BIOLOGY

Most abundant chemical in any living cell: water. Cytosol is in aqueous (water) solution
All major macromolecules are broken down via hydrolysis
Molecules of a liquid are held in liquid via bonds to other molecules.
Water has many intermolecular bonds: hydrogen bonds, which are the strongest type of such bonds
Water is a polar molecule, so it dissolves other polar molecules, but not other nonpolar molecules
Amphipathic molecule: has polar and nonpolar regions
Lipids: all lipids are not fat
o Have low solubility in water
o Six major groups:
Fatty acids
Amphipathic. The longer the carbon chain, the less water soluble the fatty
acid
Short chains are slightly water soluble
o Unsaturated: have lower melting point.
o Saturated: all single bonds connect the carbons int eh carbon chain
Triglycerides
3 carbon chains dangling from a 3 carbon backbone. Each carbon chain is
attached by an ester group. Adding water to ester breaks it into alcohol and
carboxylic acid

Phospholipids
3-carbon backbone
Amphipathic
Cell membranes are made of this
Polar regions face aqueous solution inside and outside the cell
Glycolipids
Like phospholipids, but with carbohydrate replacing phosphate
Steroids
Usually carried by lipoproteins, LDL and HDL, i.e.
Lipoprotein surrounds lipids by phospholipid and protein shell which does
dissolve in the blood
Slightly amphipathic
Terpenes
Form of hydrocarbon, including vitamin A
Proteins: made up of long chains of amino acids
HAL: basic amino acids (histidine, arginine, lysine)
Nonpolar amino acids: hydrophobic
20 essential amino acids: those which body cannot produce on its own
Primary sequence includes location of disfulfide bonds between cysteines. Held together by covalent
bonds
Secondary structure is held together by hydrogen bonds between amine and carboxy
Amino acid is called a residue when its incorporated into a polypeptide chain
Tertiary structure: bending of secondary structure into bended shape or glob
Many structural proteins do not have tertiary and quaternary structure.
 DISFULFIDE BOND CREATES TERTIARY STRUCTURE, AS DO HYDROGEN BONDS.
ELECTROSTATIC FORCES BETWEEN IONIC PORTIONS OF THE RESIDUE. Van der waals
forces also. Also hydrophobic/hydrophilic effects cause tertiary structure
Quaternary structure: consists of 2 or more polypeptides, held together by same five forces which
hold together tertiary structure
o Each polypeptide here is referred to as a subunit
Denaturation: disrupts the 5 forces which exist in tertiary and quaternary as well as secondary
structure. Primary structure, being held by covalent bonds, are not destroyed
Carbohydrates: CxH2Oy
Glucose is an aldehydes with 4 chiral carbons
o In fischer projections, the hydroxyl grups are to right, left, right, right
o Anomeric carbon is the one that is to the right (going clockwise) after oxygen in the ring
o Beta anomer: when OH on anomeric carbon points up
o Alpha anomer: when OH on anomeric carbon points down
o Glucose is stored in long carbohydrate chains: glycogen
Each glucose molecule attaches to the next via alpha linkage
o Plant cell walls are made of cellulose: beta linkages
o Animals can break alpha but not beta linkages
Water, as always, breaks nucleic acids in nucleotides
Other important nucleic acids:
o Cyclic AMP
o NADH
o FAD
o ATP
Minerals: inorganic elements which exist as ions inside and outside cell
o Establish electrochemical gradients
o Act as cofactors to enable protein function
o Form matrix compounds in bone and elsewhere
Enzymes increase reaction rate by trillions of times and there is an enzynme for nearly every reaction
o Lowers activation energy
o Usually a protein
o Enzyme is usually larger than substrate
Substrate: molecule the enzyme works on
o There is lock and key theory or induced fit theory
o Enzyme specificity: enzyme must be tailor-made for a reaction
o Saturation kinetics: since a single enzyme molecule works on one set of substrates at at ime,
the reaction rate increases only as long as there are unoccupied enzyme molecules. There is a
Tmax for the number of enzymes
Pepsin has optimal pH between 1-2
Salivary amylase has optimal pH between 6-7
Feedback inhibition in enzymes: occurs when product of reaction near end of chain of reactions
inhibits a reaction early in the chain, saving the energy which would otherwise be wasted.
o Competitive inhibition
Will bind to active site
Substrates attach to and release from the active site very rapidly, many times per
second
Competitive inhibitor can be overcome by increasing substrate concentration!!!
 o Noncompetitive inhibition
Bind to an allosteric site
Does not attach to the active site
Changes shape of enzyme by binding to allosteric site; substrate does not fit as well
INCREASNIG SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION DOES NOT HELP!
o Irreversible inhibition
Covalently bond to the substrate
Zymogen or proenzyme: inactive form of enzyme. Enzyme may be activated or deactivated by
phosphorylation or dephosphorylation or by control proteins
Enzymes are named with ase in the end
Cellular respiration:
o Energy acquiring stages of metabolism which begins by breaking down macromolecules into
basic nutrients. This step requires energy
o First step: glycolysis. Some organisms use other reactions that are similar.
