Professional Documents
Culture Documents
MODULE 6
uk MATERIALS AND
HARDWARE
engineering
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION......................................................................................... 1-1
2 PROPERTIES OF METALS ........................................................................ 2-1
2.1 BRITTLENESS .......................................................................................... 2-1
2.2 CONDUCTIVITY ........................................................................................ 2-1
2.3 DUCTILITY ................................................................................................ 2-1
2.4 ELASTICITY .............................................................................................. 2-1
2.5 HARDNESS............................................................................................... 2-1
2.6 MALLEABILITY.......................................................................................... 2-1
2.7 PLASTICITY .............................................................................................. 2-1
2.8 TENACITY ................................................................................................. 2-1
2.9 TOUGHNESS ............................................................................................ 2-2
2.10 STRENGTH ............................................................................................... 2-2
2.10.1 Tensile Strength ........................................................................... 2-2
2.10.2 Yield Strength .............................................................................. 2-2
2.10.3 Shear Strength ............................................................................. 2-2
2.10.4 Bearing Strength .......................................................................... 2-2
3 TESTING OF MATERIALS ......................................................................... 3-1
3.1 TENSILE TESTING ................................................................................... 3-1
3.1.1 Tensile Strength ........................................................................... 3-1
3.2 LOAD/EXTENSION DIAGRAMS ............................................................... 3-4
3.2.1 Ductility ........................................................................................ 3-7
3.2.2 Proof Stress ................................................................................. 3-7
3.3 STIFFNESS ............................................................................................... 3-9
3.4 TENSILE TESTING OF PLASTICS ........................................................... 3-9
3.5 COMPRESSION TEST ............................................................................ 3-10
3.6 HARDNESS TESTING ............................................................................ 3-10
3.6.1 Brinell Test ................................................................................. 3-10
3.6.2 Vickers Test ............................................................................... 3-11
3.6.3 Rockwell Test............................................................................. 3-11
3.6.4 Hardness Testing on Aircraft ...................................................... 3-12
3.7 IMPACT TESTING ................................................................................... 3-13
3.8 OTHER FORMS OF MATERIAL TESTING ............................................. 3-14
3.8.1 Creep ......................................................................................... 3-14
3.8.2 Creep in Metals .......................................................................... 3-14
3.8.3 Effect of Stress and Temperature on Creep ............................... 3-15
3.8.4 The Effect of Grain Size on Creep .............................................. 3-16
3.8.5 Creep in Plastics ........................................................................ 3-16
3.8.6 Fatigue ....................................................................................... 3-16
3.8.7 Fatigue Testing .......................................................................... 3-17
3.9 S-N CURVES .......................................................................................... 3-18
3.10 CAUSES OF FATIGUE FAILURE ............................................................ 3-20
3.11 VIBRATION ............................................................................................. 3-20
1 INTRODUCTION
The variety of materials and hardware used in aircraft engineering is vast, and
this module will only deal with a broad group of materials, their main
characteristics, identification and uses. These materials can be classed into the
three main categories of Ferrous Metals, Non-Ferrous Metals and Non-Metallic
materials.
Apart from the basic requirement of more and more strength from metals, other,
less obvious characteristics can also be added or improved upon, when such
features as permanent magnetism, corrosion resistance and high-strength whilst
operating at elevated temperatures, are desired.
INTENTIONALLY BLANK
2 PROPERTIES OF METALS
2.1 BRITTLENESS
The tendency of the metal to shatter, without significant deformation. It will shatter
under a sudden, low stress but will resist a slowly-applied, higher load.
2.2 CONDUCTIVITY
The ability of a metal to conduct heat, (thermal conductivity) and electricity. Silver
and copper are excellent thermal and electrical conductors.
2.3 DUCTILITY
The property of being able to be permanently extended by a tensile force. It is
measured during a tensile, or stretching, test, when the amount of stretch
(elongation), for a given applied load, provides an indication of a metals ductility.
2.4 ELASTICITY
The ability of a metal to return to its original shape and size after the removal of
any distorting force. The Elastic Limit is the greatest force that can be applied
without permanent distortion.
2.5 HARDNESS
The ability of a metal to resist wear and penetration. It is measured by pressing a
hardened steel ball or diamond point into the metals surface. The diameter or
depth of the resulting indentation provides an indication of the metals hardness.
2.6 MALLEABILITY
The ease with which the metal can be forged, rolled and extruded without
fracture. Stresses, induced into the metal, by the forming processes, have to be
subsequently relieved by heat-treatment. Hot metal is more malleable than cool
metal.
2.7 PLASTICITY
The ability to retain a deformation after the load producing it has been removed.
Plasticity is, in fact, the opposite of elasticity.
2.8 TENACITY
The property of a metal to resist deformation when subjected to a tensile load. It
is proportional to the maximum stress required to cause the metal to fracture.
2.10 STRENGTH
There are several different measurements of the strength of a metal, as may be
seen from the following sub-paragraphs
3 TESTING OF MATERIALS
The mechanical properties of a material must be known before that material can
be incorporated into any design. Mechanical property data is compiled from
extensive material testing. Various tests are used to determine the actual values
of material properties under different loading applications and test conditions.
Load (N)
Stress
Original c.s.a. (mm 2 )
Note: The units of Stress may be quoted in the old British Imperial (and
American) units of lbf/in2, tonf/in2 (also psi and tsi), or the European and SI units
such as kN/m2, MN/m2 and kPa or MPa.
Exercise 1
Calculate the tensile stress in a steel rod, with a cross-section of 10 mm x 4 mm,
when it is subjected to a load of 100 N.
Exercise 2
Calculate the cross-sectional area of a tie rod which, when subjected to a load of
2,100N, has a stress of 60 N/mm2.
Example 2
A structural member, with a cross-sectional area of 05m2, is subjected to a load
of 10 MN. Calculate the stress in the member in; (a) MN/m2 and (b) N/mm2
Load 10
(a) Stress 20MN / m 2
Area 05
As the load in the tensile test is increased from zero to a maximum value, the
material extends in length. The amount of extension, produced by a given load,
allows the amount of induced STRAIN to be calculated. Strain is calculated by
measuring the extension and dividing by the original length of the material.
Note: Both measurements must be in the same units, though, since Strain is a
ratio of two lengths, it has no units.
Extension
S train
Original Length
Example 3
An aluminium test piece is marked with a 20 mm gauge length. It is subjected to
tensile load until its length becomes 2115 mm. Calculate the induced strain.
Extension 21 15 - 20 1 15 mm
Extension 1 15
Strain 0 0575 (no units)
Original Length 20
Exercise 3
A tie rod 1.5m long under a tensile load of 500 N extends by 12 mm. Calculate
the strain.
Load/Extension Diagram
Fig 1
The graph can be considered as comprising two major regions. Between points 0
and A, the material is in the Elastic region (or phase), i.e. when the load is
removed the material will return to its original size and shape. In this region, the
extension is directly proportional to the applied load.
Within the elastic region, elastic strain is directly proportional to the stress
causing it.
Point A is the Elastic Limit. Between this point and point B, the material continues
to extend until the maximum load is reached (at point B). In this region the
material is in the plastic phase. When the load is removed, the material does not
return to its original size and shape, but will retain some extension. After point B,
the cross-sectional area reduces and the material begins to neck. The material
continues to extend under reduced load until it eventually fractures at point C.
An examination of a graph, obtained from the results of a tensile test on mild steel
(refer to Fig. 2), shows that considerable plastic extension occurs without any
increase in load shortly after the elastic limit is reached. The onset of increasing
extension, without a corresponding increase in load, at point `B', is known as the
yield point and, if this level of stress is reached, the metal is said to have
yielded. This is a characteristic of mild steel and a few other, relatively ductile,
materials.
UTS
Point B
Yield Point
If, after passing the yield point, the load is further increased, it may be seen that
mild steel is capable of withstanding this increase until the Ultimate Tensile
Stress (UTS) is reached. Severe necking then occurs and the material will
fracture at a reduced load. The unexpected ability of mild steel to accept more
load after yielding is due to strain-hardening of the material. Work-hardening of
many materials is often carried out to increase their strength.
Point of Fracture
Plastic Region
Small
Zero Elongation
Elongation
Large
Elongation
3.2.1 DUCTILITY
After fracture of a specimen, following tensile testing, an indication of material
ductility is arrived at, by establishing the amount of plastic deformation which
occurred. The two indicators of ductility are:
Elongation
Reduction in area (at the neck)
Example 4
In a tensile test, on a specimen with 150.5 mm gauge length, the length over the
gauge marks at fracture were 176.1 mm. What was the percentage elongation?
Usually a value of 0.1% or 0.2% is used for Proof Stress, and the Proof Stress is
then referred to as the 0.1% Proof Stress or the 0.2% Proof Stress respectively.
The Proof Stress may be acquired from the relevant Load/Extension graph (refer
to Fig 4) as follows:
If the 0.2% Proof Stress is required, then 0.2% of the gauge length is marked on
the extension axis. A line, parallel to the straight-line portion of the graph, is
drawn until it intersects the non-linear portion of the curve. The corresponding
load is then read from the graph. Proof Stress is calculated by dividing this load
by the original cross-sectional area.
0.2% Proof Stress will produce permanent set equivalent to one five hundredth of
the original length.
3.3 STIFFNESS
Within the elastic range of a material, if the Strain is compared to the Stress
causing that extension, it will provide a measure of stiffness/rigidity or flexibility.
Stress
ie. is a measureof stiffness
Strain
Thus E = Stress divided by Strain and, since Strain has no units, the unit for `E' is
the same as Stress. i.e. lbf/in2, tonf/in2 (also psi and tsi), or the European and SI
units such as kN/m2, MN/m2 and kPa or MPa.
Relative stiffness values for some common materials (using Rubber as a datum),
are:
Wood 2000 x
Aluminium 10,000 x
Steel 30,000 x
Diamond 171,000 x
Even though the material under test may be in the elastic range, the specimen
may take some time to return to its original size after the load is removed.
The Load/Deflection graph in the elastic phase for ductile materials is similar to
that in the tensile test. The value of `E' is the same in compression as it is in
tension. Compression testing is seldom used as an acceptance test for metallic or
plastic materials (except for cast iron).
Diameter (Area)
of resulting
Indentation
Note: Whereas Brinell and Vickers hardness values are based upon the area of
indentation, the Rockwell values are based upon the depth of the indentation.
Table 1
COMPARATIVE HARDNESS VALUES
MATERIAL BHN HV ROCKWELL
Aluminium alloy 100 100 B 57
Mild steel 130 130 B 73
Cutting tools 650 697 C 60
Both tests use notched-bar test pieces of standard dimensions, which are struck
by a fast-moving, weighted pendulum. The energy, which is absorbed by the test
piece on impact, will give a measure of toughness. A brittle material will break
easily and will absorb little energy, so the swing of the pendulum (which is
recorded against a calibrated scale) will not be reduced significantly. A tough
material will, however, absorb considerably more energy and thus greatly reduce
the recorded pendulum swing.
Nickel is one of the most effective alloying elements for lowering the Transition
Temperature of steels
Test Piece
Impact Test
Fig. 8
3.8.1 CREEP
Creep can be defined as the continuing deformation, with the passage of time, of
materials subjected to prolonged stress. This deformation is plastic and occurs
even though the acting stress may be well below the yield stress of the material.
It is clear, from the foregoing, that short-time tensile tests do not give reliable
information for the design of structures, which must carry static loads over long
periods of time, at elevated temperatures. Strength data, determined from long-
time creep tests (up to 10,000 hours), are therefore essential.
Although actual design data are based on the long-time tests, short-time creep
tests are sometimes used as acceptance tests.
3.8.6 FATIGUE
An in-depth survey, in recent years, revealed that over 80 percent of failures of
engineering components were caused by fatigue. Consequences of modern
engineering have led to increases in operating stresses, temperatures and
speeds. This is particularly so in aerospace and, in many instances, has made
the fatigue characteristics of materials more significant than their ordinary, static
strength properties.
Experience in the aircraft industry has shown that the stress cycles, to which
aircraft are subjected, may be very complex, with occasional high peaks, due to
gust loading of aircraft wings. For satisfactory correlation with in-service
behaviour, full-size or large-scale mock-ups must be tested in conditions as close
as possible to those existing in service.
It was also found that there was some mass, below 3 tons, which could be raised
and lowered on to the beam, a colossal number (infinite) of times, without causing
any problem.
Some years later, a German engineer (Wohler), did work in this direction and
eventually developed a useful fatigue-testing machine which bears his name and
continues to be used in industry. The machine uses a test piece, which is rotated
in a chuck and a force is applied at the free end, at right angles to the axis of
rotation (refer to Fig. 10). The rotation thus produces a reversal of stress for every
revolution of the test piece.
Various other types of fatigue testing are also used e.g. cyclic-torsional, tension-
compression etc. Exhaustive fatigue testing, with various materials, has resulted
in a better understanding of the fatigue phenomenon and its implications from an
engineering viewpoint.
Test Piece
Load
Using a typical S-N curve, for a steel material (refer to Fig. 11), it can be seen
that, if the stress is reduced, the steel will endure a greater number of stress
cycles. The graph also shows that a point is eventually reached where the curve
becomes virtually horizontal, thus indicating that the material will endure an
infinite number of cycles at a particular stress level.
This limiting stress is called the Fatigue Limit and, for steels, the fatigue limit is
generally in the region of 40% to 60% of the value of the static, ultimate tensile
strength (U.T.S.)
Stress
(S)
Fatigue Limit
40 60 % UTS
Number of Cycles
(N)
A S-N Curve for a Steel Material
Fig. 11
It follows that components made from such materials must be designed with a
specific life in mind and removed from service at the appropriate time. The
service fatigue lives of complete airframes or airframe members are typical
examples of this philosophy.
Non-metallic materials are also liable to failure by fatigue. As is the case with
metals, the number of stress cycles, required to produce a fatigue failure, will
increase as the maximum stress in the loading cycle decreases. There is,
however, generally no fatigue limit for these materials and some form of
endurance limit must be applied.
The importance of fatigue strength can be illustrated by the fact that, in a high-
cycle fatigue mode, a mere 10% improvement in fatigue strength can result in a
100-times life improvement.
In practice, the level of the fluctuating stress, and the number of cycles to cause
cracking of a given material, are affected by many other variables, such as stress
concentration points (stress raisers), residual internal stresses, corrosion, surface
finish, material imperfections etc.
3.11 VIBRATION
Vibration has already been quoted as being a cause of high-cycle fatigue and,
because most dynamic structures are subjected to vibration, this is undoubtedly
the most common origin of fatigue. All objects have their own natural frequency at
which they will freely vibrate (the resonant frequency). Large, heavy, flexible
components vibrate at a low frequency, while small, light, stiff components vibrate
at a high frequency.
Nucleation
Propagation (crack growth)
Ultimate (rapid) fracture.
However, once the initial crack is formed, the extremely high stress concentration
(present at the crack front) is sufficient to cause the crack to propagate relatively
quickly, and gaining in speed as the crack front not only increases in size, but
also reduces the component cross-sectional area.
A point is eventually reached (known as the 'critical crack length') at which the
remaining cross-section is sufficiently reduced to cause a gross overloading
situation, and a sudden fracture finally occurs.
It is not unusual for the crack initiation phase to take 90% of the time to failure,
with the propagation phase only taking the remaining 10%. This is one of the
major reasons for operators of equipment being relatively unsuccessful in
detecting fatigue cracks in components before a failure occurs.
3.13.1 DESIGN
Apart from general stressing, the geometry of a component has a considerable
influence on its susceptibility to fatigue. A good designer will therefore minimise
stress concentrations by:
avoiding rapid changes in section and
using generous blend radii or chamfers to eliminate sharp corners
3.13.3 ENVIRONMENT
One of the most potent environmental promoters of fatigue occurs when the
component is operating in a corrosive medium. Steel (normally), has a well-
defined fatigue limit on the S-N curve but, if a fatigue test is conducted in a
corrosive environment, not only does the general fatigue strength drop
appreciably, but the curve also resembles the aluminium alloy curve (e.g. the
fatigue failure stress continues to fall as the number of cycles increases).
The fastener hole is initially checked for defects (using, usually, an Eddy Current
NDT procedure) and the surface finish is further improved by reaming (and
checked once again).
A tapered mandrel is then pulled through the hole, resulting in a localised area of
residual (compressive) stress which will provide a neutral or, at least, a
significantly reduced level of fatigue in the area around the fastener hole
DON'T
Leave off protective coverings - plastic end caps etc.
Score the surface.
Leave sharp corners or ragged holes.
Force parts unnecessarily to make them fit.
Work metal unless it is in the correct heat-treated state.
Composite laminates, containing embedded fibre optic sensors can be used for
SHM, including fatigue monitoring and flight envelope exceedance monitoring
and their advantages include:
Any alloy containing iron as its main constituent is called a ferrous metal. The
most common ferrous metal, in aircraft construction is steel, which is an alloy of
iron with a controlled amount of carbon added.
4.1 IRON
Iron is one of the most common elements in the Earth's crust. It comprises
approximately 5% compared with aluminium at 8%. Iron is never found naturally
in its metallic state, but as iron ores which only contain in the range of 25% to
60% iron and are mined in open-cast or open-pit mines. Iron has a great affinity
for oxygen.
Iron is a chemical element that is fairly soft, malleable and ductile in its pure form.
It is silvery-white in colour and quite heavy, having a density of 7870 kgm-3.
Unfortunately it combines well with oxygen, producing iron oxide, which is more
commonly known as rust. Iron usually has other materials added to improve its
properties.
The first smelt from the raw ore is poured into troughs (which are said to
resemble piglets suckling on a sow) and the iron is referred to as pig iron. The
pig iron is then re-melted to give cast irons.
4.2 STEEL
Steel is essentially an alloy of iron and less than 2.5% carbon, usually with a few
impurities. (In practice most steels do not have more than 1.5% carbon).
Steel is produced by refining pig iron (removing excess carbon and other
unwanted impurities). The excess carbon is extracted by blowing oxygen or air
through the molten metal, and/or adding iron oxide. Slag, containing other
impurities, is skimmed off. The most common furnace used for this process was
the Bessemer Converter, developed in 1856. It reduced the cost of steel to one
The high quality steels, used in aircraft construction, are usually produced in
electric furnaces, which allow better control, than do gas furnaces, when alloying.
The carbon electrodes produce an intense arc and the steel, when molten, can
have impurities removed and measured amounts of alloying materials added.
The (American) Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has classified steel alloys
with a four-digit numerical index system. A small extract from the SAE
classification system is shown in Table 2, where it can be seen, for example, that
one common steel alloy is identified by the designation SAE 1030. The first digit
identifies it as a Carbon-Steel, while the second digit shows that it is a Plain
Carbon-Steel. The last two digits denote the percentage of carbon in the steel
(0.30%).
It should be noted that the British Standards Institute (BS) has a different
classification system.
The start of the hesitation is known as the lower critical point and the end is
called the upper critical point, and the phenomenon of the temperature
response is due to a change in the crystalline structure of the steel in between the
two critical points.
The more carbon present, the harder the steel will be after quenching. This rapid
cooling causes a change in the metallurgical structure and is called Martensite.
Martensite is extremely hard but is not suitable for most engineering purposes
due to it being very brittle. For most applications it is necessary to carry out a
further heat-treatment to reduce the brittleness of the steel, and this is called
tempering.
The effect of this heat-treatment is to slightly reduce the hardness whilst at the
same time greatly increasing the toughness. The actual tempering temperature
used depends on the requirements of strength, hardness and toughness.
The higher the tempering temperature, the lower will be strength and hardness,
but the toughness will be greater. The maximum tensile strength of hardened
carbon steel is achievable when 0.83% carbon is present. If an even greater
amount of carbon is present, the hardness continues to increase but strength will
decrease.
Agitation in the cooling bath can also speed up the cooling rate and, in terms of
cooling severity, brine is more effective than water, followed by oil and finally air.
