internet
Explorer as more user-friendly browsers , Mosaic is little used
now.
Netscape
One Web browser that became hugely popular in the 1990s
is the Netscape Navigator. This was again developed by Marc
Andreessen, the founder of Netscape Communications Corp. It
not only allowed browsing through hyperlinked documents but
also supported use of other services available on the Net such
as ftp, telnet and Gopher. Later versions of Netscape Navigator
(Version 2.0) also supported Sun Microsystems Inc.'s Java
programming language. In addition to English, the Netscape
browser is available in German, Japanese and French languages.
Netscape Communicator is the latest suite of client-side
software tools for the Internet on the Web from the Netscape
Communications Corp. The suite contains email, groupware and
browser programs. It provides a complete set of tools needed
306 The Internet
for communicating, sharing and accessing data on the Internet
and I ntranets.
The Netscape Communicator consists of the Navigator 4.0
(browser), an email application (Messenger), a groupware
application (Collabra), a scheduling program (Calendar), an HTML
editor (Composer) and a program that facilitates audio and data
conferencing (Conference).
Internet Explorer
Internet Explorer (IE) is one of the most popular Web
browsers today. It is available only on Windows platform. The IE
is bundled with MS Windows 95 and later integrated with
Windows 98. Microsoft dominates the web browser market now
with its Internet Explorer installed on most of the PCs.
Fig. 15.2: Microsoft Internet Explorer when invoked.
Internet Explorer makes it easier to get the most from the

World Wide Web, whether one is searching for new information or
browsing favorite Web sites. And built-in IntelliSense technology
can save time by completing routine Web tasks, such as
automatically completing Web addresses and forms for users,
and automatically detecting network and connection ~tatus.
9
Features of Internet Explorer are as follows :
When you start typing a frequently used Web address