TAKES PLACE IN CYTOSOL AND NO OXYGEN REQUIRED
Begins with glucose and produce 2ATP, 2NADH, and 2 3-carbon pyruvates
Fermentation: ethanol is formed in yeast rather than lactic acid
In aerobic respiration, products of respiration are transferred to mitochondrion.
o In mitochondrial matrix, each NADH produces 3 ATP via electron transport chain
o Inside matrix, each pyruvate is converted to acetyl coA which transfers two carbons to
oxaloacetate to make citrate to begin CAC
CAC:
o Makes 1 ATP, 3 NADH, and 1 FADH
o Each NADH is converted to 3 ATP via ETC
o Each FADH is converted to 2 ATP via ETC
o One pyruvate = one turn of krebs cycle
o One glucose = 36 ATPs for two runs of CAC
ETC:
o Series of proteins called cytochromes embedded in inner membrane of mitochondrion
o Use energy of electrons to pump protons into intermembrane space leaving the space with a
low pH.
o ATP syntahse is an integral protein of this membrane that allows protons to flow back into
the matrix
Uses energy of electrochemical gradient between intermembrane space and matrix to
produce ATP
Aerobic respiration:
o Oxidation or combustion of glucose
o Glucose + oxygen goes to carbon dioxide and water
o Oxygen is final acceptor in ETC
Triglycerides
o Broken into glycerol and fatty acids
o Glycerol enters glycolysis in middle
o Fatty acids transported into matrix in mitochondrion and are converted to acetyl coA where 2
NADH are made for every 2 carbons of fatty acid
o Amino acids enter at various portions of process, depending upon AA
Protein may be made of one or several polypeptides
One gene = one polypeptide
 For most proteins, eukaryotes have just one copy but for genes encoding for tRna, rRNA, and
heterochromatin cell contains multiple copies
For most proteins, one significant mutation causes cell to completely lose that protein
Phosphate group in DNA is attached to 5th group on each pentose
DNA replication is bidirectional
o Process begins at middle of double stranded DNA and replication proceeds along both
directions
o DNA helicase unzips the helix
o Replisome: holds helicase and DNA polymerases moving in a single unit along the DNA
o Moves from 3-5 direction but operates in the 5-3 direction
o DNA ligase: ties together okazaki fragments in lagging strand
rRNA is synthesized in nucleolus
half life of RNA is typically only 30 minutes, much shorter than half life of DNA
transcription must take place only in nucleus and in mitochondrial matrix
o begins when initiation factors find a promoter on the DNA
o promoters in a given species are all similar
o most common promoter: a consensus sequence
o in prokaryotes, promoters may be followed by several genes called an operon
o in eukaryotes, promoters are usually followedby only one gene
o RNA polymerase synthesizes from 5-3
o Transcription is much slower than replication and has less fidelity
No proofreading and repair system
o Primary RNA typically contains Introns
Post transcriptional processing
o May consist of nucleotide addition or modification of bases
o Usually only occurs to rRNA and tRNA in prokaryotes
Vector: a virus
PCR: polymerase enzyme is used from Archaea and piece of desired DNA is mixed with many copies
of primers
o Mixture is heated to denature the DNA
o When cooled, primers attach to the SS DNA
o Mixture is heated again
o Polymerase replicates the strands
o Each run doubles the DNA
mRNA moves into cytoplasm via nuclear pores and into the ribosome
ribosome is made of Large and Small subunits
o large subunit has E, P, A sites
o A site is AA site
o P is polypeptide site
o mRNA lines up on large subunit
o tRNA containing anticodon sits in P site while second tRNA lines up behind it with its amino
acid in A site
o takes place in cytosol or on rough endoplasmic reticulum
o if translation occurs in cytosol, protein usually works in the cytosol. If occurs in RER,
polypeptide is thrust through RER and into lumen (inside space or cavity)
Down Syndrome is a chromosomal aberration
Silent mutation: alters codon but not the amino acid.
 Change in amino acid sequence: missense mutation
Nonsense mutation: stop codon in middle of chain
Deletions and insertions alter the codon reading frame: frameshift mutation
o Unless they occur in multiples of three
Transposition: a small ring of DNA is removed from chromosome and transposed to another section
Forward mutation: for instance, if a bacterium lacks the ability to make histidine, a forward mutation
would be the loss of the ability to make another amino acid
Most DS DNA is wrapped tightly around histone proteins
Humans have 46 chromosomes
Cells with homologous pairs of chromosomes: diploid cells
Chromosome pair #23 designates gender in humans
Cell life cycle processes
o Interphase:
G1: first growth phase. Cell is split and energy is devoted to growth in size
S: phase where energy is devoted to replication
G2: cell prepares to divide. Appropriate cellular organelles double in number
o Mitosis
Mitosis:
o Nuclear division
o Prophase: chromosomes condense. Nuclear membrane disintegrates. Centrioles move to
opposite cell poles. Spindle apparatus is formed by microtubules
o Metaphase: chromosomes line up along equator of spindle forming metaphase plate
o Anaphase: sister chromatides split and move to either pole. Split is called disjunction.
Cytokineses may begin as early as this and is accomplished through microfilaments
o Telephase: nuclear membrane reforms and chromosomes recondense
o Net result: two genetically identically daughter cells
Meiosis:
o 2 divisions and only germ cells undergo meiosis
o Spermatogenesis:
Meiosis of spermatogonium (gonna be a sperm)
Diploid cell
After S phase, spermatogonium becomes a primary spermatocyte, still diploid
Undergoes meiosis.