4.3.2 TEMPERING
As already stated, tempering is carried out to improve the toughness of hardened
steel whilst suffering only a modest drop in strength. Accurate temperature
measuring equipment, in addition to well equipped facilities, are required to do
these procedures on aerospace metals.
Table 3,however, shows that, when carbon steel is polished to a bright, clean
surface, and then slowly heated, a range of colours appears, due to a thin oxide
film forming during the heating process. These colours are related fairly closely to
temperatures. The higher temperature achieved during the tempering process,
the softer (and tougher) the material will become and vice-versa.
Table 3
COLOUR/TEMPERATURE RELATIONSHIP OF CARBON STEELS
COLOUR TEMPERATURE
Straw 230/240c
Purple 270C
Blue 300C
Dark red 500C
4.3.3 ANNEALING
The annealing of steel may be for one of the following purposes:
To soften the steel for forming or to improve machinability.
To relieve internal stresses induced by a previous process (rolling, forging,
or unequal cooling).
To remove coarseness of grain.
4.3.4 NORMALISING
This process is similar to annealing, except that the cooling is done in still air. The
end result, again, is a stress-free, soft material with uniform fine grain structure.
Normalising is commonly used on actual components after heavy machining
operations (or welding), prior to the final hardening and tempering processes.
4.4.1 CARBURISING
This is the most common method of case-hardening low-carbon steels and,
basically, consists of heating the metal to approximately 900C, while the
component is in contact with a carbon-rich medium followed by a suitable heat-
treatment.
Carbon is generally absorbed into the surface of the heated steel and the rate of
penetration is approximately 1mm in 5-6 hours. Low-carbon steels are particularly
suited to this type of treatment, as it increases the carbon content and hence the
hardness locally. Various methods of carburising are used, the most common
ones being:
Pack Carburising. The object is sealed in a container containing a carbon-
rich (charcoal based) powder and heated in a furnace. The metal is next
quenched in oil (not water-which would cause the hard case to peel off).
The depth of the hard skin depends on the length of time that the metal is
heated.
Gas Carburising. The object is placed in a basket in a furnace, through
which is passed a suitable, carbon-rich gas (e.g. methane, propane).
Liquid Carburising. The object is heated to a suitable temperature and then
immersed in a hot, salt bath at 900C. The salts are usually based on
sodium cyanide and the process is often called cyanide hardening. The
metal is quenched in water (not oil-which would react unfavourably with the
salts).
4.4.2 NITRIDING
This process involves the absorption of nitrogen (instead of carbon) into the
surface of the steel. Suitable "Nitralloy" steels are necessary for this process and
they usually contain 1% Aluminium, 1.5% Chromium and 0.2% Molybdenum.
A special furnace is used and ammonia gas is circulated through it. The furnace
temperature of 500C converts the ammonia into a nitrogen-rich gas and forms
hard iron nitride in the surface of the steel.
The case depth, achievable by this process, is less than that by pack carburising,
but the major advantage of nitriding is that no hardening or tempering is
necessary to achieve the final hardness, and no finish machining is required after
nitriding. This, relatively low-temperature process, results in negligible distortion
and is much cleaner than the carbon methods. Aircraft piston engine cylinder
barrels are particularly suitable for nitriding, as are some crankshaft bearing
surfaces and the stems of some aero-engine induction and exhaust valves.
Nitrided surfaces must be protected against pitting corrosion, usually (as with
engine gears and shafts) by keeping the surface oiled.
Steels suitable for these processes already contain sufficient carbon (or other
elements) to attain a high degree of hardness if heated and quenched.
Only the surface is locally heated (by a flame or electrical induction coil), and the
heated surface is then immediately quenched by water jets. The flame or
induction coil is positioned so that it only heats the area required to be hardened.
4.6 CARBON
Carbon is the most common alloying element found in steel. When mixed with
iron, compounds of iron carbide form and it is the carbon in steel that allows it to
be heat-treated to obtain varying degrees of hardness, strength and toughness.
The greater the carbon content, then the more receptive the steel becomes to
heat-treatment and, while its strength and hardness increases, its malleability and
weldability decreases.
4.7 SULPHUR
Sulphur causes steel to be brittle when rolled or forged and so it must be
removed during the refining process. If it proves impossible to remove all of the
sulphur, then manganese, which is harmless to the steel can be added to the
metal (to form manganese sulphide),. The manganese also improves forging by
making the steel less brittle during the forming processes.
4.8 SILICON
When silicon is alloyed with steel, it acts as a hardener and, used in small
quantities, it also improves ductility.
4.10 NICKEL
Nickel is used extensively for alloying with steel as follows:
In the range of 1% - 5% there is a marked improvement in strength (and
hardness) without lowering ductility. This high-strength, tough steel is
widely used for highly stressed parts.
At about 25% nickel, the steel becomes highly corrosion-resistant, heat-
resistant and non-magnetic.
At 36% nickel, a unique steel (known under its trade name as Invar) is
created. This has the lowest coefficient of expansion of any metal (1/20th
that of steel) and is excellent for master gauges and instruments.
Because of the effect of such amounts of nickel on the expansion properties
of steel, a range of nickel-steels can be purpose-made, to trim the
coefficient of expansion to specific needs. These alloys are used in
thermostats, spark plug electrodes etc.
One of the most important nickel-based alloy groups is the nimonics. These are
a family of alloys, containing 50% - 80% nickel, with the balance being mainly
chromium (chrome) with some titanium and aluminium.
Nimonic alloys are used in hot air control ducting, for gas turbine engine
combustion chambers and turbine blades because of their extremely low
coefficient of expansion at elevated temperatures.
Other ranges of nickel-based alloys come under the trade names of Inconel and
Hastelloy, which are also temperature-resistant and corrosion-resistant.
Another common nickel alloy is Monel. This metal (68% nickel and 29% copper,
with iron, manganese, silicon and carbon) has excellent resistance to both
corrosion and chemical attack, is tough, ductile, reasonably strong (equivalent to
mild steel) and is non-magnetic. It is used in many marine applications, for
surgical apparatus and for aircraft rivets. Normally Monel does not respond to
heat treatment but, when alloyed with a small amount of aluminium (2% - 4%), it
can be hardened to double its strength. This version is known as K-Monel.
1.5% chrome, in a high-carbon (1%) steel, results in a very hard material which is
used extensively for instrument pivots and in ball and roller bearings. Low chrome
(1.5%-3%) steels are used for high tensile fasteners and are suitable for nitriding.
Chromium can also be electrolytically deposited onto metals, to provide hard-
wearing surfaces, such as those required in cylinder bores.
4.12 COBALT
Cobalt is often included in High-Speed Steel (HSS) in addition to chrome,
vanadium, molybdenum, and tungsten (to improve still further the ability to cut at
high working temperatures). Cobalt is included in high-strength, permanent
magnets, in some of the nimonic alloys used for high-temperature components in
gas turbine engines and cobalt is also found in a range of temperature-resistant
alloys called Stellite (used in piston engine valves and for cutting tools)
4.13 VANADIUM
When added to steel, vanadium improves the strength without loss of ductility, but
also greatly improves its toughness and its resistance to fatigue. Because of the
improved tensile and elastic properties, Valve (and many types of other) Springs,
usually include vanadium. Small amounts of vanadium are included in certain
nickel-chrome steels and good quality engineering tools.
4.14 MANGANESE
When small amounts of manganese are added to steel (up to 1.5%) the result is
a steel which is strong and hard (similar to nickel-chrome steel). Such steel is
often used for shafts and axles
11%-14% manganese steel has very unusual properties and is extremely useful.
When this material is heated to approximately 1000C and water-quenched, its
structure becomes austenitic and, although it is only moderately hard, any
attempt to cut it, or abrade it, results in the local formation of hard martensite and
it thus becomes highly resistant to cutting or abrasion. Because of this peculiar
property, it is used extensively for rock drills, stone crushers, and railway lines at
junctions etc.
Small amounts of manganese are used in steel production and in welding rods
since it acts as a purifying agent by reducing oxidation.
4.15 MOLYBDENUM
One of the most widely used alloying elements for aircraft structural steel is
molybdenum. It reduces the grain size of steel, which increases its impact-
strength and elastic limit. Other advantages are an increase in wear-resistance
and high fatigue-resistance, which is the reason why molybdenum-steels are
found in structural members and engine parts.
4.17 TUNGSTEN
Tungsten has an extremely high melting point and adds this characteristic to the
steel with which it is alloyed. Tungsten steels retain their hardness at elevated
temperatures, and are typically used for contact-breaker contacts (in magnetos),
and also for high-speed cutting tools.
INTENTIONALLY BLANK
A metal in which there is little or no iron is said to be non-ferrous. The list of non-
ferrous metals is quite impressive and their uses make very interesting reading,
if it is intended to follow a career in metallurgy but, for the purposes of this
course, the topics must be confined to the more common non-ferrous metals,
their qualities and their uses in aerospace engineering.
Cadmium, chromium, nickel, tin and zinc are also often used to provide protective
coatings on other metals in order to retard the effects of corrosion.
Precious metals, such as gold, platinum and silver have been used for special
work in high-grade electrical instruments, aircraft windshields and, of course,
space vehicles.
Mercury (quicksilver) the only metal to remain liquid at room temperature may
be found in certain types of barometers, discharge lamps, small, electrical circuit
breakers, pressure gauges and vacuum pumps (it can also be found in the
detonators of some explosive devices).
Aluminium, copper, magnesium and titanium alloys are among the more common
non-ferrous metals that are used in aircraft construction and repair.
With a conductivity (of electricity and heat) second only to silver, and having the
ability to be beaten, cast, drawn, forged, pressed, rolled or spun into many
different (and often complicated) shapes, copper is a very versatile metal.
Two thirds the weight of aluminium (with a relative density of 1.74), no metal can
be cut, drilled, filed or shaped so easily as magnesium provided that certain
precautions are taken to prevent it over-heating.
Magnesium burns readily, especially in small particles and dust. Great care must
be taken when filing and grinding this metal and, if a fire should occur, it must be
extinguished with dry sand or an appropriate powder extinguisher but WATER
MUST NOT BE USED.
Pure titanium at approximately 56% the weight of stainless steel, has almost the
same strength as iron. It is highly resistance to corrosion, non-magnetic and is
readily shaped by all of the methods, which relate to steel. Titanium is also soft
and ductile.
Care should be taken when working with titanium. Titanium fires usually start
through high-speed rubbing. The low thermal conductivity of titanium prevents the
Note:- Alloys, which have aluminium or magnesium as their base elements, are
referred to as Light Alloys, while the remainder are termed Heavy Alloys.
While it would be impossible (and unsafe) to attempt to memorise them all, these
notes provide examples of the American system of identifying aluminium (or
aluminum) alloys.
American aluminium alloys are classified by a code, which refers to the element
that makes up the major percentage of the alloy
As previously stated, the elements most commonly used for alloying with
aluminium are copper, manganese, silicon, magnesium, and zinc.
The last two numbers of the 1xxx group indicate the hundredths of 1% above the
99% of pure aluminium. For example, if 75 were the last two digits, the metal
would be 99.75%pure.
Table 4
American System of Identifying Alloying Elements with Aluminium
1xxx aluminium
2xxx copper
3xxx manganese
4xxx silicon
5xxx magnesium
6xxx magnesium & silicon
7xxx zinc
8xxx other elements
In the 1xxx group, commercially pure aluminium (over 99% pure) is good for
corrosion resistance, has good electrical and thermal conduction properties, is
easy to work but is not very strong.
The 2xxx group uses copper as its major alloying element. The major benefit of
copper is a large increase in strength, although if the alloy is not correctly heat-
treated, intergranular corrosion can occur between the aluminium and copper
grains within the metal. These are probably the commonest aluminium alloys
used in aircraft construction.
The 3xxx group has manganese as its major alloying agent and it is not possible
to heat-treat.
The 4xxx series utilises silicon as its major element. This lowers its melting point
and improves its welding and brazing capabilities.
The 5xxx group has magnesium as the main alloying element. This is good for
welding and corrosion resistance although, if exposed to high temperature or cold
working, it can corrode quite badly.
The 6xxx group has silicon and magnesium added to the aluminium. This makes
the alloy heat-treatable and with good forming and corrosion resistance
properties.
The 7xxx alloys are made harder and stronger by the addition of zinc. These are
difficult to bend and are more often used where flat plates are required.
Alclad is a pure aluminium coating that is rolled onto the surface of an aluminium
alloy, which may, then, be heat-treated. The thickness of the coating is
approximately 5% of the material thickness on each side. For example, if an
alclad sheet of aluminium alloy has a thickness of 1.2 mm (0.047), then 0.06 mm
(0.0024) of pure aluminium is applied to each side.
The heating and cooling cycles occur in most treatments and it is only the time
and temperatures which differ. Aluminium alloys have two main heat-treatments,
which are referred to as solution heat-treatment and precipitation heat-treatment.
The muffle furnace uses hot air, which circulates around an inner chamber in
which the aluminium alloy is placed.
The salt bath employs molten mineral salts (water would evaporate long before
the required temperatures were reached. The salts (usually nitrate of soda or
similar) are solid at room temperature, but become liquid when they are
electrically heated. Gradual heating of the bath is necessary to avoid spattering or
spitting. The aluminium alloy (pre-dried, also to avoid spattering) can then be
submerged within the heated liquid. Another precaution when using a salt bath is
to avoid any adjacent flames or sparks, because the salts are inflammable.
Quench tanks must be sited nearby the furnace or salt bath, to avoid delay
between removing from the heating source and quenching. Most quench tanks
contain cold water but hot water is sometimes specified (especially for heavy
sections e.g. large forgings). Limits are also stipulated for the permissible period
between heating and quenching which is known as the lag-time (typically 10
seconds max.). If these lag-times are exceeded, material properties or corrosion
resistance may be adversely affected. If the cooling rate, during quenching, is too
slow this may also affect the corrosion resistance.
There is no limit to the number of times that heat-treatment may be carried out on
normal aluminium/copper alloys but, if the material is clad with pure aluminium,
for corrosion resistance (Alclad), then a maximum of three treatments is
imposed.
This is to limit the migration of copper, from the alloyed material, into the pure
aluminium cladding, which would significantly reduce its corrosion resistance.
By cooling the alloyed metals very quickly (quenching), the copper becomes
trapped 'in solution', making the aluminium very strong.
5.5.2 AGE-HARDENING
The gradual formation of the copper alumide islands (also referred to as slip),
causes an increase in hardness and strength and these properties reach
maximum values after several days (or weeks in some instances). Because of the
time lapse involved, this gradual hardening is termed age-hardening. Although
copper may be the major alloying element (in the 2000 series alloys) other
elements, including magnesium and manganese can also be present.
Although the aluminium/copper alloys are the most common age-hardened, high-
strength metals, they are not unique. Aluminium, when alloyed with 5%-7% Zinc,
is also able to be age-hardened. This is a more modern alloy than the aluminium/
copper type and is the highest-strength aluminium alloy in general use. This alloy
is used in heavy loaded applications such as Main Spars, Landing Gear and
Mainplane Attachment brackets etc..
5.5.3 ANNEALING
Annealing, as with steel, serves to soften the aluminium alloy, to enable it to be
worked without cracking. Even in this condition, ageing will gradually occur and
24 hours is the normal limit for working after annealing, although this can be
extended if the material is stored under refrigerated conditions to slow the ageing
process. A temperature of -5C will provide approximately 2 days delay while one
of -20C will provide approximately 1 weeks delay in the age-hardening process
The maximum for refrigeration is approximately 150 hours at -20C.
When the alloys are left at room temperature, after quenching, the hardening
process (natural ageing), and can take from several hours to several weeks. An
aluminium/copper alloy, for example, is only at 90% strength within 30 minutes of
quench, but is at maximum strength after four or five days.
We have already discussed how the natural ageing process can be drastically
retarded (allowing the metal to be kept in a soft condition until required for use),
by storing the alloys at sub-zero temperatures (refrigeration) for prescribed
periods of time.
Table 5
IDENTIFICATION MARKINGS OF HEAT-TREATED ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
BS System Meaning
M As manufactured state
O Annealed state
OD Annealed and lightly drawn
T Solution-treated, no precipitation required
W Solution-treated, can be precipitated
WP Solution-treated and precipitation treated
MoS System Meaning
A Annealed state
N Solution-treated, no precipitation required
W Solution-treated, and requires precipitation
WP Solution-treated and precipitation treated
American
System Meaning
T3 Solution-treated and cold worked
T4 Solution-treated only (naturally aged)
T6 Solution-treated and artificially aged
T8 Solution-treated, cold worked and artificially aged
T9 Solution-treated, artificially aged and cold worked
Apart from these systems, many other exist world-wide, but the British systems
are, broadly, confined to three basic ones for light alloys.
British Standards for general engineering use BS 1470 -1475. In this series
the prefix N is used to denote non-heat-treatable aluminium alloys and
prefix H for the heat-treatable alloys.
British Standards for aerospace use: BS X LXX. (The "L" series)
e.g. BS 3 L72 indicates the 3rd amendment to the basic L 72 spec.
LM - indicates a cast material. The wrought materials are commonly
abbreviated to L71, L72, L 73 etc.
Some sheets may also have alternate lines of red numbers/letters, which indicate
that heat-treatment is needed before assembly. These red numbers/letters then
disappear when the necessary heat-treatment is done.
Although their use is obviously limited on airframes, cast aluminium alloys are
used extensively on engines, where there is a need to produce complex cored
shapes such as crankcases, drive casings, cylinder heads etc. No other method
than casting would be viable for such items. The stresses can be kept to a
modest level on these parts by producing robust castings of adequate stiffness.
Very few non-heat-treatable cast alloys are used in aerospace applications and,
for high-duty engine casings and pistons, some very strong, temperature-
resistant alloys exist. One of the most common in the category is RR 58
(sometimes known as `Y' Alloy), which is an age-hardening material containing
approximately 2% copper, l% magnesium, 1% nickel, and l% iron. A
derivative of this material was also used (in wrought form) for the skin of the
supersonic Concord aircraft, due to the high metal temperatures encountered.
Cast aluminium alloys often contain silicon, which creates high fluidity and, thus,
is good for producing complex shapes. It also reduces the coefficient of linear
expansion, so is often included in piston castings.
Magnesium alloys are used for castings and, in their wrought form, are available
as sheet, bar, tubing and extrusions. They are among the lightest metals having
sufficient strength and suitable working characteristics for use in aircraft
structures.
The corrosion problem is minimised by treating the surface of the metal with
chemicals, which form an oxide film, to prevent oxygen reaching the metal.
Another way of minimising corrosion is to use hardware such as rivets, nuts, bolts
and screws that are made from compatible materials.
Magnesium alloys can also be solution heat-treated, which will improve their
tensile strength, ductility and resistance to shock. To improve their hardness and
yield strength they can also be precipitation heat-treated after the solution heat-
treatment.
Brasses may contain zinc and small amounts of aluminium, iron, lead and other
elements such as manganese, nickel (and even very small amounts of tin!).
Depending on the percentage content of zinc, brass can be made ductile (30%-
35% Zn) or strong (45% Zn).
There are other copper alloys that contain practically no tin and yet are still
referred to as bronzes. High-Tensile Brass, for instance, because of its
manganese content is called Manganese Bronze, while Phosphor and Silicon
bronzes also contain practically no tin. Wrought aluminium bronzes are almost as
strong as medium-carbon steel while cast aluminium bronzes are found in
bearings and pump parts
Probably, the most common of these is Beryllium Bronze. This contains 97%
copper, 2% beryllium and small amounts of nickel to increase its strength. Once it
has been heat-treated, beryllium bronze is very strong (300-400 Brinell) and is
used for diaphragms, precision bearings and bushings, ball bearing cages and
spring washers.