in the Address bar, a list of similar addresses appears
that you can choose from. And if a Web-page address
is wrong, Internet Explorer can search for similar
addresses to try to find a match.
Search for Web sites by clicking the Search button on
the toolbar. Then in the Search bar, type a word or
phrase that describes what you are looking for. When
your search results appear, you can view the individual
Web pages without losing your list of search results.
You can also search directly from the Address bar. Just
type common names or words, and Internet Explorer
can automatically take you to the site that most likely
matches what you are searching for, and list other
likely sites as well.
Go to other Web pages similar to the one you are
viewing, without even doing a search. Just use the
Show Related Sites feature.
Once you are on a Web page, Internet Explorer can
help you complete entries in any kind of Web-based
form. Start typing, and a list of similar entries appears
that you can choose from.
Browse through a list of Web pages you recently visited
by clicking the History button on the toolbar. In
addition, you can rearrange or search the History list.
Listen to broadcast and Internet-only radio stations
while you browse. Choose from a wide variety of music
and talK radio stations, and add them to your
Favourites list. The radio toolbar is available in
Internet Explorer when you install Windows Media
Player.
SEARCH ENGINES
The Web contains tens of thousands of w-:bsites with
content on vastly different topics. Users need search tools to
get to the information they look for easily. Search engines,
directories, indexes etc. help the users in their search. Search
308 The Internet
engines use key words and phrases to search the Internet. Some
of the most popular search engines are as follows:
Alta Vistahttp://www.altavista.com
Excite http://www.excite.com
HotBot http://hotbot.lycos.com
Go http://www.go.com
Google http://www.google.com
Lycos http://www.lycos.com
Northern Light http://www.northernlight.com
Web Crawler http://www.webcrawler.com
Meta Search Engines
These are search engines that search other search engines.
Often they also search smaller, less well known search engines
and specialized sites. Meta search engines frequently include
indexes and other search tools. Examples of meta search engines
are 10
RedeSearch http:/ /www.RedeSearch.com
BigHub http:/ /www. thebighub.com
C4 http:/ /www.C4.com
InfoZoid http:/ /www.infozoid.com
Brightgate http:/ /www.brightgate.com
Ask Jeeves http:/ /www.askjeeves.com
Dogpile http:/ /www.dogpile.com
MetaCrawler http:/ /www.metacrawler.com
All40ne http:/ /www.all4one.com
Subject Directories
Examples for subject directories are:
About.com http://www.about.com
Big Hub http://www.thebighub.com
Invisible Web http://www.invisibleweb.com
Links2Go http://www.links2go.com
Open Directory Project http:/ / dmoz.org
Qango http://www.qango.com
Yahoo http://www.yahoo.com
In addition to metasearch engines, search engines, and
indexes, the Internet contains a wealth of topic specific search
tools and resources. A number of specialized browsers as for
the blind etc. are available for using the Web resources.
Routers
The Internet is a collection of large number of networks.
Network users may have to communicate across networks. This
requires data packet movements from one network to another.
Each packet is addressed to a destination computer. The Internet
protocol (IP) address is used by the router for routing. Router is
the physical device that joins multiple wired or wireless networks
together
Thus router is a networking device that forwards data
packets from one network to another. It uses routing protocols
for communicating with other routers. It stores the best routing
paths to the destinations in a table called routing table.
Gateways
Each network is different in configuration from others. Its
operating system, hardware, software etc. may differ from
others. Hence, communication with another network requires
special equipment. A gateway makes it possible. A gateway is a
computer that transfers data from a workstation in a network
to an external network. These days, routers are used in place
of gateways.
Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the data rate when communicating over
certain media or devices. Communication requires connectivity-
wired or wireless. In either case, data have to be sent and
received between communicating devices. The rate at which
data are transferred between devices is called the bandwidth.
Usually, it is measured in kilobits per second (KBPS) or megabits
per second (MBPS). 64 KBPS or above is said to be broadbanG
Most critical data communications require broadband
connectivity.
SUMMARY
The Internet is a medium of cor:munication using networked
computers. From a small network in the US in the 1970s for
310 The Internet
military communication, the Internet has now grown into a
transcontinental network and carries all sorts of data such as
business, educational, scientific and personal. The growth of
the Internet in the 1990s has been phenomenal and the trend is
still continuing. The Web and the Web browser software have
made the Net hugely popular. The business was late to take
note of the potential of the Net. In the early 1990s a large
number of firms took to the Internet in a big way for commerce
and communications.
QUESTIONS
1. Trace the history of the Net and explain what factors
contributed to its fast growth in the 1990s.
2. What are the core features of the Internet?
3. What do you mean by protocols?
4. What are the popular Internet services?
5. What is WWW? Explain how it works?
6. What is intranet?
7. What is searching?
8. What is search engine?
REFERENCES
1. Perry, P.J., "World Wide Web Secrets", Comdex Publishing,
New Delhi, 1996, P 30.
2. Wiggins, R. W., "The Internet For Every One", McGraw Hill
Inc., New York, 1994, p9.
3. Wiggins, R.W. "The Internet For EveryOne", McGraw Hill
Inc., New York, 1994, p291.
4. Ghosh, Shikhar, "Making Business Sense of the Internet",
Harvard Business Review, March- April, 1998 p127.
5. Shroud, Dick, "The Internet Strategies, A Corporate Guide
to Exploiting the Internet", Macmillan Press Ltd., London,
1998, p54-55.
6. http://www.actinic.com
7. Mougayar, W., Opening Digital Markets, Mc-Graw-Hill, New
York,1998, p8.
8. Online Market Research: Possibilities and Realities of Virtual
Marketplace, March 1997.
9. Microsoft Internal Explorer, online help.
10. www.search.com/.
INTRODUCTION
Technology has revolutionised communications in the recent
times . Satellite infrastructure opened up new opportunities for
communication in the 1960s. Information technology has
significantly altered the ways of communications in the recent
past. The Internet was a path breaking invention that changed
commerce and communications beyond recogniti on . Wi reless
technology is now making waves by taking communications to
remote and inaccessible locations. Thus , introduction of
satellites, computers, mobile phones and blue tooth technology
into communications represent some of the landmark events in
the evolution of communications in the last few decades. .
Satellite Communication
1960s marked the beginning of the space and satellite
communications era. In 1962, the American telecommunications
company, AT&T, launched the world's first commercial satellite ,
Telstar. Since then a large number of satellites were sent into
space to facilitate telecommunications.
The satellite communication system consists of two main
components: the satellite (the space segment) and the receiving
stations (earth segment). The satellite consists of fuel system,
the satellite and telemetry controls and the transponder. The
transponder consists of a receiving antenna, broad-band receiver
and a frequency converter. The antenna picks up signals from
the ground station. The broadband receiver is an input
multiplexer and the frequency multiplexer is used to reroute
the received signals through a high-powered amplifier for
downlink. The ground station sends to, and receives signals
from, the satellite segment.
The satellite reflects signals sent to it from earth stations.
In case of a telecommunications satellite, the primary function
is to receive signals sent from an earth station and send them
down to another earth station that is located at a consideraple
distance from the first earth station.
Satellite data transmission systems use microwave systems.
The microwave station broadcasts signals to the satellite, which
retransmits the signals to another microwave station on earth.
It is also possible for one satellite to receive the signals and
retransmit them to another satellite to be sent to another
microwave station on earth, beyond the range of the first
satellite. Satellite data transmission is most economical and is
particularly useful when microwave stations are separated by
long distance or by ocean etc. The use of satellite systems today
includes traditional telephone communications, television
broadcast services, cellular communications, marine
communications, global positioning services and defence
observation.
FORMS OF MODERN COMMUNICATIONS