In prophase I, each chromosome synapses with homologue. Just lining up
Resulting group is called tetrad
Crossing over occurs here
1 form of genetic recombination
Longest stage of meiosis
Metaphase I: tetrads line up at spindle equator
Chiasmata: points where crossing over occurs
Anaphse I:
Chiasmata are torn apart
Centromeres remain intact
Homologgues are separated
Telephase I:
Does not always occur
 Nuclear membrane reforms
Net result of Meiosis I: reduction, division. Reduces ploidy number. Creates 2
haploid cells: secondary spermatocytes. No homologous pairs
Meiosis 2 is just like mitosis
o Oogenesis:
Male spermatogenes producse 4 gametes through meisosis
Oogenesis producse only 1 gamete
At time of birth, all eggs are arrested at primary oocytes stage
At puberty, menarche occurs where upon one primary oocytes undergoes meiosis
At each nuclear division, a small nuclear body rather than an entire cell is released
Polar body formed during reduction-division may or may not occur meiosis 2
Oocytes produces polar bodies in order to conserve cytoplasm. Oogonium produces
only 1 gamete
MCAT is mainly concerned with humans
Viruses are comparable in size to large proteins
Protein coat on virus = capsid. Inside are nucleic acids and sometimes proteins
Most animal, plant, and bacteriophaagse have lipid rich envelope borrowed from lipid membrane of
host cell; gained via reverse endocytotic process
Bacteriophagse: have icosahedral capside. 20-sided
o Have a tail and tail fibers
o Tail fibers attach on protein receptor on the host cell
Living organisms possess both DNA and RNA and are capable of reproduction without enzymes form
another cell
Viruses are species specific
Once viral material is inside cell, a lysosome attaches to the phagosome
Viral capsid never has to transport across membrane because it is released into cc cytosol
Lytic cycle and lysogenic cycle
o Lytic is immediate
o Lysogenic is latent. Viral nucleic acids become incorporated in host cell genome. Often
inactivated by stress to become lytic
Provirus or prophage
Virion: inactive form of a virus. Metabolically inactive but ready to infect a new host cell
Virus may possess single or double stranded DNA or RNA in + or strand RNA
Reverse transcriptase: reverse transcribes RNA to DNAHIV
Viroids: infectious pieces of naked RNA. Only infect plants
Prions: single protein molecule capable of reproducing without using DNA/RNAmad cow disease
All bacteria are prokaryotes with no membrane-bound nucleus. No complex membrane-bound
organelles. 70S ribosomes=30S+50S. Eukaryotes are 80S ribosomes=40S+60S. Bacteria have Double
stranded DNA
Membrane establishes concentration gradients between inside and outside of cell
o Semipermeable to almost everything---permeable to a degree. Also selectively permeable
Size and charge determine how easy it is for a molecule to passively diffuse across a membrane
without the use of a carrier/protein channelwithout using energy
Facilitated diffusion is passive transport and must be in direction of electrochemical gradient, as
opposed to active transport such as sodium potassium pump
Secondary active transport: electrochem gradient of one molecule is used to pump another molecule
across membrane, at times against its gradient. Does not use ATP directly but rather indirectly
 Bacteria can be gram positive/gram negative depending how they stain.
Gram positive purple. Gram negative pink
Gram negative can contain fimbriae or pili
Bacterial flagella is very different from human flagella. Made from protein flagellin. Polymerized to
make a long, slender helix and rotate powered by a proton pump. Move via run and tumble
Bacteria move by chemotaxis
Bacteria reproduce by binary fissionno genetic recombination in this method.
Bacteria can recombine genes via conjugation, transduction, and transformation
Conjugation: bacterium with F+ plasmid transfers its genetic material to its F- partner. F+ is needed
for sex pilus.
Transformation: bacteria pick up naked DNA from its environment
Transduction: transfer of genetic information through a vector, such as a virus
Endospore: high resistance to heat and lethal agents. Botulism caused by endospores
In order to grow, all organisms require carbon, energy, and electrons. Carbon source may be organic
or inorganic. Organisms that can use CO2 as carbon source = autotrophs. Heterotrophs rely on
organic matter for carbon. Energy comes from sun or chemical reactions. Gain e from inorganic
matter = lithotrophs. Gain e from organic = organotrophs.
Fungi divides into divisions, not phyla. All fungi are exodigestersspit on food, lie in it, and absorb
its nutrients. Many are considered saprophytic (eat dead matter). Possess septa cell walls made of
chitin. Hyphae: tangled mass of thread like structure. Entire tangled mass = mycelium. Most life is
haploid and capable of (a)sexual reproduction. More likely to reproduce asexually in GOOD
conditions. More likely to reproduce sexually in BAD conditions since its offspring may have genetic
variation so it is better able to surviveconditions may not be bad for an offspring which is different
from either parent**IMPORTANT. Spores: haploid
Yeast: single celled fungi that evolved from multicell ancestors. Produce asexually via
fission/budding. Facultative anaerobes that produce ethanol
Protists: eukaryotes
All eukaryotes have a nucleus that contains cells genetic material (chromosomes). Surrounded by
nuclear envelope: double phospholipid bilayer. (TWO bilayers with a narrow lumen in between)
RNA leaves nucleus via nuclear pores. Nucleolus makes subunits of ribosomes
Endocytosis: 3 types: phatocytosis (large material), pinocytosis (small material), and receptor-
mediated endocytosis. All mediated by membrane-bound proteins.
In vertebrates, only certain white blood cells are capable of phagocytosis. Many cells are capable of
pinocytosisnonselective method. RME = specific uptake of macromolecules (hormones, nutrients)
Cholesterol is taken up by RME
Endosomes represent lumen side of the cell. ER separates lumen side from cytosol side of the cell
Rough ER: appears like flat sacs with little black dotsdots = ribosomes. Translates proteins.