Leaded Bronze is found in the bearings of some aero engines. The very high
pressures (and speeds) tend to squeeze the lubricant out of normal journal
bearings, so the addition of lead acts as a sort of lubricant in the event of the oil
film breaking down.
Solder is a general term frequently used for joining metals together. The principal
types are soft solder (which is a mainly lead-tin alloy), and hard solder which is
an alloy of copper, silver and zinc.
Titanium alloys, apart from being light and strong, also have excellent corrosion
resistance, particularly in a salt-laden atmosphere. To prevent reaction with
oxygen and nitrogen, in its pure form, titanium is treated with chlorine gas and a
reducing agent, to produce a coating of titanium dioxide.
There are three types of titanium, which are called alpha, alpha-beta and beta.
They have different strength and forming properties, depending on their heat-
treatments. Commercially pure titanium is non-heat-treatable (It can be
annealed, but its strength/hardness cannot be improved by heat-treatment.).
Titanium alloys are used extensively in aerospace gas turbines, but their use is
limited on subsonic civil airframes to fasteners, and high temperature areas such
as engine bays, heat shields, hot zone bulkheads, air ducts etc.
Titanium materials are, generally, not susceptible to normal corrosion attack, but
it has been established that stress corrosion cracking can take place in some
welded structures which are exposed to trichloroethylene and other chlorinated
Titanium may also show evidence of deterioration in the presence of salt deposits
or metal impurities, especially at high temperatures. It is, therefore prohibited to
use steel wool, iron scrapers or steel brushes for the cleaning of, or for the
removal of corrosion from, titanium components
If titanium surfaces need cleaning, then hand-polishing, or the use of soft bristle
fibre brushes, with aluminium oxide compound or a mild abrasive may be
permissible. Use only the recommended procedures outlined in the relevant
Maintenance or Overhaul Manual
Centre drilling should always be used, instead of centre punching, as the local
work-hardening caused by centre punching will cause difficulty in starting the drill
and will also tend to make the drill wander as well as blunt the drill point.
A High-Speed Steel (HSS) drill, having a point angle of 105 to 120, with a helix
angle of 38 and a thickened web is recommended. It is important that a stub (i.e.
short) drill should be used. For holes of more than 6 mm ( inch) diameter, a 90
or double-angled point is better. Drills must be precision ground and special care
must be taken to ensure that the drill tip is completely central, as any off-set of
the tip will cause work hardening as a result of friction of the non-cutting edge.
Flood lubrication with a cutting fluid of low viscosity helps to reduce frictional
troubles. High quality soluble oils, used in the diluted form recommended by the
manufacturers, or chlorinated or sulphured oils, should be used in generous
quantities for all machining operations. Chlorinated solvents should be removed,
after machining.
For satisfactory drill life, drill surface speeds within 3 to 13 metres (10 to 40 feet)
per minute are used, otherwise work hardening is likely to result.
A continuous feed of 0.05 to 0.1mm (0.002 to 0.005 inch) per revolution for holes
below 6 mm.(0.25 inch) diameter, and of 0.1 to 0.2 mm (0.005 to 0.010 inch) per
revolution for larger holes is recommended. Positive power feed must be
employed whenever possible.
There are four basic methods of converting raw material into the required
manufactured shape whilst also achieving the desired material structure. They
are casting, deformation, machining, and various forms of fabrication (i.e. the
joining together of smaller pieces or particles of material to form a larger object).
Welding, adhesive bonding, mechanical fasteners or even powder metallurgy
come under this latter heading.
Casting exploits the fluidity of a liquid as it takes shape and solidifies in a mould.
Deformation exploits the remarkable property of materials (mostly metals) to flow
plastically in the solid state without deterioration of their properties. Processes
such as these, result in a minimum of material waste.
Machining processes provide excellent precision, but the process generates a
large amount of waste material. Fabrication techniques enable complex shapes
to be constructed from simpler particles or units.
6.1 CASTING
This involves the pouring of molten material into a shaped mould and allowing it
to solidify to that shape. It is an ancient process, which enables complex shapes
to be produced in a wide range of materials in a single-step operation. Cast
components can range in size from the small teeth of a zip, to large casings of
several metres in diameter. Ocean-going ships propellers, up to 10 metres in
diameter, are produced this way. Modern casting techniques have resulted in:
high quality (i.e. minimum porosity and reasonably defect-free products)
high production rates
good surface finish
small dimensional tolerances
the ability to cast a very wide range of materials.
Moulds are made in a variety of materials including plaster and ceramics but, by
far, the most widely used are those of sand and metal.
6.1.1 SAND-CASTING
The two basic types of sand-casting are:
Removable/re-usable pattern (usually wood or metal)
Disposable pattern (e.g. polystyrene patterns, which vaporise when the
metal is poured).
While the characteristics of the sand are important, the design of the mould must
also meet certain standards, some of which are:
The top and bottom halves of the mould (cope and drag respectively), must
incorporate positive alignment features.
The pattern must be shaped such that withdrawal from the sand leaves a
perfect impression. Tapered faces are, therefore, better than perpendicular
faces.
Suitable feed channels must be provided for the molten metal to enter the
mould. These channels are called the sprue and the runners.
Strategically placed reservoirs (called `risers') must be incorporated to ensure
proper filling of the mould as the metal shrinks and begins to solidify. Typical
steel shrinkage is around 3%-4% and aluminium shrinkage, 6%-7%.
The incorporation of vents, where necessary, to permit the escape of gas and
steam when the molten metal contacts the sand.
Local chills are sometimes included in the mould, to encourage more rapid,
local solidification of the metal.
6.1.4 SHELL-MOULDING
Shell-moulding is a process in which a thin shell is produced, by bringing a
mixture of sand and a thermosetting resin into contact with a heated pattern.
When a sufficiently thick shell has been produced, the shell is finally cured
(backed up by sand or steel shot in a moulding box). The subsequent casting
process is then the same as for normal sand-casting. The advantages of shell-
moulding over conventional sand-casting are:
it can be semi-automated, which reduces cost
finer sand can be used, which results in a smoother surface finish.
6.1.5 CENTRIFUGAL-CASTING
This technique involves the molten metal being poured into a rotating mould. The
process is used for the manufacture of hollow cylinders (e.g. cylinder liners),
bronze or white metal bearings etc. The rotation can result in acceleration forces
of up to 60g and this produces high-quality, dense castings, since all of the slag
migrates to the bore (due to it being of lower density than the metal) and it can
then be machined out.
6.1.6 DIE-CASTING
This process uses a permanent metal mould, which results in more accurate, and
better finished, castings than those produced in sand. Die-casting, can be sub-
divided into gravity or pressure processes, depending on how the metal is fed
into the mould.
Gravity Die-Casting - sometimes known as Permanent-Mould Casting.
This casting process is virtually identical to sand-casting except that the
mould (die) is metal. A wide range of metals can be cast and hollow
castings are possible if a sand core is used. Fine grain structures are
produced, due to the more rapid rate of cooling, compared to that achieved
in sand-casting.
Pressure Die-Casting - as implied, molten metal is fed under high pressure
(thousands of psi) and held during solidification. Most die-castings are in
non-ferrous materials (aluminium, magnesium, zinc, copper and their
alloys), because steels have too-high a melting temperature for the metal
dies to accommodate. The dies are, usually, made from hard, tool-steels
and are water cooled. This process can achieve excellent detail, super
finish, low porosity, and thin sections. Expensive equipment is necessary,
but very high production rates are possible. Automatic ejection occurs and,
on small components, 100 units per minute is not uncommon. Hollow
castings cannot be made by die-casting.
6.2 FORGING
This is a squeezing/hammering technique, which is intended to achieve large
deformation/shaping of the material. The process is usually carried out hot (i.e.
above the re-crystallisation temperature), so that these large deformations can be
attained without being accompanied by any massive, residual stresses.
Sometimes a cold forging operation may be necessary but, in this instance, the
material will be harder, stronger and pre-stressed (i.e. still containing unrelieved
internal stresses).
Forging ranges from the simplest form of the hand operations, conducted by the
blacksmith, to the massive, mechanical, powered rams, used for very large
forgings. The forging hammer will often have a relatively low strike rate, but
sometimes high-speed, pneumatic hammers are used for High-Energy-Rate
Forming.
Forging not only shapes the metal, but also reduces grain size and produces a
directional control of grain flow. Both of these are desirable features for many
engineering applications, particularly for highly-stressed components, such as
crankshafts and especially if they are subject to a mechanical fatigue
environment.
6.2.1 DROP-STAMPING
Drop-stamping, or drop-forging (refer to Fig. 16), involves the use of shaped dies
and a heavy drop-hammer, which usually falls under gravity. The piece of
material, to be forged, is placed between the top and bottom dies and the drop-
hammer is allowed to fall the necessary number of times for the contact faces of
the dies to come together. Flash gutters are provided, to accommodate the
excess metal (flash), which squeezes out between the top and bottom dies.
6.2.2 HOT-PRESSING
Hot-pressing is similar, in principle, to drop-forging, but is actuated by one, long,
steady, squeezing operation, as compared to a number of blows. This process
tends to affect the whole structure of the component, whereas some forging
processes, using multi- (but light) blows will, mainly, affect the material closest to
the surface.
6.2.3 UPSETTING
Upsetting is, sometimes, called Heading and usually involves locally heating of
the end or ends of the material, immediately prior to forging. Poppet valves are
formed in this way, as well as forged bolts. Sometimes this process is done cold
(in which case it is referred to as Cold Heading), and some rivet heads are
formed in this way.
6.3 ROLLING
Rolling can be carried out hot or cold.
When done hot ,it is capable of achieving major re-forming/re-shaping, and slabs
can be reduced to plate or sheet while bars of circular or rectangular cross
section can also be produced. Hot rolling can also produce structural shapes
such as H or I section beams.
If the rolling is done cold, it is aimed at improved surface quality, better accuracy,
and increased hardness/strength. Hot, dilute, sulphuric acid is used to remove the
hot scale from steel prior to cold rolling. The rolling process would also be used to
produce the clad (and unclad) sheets of aluminium alloys.
6.4 DRAWING
Drawing is a purely, tensile operation, usually carried out hot. Wire, rod and
tubing, can be produced by this process, where the material is pulled through a
shaped, hardened die. A ductile material is essential.
6.6 PRESSING
Pressing involves the use of male and female formers for shaping sheet material.
The sheet is placed between the formers, which are then forced together by a
powered ram. Pressing is usually done hot (except for the soft, ductile materials).
6.7 STRETCH-FORMING
This is a technique used for shaping sheet metal over a stretch-block or former.
The sheet metal is firmly gripped by clamps and the sheet is then stretched over
the former (by moving the clamps or the former) and the material is stretched
beyond its elastic limit so that permanent deformation occurs.
Like stretch-forming, the process only uses one former, so it eliminates critical
matching and alignment problems of conventional pressing, When used for small
6.9 EXTRUDING
The extrusion process, forces hot metal through a shaped die, to produce
circular, rectangular, tubular, angular, half-round sections etc.
In some respects, the process is similar to drawing, but extruding forces metal
from a heated billet, through hardened dies by compression, whereas, in drawing,
it is achieved by tension. Malleability is, therefore, an essential material property
for the extrusion process.
6.9.1 IMPACT-EXTRUSION
This process is, usually, a cold-forming operation, which is suitable to very soft
and malleable materials (e.g. aluminium). The shaped component is formed, by
forcing a punch onto a blank of material within a shallow recess. The extruded
shape results from the metal being forced to escape through the small gap,
between the punch and the recess.
6.10 SINTERING
Sintering; involves metal, in powder form, which is heated to approximately 70%-
80% of its melting temperature and then squeezed to shape in a die.
The process is often used to form components made from materials with a very
high melting temperature (e.g. tungsten). It also allows non-metallic materials,
such as graphite and carbon, to be incorporated into the mixture.
Sintering can be used where the combined properties of materials are required,
as when copper and graphite are used for electrical brushes (i.e. copper to carry
the current and graphite to act as a low-friction contact)
6.11 SPINNING
Spinning is an old process, in which a piece of sheet metal may be formed, to
shape, around a rotating former, which is mounted on the spindle of a lathe. The
necessary force to deform the sheet metal is generated by a long tool, which is
levered about a suitably positioned fulcrum.
For thin gauge, soft metals, the tool can be manipulated by hand, while, for
thicker gauge materials, a hydraulic actuator is used on a purpose-built machine.
The process is ideally suited to aluminium alloys. The chemical, in this instance,
is a hot alkaline solution (usually caustic soda) and, while it is a relatively slow
process, its unique advantages make it very attractive for airframe components.
The areas, which must not be eaten away by the fluid, are simply protected by a
thin layer of plastic, which can be brushed or sprayed on.
Although the chemically etched surface is not very rough, a drop in fatigue
strength does result and, in critical applications, restoration of fatigue strength is
desirable. A light, peening operation, using glass beads or steel shot, achieves
this.
The tool is moved slowly towards the workpiece, by a ram, so that metal is
progressively removed from the workpiece, until the desired shape is achieved
The intense heat of the strike, causes local particles of metal to instantaneously
vaporise, without a molten metal phase (a process known as sublimation),
though, away from the actual centre of the explosion, molten fragments of metal
are washed away, with the vapour, by the dielectric fluid.
A suitable fluid (usually kerosene) is fed, under pressure, between the electrode
and the workpiece, to maintain a uniform electrical resistance. The spark rate is
around 10,000 per second and the gap between the tool and the workpiece is
critical and must be maintained, throughout the operation, at approximately
0.025 mm - 0.075 mm (0.001 in - 0.003 in).
The real advantage of EDM is that, not only is it suitable on materials which are
difficult to machine conventionally, but it also excels in its ability to produce high-
aspect ratio, very small holes of any cross-sectional, in very hard metals.
These techniques have been well established for many years, and most of the
advances, until relatively recently, have been confined to tooling improvements
which have permitted higher material removal rates. The early, high-carbon steel
tools, have been superseded by high-speed steels (tungsten/cobalt alloy steels),
cemented carbides and ceramics.
So-called Machining Centres have also been developed, which are capable of
automatic tool changes and of doing difficult types of machining without the need
for transferring work to a different machine and re-setting up. In this way a much
more versatile machine tool has evolved. However, the biggest single machining
advance in modern times (especially with regard to aircraft manufacture) has
been the introduction of Numerically Controlled (NC) machines. NC milling, in
particular, has revolutionised airframe manufacture.
NC machines usually incorporate a feed-back system, which tells the control unit
how much actual movement is made, analysis is then done and final
compensation eliminates any error (i.e. the motion ceases when the input and
feed-back signals agree). Electrical control of the machine servo-motors, can
control movements as small as 0.0005 mm (0.00002 in).
CNC machines (i.e. Computer Numerically Control) differ from NC machines only
in that the electronic control unit on the CNC machine is more sophisticated in
A composite is something, which is made up from many parts, and this term
could be applied to a wide range of engineering materials. These would include
not only the metallic alloys, but also the most earliest of all composite materials
used by man, wood (the tough, fibrous, xylem, or water-conducting tissue, of
shrubs and trees, which contains lignin and cellulose). Brick, concrete, and glass
are among the many other materials, which could be considered as composites.
7.1 PLASTICS
The word plastic comes from the Greek plastikos to mould, and plasticity (as
was discussed in The Properties of Metals) is the ability to retain a deformation
after the load, producing it, has been removed. Plastics are particularly useful for
applications, which involve relatively low-stress levels, where lightness is
important, and where low electrical or thermal conductivity is required.
The earliest plastic materials (before the synthetics) were those made from the
sap, or latex, of certain trees (gutta-percha), the secretions of tiny, scaly insects
(shellac) and the softened, moulded parts of the horns of animals.
The American inventor, John Wesley Hyatt (in 1869), produced the first synthetic
plastic material (used as an inexpensive substitute for ivory), from the cellulose of
plants (and called it Celluloid), while the chemist, L H Baekeland (in 1909)
developed the first entirely synthetic plastic material (Bakelite), from phenol-
formaldehyde. Bakelite is hard and fairly brittle. It is often used with a suitable
filler material (mica, or wood flour) and is widely used for various electrical
mouldings and low-stressed handles.
Plastics, however, is now the generic name, used to identify various materials
(natural and synthetic), based on long-chain molecules (polymers) of carbon, that
can be cast, extruded or moulded into various shapes or drawn out into filaments
to be used as fibres.
While the two major groups of plastics are the Thermoplastic and Thermosetting
compositions, the manufacture of synthetic rubbers (called Elastomers) is also
considered to be part of the plastics industry.
Two types of transparent thermoplastic materials are used for aircraft windshields
and side windows, and are usually referred to as cellulose acetate and acrylic.
Older aircraft used cellulose acetate plastic because of its transparency and light-
weight. A disadvantage of cellulose acetate is its tendency to shrink and discolour
with time, which has led to it being phased out almost completely.
Cellulose acetate can be identified by its slight yellowish tint (especially when
aged), and by the fact that a scrap of it will burn with a sputtering flame and give
off black smoke. It will also react, and soften, upon contact with some materials,
such as acetone.
Acrylic plastics are identified by such trade names as Perspex (UK) and
Plexiglass (USA). It is stiffer than cellulose acetate, more transparent and
practically colourless. Acrylic burns with a clear flame and gives off a fairly
pleasant odour. Acetone, if applied, will cause white marks but will leave the
material as hard as it previously was.
The process of Thermosets becoming hard, when heated, is called curing and
curing can also be achieved by chemical (exothermic) reactions.
Note: Thermosetting materials are generally stronger, have a lower ductility and
lower impact properties than the Thermoplastics.
7.1.3 RESINS
Natural resins are obtained from the exudations from certain trees and other
plants and as clear, translucent, yellow (amber), brown, solid, or semisolid
agents, they are used in inks, lacquers, linoleum, varnishes and, of course,
plastics.
While the words plastics and resins are often used synonymously, they are, in
fact, quite different, in that plastics refers to the material in the finished items
while resins are the raw materials which may be found in the form of flakes,
pellets, powder, or a syrup.
Resins may be used alone to form plastics but, usually, additives are employed
with them, to assist in the moulding characteristics, or to enhance the properties
of the finished product.
The resin may be thickened and given more body by the addition of inert fillers,
which may be used to fill gaps and voids in the structure. Typical fillers are micro-
balloons, cotton and glass flock and aerosil (fumed silica).
Resins have little strength in themselves and are generally used to impregnate
linen, paper, and cloths made up from various synthetic fibres. For many years,
aircraft control cable pulleys have been made from thermosetting resins,
reinforced with layers of linen cloth. These pulleys are cured in a mould, at high
temperature, and have high strength without causing wear to the control cables.
When layers of paper are impregnated with a thermosetting resin such as phenol-
formaldehyde or urea-formaldehyde, they can be moulded into flat sheets or
other shapes. Once hardened, the material makes an exceptional electrical
insulator and can be found in use as terminal strips and printed circuit boards.
Glass fibres and mat, for example, have great strength for their weight, but lack
rigidity so, to convert glass fibre into a useful structural material, it is impregnated
with polyester resin and moulded into a desired form.
Polyesters cure by chemical action, and, so, differ from materials, which cure by
the evaporation of an oil or solvent. As polyester is thick and unmanageable, a
styrene monomer is added to make it thinner and easier to work.
If left alone, the mixture of polyester and styrene will, eventually, cure into a solid
mass, so inhibitors are added to delay this curing process and to improve shelf
life.
A catalyst then has to be used, when the inhibitors are no longer wanted and the
curing process is to be started and an accelerator will appreciably shorten the
curing time of the resin, depending on the temperature and mass of the resin.
The actual cure of polyester resin occurs when a chemical reaction between the
catalyst and accelerator generates heat within the resin. This (exothermic
reaction can be seen when a thick layer cures more rapidly than a thin layer.
Unlike polyester resins, that require a catalyst, epoxy resins require a hardener or
curing agent without recourse to heating.