Modern communication is mostly real-time or close to real-
time and it is heavily technology depended. Some of these are
discussed below. '
Electronic Communication
Electronic communication systems are one of the major
application areas of office automation technology. Electronic
communications cover a variety of electronic communication
services such as electronic mail, voice mail and facsimile. The
systems transmit and distribute- text, voice and image data in
electronic form over telecommunication networks. Electronic
communication reduces the volume of paper communication in
the form of memos, letters, circulars, reports and documents.
It is much cheaper and quicker than traditional forms of
communication.
314 Modern Communications
E-MAIL
Electronic mail (E-mail) is a communication facility to send
documents over a network to the intended recipient(s). E-mail
is the most commonly available service on any network. It is
also one of the least expensive communication network services.
This communication system requires the sender and the receiver
of the message to have access to a network for communication.
This can be done in three ways. The first is to set up a private
network linking the workstations involved in communication.
The second is to subscribe to an e-mail service provider who
maintains the network. The third is to have the Internet
connectivity.
The e-mail communication is incredibly simple. A person,
with a PC and a modem to connect to the network, can
communicate with others so connected to the network. The
message can be prepared and sent instantly. The other person
finds the e-mail when he checks his mailbox and may reply to
the message in the same way. The message sent is private and
other unintended persons cannot read it.
Each user of e-mail service has a user ID serving as e-mail
address and a password to access his email box. First thing to
do is to get online using modem and communication software.
The user needs to have access to an email service provider. It
may be an Internet Service Provider. But most non-business users
register with a web based email service like Yahoo or Hotmail.
On registering with such email service each user is allotted a
pair of email-id and password and a mailbox to store email
messages. The email system requires the user to log in every
time with the email-id and the password allotted to him or her
to access the mailbox.
The mailbox is simply a file into which the e-mail system
stores electronic documents. All incoming email messages are
stored in the mailbox of the particular user. The user can check
his or her mailbox for messages any time convenient to him or
her. If the mailbox, usually the inbox, has a message from his
contacts, the user opens it and reads it. He can also reply to it
by typing his message and clicking 'Send' button. The user can
also prepare his message in the form of a document using a
word processor and save it on the disk. The saved document
can be attached to the email sent to a contact. Sending fresh
message to any contact requires to type in his or her e-mail
address (email-idsuchasmohan22@hotmail.com) of the
recipient and the subject (such as 'Contract renewal') before
clicking 'Send' button.
Through e-mail, documents are prepared and sent
electronically. The recipient need not be present at the other
end to send the message. The message gets stored in the
electronic mailbox of the addressee. The recipient can open
the mailbox whenever he is free and he can read or print the
message. It also permits typing and sending a reply to the
message received.
IJiii: .g You haw 65 unread