Once in ER lumen, proteins go to Golgi apparatus
Lysosomes are vesicles that are full of hydrolytic enzymes and bud off of Golgi. Work best in acid
o Break down macromolecules into nutrients and waste products
Peroxisomes: catalyzes condensation reactions. opposite of lysosomes. Detox alcohol, oxidize
hydrogen peroxide. DO NOT bud off from golgi. Multiply by fission
Smooth ER: tubular sacs. Acts in lipid synthesis, especially phospholipid synthesis. Detoxifies
poisons in liver cells. Controls calcium concentration in cytosol
Cytoskeleton aids in movement of cellular materials and movement of cell itself. Made of
microfilaments and microtubules. Microfilaments made of polymerization of actin.Provide structure
for cell and scaffold for movement. Microtubules are made of tubulin. Major MTOC=centrosome
 Flagella and cilia are made of microtubules. Flagella wiggles to move fluid directly away to propel
cell as in sperm. Cilia acts in whip-like fashion to move fluid rapidly. Both made in 9+2 arrangement
Mitochondria: two membranes. Inner has many folds called cristae. Space between inner and outer =
intermembrane space. Have own circular DNA. Believed to have evolved via endosymbiosis
Glycocalyx: on exterior surface of cell. Important for recognition of other animal cells. Allows
microbes to recognize host cells and infect them. Cancer cells have abnormal glycocalyx
Gap junctions: little tunnels between contiguous cells to allow passage of ions/nutrients. In cardiac
and smooth muscle tissue to allow action potential to spread
Tight junctions: create water tight barrier. Serve as barrier to lateral movement of membrane proteins.
Desmosomes: occur usually with tight junctions
Matrix: made from collagen or plastin to hold cell in place. Tissue with extensive matrix connective
Single celled organism can have sustained life on its own. Multi celled organisms cannot live on their
own
Tissue: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous (these 4 types in vertebrates)
3 systems for communication: nervous, paracrine, and endocrine
Neurotransmitters travel short distances. Paracrine hormones such as prostaglandins travel
millimeters and endocrine hormones travel all over the body.
Nervous system fast and direct. Opposite of endocrine system
Neuron cannot divide as it is so specialized. Depends on glucose only for energy. Transfers signal
from dendrites to soma to axon terminals. Action potential begins in axon hillock.
Neuron is positive on outside and negative on inside. Resting potential is negative, relatively.
Sodium/potassium slowly leak across cell membrane. Resting is an equilibrium between pumping and
leaking rates. When sodium rush into cell, potential goes up: depolarization. Minimum change of
potential: threshold potential. Sodium channels are inactivated immediately after opening. From
repolarization to Hyperpolarization; absolute refractory periodcannot create another action
potential. During Hyperpolarization: relative refractory period: difficult to create another action
potential
Synapse is where neuron transfers signal to next cell. Space between cells = synaptic cleft. Impulse
causes calcium voltage gated ion channels to open. Neurotransmitters are spilled into synaptic cleft
via exocytosis. Unidirectional process.
Neuroglia: support cells. Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes: contain myelin which wrap around
axon and insulate it. Allow for salutatory conduction which is much faster than normal transfer of
action potential. Myelinated axons = white (matter)
SAME DAVE: sensory is afferent, motor is effort. Dorsal is afferent, ventral is efferent.
Central nervous system = brain and spinal cord and contains interneurons. CNS job is integration.
Peripheral = everything elsesomatic and autonomic parts. Somatic is voluntary and innervate
skeletal muscle. Autonomic are involuntary and innervate smooth, cardiac muscle, glands, and
visceral organs. Both these parts are divided into sensory and motor neurons. Autonomic nervous is
divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic areas.
Sympathetic = fight or flight and parasympathetic is rest and digest. Muscle, gland, or organ is
usually innervated by both.
Intestines are Inactivated by sympathetic and are ACTIVATED by parasympathetic (unusual)
Ganglion: group of cell bodies in peripheral nervous system
Effectors: target tissue, glands, or organs
All neurons in PNS use acetylcholine as neurotransmitter except post ganglionic sympathetic neurons
which use epinephrine
 Brain: medulla oblongata controls breathing, heart rate. Cerebellum controls balance, equilibrium,
and muscle coordination. Prefrontal cerebral cortex: elaboration of thought. Hypothalamus: hunger,
thirst, sex, pleasure, pain, blood pressure, and water balance.
Eye: lens focuses images on the retina. Retina is at back of eye and made of rods and cones. Rods =
light and dark. Cones = colors. Iris is group of smooth muscles making opening of eye.
Ear: outer ear contains ear flap or pinna and auditory canal. Auditory = malleus, incus, and stapes that
transfer sound energy from ear drum to inner ear at oval window. Cochlea in inner ear transduces
sound to electrical signal. Semicircular canals in inner ear monitor position, orientation, and
acceleration of head (why cats always land on their feet)
Exocrine glands release enzymes to external environment via ducts (sweat glands, i.e.)
Endocrine glands release general hormones directly into blood without ducts. Each endocrine
hormone requires a protein receptor. Metabolic activities, growth, and reproduction
Classes of hormones: peptides, tyrosine derivatives, and steroids.
Peptide hormones: may be big or small and often include carbohydrate portions. Made at rough ER
usually. Modified twice before it becomes an active hormone. Water soluble and dissolve in blood
and cant pass lipid bilayer
Once peptide hormone attaches to receptor, a second messenger system is activated such as a G
protein which may either stim or inhibit another protein called adenylate cyclase which increases
cAMP which activates protein kinase which phosphorylates or dephosphorylates an enzyme
Second messenger system magnifies effect exponentially. Each step involves more and more
molecules
Steroids: similar and usually derived from cholesterol. Lipid soluble rings. Made at smooth ER and in
mitochondria. Usually have protein carrier to take through blood and diffuse through lipid bilayer. Act
at level of transcription in nucleus. Adrenal cortex, gonads, and placenta produce steroids.