There is also a difference in the mixing ratios between polyester and epoxy
resins. For polyester resin, the ratio is 64:1, resin to catalyst whilst, for epoxy
resin, the ratio is 4:1, resin to hardener.
Because they may also be moulded into shapes, which they retain, they qualify to
be included in the category of plastics. Elastomers will tolerate repeated
elongation and return to their original size and shape, in a similar way to natural
rubber
The principal types of composite materials are those involving fibrous elements
which may be used as strands, or be woven into fine tapes and cloths (or
coarser mats), held in a suitable resin matrix and formed into the required
shapes
The ultimate tensile strength of undamaged, very small diameter glass fibres is
extremely high, although the strength is reduced significantly if the fibres are
slightly damaged.
In its structural use it is often merely referred to as glass fibre or fibreglass, when
glass fibres (in various forms) are bonded together by appropriate resins.
When moulded with resin, the resulting composite is, also, of considerably lower
strength but, nevertheless, good GFRP structures are stronger than mild steel
and, on a simple strength-for-weight basis, can be comparable to high tensile
steel if the fibre form and lay-up is near optimum. It is however, considerably less
stiff than steel or even aluminium.
The main disadvantage of glass fibre is that it lacks stiffness and, as such, is not
suitable for applications subject to high structural loadings.
Carbon fibres are very stiff and, when formed into a composite, the Young's
Modulus (E) value can be higher than steel. CFRP is not only six times stiffer
than GFRP but is also over 50% stronger. It also has twice the strength of high-
strength aluminium alloy and three times the stiffness.
Carbon fibres are typically less than 0.01 mm (0.0004 in) in diameter and are
produced by subjecting a fine thread of a suitable nylon-type plastic to a very high
temperature (to decompose the polymer), and driving off all of the elements with
the exception of carbon. The carbon thread is then stretched, at white heat
(2000C-3000C), to develop strength. Unfortunately, the process is complex and
very costly.
Nevertheless, where the high cost can be justified, CFRP can offer considerable
weight savings over conventional materials. CFRP components are generally
made from Pre-preg sheet (fibres impregnated with resin and a hardener, which
only require heat and pressure to cure). Some specialist items are made by a
The use of composites, in the manufacture of helicopter rotor blades, has led to
significant increases in their life and, in some cases, they may have an unlimited
life span (subject to damage). The modern blade is highly complex and may be
comprised of CFRP, GFRP, stainless steel, a honeycomb core and a foam filling.
Better known under its trade name Kevlar in cloth form, it is a soft, yellow,
organic fibre that is extremely light, strong and tough. Its great impact-resistance
makes it useful in areas, which are liable to be struck by debris, as experienced in
areas around engine reverse-thrust buckets. Kevlar is used to manufacture bullet-
proof jackets and, also, as a reinforcement, in aircraft fuel tanks.
Composites have very low elongation properties and toughness. Aluminium alloy
has a typical elongation-to-fracture value of 11%, whereas composites range
from 3% for GFRP to 0.5% for CFRP.
The maximum operating temperatures, for GFRP, CFRP and Kevlar composites,
depend, to some extent, on the actual adhesives used, but are, generally, in the
range 220C-250C.
Some composites, such as carbon fibre in a carbon matrix, have very high
permissible operating temperatures (around 3000C), and are used for high-
energy braking applications and as thermal barriers for space vehicles).
Boron, Tungsten, Silicon Carbide and Quartz may also be used to provide fibres
for high-temperature composites
The sandwiched material (the core) may be made of a solid material, such as
wood, or a series of thin corrugations of a material, which are joined and placed
end-on (in the form of the cells of a honeycomb), within the laminates.
Where wood is used, as the core material, it usually consists of low-density balsa
wood, which has been cut across the grain and sandwiched between two layers
of reinforced resin (or a metal). This construction makes an extremely light, yet
strong material, which can be used as floor panels, wall panels and, occasionally,
aircraft skins.
Metal honeycomb cores (made from light alloy or stainless steel), are also
sandwiched between two face sheets of fibre-reinforced resins. On other
occasions the metal honeycombs may be found sandwiched between sheets of
light alloy, stainless steel or titanium. This type of core is referred to as metal-
faced honeycomb and is used where abrasion- and heat-resistance is important
or when sound-absorption qualities are desired.
In monolithic structures, angle sections (Top Hat, U, I and Z), frames ribs and
stringers are fashioned from similar materials to the outer layers of the sandwich
structure, then covered with the appropriate surface skin, before the stronger,
metallic spars and hinges are attached, Such a structure can save many
kilograms (or pounds) in the weight of the flying control surfaces (or the fin
structure) of a large aircraft.
7.6.1 SEALS
Seals or packing rings (refer to Fig. 18) serve to retain fluids and gases, within
their respective systems, as well as to exclude air, moisture and contaminants.
They also have to withstand a wide range of temperatures and pressures and,
because of this, they have to be manufactured in a variety of shapes and
materials.
The most common materials, from which seals are manufactured, are natural
rubber, synthetic rubber and Teflon (trade name for polytetrafluoroethane or
PTFE). O-ring seals effectively seal in both directions of movement. They are
used to prevent both internal and external leakage, and are the most commonly
used seals in aviation
O-rings are available in many different materials and sizes (both diameter and
thickness). They are supplied in individual, hermetically-sealed, envelopes with all
the necessary information marked on the packaging. This system has generally
replaced the previously used, colour-coding of seals, which had severe
limitations.
For applications (such as in actuators) that subject a seal to pressure from two
sides, two back-up rings can be used but, when the pressure is from one side
only, a single back-up ring is adequate.
Other seals, commonly found are V-ring and U-ring seals. The V-ring has an
open V facing the pressure and is located by the use of a male and female
adapter. The U-ring seals will, usually, be found in brake unit assemblies and
master cylinders, where pressures below 89 x 10 kN/m (1000 psi) are
encountered. As they only seal in one direction, the concave surface must face
towards the pressure.
While composites do not suffer the corrosion and cracking problems, associated
with metals and also have good fatigue characteristics, they do, however, require
regular inspection for the defects to which they are particularly prone.
The areas to be inspected are, usually well known and they will be detailed in the
relevant chapter (51-57 for Airframe topics, 61-61 for Propellers) of the Aircraft
Maintenance Manual (AMM). The inspection methods to be used will be found in
the Non-destructive Testing Manual (NTM) and the approved repair procedures
will be outlined in the Structural Repair Manual (SRM).
Repairs in unexpected areas, or damage, which is not covered in the SRM, will
necessitate the request of specific repair drawings from the aircraft manufacturer.
Fibre
A visual inspection can also find several manufacturing defects such as resin-rich
or resin-starved areas, pinholes, blisters and air bubbles.
Variations in the tapping sound will provide clues as to the quality of the bond. A
sharp solid sound indicates a good bond, whilst a dull thud indicates bond
separation. Care must be taken to make allowances for changes in material
thickness, fasteners and earlier repairs, all of which can give false indications.
Whenever damage is found visually, then a percussion test should be done
around the area. In the majority of instances, if there is a hole, crack or other
damage, there is, often, also delamination.
8.3.4 RADIOGRAPHY
Radiography can, sometimes, be used to detect cracks in the surface in addition
to being able locate internal faults that cannot be visually detected. Radiographic
procedures may also be employed to detect water ingress within honeycomb core
cells.
As with metal structures, the damage occurring to GFRP or CFRP structures may
be classified as negligible (or allowable), repairable by cover patch, repairable by
insertion or repairable by replacement.
Sometimes damage may be difficult to detect, due to the natural flexibility of the
material which may cause it to spring back into shape. Any evidence of cracking,
straining, crazing or scuffing of the gel coat should be regarded with suspicion, as
it may indicate the presence of damage.
Any subsequent repair will depend on the type of damage, the extent of that
damage and the importance (significance), to the safety of the aircraft, of the
material being repaired. The AMM will provide either a repair scheme or
component replacement information.
Damaged Area
Front of Panel
Rear of Panel
Damage to Composite
Fig. 20
The damaged material is removed first (refer to Fig. 21), bearing in mind that the
damage may be small on the front, but may extend some distance at the rear
side of the panel.
Undamaged Panel
Damaged Area Removed
Fig. 21
Repair to Composite
Fig. 22
Plug of Damaged
Material Removed
Honeycomb
Plug
Core
Damage Plugged
Fig. 24
Once the plug is bonded in place, the upper skin can be repaired in much the
same way as with the composite panel. Several layers of mat are then bonded
carefully onto both the original surface and the plug (refer to Fig. 25).
Note: The above examples are only an outline of the full repairs that may be
done, during aircraft maintenance.
To summarise, glass fibre composites have two basic constituents, namely the
glass fibre and the surrounding plastic matrix. The glass fibres reinforce the
plastic matrix and carry most of the load. The matrix gives the composite its
rigidity and protects the fibres from attack by moisture or chemicals.
Glass fibres are generally woven into a fabric, which gives a regular orientation to
the fibres and allows them to be handled more easily.
To produce a glass fibre laminate, successive layers of the fabric are placed into
position and impregnated with resin. The liquid resin solidifies within a few hours
and after post curing at elevated temperatures, forms a strong matrix around the
fibres.
Using this technique, intricate shapes can easily be formed with the load carrying
filaments orientated in the best possible manner. It is also possible to reinforce
the laminate locally and to mould in load bearing fittings etc. into the laminate.
There are two main types of glass cloth, uni-directional and bi-directional.
Roving may also be used either individually, or grouped together, to give a fully,
uni-directional composite.
A laminate of this material is heavy and of low strength, compared with one which
is made of woven fabric. As a result, it is of little use in aircraft construction.
9.4.4 RESIN
The choice of resin for a particular application, is most important, because resins
are produced with the necessary properties to suit only certain requirements and
are, therefore, not suitable for universal application.
Most laminating resin comes in two-liquid parts, namely a resin and a hardener.
Once hardener is mixed with the basic resin a chemical reaction begins and the
mixture begins to solidify (cure).
.Resin Mixing
In any resin mix, the proportions are absolutely critical, since the cured strength
depends on it. The proportions are normally specified by weight of the quantity of
resin required. An excess of hardener in the mixed resin is as damaging as a
deficit. In both cases the cured resin will have an incomplete molecular structure
and result in poor physical properties.
The length of time before a mix of activated resin begins to solidify is called pot
life and is dependent on the temperature and quantity of resin. Once the resin
becomes thick and stringy, the curing process is well on its way. Resin in this
state should not be used ,since the cured strength properties will be seriously
degraded.
To prevent waste, only sufficient resin should be mixed for the task in hand.
9.6 CURING
Most resins used in aircraft structures will cure at standard room temperature
(20C) but may take several days to reach a fully cured state. Once the resin has
hardened, post-curing, at elevated temperature, is required for the resin to gain
its full strength.
For repair purposes the heat is usually applied by means of an infra-red lamp or
electric heater. For components, which have been removed from the aircraft, an
oven of suitable size may be used, to allow accurate control of temperature. If a
large enough oven is not available, then a hot-air tent should be constructed
around the repair, and a thermometer used, to measure the average temperature
inside the tent.
The times and temperatures, required to effect a cure, are specified in the
relevant SRM. The maximum curing temperature must not be exceeded. A typical
time and temperature would be 8 hours at 60C.
The use of pressure is normally specified for a repair whilst it is being cured. This
assists in maintaining the correct profile of the repair and improves the bond.
Pressure may be applied by clamps, weights or by a vacuum bag.
Once the resin has cured, it is absolutely neutral. It will not swell or shrink with
changes in climate and is only attacked by a few chemicals.
Generally, the gel coat surface is incorporated in the moulding process, but it may
also be used as paint and, after curing, it can polished to give a smooth, glossy
surface.
Depending on the type of resin, the shelf life may be up to 12 months, after which
time it must be discarded. Resins, which have absorbed moisture, and become
cloudy, should normally be discarded, but they can sometimes be recovered by
heating them to 120C, to evaporate the moisture. If the resin clears on cooling, it
may be used but, if it remains cloudy, it must be rejected.
Pre-preg fabrics should be stored in refrigerated conditions and all fabrics should
be stored in their original wrappings.
Sound Material
**
* Orientation Mark
Repair Area
Orientation Marks on Repair
Fig. 26
The type and number of glass cloth layers, used in the damaged area must
now be determined. This may require the manufacturer to be consulted.
It is possible
to analyse a sample of material, removed from the damaged
area, by igniting one corner of the sample with a match or cigarette lighter.
off of the resin and allows individual fabric layers
This burns to be
The weight and direction of the fibre may now be determined
separated.
and related to the parent laminate by reference to the previously applied
orientation.
The patch edges may now be prepared according to the particular repair
being followed (scarf or stepped)and any surface that will have fibre bonded
to it must have a thorough preparation (see the following paragraph, entitled
Surface Preparation)
Sanding Direction
Direction of Sanding
Fig. 27
Note: If the resin is for structural repair work, a small sample (about 1cc) of mixed
resin is cast in a container made from aluminium foil. The sample should be
labelled and placed aside to cure for later inspection.
A coat of resin is brushed onto the prepared surface and the first layer of cloth
is placed on the resin. The cloth is stippled into the resin, ensuring that the cloth
weave pattern is not disturbed and that all the air bubbles are worked out.
The edges of the cloth are trimmed, to ensure that the repair only covers the
correct area. This is done, by lifting the edge of the patch and removing the
excess with a sharp pair of scissors.
Each subsequent layer of cloth is then positioned and stippled into the
preceding layers (trimming as necessary) until the laminate is complete.
When laminating is complete, the repair must be allowed to cure without any
further disturbance.
The pre-wetted cloth is then transferred to the job and stippled into place before
the plastic film is then peeled off. During these occasions the following points
must be noted:
Care must be taken to ensure that the pre-wetted cloth produces a good
bond to the parent material.
The plastic backing film should be peeled off as the cloth is being laid
because, with it in place, the laminations cannot assume a double curvature
or irregular shape.
It is important to ensure that no bubbles are trapped, though it is quite
difficult to detect bubbles in a multi-layer lamination.
The edges of each cloth layer must be staggered so that there is not an
abrupt end to a number of layers.
Joint stress is at a maximum when the adhesive is in shear (refer to Fig. 28).
Adhesives should not be used if significant stresses will be carried in tension or
peel. Lap joints are the types more, generally favoured, as the strength of the
adhesive bond is proportional to the area bonded,):
Tensile.
Where the two surfaces are pulled directly apart.
Joint in Tension
Shear.
Where the two surfaces tend to slide across
each other.
Joint in Shear
Joint in Cleavage
Great care must be taken that only the correct type is used as, otherwise, a
catastrophic failure may well occur, should an unsuitable adhesive be used
on a critical structure.
When cool, the component is inspected, visually for positioning and for a
satisfactory spew line. The glue-line thickness is also checked, with a calibrated
electronic probe, and specimen test pieces are tested for shear and peel
properties.
Note: After commencing the final (wet) lay-up, curing of the adhesive must be
carried out within a specified time (usually 12 hours). If this period is exceeded by
a few hours it is necessary to increase the temperature and pressure levels
during curing (and to obtain an official concession cover for this discrepancy).
If the permissible time between wet lay-up and curing is greatly exceeded (e.g. a
full shift or day), it will be necessary to dismantle and not only re-commence the
wet lay-up, but also to, possibly, repeat some of the preliminary surface
preparation treatments (such as etching).
The instructions must be followed but, in general, require the addition of the
accelerator to the base compound, followed by thorough mixing before
application.
A working life is usually quoted, which applies after mixing, so the work must be
thoroughly prepared prior to mixing.
Some materials may be kept, after mixing, for a limited time, by the use of
refrigeration. The instructions will give details if this is possible.
If the temperature of curing is increased to accelerate the curing time, it must not
exceed 50C at any time during the curing cycle. The heat can be applied, by
using infrared lamps, or heated air, providing the air is dry and filtered.
A practical test, to see if curing has been completed, can be done by laying a
sheet of cellophane on the work, and checking whether the sheet adheres to it
(lack of adhesion indicates full curing).
INTENTIONALLY BLANK
11 CORROSION
Corrosion costs the civil aircraft industry many millions of pounds (sterling) each
year and, with care and good husbandry, this figure can be reduced. The more
that aircraft can be manufactured, operated and maintained with the short- and
long-term considerations of the effects of corrosion in mind, then the more those
maintenance costs will be reduced.
Metallic elements are usually compounded with other elements, in the ground,
before they are mined and (compared to the actual metals into which they are
subsequently formed) they are relatively stable. Corrosion is the tendency of
metals to revert to the thermodynamically more stable, oxidised, state. This
occurs when they react with dry air to form metal oxides, or with acids and alkalis
to form metallic salts. Some metals, such as gold and platinum, strongly resist
corrosion.
Reactions, between metals and their environments, can occur in either of two
(often simultaneous) ways:
chemical (oxidation)
electrochemical (galvanic)
In both cases, the metal is converted into metal compounds such as carbonates,
hydroxides, oxides or sulphates.
The corrosion process involves two concurrent changes. The metal that is
attacked, suffers an Anodic change while the corrosive agent undergoes a
Cathodic change. The result is that material is lost from the Anode and gained by
the Cathode, forming an ionic bond.
Temperature
Constant
Oxide
Thickness
Time
The graph shows the normal situation with no temperature increase but,
occasionally, there is a continuation of oxidation, due to the fact that oxides may
react chemically, or combine with, water to produce a film that is not impervious
to the passage of further oxygen through it. The oxide skin may also crack or
flake and expose the metal surface to further oxidation.
550C
525C
500C
450C
Oxide
Thickness
Time
0% Al
Oxide + 3% Al
Thickness
+ 7% Al
Time
The reason for this effect is that the oxide film, which forms, is rich in aluminium
oxide, and provides more protection than iron oxide. This process is also involved
when chromium is added to nickel to produce stainless steel, on which, the
reaction with air on the chromium produces a protective film of chromium oxide.
When, for example, zinc and copper plates, are partially immersed in an
electrolyte, of dilute sulphuric acid, and are connected to an ammeter and
voltmeter, the potential difference, between the plates, causes a current to flow
(refer to Fig. 32).
e A e
Zn ++
Zn
ZNSO4 2H+2e H2 Cu
A Galvanic Cell
Fig. 32
The zinc forms the anode of the cell, and is oxidised into ions that dissolve into
the acid. At the surface of the copper plate (the cathode), a balancing reaction
occurs. The electrons, formed in the anode, are conducted around the circuit and
meet with positively charged hydrogen ions at the cathode, to give off hydrogen
gas. The thermodynamic driving force of this cell is the difference in galvanic
potential between the two metals (zinc and copper). The metal of lower potential
(the anode) in such a cell is oxidised or corroded.
Table 6
EXTRACT FROM THE GALVANIC SERIES
Extract from the Galvanic Series
(Based on Hydrogen at 25C (298 K))
Potential in Volts Material Anodic/Cathodic
Anodic
-2.71 Sodium
-2.38 Magnesium
-1.66 Aluminium
-1.63 Titanium
-0.76 Zinc
-0.74 Chromium
-0.44 Iron
-0.40 Cadmium
-0.25 Nickel
-0.14 Tin
-0.13 Lead
0 Hydrogen
+0.34 Copper
+0.80 Silver
+1.2 Platinum
Cathodic
+1.43 Gold
Single Metal Cells: - Corrosion can happen within alloys or metallic mixtures
and can occur between metal grains and their grain boundaries, as well as in
several other places. It can also occur if small metallic impurities are present
within a pure metal, even if the amount of impurity is merely a fraction of one
percent. The removal of impurities from metals, at the manufacturing stage, can
greatly improve their corrosion resistance.
Oxygen Concentration (Differential Aeration): - Corrosion can occur when the
composition of the electrolyte varies at different parts of the contact area. For
example, if the electrolyte is in contact with the air, the oxygen can be absorbed,
giving a high dissolved oxygen level, whilst the electrolyte elsewhere (in a
crevice perhaps), will be low in dissolved oxygen. The effect of this is to make the
metal, close to the highly oxygenated part, a cathode and that in contact with
lower oxygenated part, an anode and so corrosion will begin and, consequently,
the crevice (pitting) increases in depth.