Inbox(5). OulkfGO}
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nlC~ag~s
You have 1 unhua,d voice
8th nr;ot
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C..d>J td ,q
In tho NRW~: :':Jlh.Qo.l
ti~:i ':"'..I.QQ
C, TiMESJOBS.COM
i H'dO] ; If you ha\olc ;n rcason, we hav(!' the job.
S.~
Drowse and upload your resume

~a ulk (6U) rt"'~.yJ
Fig.16.1: MaHbox.
E-mail is a document communication facility. To ensure that

the recipient also understands the emotions as well, a set of
special symbols is used to convey some non-verbal signals. A
few of such symbols are given below.
Symbol Emotion -
Humour
:) Smile
:( Frown
:/ ) Not funny
p- Private
Kiss
(: -( V~ry sad
E-mail is the transmission of information electronically from

terminal to terminal. The document is prepared in a word
processor and is mailed electronically. The basic facilities in e-
mail include message creation, message transfer and post
delivery service. The e-mail service may be traditional
mainframe based or minicomputer based or LAN based system
with PCs to access from.
Fig. 16.2: Messages in the Email inbox.
Advantages of E-mail
i. Messages can be prepared and sent any time
convenient for the sender.
fi. Message can be received at the convenience of the
recipient. .
iii. The transmission takes place instantly and the message
gets stored in the mailbox of the recipient.
iv. The system can confirm delivery of message.
v. Copies of message can be sent to mUltiple recipients,
and,
vi. It reduces paper work.
vii. User can be alerted through SMS (short messaging
service) over mobile phone about the arrival of an
email message from a contact.
Disadvantages
i. All email users must subscribe to e-mail service. They
must also have access to the Internet through their
own computer, modem and telephone or through an
Internet cafe.
ii. Poor telecommunication affects the quality of message
transmitted.
iii. Spamming is an irritant to e-mail users. Spamming is
unsolicited commercial e-mail. It is sent without the
recipient's consent. The mail box of users may get
filled with spams and messages from his or her usual
contacts may not be stored for want of storage space.
iv. If there is disruption in telecommunications or failure
of computer hardware or software, the user may not
be able to access his mailbox.
v. Most individual users are not regular in checking their
mailboxes. Hence, important messages may not reach
them in time.
Despite all the disadvantages, e-mail is a cheap and quick
form of information transmission. Web-based e-mail services
are the most popular ones today. Hotmail, Yahoo mail, Gmail,
Rediffmail etc. are very popular among Indian internet users.
These web based e-mail services normally do not charge for e-
mail service. They can be used from any location where Internet
is accessible.
Voice Mail
E-mail exchanges text data. Voice mail transmits digitised
voice messages. The sender dials up the vuicemail service
organisation and is usually required to type in his identification
code. After identity is checked, the user can send this message
in voice form. The voice message is stored on the magnetic disk
of the voice mail computer system. The recipient can open his
voice mailbox whenever he is free and hear the stored voice
message and send a reply to it. Voice mail requires microphone
and speakers in addition to the requirements for email.
Teleconferencing
Teleconferencing is a facility that permits people in
different places to communicate electronically with each other
without being physically present at one place. The people in
communication can be in different offices in the same building,
in the same country or anywhere on the globe. The people at
different locations are connected with a television link that
enables them to see and hear each other. More advanced systems
use computer network with the facility to transmit audio and
motion video for teleconferencing.
Video conferencing
Video conferencing is a facility to interact with people
without all of them being physically present at one place. Each
participant in the conference may be in different places but
electronically they interact with each other. This requires real
time transmission of communications between the places where
the participants are stationed. Companies engage in video
conferencing to monitor progress of projects, review of major
assignments etc. This avoids travel and saves a lot of time for
each executive involved in the video conferencing. But, video
conferencing requires specially equipped studios for each
participant to join in the conference. Alternatively, video
conferencing can be done with a PC, video camera and
broadband Internet connectivity.
COMMUNICATION FOR COLLABORATION