Tyrosine derivatives: thyroid hormones and catecholamines (epinephrine and Norepinephrine).
Catecholamines behave like peptides and thyroids behave like steroids
Know negative feedback!!!
Hypothalamus controls secretions of pituitary glands. Posterior pituitary does not produce hormones,
but hypothalamus produces them. PP only releases. Pituitary only makes peptide hormones
Anterior pituitary: releases FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, prolactin, and GH
ACTH: stimulates adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids. Prolactin promotes mammary gland
development and milk production. GH stimulates growth by increasing transcription/lation
GH = somatotropin
Posterior pituitary releases vasopressin (ADH) and oxytocin. Oxytocin causes milk letdown and
uterine contraction
Thyroid is just below larynx. Makes Calcitonin, T4, and T3. T4 and T3 are lipid soluble and their
effect is to increase gene transcription. T3 and T4 increase basal metabolic rate and act on nearly all
cells. Calcitonin lowers plasma calcium concentration and increase calcium in bone. Decreases
osteoclast activity
Parathyroid: set of 4 tiny glands attached to thyroid which secrete PTH which increase production of
osteolasts and increase absorption of calcium in kidneys and intestines. Also affects phosphate
secretion/absorption depending on organ
Pancreas: behind and below stomach. Endocrine and exocrine gland. Endocrine = islets of
Langerhans. Alpha cells secrete glucagon. Beta secrete insulin.
Glucagon: stimulates glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in liver. Both make glucose.
Insulin: small protein and causes 80% of body to become more permeable to glucose by new
formation of protein channels. Does not affect neurons. When cells become mor permeable to
glucose, blood glucose goes down. Glucagon raises blood glucose.
 Adrenal cortex: sit atop kidneys, two glands per kidney (cortex and medulla). Cortex is outside,
medulla is middle of it. Cortex makes only steroids. Medulla makes Norepinephrine and epinephrine.
Aldosterone: made in cortex and is mineralocorticoid. Increases blood pressure. Reabsorbs sodium
and pulls in water along with sodium. Does not increase concentration of sodium that much since
water follows and dilutes it.
Cortisol: glucocorticoid. Stress hormone and stimulated by stress conditions. Increases blood glucose
by mobilizing fat and proteins to make glucose. Increases glucocneugenesis and suppresses immune
system (currently unclear)
Adrenal medulla is made of chromaffin cells
Spermatogenesis is in seminiferous tubules. Testosterone hardens epiphyseal plates of long bones.
Sertoli cells nurture sperm. Immature sperm matures in epididymus. Prostate, bulbourethral, and
seminiferous add fluid to ejaculate fluid.
Oogonia in ovary become primary oocytes in fetal stage. Arrested at birth. At puberty, FSH stimulates
zona pellucida to form from granulosa cells. Theca cells develop around oocytes and relase
androgens. Follicle is this complex which bulges from ovary via positive feedback resulting from
luteal surge: rapid increase in Lh concentration o cause ovulation. Follicle bursts upon ovulation.
Fimbriae sweep oocytes into fallopian tubes and cilia sweep it to uterus. Fertilization usually occurs
in fallopian tube. Placenta secretes estrogen, hCG, and progesterone
Egg undergoes meiosis I and II after penetration by sperm. Zygote then undergoes cleavage and
becomes morula which is dense body. Undergoes blastulation to become blastocyst which is fluid
filled. Invaginates to form gastrula. Blastopore becomes mouth/anus. Deuterosomes make new hole
for mouth. Formation of three cell layer occurs in gastrulation. Ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.
Any molecule that can be broken down into nutrients undergoes hydrolysis.
Food goes: mouth, esophagus, stomach, SI, LI, anus
Pancreas, liver, and gall bladder dispel chemicals into duodenum in SI
Digestion begins in mouth via salivary amylase which digests carbohydrates chemically. Chewing is
physical digestion
Tongue assists in making and swallowing the bolus which is partially voluntary and involuntary.
Epiglottis covers opening of wind pipe to allow swallowing to esophagus
Most important job of stomach is store food and releaes little bits of food at a time into intestine.
Physically digests food by churning. Low pH to denature proteins. Four cell types: mucus, parietal, G,
and chief cells. Mucus cells protect from acid. Parietal release HCl into lumen. G cells release gastrin
into capillaries around stomach. Chief cells secrete pepsinogen (inactive pepsin) that is activated by
HCl. Optimal pH of pepsin = 2. Stomach makes food into chyme which is released into small
intestine bits at a time
Surface of each villus is composed of many enterocytes. Villi function to increase surface area of SI.
Microvilli appear fuzzy under microscope and this is brush border with many digestive enzymes.
Pancreas secretes bicarbonate ion to buffer solution in SI. Trypsin, amylase, lipase, and nucleases are
also secreted by pancreas. Releases at least one molecule for each type of macromolecucle in living
cells. Trypsinogen is activated to enterokinase and trypsin activates the other enzymes. Lipase works
to break down lipids, especially triglycerides. Fat coagulates in SI and it is emulsified by bile which is
a physical process of secretion. Bile is secreted by liver and gall bladder. Duodenum digests. Jejunum
and ileum do absorption.