Non-Uniform Temperature: - Differences in temperature at varying points will
also have the effect of producing different potentials at these points. This can
result in severe corrosion in components such as radiators and heat-exchangers.
Surface corrosion is a fairly uniform corrosion attack, which slowly reduces the
cross-section of the metal. It is, possibly, the least damaging form of corrosion.
A mild attack may result in only general etching of an area, whilst a heavier attack
may produce deposits which depend on the type of metal that is being attacked.
Pure aluminium, stainless steel and copper have more resistance to surface
corrosion than aluminium alloy, magnesium alloy and non-stainless steels. This
type of corrosion only becomes serious over a period of time and gives a warning
of worse corrosion to follow.
Corrosion progresses from the metal surface, in narrow pathways, along grain
boundaries, often penetrating quite deeply and having a serious, mechanical
weakening effect. The amount of metal corroded is small, relative to the volume
of metal affected.
Indications of the damage may NOT be visible to the naked eye. Intergranular
corrosion may often be detected by ultrasonic, eddy current or radiographic
inspection procedures.
Intergranular Corrosion
Fig. 34
Exfoliation corrosion often attacks 7000 series alloys (those with an appreciable
amount of Zinc). When the corrosion occurs well below the surface, extensive
damage can occur before the surface deformation is apparent.
Spars, stringers and other high-strength parts, which are extruded or hot rolled,
are often (because the grains tend to form in layers) susceptible to this kind of
corrosion if they have been poorly heat-treated.
In aircraft alloys, the principal stresses, causing this stress corrosion cracking, are
not the applied service loads, but the stresses developed within the metal during
manufacture and during assembly. For example, internal stresses can arise from
quenching after heat-treatment, from force fits, from badly mating parts, or from
welding procedures. Service stresses are only significant when they act in the
same direction as internal or assembly stresses.
Stress corrosion cracking has three distinct phases in that there is an initial
Incubation period, (when a stress corrosion crack starts from pitting or film
breakdown). The incubation is followed by a period of Slow Growth of the stress
concentrations and culminates in a short, Rapid Crack-Growth rate.
In highly stressed parts (e.g. landing gear components), cracks may originate
from a stress raiser such as a scratch or surface corrosion. This problem is
characteristic of aluminium, copper, stainless steels and high-strength alloy steels
and may occur along lines of cold working. Signs of stress corrosion are given by
minute cracks radiating from areas of the greatest stress concentration. Likely
areas for this type of corrosion are U/C jacks, shock absorbers, bellcranks with
pressed-in bushes, or other areas where parts are a force fit, highly stressed or
have residual stresses induced during the forming process.
The most likely areas affected are gears, screw jacks, loose panels, splined
hydraulic pump drives and rivets (when they become loose). , It may be serious
enough to cause cracking and fatigue failure.
High
Oxygen
Concentration
(becomes cathodic)
Crevice
Crevice Corrosion
Fig. 35
Where fungal growth has formed, there is a probability that corrosion of the tank
will occur. The organisms, resembling a mucous, can cause problems with filters
and with the fuel contents gauge units. The roots of the fungus, penetrating the
internal sealing and protective coatings of fuel tanks can cause further problems.
Spillage, of organic materials, from around galley and toilet areas, provides a
further source of microbial contamination.
There is evidence that such spillage can be more corrosive than its chemical
composition (acidity and chloride content) possibly due to fermentation by yeast
and bacteria.
11.4.1 CLIMATIC
The environmental conditions under which the aircraft is operated and maintained
cannot normally be controlled. The following factors will effect the rate at which
corrosion will occur.
Marine environments (exposure to salt water) will increase rate of corrosion.
Moisture laden atmosphere as against a dry atmosphere. The USA store
hundreds of aircraft in a desert (dry) atmosphere for emergency war use.
Temperature considerations i.e. Hot climate against cold climate. High
temperatures will increase the rate of corrosion (all chemical reactions
occur faster at higher temperatures).
The worst conditions would exist in a hot, wet, maritime environment.
Surface rust can develop on steel nuts, bolts and other fasteners and may not
adversely affect the operational integrity of the equipment. Its appearance is an
indication that adequate maintenance procedures have not been followed.
In general, pure aluminium sheet and alclad surfaces have good corrosion
resistance, except in marine environments. In these areas, aluminium and its
alloys need protection and high-strength aluminium alloys are always given a
substantial protective treatment.
11.5.4 TITANIUM
Titanium is highly corrosion-resistant, but should be insulated from other metals
to avoid dissimilar metal corrosion of the adjacent material. Titanium alloys can
suffer stress corrosion at temperatures above 300C when in the presence of salt
and fatigue cracks can develop more quickly in a saline atmosphere.
Cadmium can penetrate the surface of titanium alloys and embrittle them at all
temperatures above ambient (as can Lead, Tin and Zinc at temperatures higher
than approximately 120C)). Embrittlement can occur if the cadmium is plated
onto the titanium or if cadmium-plated steel parts (and cadmium-contaminated
spanners) are used with titanium. Great care must be taken to ensure that these
conditions never occur if at all possible.
Solvents such as trichloroethane (trade name Genklene) may be used for oil,
grease or soft compounds, while heavy-duty removal of thick or dried compounds
may need solvent/emulsion-type cleaners.
Rust shows on bolt heads, nuts or any un-protected hardware. Its presence is
not immediately dangerous, but it will indicate a need for maintenance and will
suggest possible further corrosive attack on more critical areas. The most
practical means of controlling the corrosion of steel is the complete removal of
corrosion products by mechanical means.
Abrasive papers, power buffers, wire brushes and steel wool are all acceptable
methods of removing rust on lightly stressed areas. Residual rust usually remains
in pits and crevices. Some (dilute) phosphoric acid solutions may be used to
neutralise oxidation and to convert active rust to phosphates, but they are not
particularly effective on installed components.
Aluminium alloys form a smooth surface oxidation, which provides a hard shell,
that, in turn, may form a barrier to corrosive elements. This must not be confused
with the more serious forms of corrosion.
11.6.5 ALCLAD
WARNING: USE ONLY APPROVED PAINT STRIPPERS IN THE VICINITY OF
REDUX BONDED JOINTS. CERTAIN PAINT STRIPPERS WILL ATTACK AND
DEGRADE RESINS. USE ADEQUATE PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
WHEN WORKING WITH CHEMICALS. USE ONLY THE APPROVED FLUIDS
FOR REMOVING CORROSION PRODUCTS. INCORRECT COMPOUNDS
WILL CAUSE SERIOUS DAMAGE TO METALS.
Obviously great care must be taken, not to remove too much of the protective
aluminium layer by mechanical methods, as the core alloy metal may be
exposed, therefore, where heavy corrosion is found, on clad aluminium alloys, it
must be removed by chemical methods wherever possible.
Corrosion-free areas must be masked off and the appropriate remover (usually a
phosphoric-acid based fluid) applied, normally with the use of a stiff bristled
brush, to the corroded surface, until all corrosion products have been removed.
Copious amounts of clean water should, next, be used to flood the area and
remove all traces of the acid, then the surface should be dried thoroughly.
Note: A method of checking that the protective aluminium coating remains intact
is by the application of one drop of diluted caustic soda to the cleaned area. If the
alclad has been removed, the alumium alloy core will show as a black stain,
whereas, if the cladding is intact, the caustic soda will cause a white stain.
The acid must be neutralised and the area thoroughly washed and dried before a
protective coating (usually Alocrom 1200 or similar) is applied to the surface.
Aircraft batteries, of the lead/acid type, give off acidic fumes and battery bays
should be well ventilated, while surfaces in the area should be treated with anti-
acid paint. Vigilance is required of everyone working in the vicinity of batteries, to
detect (as early as possible) the signs of acid spillage. The correct procedure to
be taken, in the event of an acid spillage, is as follows:
Mop up as much of the spilled acid using wet rags or paper wipes. Try not to
spread the acid.
If possible, flood the area with large quantities of clean water, taking care
that electrical equipment is suitably protected from the water.
If flooding is not practical, neutralise the area with a 10% (by weight)
solution of bicarbonate of soda (sodium bicarbonate) with water.
Wash the area using this mixture and rinse with cold water.
Test the area, using universal indicating paper (or litmus paper),to check if
acid has been cleaned up.
Dry the area completely and examine the area for signs of damaged paint or
plated finish and signs of corrosion, especially where the paint may have
been damaged.
Remove corrosion, repair damage and restore surface protection as
appropriate.
Removal of the alkali spillage, and subsequent protective treatment, follows the
same basic steps as outlined in acid spillage, with the exception that the alkali is
neutralised with a solution of 5% (by weight) of chromic acid crystals in water.
Mercury contamination is far more serious than any of the battery spillages and
prompt action is required to ensure the integrity of the aircraft structure.
Mercury can rapidly attack bare light alloys (it forms an amalgam with metals),
causing intergranular penetration and embrittlement which can start cracks and
accelerate powder propagation, resulting in a potentially catastrophic weakening
of the aircraft structure.
Ensure that toxic vapour precautions are observed at all times during the
following operation:
Do not move aircraft after finding spillage. This may prevent spreading.
Remove spillage carefully by one of the following mechanical methods:
Capillary brush method (using nickel-plated carbon fibre brushes).
Heavy-duty vacuum with collector trap.
Adhesive tape, pressed (carefully) onto globules may pick them up
Foam collector pads (also pressed, carefully, onto globules).
Alternative, chemical methods, of mercury recovery entail the use of:
Calcium polysulphide paste.
Brushes, made from bare strands of fine copper wire
Neutralise the spillage area, using Flowers of Sulphur.
11.7.1 ELECTRO-PLATING
There are two categories of electro-plating, which consist of:
Coatings less noble than the basic metal. Here the coating is anodic and so,
if base metal is exposed, the coating will corrode in preference to the base
metal. Commonly called sacrificial protection, an example is found in the
cadmium (or zinc) plating of steel.
Coatings more noble (e.g. nickel or chromium on steel) than the base metal.
The nobler metals do not corrode easily in air or water and are resistant to
acid attack. If, however, the basic metal is exposed, it will corrode locally
through electrolytic action. The attack may result in pitting corrosion of the
base metal or the corrosion may spread beneath the coating.
11.7.3 CLADDING
The hot rolling of pure aluminium onto aluminium alloy (Alclad) has already been
discussed, as has the problem associated with the cladding becoming damaged,
exposing the core, and the resulting corrosion of the core alloy
Other surface conversion coatings are produced for special purposes, notably the
phosphating of steel. There are numerous proprietary processes, each known by
its trade name (e.g. Bonderising, Parkerising, or Walterising).
During maintenance, the fairings in critical areas should be removed for cleaning
and examination. All fairings, in other exhaust areas, should also be thoroughly
cleaned and inspected. In some situations, a chemical barrier can be applied to
critical areas, to facilitate easier removal of deposits at a later date, and to reduce
the corrosive effects of these deposits.
The hinges, in these areas, are also vulnerable to dissimilar metal corrosion,
between the steel pins and the aluminium tangs. Seizure can also occur, at the
hinges of access doors and panels that are seldom used.
Any corrosion found on the outside of a control cable should result in a thorough
inspection of the internal strands and, if any damage is found, the cable should
be rejected.
12 AIRCRAFT FASTENERS
Fasteners, or fastening devices, are used to create secure joints between two or
more components. Types of fastening devices, used on aircraft, vary in
accordance with the materials, which require joining, and the importance of the
joined components, or structures, to the safety of the aircraft.
The environment in which the joint must operate and the frequency (and ease)
with which the joint may need to be disassembled, for inspection, replacement or
repair, will also influence the choice of fasteners to be employed. Fasteners may
be metallic or non-metallic (or composites of both types). They may be flexible or
rigid (or a combination of both) and may be used to form the three basic
categories of joints.
Whatever fasteners are used, to make a particular joint, it must be ensured that
only the approved materials are utilised and that their legality is confirmed. This
can be done by reference to published Part Numbers, which are to be found in
Aircraft Maintenance Manuals, Wiring Diagrams, Structural Repair Manuals,
Illustrated Parts Catalogues (also called Illustrated Parts Lists) and other,
approved, publications.
The use of non-approved fasteners can lead to expensive and, possibly, fatal
failures in aircraft and their associated structures.
Due to the large range of different available fasteners, great care must be always
be taken to select the correct fastener for each particular installation.
Aircraft, bolts, nuts, screws and studs are manufactured to the many, different,
International Standards and in a variety of different thread forms, as can be seen
in Table 7.
Most aircraft now use unified or metric threads but, however, some older aircraft
use obsolete British Association (BA), British Standard Fine (BSF) or Whitworth
(BSW) thread forms. None of these are compatible with the unified (or metric)
thread forms.
Table 7
COMMON INTERNATIONAL THREAD STANDARDS
International Standard Common Abbreviation
Whilst the wedge is, generally, used as a means of transmitting motion, it must be
remembered that the action may be reversed and the wedge can be caused to
move when a force is applied to the inclined surfaces.
This is readily appreciated when the angle is large (and the larger the angle of
inclination becomes, then, the more readily is the motion reversed), but, no
matter how small the angle may be, the resultant of forces applied will still tend to
produce movement. Friction, between the surfaces, may, however, prevent
movement from actually occurring.
When a continuous, inclined plane is cut around the outside (or the inside) of a
cylinder, then a spiral (also known as a helix) is produced (refer to Fig. 38). The
helix angle is important in screw threads, because it dictates the number of
threads, which can be cut, per axial linear increment (millimetres or inches) on, or
in, the cylinder.
Helix Angle
Fine threads are, normally, associated with small and delicate instruments or in
equipment, where secure holding power is often required of miniature-sized
fasteners. The greater wedging action of fine threads also makes them much
more dependable in situations where vibration (or a change of temperature) has
the tendency to loosen threaded joints.
Most aircraft components are assembled using fine threads on the various bolts,
nuts, screws and studs, which are then, often, further secured by some other,
mechanical, process, to reinforce their resistance to the effects of temperature
changes and vibration.
When defining the length of bolts, reference is usually made to the length of the
plain portion of the shank, of hexagonal-headed bolts (refer to Fig. 39), while
screw lengths are designated differently, according to their type.
The following terms are used to define the characteristics of a threaded item:
Major Diameter: The largest diameter of the thread, measured at right
angles to the axis.
Minor Diameter: The smallest diameter of the thread, measured at right
angles to the axis.
Where the thread is used to join components together (nuts, bolts, screws and
studs) then the conventional, truncated V-shaped threads, similar to the ISO
Metric thread, will be found.
Turnbuckles and similar devices, (which are employed as adjusters of either the
tension or of the distance between components), may also use V-shaped
threads, while the Acme, Buttress and Square threads are utilised to transmit
movement or power (as may be seen in lathes, vices and Flap Jacks).
60
Square Thread
ISO Metric Thread
Pitch
Pitch
45
29
ButtressThread
Acme Thread
Thread forms have developed over the years, from the early standardisation on
the BSW thread (with its rather coarse thread, which was prone to slackening
when subjected to vibration), to the modern, finer threads which are more suitable
for use on aerospace components and structures.
Unified Coarse (UNC) and Unified Fine (UNF) threads may be found wherever
their use is appropriate, but special threads, such as UNS (for high-temperature
applications) and UNJ (increased fatigue strength) have become more common.
Table 8
CLASSES OF THREAD FITS
Class of Fit Type of Fit
1 Loose
2 Free
3 Medium
4 Close
5 Tight
A Class 1 fit can be tightened, all the way down, by hand (such as with a wing-
nut), whilst a Class 4 or 5 fit requires a spanner throughout the tightening
operation.
The Class 3 fit is the type mostly employed on aircraft, and would be typical of a
thread which is designed for use in a high-temperature environment and may
require the application of an anti-seize compound before installation.
One method is to identify the screw by means of various marks, normally found
on the head of the screw. These marks may give a clue as to which type of
thread the screw has (AF, BSF, or Metric etc.). A measurement across the thread
crests, using a micrometer, would give the diameter of the screw in question.
Finally, the identifying head markings would also give the material from which the
screw is made.
Two useful tools (refer to Fig. 42) may be used for different stages of thread
measurement.
The profile gauge can be used to ensure that the tool, which is cutting the thread,
is of the correct type.
The pitch gauge can be used to find the thread size by simply fitting the various
blades of the gauge against the screw thread until a match is achieved
Profile Gauge
55 47 Pitch
Gauge
60
0.25 2.5 mm
60
It is stressed here, that only the approved design materials may be used for
aerospace components and, while a selection of some of the bolts are presented
in these course notes, by way of introduction, the relevant AMM, SRM and IPC
will be the sole authority for deciding the correct type of bolt that is to be used in a
particular application.
Table 9 shows a (very small) selection of aircraft standard bolts and screws with
a (shortened) description of the type of device and the materials from which it is
made.
Reference to the table shows that the code A102 signifies a hexagonal-headed
bolt which is made of high-tensile steel, while the code A175 represents a 100
countersunk-headed bolt, made from an aluminium alloy.
Table 9
Examples of Code Numbers for Unified Threads
Standard No. Description Material
A102 Hex. Headed Bolt HTS.
A104 Hex. Headed Bolt SS
A111 Hex. Close Tolerance. Bolt HTS
A112 Shear Bolt HTS
A174 100 Countersunk. Head. Bolt SS
A175 100 Countersunk. Head. Bolt Al Al
A204 100 Countersunk. Head. Screw HTS
A205 Pan Head. Screw HTS
Further numbers and letters are added to the identifying code, to provide
information relating to the length (usually of the plain shank or gripping portion)
and to the diameter of the items. The length is given by a number, which signifies
increments of tenths of an inch, so that a 5 would represent a bolt with a plain
shank of 0.5 in, while the number 12 would signify the plain shank as being 1.2 in
long
Reference to Table 10, will show how the diameter of an item is designated by
the addition of another letter to the system, so that a bolt, with the code marking
of A102 9 E, would signify a Unified-threaded, hexagon-headed bolt, made from
high-tensile steel, with a plain shank length of 0.9 in, and a diameter of in.
Other bolts of this era may have nicks at the corners of the head (High Tensile
Steel) or a raised ring on the bolt head (Cold Rolled) to assist differentiation of
their particular designations.
Table 11
EXAMPLES OF BA AND BSF BOLT AND SCREW CODES
Code Size Code Size
A 6 BA P 9/16" BSF
B 4 BA Q 5/8 BSF
C 2 BA S 3/4"
3/4"BSF
BSF
E 1/4 BSF U 7/8" BSF
G 5/16" BSF W 1" BSF
J 3/ 8" BSF X 12 BA
L 7/16" BSF Y 10 BA
N 1/2" BSF Z 8 BA 8 BA
AN bolts come in three head styles, Hexagon Head, Clevis and Eyebolts and
Table 12 provides an indication of the various code numbers in use.
Table 12
EXAMPLES OF AN STANDARD BOLTS (EARLY SERIES)
AN No. Type Material Process Thread Thread
Size Type
3 20 Bolt, hex. Steel Cadmium No. 10 to UNF
Head Plated 1
CRS Nil
Al. Al. Anodised
21 36 Bolt, Steel Cadmium No. 6 to UNF
Clevis Plated 1
42 36 Bolt, Eye Steel Cadmium No. 10 to UNF
Plated 9/16
73 81 Bolt, hex. Steel Cadmium No. 10 to UNF or
Drilled Plated UNC
head
173 186 Bolt, close Steel Cadmium No. 10 to UNF
- tolerance Plated 1
thread &
head
For identification purposes the AN number is used to indicate the type of bolt and
its diameter. In addition a code is used to indicate the material, length and
presence of a split pin or locking wire hole as follows:
Diameter: The last figure, or last two figures, of the AN number indicates
thread diameter, 1 = No. 6, 2 = No.8, 3 = No.10, and 4 = with
subsequent numbers indicating the diameter in 1/16 increments.