Many tasks these days are organised into team assignments.
The members of the team may belong to distant places. People
working in teams, but geographically dispersed, will have to
keep in touch with other members of the team on a regular
basis. Such teams are called virtual teams. The virtual team
member s need to collaborate with other me:mbers for
completion of the joint task. For example, a software
development project may involve team members from many
countries. They will work on the software project from their
respective offices in their countries. But, they will have to
communicate with each other regularly without travelling from
their offices. Collaboration tools allow people in different
geographic locations to effectively communicate, in real-time,
with each other. Collaboration tools include online whiteboards,
email, web-based file and document sharing, discussion groups
and bulletin boards, chat and instant messaging etc.
Online whiteboards
Whiteboard allows multiple users to view a shared screen
over the Internet. Any of the team members can draw or mark or
annotate an image on the shared screen. Other members can view
instantaneously the changes made to the screen. Teams can . thus ,
use the whiteboard to quickly share ideas and information without
using email or fax. Audio conferencing can also be combined with
whiteboards for enhancing communications.
Email for collaboration
Email is an effective tool for collaboration. Each member
of the collaborating team sends email message to others in the
team. The information about the email can be passed to the
other members through mobile phone alerts. The other members
may respond to the email. Files can also be attached to the
messages.
Web-based file and document sharing
The web based file sharing applications allow members of
the collaborating team to exchange files and documents. The
members can download form or upload files to any website.
Discussion Groups and Bulletin Boards
Bulletin boards over the Internet allow members of a team
to post information to other group members. They read the
information and give their comment about it. This facilitates
exchange of information among project teams etc.
Chat and Instant Messaging
Chat and Instant Messaging tools allow real-time
communication of information. The team members can chat
without using email or telephone. Multiple members can join
chat sessions. Popular portals like Yahoo. com and MSN.com have
chat and instant messaging facilities.
GROUPWARE
GroupWare is commonly understood as any application that
is networked and allows users to share data. It is defined as
specialised computer aids that are designed for the use of
------- - - -- . - ~- - - --- - -- --------- - - - - - -
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Fig.16.3: Microsoft online services

collaborative work groups. It includes both group processes and
the software that supports collaboration between workgroups in
organisations. A complete GroupWare infrastructure has three
dimensions: communication (exchanging mail, etc.), collaboration
(sharing information and building shared understanding) and co-
ordination (delegating tasks sequential sign-offs, etc.)
GroupWare software systems include Lotus Notes (It is
essentially a messaging system. It also supports an application
development en '/ironment and a document database), Collabra
Share (It is a PC based document sharing system that looks a lot
like Windows file manager), and NCSA Collage (It is a GroupWare
system for interactive analysis of scientific data) among others.
The application sharing can be group aware or group
unaware. In a group aware application a group of users
simultaneously interacts with one or more program executions,
the result of which they can all see. Such applications accept inputs
from multiple sources. The group aware programs may run in two
alternative ways: First, it may run on a single machine accepting
inputs from multiple sources and the second, it may run with a
copy of the application on each machine in the GroupWa <~'
environment with only relevant commands sent to a site.
Sketch pads or Whiteboards are an important Group aware
application. The system provides the users with a shared
whiteboard for different users to write or draw in different
colour. A user can use his area on the board for drawing or writing
which the other users can see simultaneously. Examples of such
systems are ShowMe Whiteboard, NCSA Collage and XTV.
Group unaware applications do not allow multiple users to
be active at a time.
MOBILE COMMUNICATION
It is a new form of communication. But it is growing rapidly.
Fixed line telecommunication is challenged everywhere by
mobile communication. Blue tooth and Wireless Application
Protocol (WAP) technologies enable small handheld devices to
be used for voice communication, sharing of documents, email,
online securities trading, mobile commerce and messaging in
addition to playing video games and music.
SUMMARY
Modern communication tools include mobile devices, email,
teleconferencing, video conferencing, instant messaging,
Internet based document sharing etc. These modes of
communications are not only cost effective, they are rich and
highly convenient. The use of multimedia in communications
makes it more attractive and lively. Today, with the Internet
spanning across the globe, it is a connected world we are living
in. The current communications technologies enable people to
stay connected anywhere, anytime.
QUESTIONS
1. What is e-mail? What are the advantages of e-mail?
2. What is J;eleconferencing?
3. What is electronic communication? What are the types of
electronic communication?
4. Describe the process of sending and receiving e-mail
communication.
5. What is collaboration? What are the tools for collaboration?