Major role of large intestine is to absorb water. E. coli has mutualistic relationship with humans in LI
by providing vitamins K, B12, thiamine, and riboflavin.
Food can only be absorbed if broken down into most basic nutrients
Sucrose and lactose = disaccharides. Chitin is in insect exoskeletons and also in fungi (mushrooms,
i.e.)
 Animals cant digest cellulose or chitin
Lactose = glucose and galactose
Glucose and galactose are absorbed via secondary active transport mechanism in SI. Fructose is
absorbed via facilitated diffusion.
Digestion of protein begins in stomach where HCl denatures it and pepsin attacks middle of
polypeptide chains. Trypsin and chymotrypsin break down polypeptides into di and tripeptides.
Most dietary fat = triglycerides. Micelles are amphipathic molecules. FIGURE OUT HOW FATS
TRANSPORT
Major role of liver: regulate glucose concentration in blood. Has sinosoids to facilitate gas and
nutrient exchange. Can expand to store blood. Also destroys irregular red blood cells. Makes most of
bodys lipoproteins. Filters blood. Metabolizes fats, carbs, and proteins. Detoxification also.
Cardiovascular system: delivery of nutrients, oxygen, removal of wastes, redistribution of heat,
transport of hormones.
Trace a drop of blood: right atrium is on left side of the page. Left ventricle is strongest part of heart
as it must pump blood through entire systemic portion. Pulmonary carries blood to lungs to be
oxygenated. Left ventricle blood goes into aorta. Arteries take blood away from the heart. Arteries
carry oxygenated blood in systemic system, opposite of pulmonary system. Arteries are elastic and
stretch as they fill. From aorta goes to arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins, and into vena
cava. Capillaries are one cell thick approx equal to diameter of red blood cell. Gas and nutrient
exchange occurs across capillary walls. Hydrostatic pressure decreases from aorta to vena cavae.
Osmotic pressure remains constant along capillaries. Net pressure force due to hydrostatic and
osmotic pressure pushes fluid out of capillaries. At venule end, net pressure pushes fluid back into
capillaries. 10% net loss of fluid to interstitial space as blood is passed from one end of capillary to
the other. Total cross sectional area is greatest at capillaries and velocity is lowest here to allow more
time for gas/nutrient exchange. Vena cavae empty into right atrium which fills right ventricle which
feeds pulmonary arteries. Pressure decreases as blood moves from pulmonary arteries to pulmonary
veins.
Heart contracts starting at atria and then to ventricles. Contraction is created by action potential
electrical stimulus which starts at SA node in right atrium. SA node is made of myocytes that
spontaneously contract at a rate faster than normal heart beat. SA node is innervated by vagus nerve
(parasympathetic) which slows heart rate. Action potential then spreads via gap junctions in
intercalated discs and hesitates at AV node then enters ventricles carried down bundle of His and out
across Purkinje fibers. Contraction of ventricles: systole.
Signal for breathing begins in medulla oblongata of brain and runs to diaphragm. When diaphragm
contracts, it expands volume of chest. Air is pushed into lungs. When diaphragm relaxes, volume
decreases and raises pressure. Recoil of lungs drives the air out. Nasal cavity filters, moistens, and
warms hair. Wind pipe lies in front of esophagus and larynx is at top of it and contains vocal cords.
Trachea = wind pipe. Trachea is ciliated to move trapped particles up towards pharynx and branches
to become right and left primary bronchi which branch to form bronchioles which end in alveolar
sacs.
Air we breathe is 21% oxygen and 79% nitrogen. Nitrogen doesnt react with anything in the body
since N2 is so stable. CO2 mixes with water in presence of carbonic anhydrase to make carbonic acid.
As lungs remove Co2, concentration of carbonic acid decrease and pH of blood rises. Hemoglobin is
inside red blood cells and has four polypeptide chains as subunits. Each polypeptide has heme group
to hold one iron atom. One iron binds to one oxygen atom. When first hemoglobin binds, affinity of
other hemoglobins to bind oxygen increase (cooperative binding) and this is affected by many
conditions, such as 2,3-BPG. Also affected by partial pressure of Co2, temperature, pH, and H+ ions.
H+, Co2, BPG, and increase in temperature increase hemoglobin affinity of oxygen. Heat is produced
 by breakdown of glucose. Products of respiration stimulate hemoglobin to drop off oxygen at tissues.
Myoglobin has only 1 subunit and does not have cooperativity. Not affected by H+, CO2, or BPG.
Oxygen dissociation curve compares percent oxygen saturation of hemoglobin and Oxygen partial
pressure. Oxygen dissociation curve for hemoglobin is sigmoidal caused by presence of BPG. Curve
shifts to right in presence of H+, Co2, and heat. Myoglobin curve is not sigmoidal but rather to the
left of hemoglobins and has parabolic shape. Fetal hemoglobin has curve to the left of maternal
hemoglobin.
Chloride shift: as blood enters lungs, it drops off CO2. Chloride is released from cell as bicarbonate
enters. As a result, arterial red blood cells contain fewer ions than venous red blood cells.
Lypmph system recycles interstitial fluid. Drains this and empties into blood and empties at right
lympathic duct and at thoracic duct. Does NOT drain CNS. Thoracic duct services left arm and rest of
the body. It is an open system, as opposed to circulatory system. Uses skeletal muscle contraction,
body movement, and arterial pulse to move fluid through lymph system. Also monitors blood for
infection.