Thus an AN4 is a hexagon headed bolt of diameter and an AN14 is a
hexagon headed bolt of 7/8 (14/16) diameter.
Drilled
Shank
Length
Steel CRS Steel, Close Tolerance CRS, Close Tolerance
L
Grip
Diameter
Position of Drilled Hole: Bolts are normally supplied with a hole drilled in
the threaded part of the shank, but different arrangements may be
obtained:
Drilled shank = normal coding e.g. AN24 15
Drilled head and shank = H added before dash No. e.g. AN25H15
Eye Bolt
Clevis Bolt
Special-to-Type Bolts
Fig. 45
Alloy steel bolts, smaller than 3/16 diameter, and aluminium alloy bolts smaller
than are not used on primary structure. Other bolts may be used as follows:
Close Tolerance Bolts: These bolts are machined more accurately than the
standard bolt. They may be hexagon headed (AN173 AN186) or have a
100 countersunk head (NAS80 NAS86). They are used in applications
where a tight drive fit is required (the bolt requires the use of a 340g - 400g
(12oz 14 oz) hammer to drive it into position.
Internal Wrenching Bolts: (MS 20024 or NAS 495) these are fabricated
from high-strength steel and are suitable for tensile or shear applications.
The head is recessed to allow the insertion of a hexagonal key used for
installing or removing the bolt. In Dural-type material, a heat-treated washer
must be used to provide an adequate bearing surface for the head.
Length
Grip
Diameter
12.7 NUTS
Aerospace standard nuts are made in a variety of shapes and sizes. They can be
made of cadmium-plated carbon steel, stainless steel or anodised 2024T
aluminium alloy and can have right- or left-hand threads (refer to Fig. 47).
As a general rule, nuts are manufactured from the same material as the bolt or
screw to which they are attached, with the exception of high-tensile steel bolts,
with which, mild steel nuts are used.
As they do not have any identifying marks or lettering, they are usually identified
by their colour and their constructional features. Familiar types of nuts include:
Castle Nuts: which are used with drilled shank hexagon-headed bolts or
studs, eye-bolts and clevis bolts. They are fairly rugged and can withstand large
tensile loads. The slots (castellations) are designed to accommodate a split
(cotter) pin.
Slotted Nuts: are similar in construction to the castle nuts and are used in
similar applications, except that they are normally used for engine use only.
Plain Hexagon Nuts: are of rugged construction and suitable for large tensile
loads. Since they require an auxiliary locking device, their use on aircraft is
limited.
Light Hexagon Nuts: are a much lighter nut, used for miscellaneous light
tensile requirements.
Plain Check (or Lock) Nuts: are employed as locking devices for plain nuts, for
threaded rod ends and for other devices.
In areas where this might occur, locking devices are used. These either increase
the frictional resistance between the threads, or take the form of positive
securities that prevent any movement of the nut once they have been applied.
Stiffnuts and anchor nuts (refer to Fig. 48) employ various means of increasing
the friction forces between the threaded devices and common types include:
Nyloc: This looks like a standard hexagonal nut, but has a plastic insert in the
counter-bored end. This insert is initially unthreaded and has an internal diameter
slightly smaller than the nut thread, so that, as the nut is screwed on the bolt, the
plastic insert is displaced and a high degree of friction is created. Another type of
plastic stop nut is named the Capnut. This type is completely sealed and is
used in pressurised compartments and fuel and oil tanks etc.
Note: As the insert is nylon, this type of stiffnut should not be used in high or low
temperature areas. A typical maximum temperature would be 120C. A similar
type of stiffnut has a fibre insert instead of nylon, and is called a fibrelock nut.
Oddie: The top of this nut has a slotted end, consisting of six tongues, which
form a circle slightly smaller than the bolt or stud diameter. As the nut is turned, a
friction load is imparted onto the threaded device.
Philidas: This nut has a circular crown which is slotted horizontally in two
places The thread on the slotted part is slightly out of phase with the rest of the
thread, so that increased friction is achieved when the nut is turned.
Aerotight: Similar to the Philidas in appearance, except that the slots are
vertical. Its locking method is also similar.
Lightweight: The locking section of this stiffnut is slightly oval in shape and so
causes increased friction when the thread passes through it.
Note: Metal hexagonal type stiffnuts may be re-used, provided they are not being
used in vital areas such as flying controls and they retain their friction effect. A
recognised rule for serviceability is that they are discarded when they can be
screwed all the way down, on a new bolt, using only the fingers.
Anchor nuts and Stripnuts: Anchor nuts are supplied with single or double
attachment points and may be either fixed or floating in a cage.
Single attachment types are used in corners or where space is limited and have
two adjacent fixing points. Double anchor nuts have a hole either side of the
stiffnut. They are fitted to the structure by riveting.
Where a number of anchor nuts are required, to secure panels etc. a number of
stiffnuts may be fitted into metal strips for ease of securing. Stripnuts are usually
of the floating variety.
12.8 SCREWS
Screws are, probably, the most commonly used threaded fastener in aircraft
construction. They differ from bolts in that they are generally made from lower-
strength materials. They can be fastened by a variety of tools, including
screwdrivers, spanners and Allen keys. Most screws are threaded along their
complete length, whilst some have a plain portion for part of their length.
There are a number of different types of screw, which, can be used for a wide
range of tasks. It is common sense that great care must be taken to replace
screws with the correct items, by using the markings on the screw, the IPC and
any other systems in current use within the supply department, to protect against
incorrect screws being installed.
Another point, requiring care, is the difference in terminology between the British
and American names for screw heads. What the British refer to as a countersunk
-headed screw, the Americans call a flat-head or flush screw. Similarly,
mushroom-headed screws are known as truss-heads in the USA.
The most common machine screw used in aviation is the fillister-head screw,
which can be wire-locked using the drilled hole in the head. The flat-head
(countersunk-head) screw is available with single or cross-point slotted heads.
The round-head screw and the truss-head (mushroom-head) screw, provide good
holding properties on thin metal sheets.
100
Grip Grip
Length
Diameter Diameter
12.9 STUDS
Studs are metal rods that are threaded at both ends (refer to Fig. 52). In general
they are used where it is not possible, or desirable for a bolt to be used. Like
many screw types of fastener, most studs are produced in a standard form, with
variants used for special purposes. For example, where a standard type is
unsuitable, such as when being used in a soft metal, then a stepped stud (which
has a greater holding power) would be used. A stepped stud would also be used
where a damaged thread had been removed, the hole drilled out and re-tapped.
It will be appreciated that the security of a stud depends upon the friction between
its thread and that of the tapped hole (the metal thread) into which it is inserted.
If this friction fails to hold the stud, it will work loose and all precautions to prevent
the nut from slackening will be negated.
Typical Studs
Fig. 52
Other variants of the standard stud are available for use in circumstances that
require special consideration.
To meet special requirements, the various types of standard studs may also be
supplied with non-standard lengths of plain portion and metal end. A simple
method of fitting and removing a stud is by running two plain nuts down the nut
end of the stud and cinching (locking) them together using two spanners. The
stud can then be screwed into or removed from the material. Breaking the cinch
then separating and removing the nuts completes the operation.
Stepped studs are also used as replacements for standard studs when the
tapped stud-hole has to be re-drilled and tapped with a larger thread, due to
damage.
There are two basic types of thread insert (Wire and Thin Wall), but the designs
of each type will vary according to the many manufacturers or to the environment
in which the fastener must operate.
Obviously, from this information, it can be seen that great care must be taken to
ensure that only the approved types of inserts are used in aerospace components
and that the procedures for their installation and removal (laid out in the relevant
Manuals) are carefully followed.
12.11.1 DOWELS
While not usually used as fasteners, dowels are rods or pins of the appropriate
material which are fixed (often permanently) in one of the components of a joint
such that the protruding shank of the dowel locates with a corresponding hole in
the item being attached, thus ensuring accurate assembly.
Two examples of the use of dowels may be found where a Propeller Control Unit
is attached to an engine casing and there is a requirement for absolute accuracy
in the alignment of the oil tubes and, again, where the segments of an engine
compressor need to be joined with precision so that the rotating members do not
foul the stationary parts.
Roll Pin
Fig. 53
Diameter
Length
Clevis Pin
Fig. 54
The plain taper pin is forced into the hole, which is reamed to the specified size
with a Taper Pin Reamer, and is held in place by friction alone. To ensure
security, it can also be wire locked in place, by passing the lock wire through the
pre-drilled hole in the pin then securing the wire around the shaft.
Plain taper pins, which have no lock wire holes, may have their smaller ends
peened, after being installed, to secure them in their holes.
The Threaded Pin is similar to the plain pin except that its small end is threaded
to accept either a self-locking shear nut or a shear castle nut with split pin.
Some taper pins can be found with a split small end, which can be spread much
like a split pin, to prevent it loosening. These pins are sometimes referred to as
bifurcated taper pins.
Taper Pins
Fig. 55
In addition to using methods which increase the friction between threads, there
are several other ways in which the integrity of a threaded joint can be assured.
Spring Washers
Fig. 56
Either the internal or the external diameters can be serrated, the serration being
designed to bite into the component and nut to prevent rotation.
All shake-proof washers should be used only ONCE. It is rare for these washers
to be specified in assemblies where an anti-corrosion treatment of the
components has been specified, as this could damage the treatment.
Shake-proof Washers
Fig. 57
When the washer is installed, one tab is bent against the component or inserted
into a hole provided, whilst a second tab is bent against the flat (or flats), of the
nut, after it has been torqued down correctly.
Note: Multi-tab washers can be re-used until all tabs have been used once.
Tab Washers
Fig. 58
Lock Plate
Fig. 59
The nut is torque loaded and then (only if necessary) turned a small amount,
(< 1/12 revolution) until its flats align with the hole in the lock plate. The plate
usually has 12 facets to allow for this adjustment. The plate is then placed over
the nut and the small setscrew fastened into the tapped hole adjacent to the nut.
Removal of the nut simply involves removing the setscrew, lifting off the plate and
unwinding the nut.
Note: A Tab washer could be used to do the same task. The lock plate is used
where the nut is frequently removed the plate can be used indefinitely
providing it retains a good fit with the nut.
Whilst either of these methods will secure the nut to the bolt, different
airworthiness authorities prefer one method to the other.
The pins are measured by diameter and length. It must be noted that the nuts
must never be over-torqued to get the holes into line. The nut must either be
backed-off, if this is permitted, or washers added under the nut.
Often a stated torque value will be over a small range rather than a set figure.
When installing the wire it should not span a distance of more than 75 mm (3 in)
without being supported. The wire is also positioned so that the item being locked
will be restrained from turning in a loosening direction.
There should be approximately eight turns to every 25.4 mm (1 in) length of wire
and no length of more than 9.5 mm (3/8 in) should be left untwisted. The angle of
pull, or approach (refer to Fig. 61), should be not less than 45 to the rotational
axis.
When the wire has been passed through the last hole, the wire must be pulled
tight and the twisting continued for at least 12 mm 13 mm ( in). The wire is
then cut and the end doubled under, to prevent personnel getting snagged or
badly cut.
Wire-locking Angles
Fig. 61
Some forms of wire-locking are done with a single strand of the specified wire,
especially in cases of where a complete ring or similar formation of nuts is found
(refer to Fig. 62). The wire is passed in sequence, through the holes in their
respective nuts and bolts (or screws), until the wire ends meet.
Again the wire must be threaded so that any tendency, of a nut or bolt, to attempt
to slacken off, will add tension to the wire.
There are a number of different types of wire-locking used on turnbuckles and the
AMM must be consulted to find which method is specified. Methods used include
the single wrap and single wrap spiral as well as the double wrap and double
wrap spiral.
The single wrap and single wrap spiral use a single strand of the appropriate wire
that passes through the hole in the centre of the turnbuckle, finishing up wrapped
around each end. The single wrap spiral also uses a single piece of wire that is
spiralled around the turnbuckle barrel and passed through the centre hole twice.
Two pieces of wire are used in the double wrap method, which are basically two
single wraps, one in each direction. A double wrap spiral consists of two single
wrap spirals, again one in each direction.
When the panel is closed, a quarter turn of the stud pulls the wire into the curved
slot of the stud, securing the panel to the airframe.
Panels (and cowlings) usually have a number of fasteners installed to ensure full
security and, to indicate that all fasteners are correctly secured, the cowling will
have a series of lines marked (painted) on the surface.
When the studs are correctly fastened, then their screwdriver slots will be in-line
with the lines marked on the surface of the panels.
Some Dzus fasteners have a built-in receptacle, which guides the legs of the stud
onto the wire, to facilitate correct engagement.
The fastener is locked by positioning the recess in line with the legs of the spring,
and then pressing the stud home. This is achieved by ensuring the screwdriver
slot is in line with marks on the panel. There should be a definite click as the
fastener engages. A quarter turn of the stud will release it from the spring, and
free the panel.
To lock the fastener, the stud is pushed against its spring with a screwdriver and
given a quarter of a turn clock-wise. As a result, the cross-pin, on the stud, rides
up a cam in the receptacle and draws the two components together.
Finally the stud spring pulls the cross pin into a locking groove at the end of the
cam. The fastener is unlocked by a quarter turn anti-clockwise when the stud
spring causes the stud to snap outwards.
Camloc Fastener
Fig. 66
The fastener is locked by turning the stud through a quarter turn. The pin drops
into an indentation in the receptacle and holds the fastener locked.
Cross Pin
Installed
Pin
Studs
Stud
Receptica
l
Airloc Fastener
Fig. 67
12.14.5 PIP-PINS
Quick-release Pip-pins are used in assemblies where it is necessary to rapidly
remove or reposition components. They usually take the place of more
permanent bolts.
When the pin is fully home, and the pushing pressure is released, the balls are
forced to protrude from the shank, as the spring around the plunger expands, and
so lock the pin in position.
A pip-pin is removed by a simple pull on the ring. This action aligns the groove in
the plunger with the two locking balls that retract to allow the pin to be withdrawn.
Typical Pip-Pin
Fig. 68
Spring sheet circlips have holes in the ends to allow circlip pliers to be inserted,
enabling the circlip to be removed or installed as required. Spring wire rings
usually have one bent end that is inserted into a radial hole, drilled through the
component, which matches an inner or outer ring.
All circlips are subject to some damage at times and it will usually be a
requirement, after they have been removed, to inspect them thoroughly. Any that
show damage or corrosion should be discarded, although it is usual practice to
discard the wire type circlips whenever they are removed
A key, with its associated keyways (the name given to the channel, which is cut
into the respective components, to receive the key), is used to transmit the driving
force from one part to the other.
There are different types of keys and keyways, and these will be covered in
greater depth in the section on transmissions.
12.14.8 PEENING
Peening (refer to Fig. 70) is a method of preventing a threaded device (bolt, nut
or screw), becoming loose by distorting the end of the thread, after installing the
device. The distortion is normally achieved (using a centre punch) by striking the
thread of the bolt or screw where it emerges from the threaded device, thus
jamming and effectively locking the threaded device and preventing it from
loosening.
When using a nut and bolt combination, then one and a half threads of the bolt
must protrude from the nut in order to create an effective peening.
The disadvantage of peening (and the distortion of the thread) means that, once
the joint is dismantled, then the threaded device is useless and can only be
discarded.
Some advantages of using adhesives, to make joints, are that the materials being
joined may or may not be similar and the joints can be made proof against the
leakage of gases and liquids.
Adhesives are normally good electrical insulators, which can greatly reduce
dissimilar corrosion on metal joints, and are not, normally, affected by
temperature changes.
Joining with adhesives not only saves the weight (and costs) associated with
threaded fasteners (and rivets), but also eliminates the need to make holes in the
structure, for those fasteners, which avoids the possibility of potential stress
raisers.
Adhesive bonded joints also provide greater stiffening to the structure, compared
to that achieved with mechanical fastenings.
There are, however, some disadvantages in that the surfaces, of the items to be
stuck together (the adherends), must be free from grease, oil or dust, and the
type of adhesive must be suitable for the conditions or environment in which it is
intended to be placed.
Fumes from adhesives can be narcotic, toxic and extremely flammable, so that
great care must be taken when applying adhesives. This entails working in well-
ventilated conditions, wearing the appropriate personal protective equipment and
observing the relevant safety precautions to prevent (and, if necessary, fight) the
outbreak of fire.
It is good practice, when using Araldite, to mix a separate sample under similar
conditions, to check that it hardens within the specified time period.
12.15.2 LOCTITE
Loctite is the trade name for a liquid sealant, used to lock metal threads. It is an
approved, proprietary material, which hardens in the screw threads after
assembly. Loctite is supplied in various grades to give a predetermined locking
strength in a variety of applications from stud locking to retaining bearing
housings.
Synthetic resin adhesives, used for gluing aircraft structural assemblies, must
comply with the requirement prescribed in an acceptable specification
Synthetic resin adhesives usually consist of two separate parts, namely the resin
and the hardener. The resin develops its adhesive properties only as a result of a
chemical reaction between it and the hardener.
12.16.1 WELDING
Welding is the fusing together, by heating the point or edge of contact of two or
more pieces of metal (and applying a filler rod if required), making one continuous
piece.
To ensure a satisfactory joint, the solder must form a metallic bond ('key') with the
surfaces, being joined and, to allow this to happen, the joint surfaces must be free
of oil, grease, dust, and corrosion.
Silver Solder consists of an alloy of copper and silver (with a melting point almost
twice that of the soft solders) while Brazing uses a copper-zinc alloy with a
melting point higher than that of Silver Solder.
The source of heat used for hard soldering is, usually, a direct flame and a
different flux is also necessary to prevent oxidation of the joint.
Hard soldered joints have their fillers drawn into them by capillary action,
therefore the gap between components must be kept uniform and closely
controlled.
As with all soldered joints, the surfaces being joined must be clean and free of oil,
grease, corrosion, scale etc. Mechanical methods of cleaning can include emery
cloth, wire brush or filing.
13 AIRCRAFT RIVETS
An aircraft, even though made of the best materials and strongest parts, would be
of doubtful value unless those parts were firmly held together. Several methods
are used to hold parts together; welding or soldering, threaded fasteners and
riveting being three of the main methods. The use of threaded fasteners, and
soldering, has been mentioned previously.
Rivets are an alternative method of fastening structure, a rivet being a metal pin
on which a head is formed, during manufacture. The rivet is inserted into a pre-
drilled hole and the plain end of its shank is deformed (set or closed) by the use
of a hand- or power-tool.
Rivets create a joint at least as strong as the material that is being joined. Rivets
are normally strong in shear, but they should not be subjected to excessive
tensile loads.
Length
Material specifications for British and American rivets are not identical. The
manufacturers publications (AMM or CMM) will give details on which rivets can
be used if the specified ones are unavailable.
The dimensions that identify the size of a rivet are simply its length and diameter.
Other identifying features are the shape of the head, (including the countersink
angle, if applicable) and the material from which the rivet is made. This latter
requirement involves many different identifying marks and letters.
The American rivets are, usually, natural (gold) or grey in colour and have head
markings, whilst British rivets, generally, use a combination of colour and
alpha/numeric codes.
Example:
Table 15 gives details of material and identification information for SP rivets with
the standard numbers shown in Table 16. SP rivets are also available in metric
sizes.
Note: The colour coding (of both British systems) of solid rivets is generally the
same as that used for the similar material in the other system. For example (in
both systems) pure aluminium rivets are black, Hidiminium rivets are violet, Monel
rivets are natural and 5% magnesium rivets are green. This way of coding allows
material types to be more easily identified.
Table 14
TYPICAL SPECIFICATION NUMBERS OF AS RIVETS
Material Snap Mush 90 Csk 100 120 90 Close
Spec. Csk Csk Tol.