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FUNDAMENTALS

Published by Mrs. Meena Pandey

1. Organization of Computer 1-34

etc. Basically, computer can recognise only two states - whether

1. Computer cannot think on its own. It has to be given

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

Fig 1.1: Organisation of Computer

Arithmetic Logic Unit

I Instruction I I Table of operation codes I

,,-- -- -- - - - - - - - - - - --- - -- - - -- - -- ------------- - -- - ------- --- ---- - - - - -- - - --,,,

----- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --. OUTPUT DEVICE

Fig. 1.3: Flow of data and control in a computer system

b) Decode the instruction, that is, decide what operation

Fig.1A: Computer system

a. 'Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Fig.1.5: Hardware components

There are three types of mouse: mechanical,

Fig.1.6 Types of computer printers

The character printers print one character at a time. Dot

SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

involves positioning the read/write arm at the right track of

ACC ESS ARM

Fig 1.7 Vertical Cross Section of Hard Disk and Arm

Advantages of Hard Disks

RECORD RECORD RECORD RECORD

Inter-record gap A frame represents

The head assembly, with one head for each track,

Fig.1.9 Modem and its working

IMPACT OF COMPUTER ON BUSINESS AND SOCIETY

technology and information systems cause massive changes in

MORAL DIMENSIONS OF COMPUTER USE

cannot be expected to be free of any bugs or defects. If people

IMPACT OF COMPUTERS ON INDIVIDUALS,

BENEFITS OF COMPUTER USE TO ORGANIZATIONS

Harmful effects to organizations

System malfunctioning is yet another problem. The

telephone lines to the hospital. Doctors can advice the patient

and society. It is to be used with utmost care for improving

Fig.2.t: Computer Memory

Fig.2.2: Main Memory Divisions

RAM and ROM

Fig.2.3: Memory Hierarchy

Restricted use of cache memory can increase processing

Fig.2.4: Virtual Storage.

Virtual Storage and Virtual Disk

within the machine. This work led to the development of

Fig 3.1 Structure of Charles 8abbage's Analytical Engine

This machine could be programmed by instructions initially

introduced the first microprocessor in 1971 and the first single-

components were packed on a single chip, the size of a

Table 3.1: Computer Generations

Generation Period Switching Device Storage Device

First 1946-1954 Vacuum Tubes Acoustic delay lines and

Second 19:;5-1964 Transistors Magnetic core for main

Third 1965-1974 Integrated Circuits High speed magnetic

Fourth 1975- 89 Large scale integrated LSI Semiconductor

Fifth Since 1990 Very Large Scale VLSI superconductlng

2. On the basis of purpose of use, they can be classified

Laptop computer is small in size and fits on to the user's

also used in government departments, universities and R 8: D

System management programs General-purpose programs

Fig. 4.1: Computer Software

Fig. 4.2: Hardware, system software and application