Blood = plasma, buffy coat, and hemotocrit (volume occupied by red blood cells55% in men and
45% in women. The higher hematocrit, the more viscous the blood). Buffy coat is volume of white
blood cells. Plasma is aqueous with proteins such as albumin and immunoglobulins (antibodies) and
fibrinogen. Serum is plasma without clotting factors.
Erythrocytes (red blood cells) have no organelles and live for about 120 days. All leukocytes function
as part of immune system
o Granulocytes: stay in blood for hours only then live in tissue for 4-5 days.
o Neutrophils: phagocytotic cells that indiscriminately attack foreign invaders. Release
antibiotic proteins against bacteria, fungi, and viruses. 60% of leukocytes in cells.
Basophils and mast cells release histamines. Monocytes are immature and become macrophages in
tissue. Megakaryocytes remain in bone marrow and form platelets which are little pieces of cells. B
and T lymphocytes which are involved in acquired immunity.
Innate immunity: non specific and offers protection against substances indiscriminately. Includes all
white blood cells other than lymphocytes. Also skin, stomach acid. Inflammation is immune response
caused by histamines, prostaglandins, and lymphokines. Some of tehse activate macrophages. Blood
vessels dilate in inflammation to increase blood flow to inflamed area. Granulocytes and monocytes
migrate to inflamed area and swells to impede progress of foreign agent to other areas of body.
Two types of acquired immunity: humoral and cell mediated and both are initiated by antigens.
Antigen illicit an immune response. Humoral immunity involves creation fo antibodies by B
lymphocytes. Antibodies are formed in lymph tissue and attack matching antigens. B cells develop in
liver and mature in bone marrow. When macrophages phagocytize a foreign invader, the metabolize it
and display its antigens at its surface. If B cell with matching antibody protein finds this macrophage
and helper T cells are present, the B cell is activated. T cell releases lymphokine that superaftivates B
cell. Upon activation, B cell is differentiated into plasma cells and memory cells. Plasma cells grow
large and multiply and secrete antibodies. Memory cells look jus tlike original B lymphocyte in case
antigen comes back in the future. This is all called the primary responserequires 20 days to reach
full effect. once body acquires memory cells, secondary response requires 5 days for full potential and
usually makes body immune to particular disease.
Antibodies can activate a protein complement cascade which attracts macrophages and Neutrophils
and activates them. Can also rupture cell membrane of invader or cause them to agglutinate. Activates
basal cells and mast cells. Antibodies can also cover toxic site of a toxin.
Cell mediated immunity: T Cell immunity: mature in Thymus. Single T lymphocyte carries thousands
of antibody-like proteins. Proliferate into memory T cells and killer T cells when differentiated.
Memory cells are for the future. Killer T cells bind to antigen carrying cell and secretes perforins to
perforate cell membrane and cause lysis. They kill many cells without dying themselves as they do
 not phagocytize but rather just puncture other cells. Suppressor T cell: prevents T cells from
destroying healthy cells.
4 major blood types: A, B, AB, O. named for type of antigen the blood cell carries on its surface. O
blood has neither A nor B antigens. A blood does not make A antibodies, and so on for the rest. O is
universal donor. AB is universal receptor as it does not make any antibodies. A and B are codominant
and expressed without blending. + or blood is Rh factor. Rh positive can receive + or blood as it
doesnt make antibodies. Rh does not have antigen on blood. Important in pregnancy. If pregnant
woman is rh- and fetus is Rh+, blood may mix in delivery causing blood to make antibodies. Only a
problem for future pregnancies and may cause anemia in it as antibodies can move through placental
barrier.
Muscle functions: body movement, stabilization fo position, moving substances through body,
generating heat to maintain body temperature. Muscle cells can only pull. Skeletal muscle, cardiac,
and smooth are the 3 types.
Skeletal muscle: voluntary. Connect via tendons to bone. Ligaments connect bone to bone. Muscles
function in agonist/antagonist pairs.
Sarcomere is made of actin and myosin and is striated. Actin = thin filament and myosin = thick
filament. Laid side by side to form sarcomere. Many sarcomeres are stacked to form myofibril which
is wrapped in sarcoplasmic reticulum which is double phospholipid bilayer. Several wrapped are
wrapped again by sarcolemma which is muscle cell membrane. Muscle cell muscle fiber. Skeletal
muscle cell is multinucleated and cannot divide. Sarcolemma has T tubules as tunnel like structures.
Action potential spreads into T tubules to rapidly deliver action potential to sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Parts of sarcomere that get smaller in contraction: H zone and I band.
Tropomyosin blocks myosin heads from attaching. Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases calcium when
action potential comes and calcium enters cytosol and bind to troponin which is attached to
tropomyosin to pull it back and reveal attachment site for myosin head. Myosin head binds to actin
and pulls hard. ATP is needed to attach to myosin head to cause it to release the action. ATP is
hydrolyzed and bends back to original position. In rigor mortis, myosin head must stick to actin
Body controls amount of muscular force using motor units. Large motor units: one neuron innervates
many muscle fibers. Motor units are fired sequentially from small to large until desired force is
reached. Fingers have small motor units. Back has large motor units.
Slow twitch type I: slower to contract and slower to fatigue. Less powerful. Calf muscles have mnay
of these fibers. Biceps have many type II fibers
Muscles grow by hypertrophy
Cardiac muscle: striated. Uninucleated. Not attached to a bone. Connected via intercalated disks at
their ends with gap junctions. Involuntaryinnervated by autonomic nervous system, just like
smooth muscle. Smooth muscle is not striated. Two types of smooth: multi unit and single unit.