L37 AS156 AS158 AS161 - AS164 AS2918
L58 AS157 AS159 AS162 AS4716 AS165 -
L86 AS2227 AS2228 AS229 - AS2230 AS3362
DTD204 - - AS5462 - AS465 -
Table 15
MATERIAL IDENTIFICATION OF SP RIVETS
Material. Material Type Identification Marks Finish
Spec. (On shank end)
L36 Aluminium I Black Anodic
L37 Dural 7 Natural
L58 Al. Alloy 8 Green Anodic
(5% Mg.)
L86 Hidiminium 0 Violet
BS1109 Steel - Cadmium
DTD204 Monel M Natural or
Cadmium
Table 16
TYPICAL SPECIFICATION NUMBERS OF SP RIVETS
Material Spec. Snap Head Mushroom Head 100 Csk Head
L36 SP77 - SP68
L37 SP78 SP83 SP69
L58 SP79 SP84 SP70
L86 SP80 SP85 SP71
BS1109 SP76 - SP86
DTD204 SP81 - SP87
A AD D DD B
A part number (using the standard letters AN or MS) identifies each type of rivet,
so that the user can select the correct rivet for the task. After the standard letters,
there follows a number, which indicates the particular type of rivet head,
Next comes a letter (or letters), denoting the material composition, which is
followed by another figure expressing the diameter of the rivet shank in 32nds of
an inch. The last number(s), separated by a dash from the diameter number,
express the length of the rivet shank in 16ths of an inch.
Example:
An American AN system rivet with the identifying code AN470 AD 3-5, would be a
Universal head, aluminium alloy (2117-T) rivet, of 3/32 inch diameter with a shank
length of 5/16 inch.
Note: With countersunk rivets, the length is the overall length.
Head markings, using dimples and raised dots (or dashes and rings) are also
used as an aid to indicate the material content of the rivets.
The 1100 (A) rivet is 99.45% pure aluminium and, as such, is very soft. It would
be used for riveting lightweight, soft, aluminium structures, where strength is not a
factor.
The 2117-T (AD) rivet is made from aluminium alloy and (as has previously been
mentioned) is known as the field rivet. It is the most commonly used rivet, mainly
because it is ready to use as received and needs no further heat-treatment. It
also has a high resistance to corrosion.
The 5056 (B) rivet is used for riveting magnesium alloy structures, because of its
galvanic compatibility with magnesium (to reduce the risk of corrosion).
Mild Steel rivets are used for riveting steel parts while Corrosion Resistant Steel
rivets are used for riveting CRS components in fire-walls and exhaust areas etc.
Note: The absence of a letter following the AN standard number indicates a rivet
manufactured from mild steel.
Monel (M) rivets are used for riveting nickel-steel alloys. They may also be used
as a substitute for CRS rivets when specified.
Copper (C) rivets are also available, but their use is limited on aircraft. They may
only be used on copper alloys or non-metallic materials, such as leather.
Note: Most metals, including aircraft rivets, are subject to corrosion. This may be
the result of local climatic conditions or the fabrication process used. It can be
reduced to a minimum by using the correct materials and by the use of protective
coatings on the structure and the rivets. The use of dissimilar metals should be
avoided where possible and, as previously stated, the rivet manufacturers usually
apply a protective coating on the rivets, which may be either of a zinc chromate, a
metal spray or an anodic film finish.
Among the most common rivets in use (and which are made of aluminium alloy)
are those already identified, in the American AN specification system, as AD
rivets. AD rivets are heat-treated during manufacture and remain easy to close
whilst possessing adequate strength.
Where rivets of a stronger material are required, then D and DD rivets can be
used. These are also made from aluminium alloys, but to different (AN)
specifications. They are heat-treated, just prior to use, and either formed within a
short time period of time (in which they age-harden), or they are stored, in a
13.3.1 HEAT-TREATMENT.
Metal temper is important in the riveting process, especially with aluminium alloy
rivets. These generally have the same heat-treating characteristics as sheet
alloys and can be annealed and hardened in much the same manner. The rivet
must be soft, or comparatively soft before a good head can be formed.
The 2017-T and 2024-T rivets must be solution-treated before being driven and
then they harden with age.
13.3.2 REFRIGERATION.
The heat-treated rivet will begin to age harden immediately after treatment and, if
the rivets are not to be set immediately, they may be refrigerated to delay the
age-hardening process. The solution-treated rivets are stored at low temperature
(below freezing) and, under these conditions, will remain soft enough for driving
for up to 2 weeks. Any rivets not used in that period should be removed and re-
heat treated.
It should be noted that refrigeration only delays age-hardening and that age-
hardening will continue at a rapid rate as soon as the rivets are removed from the
refrigerator.
2017-T rivets must be driven within 1 hour of refrigeration and 2024-T rivets,
within 10 minutes
These rivets are often lighter than solid rivets, yet amply strong enough for their
intended use. The rivets are produced by several manufacturers, and have
unique characteristics requiring special installation tools and procedures. The
same, general, basic information, relating to their fabrication, composition, uses,
selection, installation, inspection and removal procedures applies to most of
them.
Hollow rivets that can be closed by pulling a mandrel through them are often
known as blind rivets and these in turn can be described as Mechanically
Expanded Rivets. They can fall into one of three main types:
Self-Plugging (friction lock) rivets
Self-Plugging (mechanical lock) rivets
Pull-Through rivets
Where blind or hollow rivets are installed in place of solid rivets, (due, perhaps, to
the lack of access to the both sides of the joint), they must, in the absence of
specific instructions, be of the same material as the original solid rivet, and be of
equivalent shear strength. The shear strength, of the rivet, may be increased, by
using a form of plug to fill the hollow shank of the rivet.
Note: With this type of rivet, the stem is often designed to break above the rivet
head, necessitating a further action, which entails cutting off the extra portion of
the stem with snips (or a specialised pneumatic gun) and milling the exposed
portion flush with the head. This type of rivet is going out of style because of the
extra work involved with setting it.
This type of rivet has a positive mechanical locking collar, to resist the vibrations
that may cause the friction lock rivet mandrels to loosen and fall out. In addition,
the mechanical locking-type rivet stem breaks off flush with the head and, usually,
does not require further stem trimming when properly installed.
Self-plugging, mechanical lock rivets display all the strength of solid rivets and, in
most cases, can be substituted rivet for rivet. Three operations are performed
when the rivet is installed (generally using a pneumatic gun):
When pulling force is exerted on the stem, the stem is pulled in, forming the
blind head and clamping the sheets of metal together.
At a pre-determined point, the inner anvil, incorporated in the gun, forces the
locking collar into position.
The rivet stem snaps off approximately flush with the head of the rivet.
Different types of these rivets are supplied, either complete with individual
mandrels or as individual rivets, used with a re-usable steel mandrel, which is
drawn completely through the rivets. In some cases, the rivets may be plugged
with sealing pins which, as previously stated, give them additional strength as
well as sealing them.
This is known as the Grip Range of the rivet and requires the use of a gauge to
measure the material thickness (refer to Fig. 75), which is used in conjunction
with a rivet data table.
1 3 5 7
3
Rivet Group to be
Used = 4
The rivets are set, using a pair of Pop pliers or by the use of a hydro-pneumatic
gun. Pop rivets are less suitable for use on aircraft as they tend to loosen with
vibration and then become increasingly difficult to remove, because of the
looseness and the presence of the steel mandrel. (They also tend to spin when
attempts are made to drill them out).
Pop Rivets
Fig. 76
Example:
Note: Care must be taken to ensure all remaining stems and swarf, are totally
removed from the aircraft, on completion of work, when using these rivets.
Avdel rivets are pre-lubricated by the manufacturer, to facilitate forming the rivet.
They should NEVER be de-greased in solvent before use.
Avdel Rivets
Fig. 77
Chobert Rivets
Fig. 78
During the final stages of closing, a locking collar, located in a recess in the rivet
head, is forced into a groove in the stem and prevents the stem from any further
movement. This method means that, when closed, the rivets have a shear and
bearing strength high enough to allow their use in place of solid-shank rivets.
Cherry Rivets
Fig. 79
Typical Collar
Collar Driving-Hex
Pin Recess-Hex
Hi-Lok Fastener
Fig. 80
Hi-Tigue Fastener
Fig. 81
Hi-Shear Fastener
Fig. 82
13.6.1 JO-BOLTS
This is the trade name for a fastener, which is used where a nut and bolt would
normally be fitted, but where access is available only to one side of the work.
Jo-bolts (refer to Fig. 83) consist of three components; an alloy steel nut (which
may be of a hexagonal or countersunk headed type), a hollow steel bolt and a
stainless steel sleeve.
They are often used on control rods for connecting end fittings. The rivets are
made to AGS drawing specifications in several materials. The drawing number
indicates the type of rivet and the following letter denotes the material. The
number after the letter denotes the dimensions of the rivet, but has no particular
significance as is the case with other types of rivet.
Example:
A tubular rivet with the designation code AGS 501/H/49 is made of mild steel, has
a length of 1 inch, and has a wall thickness of 26 SWG. Table 17 shows the
letters used to indicate different tubular rivet materials and the features by which
the materials may be recognised.
Table 17
IDENTIFICATION CODES FOR TUBULAR RIVETS
Letter Material Identification Feature
Identification
Protective Physical
Treatment Characteristic
A Aluminium (L54) Anodic film Dyed black
D Duralumin (L37) None Natural colour
H Mild steel (T26) Cadmium Magnetic
plated
J Nickel alloy Cadmium Only slightly
(DTD268) or plated magnetic
Monel metal
(DTD204A)
K Monel metal None Only slightly
(DTD204A) magnetic
13.6.3 RIVNUTS
These fasteners were produced to attach rubber de-icing boots to aircraft wing
and tail leading edges. Rivnuts can be either of the countersunk or flat head
types, of which, each can have open or sealed ends (refer to Fig. 84).
Rivnuts
Fig. 84
Installation is achieved by drilling a hole into the skin and a small notch made on
the edge of the hole to prevent the Rivnut rotating during closing
The nut on the thread of the puller is inserted into the hole (refer to Fig. 85), and
the key aligned with the notch. The puller handle is squeezed, closing the nut and
gripping the skin. The tool is then unscrewed from the Rivnut, leaving a threaded
hole that accepts standard machine screws, for attaching the de-icer boots
Rivnuts are supplied in American thread sizes and in BA or BSF thread forms, but
to avoid confusion, only the American types are considered here.
These Rivnuts are available in six grip ranges, the minimum grip Rivnut having a
plain head while the next size has a radial dash mark on the head. Each
succeeding grip range is indicated by an additional radial mark on the head with
the largest size having five radial dash marks.
Keyway
Rivnut Installation
Fig. 85
14 SPRINGS
The invention of the wheel, for transport (and many other applications), is
considered to be one of the major advances of mankind, but another, less-
praised, technical, innovation followed the development of devices employed to
alleviate the discomfort of travelling on unmade or rutted roads.
Using the fact that the elasticity, inherent in most materials, allows them to absorb
energy by distorting or deflecting when under load - and then, to return to their
original shape after the load has moderated (or has been removed), - early
springs consisted of flat (and curved) sections of wood (and, later, metal), to
which were attached the carriages of the respective eras.
Note: These forces may act singly or in combinations of any two or all three.
Similar carbon- and alloy-steels to those already discussed are employed in the
manufacture of hot-wound springs, with the necessary variations in their contents
of carbon, chromium, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, and vanadium.
Note: Another high-nickel alloy goes under the name of Ni-Span-C and does, in
fact, contain almost 50% iron. All of these non-ferrous alloys can be found in the
cold-rolled or drawn conditions for the manufacture of many types of springs.
This indicates that the deflection is directly proportional to the load so that, if the
load is doubled, then the deflection also doubles a characteristic of which good
use is made in so many aeronautical applications.
Belleville springs, however, present a different form of graph (refer to Fig. 86 (b))
and, yet again, their particular characteristics also prove extremely useful in
certain control and indicating functions of aircraft structures and components.
(a) (b)
Helical Springs Belleville Springs
Many applications have already been mentioned but some further examples, of
the uses for springs, could include their use as:
Pressure Regulating/Limiting Devices: in Fuel, Hydraulic, Lubrication, and
Pneumatic systems
Fail Safe or Return to Neutral Condition Devices: in Electrical Relays and
Solenoids, and also in Electric, Hydraulic, Mechanical, or Pneumatic Actuators
Acceleration and Speed Control Devices: in Engine and Propeller control
systems and in Power-Assisted Flight Controls and Wheel Braking systems
Shock Absorbing Devices: in Landing Gear systems and as Anti-Vibration
Mountings for delicate instruments and components which are subject to
movement
Devices which are capable of applying a constant force (linear or rotary) in a
desired direction, as in the holding closed of an aero-engine valve spring for one
example
Devices with the ability to accurately indicate (and control) the value of an
applied force, as used in many instruments (Ammeters, Voltmeters, Fuel Flow
Meters and Tachometers provide typical examples)
Note: The subject of spring technology is vast and well beyond the scope of these
notes, so it is sufficient for the student to appreciate the basic uses for springs in
the aerospace environment and the functions that they fulfil.
The many different systems in an aircraft require the services of pipes and hoses,
in a range of sizes. These can include fuel, oxygen, lubrication, hydraulic,
instruments, heating, fire extinguishing, air conditioning and water systems. Loss
of integrity in any of these systems could put the aircraft at risk.
The pressures inside the pipes can vary from negative (suction) through ambient,
in instrument piping, to as much as 4000 psi (27.58 x 10 kN/m) in a hydraulic
system. Low-pressure fluid lines can be manufactured from metal or plastic
(pipes and tubes) or, alternatively, from various forms of rubber (hoses). High-
pressure fluid line can be made from a variety of materials, including aluminium
alloy, stainless steel, copper, titanium and also reinforced flexible hoses.
Fluid lines are made of rigid, semi-rigid and flexible tubes, depending on their
use. A rigid fluid line would be one that is not normally bent to shape or flared.
Direction changes and connections are made by the use of threaded end-fittings.
Semi-rigid fluid lines are bent and formed to shape and have a relatively thin wall
thickness in comparison to rigid lines. A variety of end-fittings may be used to
make connections between semi-rigid tubes.
Flexible fluid lines are made from rubber or synthetic materials and are usually
called hoses. Depending on the pressure they are designed to carry, hoses may
have reinforcing materials wrapped around them. Various types of end-fittings are
used to attach hoses to each other and to other components.
Various methods are used to connect semi-rigid tubes both to each other and to
other connectors. These will depend upon the use, location and pressure being
carried in the tube. The most common end-fittings are of the flared, flare-less,
swaged or brazed types and are, often, standard parts.
A special nut and sleeve are used to pull the flare onto the cone and to form a
fluid-tight metal-to-metal seal. The end-fittings are produced in a wide variety of
types, depending upon their use. Examples are the In-line-, Cross-, Elbow-,
and T-type of end-fittings, in addition to Bulkhead fittings, which allow tubes to
pass fluids through structural portions (bulkheads) of an aircraft or of an engine
power-plant assembly.
Where it is necessary to have fuel, oil or other tubes passing through structural
bulkheads, it requires an end-fitting with a long body and provision for securing
Although there is no need to flare the tube, in one of the methods used, it is
necessary to pre-set the coupling, prior to its installation (refer to Fig. 89). Pre-
setting is the process of applying enough pressure to a sleeve (also called a
ferrule) to cause it to cut into the outside of the tube.
The tube and ferrule are placed into a pre-setting tool and the action of tightening
When complete, the tube can be inspected and, if satisfactory, attached directly
to the appropriate union or adapter.
Two other methods of forming flare-less couplings involve the swaging of metal
sleeves around the ends of the tubes, which are being connected and the joining
of tubes by brazing. Both methods require specialist skills, which are beyond the
scope of these notes.
Low-Pressure Hose
Fig. 90
A typical marking on this type of hose could be a yellow line with the letters LP
along it. The line (lay line) is used to ensure that the hose is not assembled with a
stress-inducing twist in it. Other markings could include the hose manufacturers
code and part number, its size and the date of manufacture
Typical construction of this type of hose could be a seamless inner liner made
from different materials, a layer of cotton braid, a layer of stainless-steel
reinforcement and an outer layer of tough, oil-resistant, rubber-impregnated
cotton.
The end fittings on a flexible hose assembly are made of steel or light alloy,
depending on their application. They are designed to exert a grip on the tubes
and wire braids, so as to resist the high pressure twisting and vibrating loads, as
well as providing an electrical bond throughout the assembly.
Flexible hoses have their sizes identified by their inner bore diameter and the
overall length. With pre-assembled hoses, the overall length of the assembly,
from the centres of the nipple extremities, regardless of the shape of the end
fittings, is used for identification purposes (refer to Fig. 92).
Flexible hoses, used in engine bays and other high temperature areas, will often
have a metallic stainless braid as the outside layer, to make the hose fire-
resistant.
The cones (flares) on AGS end-fittings (unions and adapters) have an included
angle of 32, with the pipe flaring machines being shaped accordingly.
Other specifications in current use with aircraft manufactured in the USA include
National Aerospace Standards (NAS) and Military Specifications (Mil Specs).
These may have an equivalent civilian or Military Standard.
All these specifications provide for a range of fasteners with Unified threads in the
UNC, UNF and UNJF series and, whereas British aircraft fasteners are
manufactured in a selected range of Unified threads, American fasteners are in
some instances supplied in both UNC and UNF threads.
From all this it can be seen that great care must be taken when matching up
union assemblies with these many different forms of thread.
INTENTIONALLY BLANK
16 BEARINGS
Bearings are, broadly, classified by the type of rolling element used in their
construction. Ball bearings employ steel balls, which rotate in grooved raceways,
whilst Roller bearings utilise cylindrical, tapered and spherical rollers running in
suitably shaped raceways (refer to Fig. 94).
Although these notes give information on the uses of the various types of ball and
roller bearings, - together with general information on installation, maintenance
and inspection, - the Aircraft Maintenance Manual (AMM) should be the final
arbiter for specific installations.
Ball bearings and tapered roller bearings accept both radial and axial loads,
whilst the other types of roller bearings may accept only radial loads.
Those bearings, which are contained in cages, are, in general, used for engine
and gearbox applications with rotational speeds in excess of approximately 100
rpm. Most other bearings, on an aircraft or in an engine, are intended for
oscillating or slow rotation conditions and do not have a cage. They are generally
shielded or sealed and pre-packed with grease, although some have external
lubrication facilities.
In applications where axial loads will always be in one direction, a single angular-
contact bearing may be used but, where they vary in direction, an opposed pair of
bearings may be used.
Roller bearings, which have a length much greater than their diameter, are
normally called needle roller bearings. These are designed for radial loads only
and are best used in situations where the movement is oscillatory rather than
rotary, such as in universal joints and control rod ends.
The bearings are produced in four grades (groups), and are usually marked in
some way to indicate each particular group. A system of dots (or circles or letters)
is often used as identification and it is most important that replacement bearings
are to the same standard as those removed.
Standard bearings are produced in all four groups while instrument precision
bearings are supplied only in the first three groups
16.4.1 LUBRICATION
As has already been stated, most bearings, used in airframe applications, are
shielded (sealed) to prevent the entry of dirt or fluids, which could affect bearing
life. These cannot, normally, be re-greased and must be replaced if there are
signs of wear, loss of lubricant or brinelling. (brinelling is the indentation of the
surfaces of the bearing races).
In some places, where there is risk of loss of lubricant, a grease nipple will be
provided to permit recharging with fresh grease. Greasing should only be done
after the nipple has been wiped clean of all dirt and, on completion, all excess
grease must be wiped away with a clean cloth.
16.4.2 INSPECTION
Bearings are designed to operate with little or no maintenance, but they must be
inspected regularly because, if corrosion or wear begins, the bearing will
deteriorate rapidly. Bearings are usually inspected without removing them from
the component (in situ), as continued removal and installation of bearings can
cause wear and damage.
