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Abstract
Dengue virus, the causative agent of dengue fever (DF) and more severe forms of the disease dengue
haemorrhagic fever (DHF) and dengue shock syndrome (DSS) can infect a number of different types of
cells. While monocytes and macrophages are considered to be primary target cells driving the pathology
of the disease, numerous studies have implicated the liver as a site of dengue virus replication and both
clinical observations and experimental data support a role of the liver in dengue disease. This review
aims to provide a brief overview of the data supporting a role of the liver in the pathology of dengue
disease.
Keywords: Liver; dengue virus; dengue fever; dengue haemorrhagic fever; dengue shock syndrome.
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E-mail: duncan_r_smith@hotmail.com; Tel.: (662) 800 3624; Fax (662) 441 9906
or secondary effect.[25] As such, a number study by Balsitis and colleagues did not detect
of studies have sought to provide direct the presence of immunoreactive NS3 in these
evidence for the involvement of the liver in the cells,[33] suggesting thereby that Kupffer cells do
disease process. The earliest of these studies not support replication of the dengue virus,
undertook direct histological investigations and immunoreactivity to dengue structural
of specimens from the livers of fatal cases proteins noted by others[36,38,39] may reflect
of dengue infection.[26-28] The predominant phagocytosed virus. This would be consistent
findings in these studies were microvesicular with the studies by Marianneau and colleagues
steatosis and small foci of hepatocellular who showed that dengue was efficiently taken
necrosis in addition to the presence of up by isolated primary human Kupffer cells,
councilman bodies, Kupffer cell hyperplasia but that the infection was non-productive.[41]
and mononuclear cell infiltrates at the portal
tract.[26-28] In this respect, the liver damage seen Dengue-specific RT-PCR and in situ
in fatal dengue cases is significantly less severe hybridization has been employed in several
than that seen in fatal cases of yellow fever studies to detect the presence of the dengue
virus infection.[29] While relatively uncommon, genome.[36,38,39,42-44] As with the studies utilizing
cases of fulminant hepatitis have also been immunohistochemistry, while the majority of
documented.[30-32] the studies detect the presence of the dengue
genome in liver samples, and more specifically
Several studies have used an in hepatocytes and to a lesser extent in Kupffer
immunohistochemical approach to detect cells,[36,38,43,44] other studies do not detect the
the presence of dengue antigens in presence of the dengue genome in either
liver specimens. [33-40] These studies have hepatocytes or Kupffer cells.[39] Again, this may
predominantly used antibodies directed well reflect either methodological differences
against dengue E protein,[34-40] although one or inherent differences in virus tropism.
recent study used an antibody directed against
dengue NS3 protein,[33] which gives a greater Several studies have recovered infectious
degree of certainty that infected cells are dengue virus from liver specimens[27,38,45,46] and,
undergoing viral replication and do not reflect in particular, Rosen and colleagues recovered
the presence of endocytosed or phagocytosed infectious dengue serotype 2 or 3 from 5 out of
virus particles without viral replication. The 17 liver specimens from fatal cases of dengue
majority of the studies detect, to a greater infection through the mosquito inoculation
or lesser extent, the presence of dengue technique[46]. However, these studies do not
antigen in hepatocytes, the major cell type use defined populations of cells from the liver
composing the liver.[33-38,40] Interestingly, while and as such, no information as to the cell types
some studies have suggested that 8090% involved in the disease process is available.
of hepatocytes show immunoreactivity, [36]
other studies fail to detect dengue antigen in Mouse model studies
hepatocytes at all.[39] Whether this extreme
difference is due to methodological or sample- A number of studies have utilized various mouse
preparation differences, or truly reflects a model systems to understand the pathogenesis
different tissue tropism of some dengue virus of dengue infections. [33,47-56] Perhaps the
lineages remains unclear at this point. While simplest model is the intraperitoneal and
some studies have detected the presence of intravenous injection of DENV-2 into BALB/c
dengue antigen in Kupffer cells,[36,38,39] the mice.[49,55,56] Histopathological analysis of these
animals showed severe liver injury, including being consistent with reports of dengue virus
hepatocyte swelling and vacuolization, necrosis infection of human primary hepatocytes.[59]
and steatosis. Liver damage was more severe,
and occurred earlier in the intravenous injection While some of these studies failed to
system as compared to the intraperitoneal detect the involvement of the liver,[51,54] other
injection system.[49,55,56] Ultrastructural studies studies have demonstrated a clear evidence of
showed the accumulation of cytoplasmic lipid the involvement of the liver and of hepatocytes
droplets as well as mitochondrial swelling in specifically.[33,55,56] Where liver involvement
hepatocytes, possibly related to the induction is seen in the model systems, the changes
of apoptosis.[55,56] Evaluation of liver enzymes observed reflect the pathology of human
showed a peak of both AST and ALT at seven disease.