Multi unit smooth muscle: each fiber is capable of independent contraction. Iris and piloerector
muscles. Usually innervated by one neuron
Single unit smooth muscle: hundreds of fiber contract as a single unit. Syncytial arrangement, just
like cardiac muscle. Sometimes also called visceral smooth muscle.
Bone is living tissue has many functions: support of soft tissue, protection of internal organs,
assistance in movement, mineral storage, blood cell production, energy storage as adipose cells.
Body can resorb bone. Fat is stored in bone marrow.
Long bones are curved for strength. Short bones are Cuboidal: ankle, wrist. Flat bones have large
areas for muscle attachment: sternum, skull,etc.
Compact bone: surrounds all types of bones and made of osteons. Forms when osteoclasts burrow
through compact bone to form a tunnel. Osteoblasts follow along sides of Osteon reforming bone as
they go.
 Spongy bone: has red bone marrow which also contains adipose cells and macrophages. Yellow bone
marrow = adipose tissue
Blood, lymph vessels, and nerves are found in osteons. Remodeling process of bone is continuous
Cartilage is flexible, resilient, connective tissue. Made from collagen and chondroitin sulfate (for
elasticity to return to original shape). Cells are called chondrocytes with no blood vessels or nerve
except for parachondrion. Joints are in any place two or more bones meet
Fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial are 3 types of joints. Fibrous has little movement. Cartilaginous
has limited movement. Synovial have much movement such as knees and elbows.
If both alleles are same for a characteristic: homozygous. If alleles are different: heterozygous.
Expression of a trait: phenotype. Each gamete receives only 1 allele by a random process.
Law of segregation implies complete dominance. Two traits are separate and do not blend to form the
phenotype. Alleles for a given characteristic are found at same locus on chromosomes and gamete
receives only one of these. Punnett squares are needed for MCAT
Law of independent assortment: alleles for different characteristic have equal likelihood of going to
same or different gametes. Only good for characteristics whose alleles are found on separate
chromosomes.
Phenotype of dihybrid cross: 9:3:3:1
Incomplete dominance: blended expression
Codominance: both traits are exhibited (AB blood type, i.e.)
Complementarity: two genes are mutually dependent upon each other to exhibit wild type.
Epistasis: one gene in chain depends upon another but reverse is not true.
Collaboration: two genes together produces a completely different phenotype
Penetrance: percentage of those individuals carrying a gene who also express its phenotype
Expressivity: how the phenotype is expressed
Recessive mutations are abundant in populations.
Heterozygote advantage: i.e. sickle cell anemia and malaria dynamic
Inbreeding increases percent of homozygosity resulting in more homozygotic recessive diseases.
Males lack diploid protection for diseases at the sex chromosome. Whatever a male receives from
mom, whether dominant or recessive, he expresses that phenotype. i.e. hemophilia or color-blindness.
In somatic cells in females, one sex chromosome condenses into a Barr body in a random process. i.e.
calico cats. If half cells express dominant allele, dominant phenotype results.
Holandric traits: found on y but not x chromosome. Most common is the hairy pinna.
Evolution: change in gene pool. Not necessarily the change in phenotype.
King Philip Came Over from Germany: Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species.
Genus is capitalized and species is not. Both written in italics. Humans: phylum chordate. Class:
mammalia: order: primata.
Vertebrata is a subphylum of chordata.
Chordate:
o Bilateral symmetry
o Deuterostomes
o Coelom
o Notochord
o Pharyngeal slits
o Dorsal hollow nerve cord
o Tail
Niche is the way species exploits its environment. No two species can occupy a niche indefinitely.
o One will always utilize the niche more effectively
 Species: organisms which can reproduce fertile offspring in the wild
Isolations prevent breeding and lead to development of new species. Types of isolation: geographic,
seasonal, behavioral, mechanical, gametic incompatibility, developmental isolation, hybrid isolation
Founder effect: initial members that were isolated are different from remaining members
Allopatric: geographically isolated
Sympatric: share a habitat
Fit: surviving, reproducing, and ensuring that offspring reproduce
K strategists:
o Ensures survival of offspring
o Few offspring
o Elephant
o Do well in stable habitats with higher competition for limited resources
o Better in density dependent factors
o Growth curve is sigmoidal until carrying capacity
R strategists:
o Many offspring
o Growth curve is sigmoidal until carrying capacity
o Better in density independent factors
o Frog
o For short-lived, unpredictable habitats with plentiful resources
o Mate early
o Grow rapidly
o Shorter life spans
Divergent evolution: as groups of same population develiop away from eachc other becoming more
different
Convergent evolution: similar structures form on different species as they adapt to similar
environmental issues. Wings on bats and birds. Structures are called homoplasties
Mutualism: both species benefit as in E. coli and humans. Commensalism: one benefits and one is
unaffected as in birds nesting in trees. Parasitism: one species benefits and the other is harmed
Hardy Weinberg: gene pool is likely to remain constant under following conditions:
o Mutation equilibrium
o Large population
o Immigration doesnt alter gene pool
o Random mate selection
o Reproductive success is random
o P^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1. P+q=1. Q is recessive alleles and p is dominant alleles. Pq is
heterozygotes
Universe came into being 12-15 billion years ago. Hot matter was thrown outwards in all directions
outwards. Solar system arose 10 billion years ago. Earth formed 4.5 billion years ago. Life arose 3.6
billion years ago in heterotrophic prokaryote. Chemosynthesis then photosynthesis followed. 5
million years ago, ancestral line separated from chimpanzees. 10k years ago: first city was founded.