Wheel bearings are inspected when the wheel is returned to the Wheel Servicing
Bay for maintenance. Other items might also be inspected when their major
assembly is removed for off-aircraft maintenance.
On-aircraft checks can include checking for smoothness of operation, for wear
(by moving the assembly both axially and radially) and also for any signs of
interference or fouling with (or from) adjacent components.
INTENTIONALLY BLANK
17 TRANSMISSIONS
Nominally flat belts and pulleys use only friction to transmit the power from input
to output shafts. These are, unfortunately, prone to slippage so, to reduce the
problem, vee-section belts were devised and yet a further improvement has seen
the development of serrated or toothed belts and pulleys, which use the principle
of engagement, rather than friction, to provide drive.
Some of the uses to which belt drives are put can include a change of ratio,
usually in a step-down situation, as well as a simple connection between input
and output shafts which are displaced by some distance.
Some uses of belt and pulley installations in aviation can include the driving of
propellers on micro-light aircraft, which use high-revving engines. These engines
rotate about 6000 rpm whilst propellers are most efficient at around 2000 2500
rpm. Therefore the drive from the crankshaft pulley, via a strong wide belt to the
propeller pulley, gives a step down ratio of about 2.5:1 on most of this type of
aircraft.
When starting-up, the tension can be totally released, allowing the engine to be
started without the load of the rotors and transmission. In an emergency the
released tension allows the rotors to free-wheel (autorotate) and, thus, enables a
safe landing.
There are a number of places inside piston engines where toothed belts, are
used to drive camshafts and other accessories from the crankshaft.
17.2 GEARS
There are a number of different types of gears (refer to Fig. 96), all of which are
designed for specific tasks. They will all transmit the rotary motion of the input
shaft to an output shaft, but the angle between them, their direction of rotation
and the ratio of their speeds, depends on the type of gears being used.
Spur
Bevel
Key
Gear trains may be used in a variety of ways, to change the direction of rotation
or to increase or decrease the speed of the relevant output gear (and its shaft).
The design of a gear train will be influenced by the amount of space available to
accommodate the desired effect and by the power which is to be transmitted
through the gears.
This configuration can only be used to drive one way; i.e. the input and output are
always the same. This allows the input system to drive the output slowly and with
a high mechanical advantage (higher torque), without any back loads being able
This configuration is far more efficient than a series of spur gears, as it results in
a smaller frontal area being necessary for the power unit and the subsequent
reduction in aerodynamic drag.
It should also be made clear, that neither the number of teeth on the planetary
gears, nor the number of gears on the spider affect the actual gear reduction.
For example, if the ring gear has 72 teeth and the sun gear has 36 teeth, then the
overall ratio remains at 2:1.
SPIDER
Where the drive pinion is located inside the spur-cut ring gear (refer to Fig. 98) it
has the advantage of not only stepping down the ratio of input to output but also
(as can be seen), both gears rotate in the same direction.
Drive Gear
(Pinion)
Direction of Rotation
Driven Gear
(Spur)
Here it can be seen that idler gears are added to reverse the rotation and
possibly to alter the final ratio of several drives and, while the majority of the
gears are of spur and helical configuration, the drive from the engine shaft, to the
gearbox, has bevel gears.
Helical gears may have as many as 5 teeth in contact at any one time, therefore
power will be spread across more teeth. The loads must be applied mid-way
between the front and rear faces of the gear wheel. They must also be exerted
between 1/3 and 2/3 of the distance between the root and tip of the gear tooth.
These settings and adjustments have to be attended to during the build-up of the
gearbox and are usually achieved with the use of appropriately sized shims.
Chains may be one of four standard sizes but, for most aircraft installations, the
manufacturer dictates the size and type of chains used. They are obtained as
complete, proof-loaded, units from manufacturers, and are identified by their
allocated part numbers in the relevant aircraft IPC. Chain links or attachments
should never be drilled and re-riveted. Where chains have bolts in place of rollers
and rivets, then the split pins must be replaced BUT, if the nuts have been
peened, then the nut and bolt must be replaced before re-assembly
The chains main purpose is to transfer motion from one point, to another,
remote, point where the input motion is replicated. An example of this would be
found in the input action of moving a control lever, on the flight deck of an aircraft,
and the subsequent output action of the movement of a control surface. Most
installations use chains to generate and convert rotary motion at each end, but
use cables to connect the chains together over long distances.
After installation in the aircraft, the chains should be examined for freedom from
twist. Particular attention must be paid in instances where the attachment is made
to threaded rods by means of screwed end connectors. Care should also be take
to ensure the chain is not pulled out of line by the chain wheel. The wheel should
engage smoothly and evenly with the wheel teeth.
18 CONTROL CABLES
Cables, used in aircraft control systems, comply with a number of British and
American Standards and are preformed during manufacture. Preforming is a
process in which each strand is formed into the shape that it will take up in the
completed cable. This makes the cable more flexible, easier to splice and less
prone to kinking. Another advantage of preformed cables is that, in the event of a
wire breaking, it will lie flat within its strand, so that the cable should be less likely
to jam in its pulleys and fairleads.
18.2.1 END-FITTINGS
Whilst cables were, previously, spliced or whipped, to form end-fittings, the
majority of modern cables have a swaged splice end-fitting. Most end-fittings, on
control cables, are special-to-type and end-fittings such as fork, threaded (internal
and external), and ball end-fittings (refer to Fig. 103) can be found in various
locations. The nominal overall length of a cable will depend on the type of end-
fitting which is being employed.
Overall Length
18.2.2 TURNBUCKLES
Turnbuckles are devices which are attached (via internal or external threads) to
appropriately designed end-fittings of aircraft cables and are used to join lengths
of cables and to adjust the tension of those cables.
Cable runs that are too tight will make the controls stiff to operate and,
conversely, cables that are too slack will make the controls sloppy and
unresponsive.
Turnbuckles are adjusted by the use of a left-hand thread in one end of the
turnbuckle, and a right-hand thread in the other end (refer to Fig. 104). When the
centre part of the turnbuckle is rotated, its length will increase or decrease, and
so it will adjust the cable tension.
The groove, around one end of the turnbuckle barrel, indicates the left hand
thread.
Once the correct tension has been obtained and confirmed (using a cable
tensiometer), the turnbuckle is checked for safety (sufficient threads are
engaged in the turnbuckle) and the device is then securely locked.
The spring type of locking clip (used in place of locking wire) can only be inserted
into the turnbuckle when the corresponding longitudinal grooves in the barrel and
end fittings are aligned.
Groove
Spring-Locked Turnbuckle
Fig. 104
As previously stated, engineers will use a tensiometer to set and check the
tension of a cable. The tension regulator (refer to Fig. 105) is a device which has
springs, incorporated within the mechanism, to ensure that the cable tension
remains constant, regardless of the flexing and temperature changes of the
airframe.
The fairleads, already mentioned, simply allow the cable to pass through the
bulkheads without chafing. If, however, the bulkhead is the divider between the
pressure cabin and the outside air pressure, then the fairlead will be designed to
be an airtight seal, as well as a cable guide.
Cable Fairleads
Fig. 106
18.2.5 PULLEYS
Cables that run from the flight deck to the control surfaces, require the ability to
change direction (possibly a number of times).
If the cable needs to change direction to another angle, the conventional method
of a pulley allows this change with little friction. The example of the elevator flying
control run of a simple aircraft, (refer to Fig. 107), has pulleys that can change the
direction of the cable through a large range of angles.
The flexible cable is made up of several strands of stainless steel wire with
nipples soldered onto the end of the wire. The nipples are of different shapes,
depending on their use. The flexible conduit consists of close-coiled wire, covered
with cotton braiding and a waterproof coating. For long runs, or runs not requiring
flexibility, the Bowden cable is fed through rigid metal tubing, which can be bent
over large radius curves if required.
Bowden Cable
Fig. 108
At points along the conduit, connectors may be found which allow the conduits to
be separated for maintenance. Junction boxes are also used, to permit either
more than one input, to actuate a single operating lever, or one input to operate a
number of operating mechanisms.
Examples of the types of systems, operated by Teleflex controls, are engine and
propeller controls, trimming controls and fuel valves. Teleflex controls can also be
used to transmit movement from one place to another, such as in a mechanical
Flap Position indicator or as interlocks between controls and throttles during
control lock operation.
Like the Bowden system, described previously, the Teleflex system consists of a
flexible transmitting cable operating inside a rigid or flexible metal conduit. The
main advantages are that it provides a more accurate and positive control
throughout the range of movement and the controlled component can be
temporarily locked in any desired position.
To operate the system, the cable and conduit are connected to control units at
each end of the control run and, in between, to other units and fittings, which are
used to direct the run. In many locations, the cables are attached to lever-
operated wheel units or to push-pull handles. At the receiving end of the run,
another wheel unit or sliding end-fitting is used to actuate the mechanism.
Cables must provide a path for the flow of electrons from the source, through the
load and back to the source with the minimum resistance. Additionally, two other
important factors for a conductor are:
A large number of specifications exist for aircraft electrical cables. The majority
of cables used on British built aircraft now in service will have been produced to
"Aerospace G" series of British Standards.
This covers cable type, size, manufacturer and year of production. It is important
to be able to distinguish between the different types of cable and the size of the
core. One of the main difficulties is the extensive use of nylon and terylene
braids over the basic insulation of many cables giving them a similar appearance.
Cables are stamped with the name and size of the cable at intervals along its
length. If the cable is too thin to be printed on, the code will be printed on a non-
metallic sleeves positioned along the cable.
EXTRUDED NYLON
JACKET
Where large amounts of current must be carried for long distances, MIL-W-7072
aluminium wire is often used. This wire is insulated with either "Fluorinated
Ethylene Propolene (FEP), nylon or fibreglass braid. Aluminium wire smaller than
six-gauge is not recommended because it is so easily broken by vibrations.
Anytime a wire carries a current, a magnetic field surrounds the wire, and this
field may interfere with some aircraft instrumentation. For example, the light that
illuminates the compass card of a magnetic compass is powered with low-voltage
DC. The field from this small voltage can deflect the compass. To minimise this
occurrence, a two-conductor twisted wire is used to carry the current to and from
this light. By using a twisted wire, the fields cancel each other out and thus do
not interfere with the compass.
TINNED COPPER
EXTRUDED NYLON SHIELD
JACKET
Shielded Wire
Figure 2
OUTER
SOLID INNER INSULATOR
CENTER INSULATOR JACKET
CONDUCTOR
BRAID OUTER
CONDUCTOR
Coaxial Cable
Figure 3
One special type of cable used exclusively for various digital electronic systems is
called Data Bus Cable. Data bus cable typically consists of a twisted pair of
wires surrounded by electrical shielding and insulators. Digital systems operate
on different frequencies, voltages and current levels. It is extremely important to
ensure that the correct cable is used for the system installed. The cable should
not be pinched or bent during installation and data bus cable lengths may also be
critical. Refer to current manufacturers manuals for cable specifications.
TINNED COPPER
CONDUCTORS ETFE TEFZEL
INSULATION ETFE TEFZEL
JACKET
DATA BUS
CABLE B
TINNED COPPER
BRAID SHIELD
DATA BUS
CABLE A
The wires installed in an aircraft electrical system must be chosen on the basis of
their ability to carry the required current without overheating and to carry it without
producing an excessive voltage drop. There are a number of factors to consider
when choosing the correct wire, these are:
1. Conductor material.
3. Insulation material.
5. Length of wire.
6. Type of installation.
For aircraft, the wire material could be either copper or aluminium. If the
conductor is made from copper, the individual strands of wire are typically plated
to protect the copper from corrosion. Figure 5 shows two types of conductor
found in aircraft systems.
STRANDED
CONDUCTORS
SOLID
CONDUCTOR
The wire used for aircraft electrical installations is sized according to the
American Wire Gauge (AWG). The size of the wire is a function of its diameter
and is indicated by a unit called Circular Mil. One circular mil is equal to the
cross-sectional area of a 1-mil (0.001-in) diameter wire, measured in thousandths
of an inch. To determine the size in circular mils of a wire, simply square the
wire's diameter measured in thousandths of an inch. Figure 6 shows this
concept.
1 CIRCULAR MIL
1 mil2 0.001 IN
(1 cmil)
In AWG only even numbers are used, small wires have higher numbers, typically
starting at AWG 24. Large wires have smaller numbers, down to AWG 0000.
AWG size 20 is approximately 0.032in. in diameter, and AWG 0 is approximately
0.325in. in diameter.
Resistance is the opposition to current flow and is measured in Ohms (). The
resistance of a wire will increase with an increase of length, but will decrease with
an increase of cross-sectional area.
A wire fitted to an aircraft system should be able to carry the required current
without overheating and burning. Also it must be able to carry the required
current without producing a voltage drop greater than that which is permissible for
the circuit.
Most aircraft wiring that is required to carry large amounts of current for long
distances, is generally made up of aluminium wire.
Tables 1 and 2 shows the characteristics of MIL-W-5086 copper wire and MIL-W-
7072 aluminium wire.
MIL-W-5086
Table 1
MIL-W-7072
Table 2
Now select a wire for the above task that will be routed within a bundle.
Note; The rule of thumb says that when substituting copper for aluminium wire,
we should use wire that is two gauge numbers larger. The FAA does not allow
aluminium wire smaller (in size, larger in number), than 6-gauge to be used on
aircraft.
When we add any electrical equipment to an aircraft, we must be sure that the
current flowing in the wiring does not drop the voltage below a set level. Table 3
shows an example of the allowable voltage drop for various systems using
various supply voltages.
Wire identification should identify the wire, with respect to, type of circuit, size of
cable and location within the circuit. Coded letters identify wires within systems;
Figure 8 shows a typical example of a code.
22 GAUGE
WIRE
26TH WIRE IN
THE CIRCUIT
FLIGHT
INSTRUMENTATION
Wire Code
Figure 8
This is where the wires are bundled together and installed with no external
protection. This method is used when there is no great danger of mechanical
damage (Chafing, Rubbing). This type of installation is easy to install and
maintain, and is lighter in weight.
Wires are grouped and tied together in bundles for the neatest and most efficient
routing. No one bundle should carry wires from circuits that would disable both
main and back-up systems. The bundles should be routed so as not to interfere
with any of the controls or moving components. They must be routed where they
cannot be damaged by persons entering or leaving the aircraft or by baggage or
cargo moving over them or resting on them.
P CLIPS ATTACHING
BUNDLE TO AIRCRAFT
FRAME
WIRE
BUNDLE
INCH MAXIMUM
WITH NORMAL HAND
PRESSURE
CABLE
BUNDLE
P CLIP
Electrical cables or wire bundles are secured to the aircraft structure by means of
metal clamps (P Clips/clamps), lined with a synthetic rubber or similar material.
In the installation of cable clamps, care must be taken to assure that the stress
applied by the cable to the clamp is not in a direction that will tend to bend the
clamp. When a clamp is mounted on a vertical member, the loop of the clamp
should always be at the bottom. Correct methods for installing clamps is shown
in Figure 10.
DANGEROUS ANGLES
45 45 X
MA
X MA
SAFE ANGLES
Mechanical protection can be provided for the wire by routing the bundles through
either flexible or rigid conduit. The size of the conduit is normally an inside
diameter 25% larger than the diameter of the wire bundle being encased. Figure
11 shows the two types of conduits.
M IN IM UM B E N D
C AB L E R AD IU S
C O N DU IT ( FO U R TIM E S
IN S IDE
D IAM E T E R )
C O N DU IT
C LA M P
A DA P T O R
IN S IDE
D IAM E T E R
C LA M P
A DA P T O R
FLEXIBLE CONDUIT
BRACKET
METALLIC
CONDUIT
CABLE
CLAMP
CLAMP
RIGID CONDUIT
Cable Conduit
Figure 11
LINE REPLACEMENT
UNIT (LRU) CABLE
CONDUIT
DRAIN
HOLE
PLUG
CONNECTION
Most of the electrical components in an aircraft are designed so that they may be
serviced with a minimum amount of time needed for their removal and
installation. The electrical wiring is usually connected through quick-release
plugs. There are many different types of plugs, but they are all somewhat similar.
The individual wires are fastened to pins or sockets inside the plugs and are
clamped tight to prevent mechanical strain on the cable being transmitted into the
connectors themselves.
The most commonly used connector is the Military Standard (MS), type. Each
MS connector has an identification number on it, Figure 13 shows a connector
and identification number.
MILITARY
STANDARD
TYPE
NUMBER
CLASS
SIZE
INSERT
ARRANGEMENT
NUMBER
CONTACT
STYLE
INDEX
SLOT INSERT
NUMBER
The size of the connector is indicated with a code number, the higher the number,
the larger the connector. The insert arrangement is a code number to identify the
number and size of the connector and its physical arrangement.
The contact style may be either an "S" or "P" to indicate a "socket or "pin" (female
or male), arrangement. The final letter in the identification is one of the last
letters in the alphabet, "W", "X", "Y" or "Z". These letters indicate the rotation of
the insert in the connector. It is possible to connect the wrong plug to a
receptacle, so to prevent this, the inserts may be rotated in their relationship to
the index slot. This ensures only the correct plug may be inserted into the
receptacle.
MS 3100
MS 3101
BULKHEAD
CABLE RECEPTACLE
RECEPTACLE
MS 3108 MS 3102
BULKHEAD PLUG BOX RECEPTACLE
MS Quick-Release Connectors
Figure 14
When applied with the correctly matched tool, a joint would be established which
has both good electrical and mechanical properties. Figure 15 show a crimped
terminal.
DIAMOND GRIP
CRIMP FOR
INSULATION
SUPPORT
CROSS CRIMP
FOR GRIPPING
CRIMP WIRE STRANDS
INSULATION
WIRE
INSULATION
There are a number of types of crimping tool available, but the best ones have a
ratchet mechanism that will not allow them to open until they have crimped the
terminal to the proper size. These tools, often referred to as "Precision
Termination Tools (PTT), require periodical calibration checks. If a terminal is
properly crimped on the wire, the wire will break before the terminal slips off.
CRIMPING
HEAD
CRIMPING
JAWS
CONDUCTOR
BEING CRIMPED
RATCHET
MECHANISM
HANDLE
The stripped wire is inserted into the end of the tube and then crimped with a
terminal crimping tool. When splices are made in wires that are in a cable
bundle, the spliced wires are placed on the outside of the bundle. If several
splices are to be made in any cable bundle, the splices should be staggered to
reduce the bundle diameter. Figure 17 shows various situations of splices in a
cable bundle.
D O N O T P UT
C AB L E LA CIN G
ON T OP OF 2 CM
T HE S P L IC E S M IN IM U M
D IS TR IB UT E S P IL CE S
IN A C B LE B U ND LE 3 - P H AS E C AB LE S IZ E
E V E N LY O N TH E O U TS ID E A W G 8 OR
P O W ER S U P P LY
O F TH E B UN D LE LA R G E R
1 CM
M IN IM U M
M E TAL
TUB E P LA S T I C
IN S U L A T IO N
3 - PH A SE C AB L E S IZE
A W G 8 OR
P O W E R S UP P L Y
L AR G E R C A B L E S P L IC E C O N S T R U C T IO N
Cable Splices
Figure 17
To protect the cable from undue stress, it is important to ensure that when the
cable has to bent, the radius of the bend is not less than six time the radius of the
cable bundle. Figure 18 shows the bend radius for a cable with connector.
CONNECTOR
RADIUS AT LEAST
SIX TIMES OUTER
DIAMETER
STRAIGHT STRAIN
RELIEF
Bend Radius
Figure 18
If the cable bundle is supported at the bend (example on a terminal block, then
the bend radius can be reduced to a minimum of three times the diameter of the
cable bundle. Figure 20 shows a terminal block connection.
TERMINAL
BLOCK
RADIUS
MINIMUM OF THREE
TIMES THE OUTER
DIAMETER OF
CABLE