days post-infection, which was correlated to
the extent of liver injury.[55,56] Dengue virus
antigens were detected not only in hepatocytes Isolated primary liver cells
but also in Kupffer cells.[55,56]
To date, only two studies have investigated the
While SCID mice are apparently resistant susceptibility to dengue infection of primary
to dengue infection,[54] SCID mice transplanted (untransformed) human liver cells.[41,59] The
with human liver cell lines HepG2 or Huh-7[47,57] first study isolated Kupffer cells from liver
or with K562 (a erythroleukemia cell line) sections obtained during partial hepatectomy
cells[54] and intraperitoneally injected with for liver cancer[41] and demonstrated that
DENV-2[47,54] or DENV-4[57] have all been used while dengue virus entered into Kupffer cells
as model systems, with somewhat conflicting efficiently, no viral progeny were produced
results. For example, while An and colleagues and that infected cells underwent cell death
report high levels of the virus in the liver of by apoptosis. The second study[59] utilized
SCID mice with transplanted HepG2 cells[47] commercially obtained hepatocytes purified
in the early stage post-infection, Lin and from liver transplantation cut-downs and
colleagues report little or no involvement of demonstrated productive infection with
the liver in the same SCID mice engrafted with DENV-2 strain 16681 as assessed by plaque
human K562 cells.[54] assay and cellular expression of both structural
and non-structural proteins (E and NS1). A
Immunocompetent C57BL/6 mice significant cytokine response was observed
injected with a high titre of DENV-2[51] showed which included the up-regulation of TRAIL,
elevated levels of AST and ALT on days 3, MIP-1, MIP-1, IFN-, IL-8 and RANTES.
5 and 7 post-infection, which was elevated The profile of cytokine induction was similar,
further after a second inoculation. Dengue but not identical to the profile generated by
RNA was detected in the liver of infected DENV-2-infected HepG2 cells undertaken
mice and a strong correlation was found in parallel with the infection of the primary
between T cell activation and hepatic cellular hepatocytes. Although not formally evaluated,
infiltration. Dengue infection of interferon evidence of the induction of apoptosis in
receptor-deficient (AG129) mice is uniformly response to DENV-2 infection was observed
lethal,[58] and the presence of immunoreactive in the infected primary hepatocytes which
NS3 was detected in hepatocytes, implying showed extensive nuclear fragmentation.[59]
dengue virus replication in these cells [33] Infected primary hepatocytes additionally
involved in the regulation of transcription bodies which are believed to be the remains
and translation.[82] Interestingly, a secretome of cells undergoing apoptosis.[38] Dengue virus
analysis of dengue-infected HepG2 cells infection of primary cultures of human Kupffer
identified significantly more proteins as cells and hepatoma cell lines induces apoptosis
being differentially regulated by dengue as evidenced by DNA laddering,[63,89-91] and
virus infection, with 35 proteins being down- infection of primary human hepatocytes
regulated and 24 proteins being up-regulated produces morphological changes characteristic
in infected HepG2 cells.[83] Several proteins, of apoptosis.[59] The mechanism by which the
including -enolase, superoxide dismutase dengue virus induces apoptosis remains to
(SOD), peptidyl-prolyl isomerases A and B be clearly elucidated. While some authors
(cyclophilins A and B), tissue inhibitor of have proposed that the apoptosis of liver cells
metalloproteinases 1 and 2 (TIMP-1 and 2) occurs by a p53-independent mechanism,
and macrophage migration inhibitory factor based in part on the high level of apoptosis
(MIF) identified in the secreteome of dengue in the p53-null cell line Hep3B,[63] other
virus-infected HepG2 cells (as opposed to authors have proposed that apoptosis occurs
the secretome of uninfected HepG2 cells), by a p53-dependent mechanism.[92] In 2005,
have been previously identified in other virus Matsuda and colleagues[61] presented evidence
infections or inflammation situations.[83] that Apo2L or TRAIL (tumour necrosis factor-
related apoptosis-inducing ligand) is induced
Two groups have shown that autophagy, by dengue infection and that this interacts
the lysosomal degradation pathway, is activated with the Apo2L/TRAIL receptor DR5/TRAIL-R2
in response to dengue virus infection of liver expressed on the surface of liver cells[61]
cells[84-86] and it has been suggested that in liver inducing apoptosis. This would suggest that
cells, autophagic vesicles act as sites for dengue apoptosis was induced primarily through
virus replication.[86] Again, as with dengue virus an extrinsic apoptosis pathway. In contrast
receptor usage,[66,67,87] it has been proposed that Nasirudeen and Liu, who have suggested
interactions between the dengue virus and the apoptosis primarily results through an
autophagy pathway are serotype-specific.[84,86] intrinsic, mitochondrially-mediated pathway.
Given that the endocytosis pathway interacts [92]
However, more recently, Nasirudeen and
with the autophagic pathway, a model has Liu also suggested that apoptosis in liver cells
been proposed to link dengue virus entry and may be mediated through caspase 1.[93] Other
replication in liver cells in terms of a continuing authors have proposed that the critical event
interaction with membranes of an endosomal- in triggering apoptosis in dengue-infected
autophagosomal lineage.[88] hepatocytes is the interaction between the
dengue virus capsid protein and the human
death domain-associated protein Daxx,[94] and
Apoptosis that nuclear localization of the dengue capsid
protein is essential for the interaction with
Cellular apoptosis in the liver upon dengue Daxx and subsequent apoptosis.[95] Further
virus infection has been reported both in vivo research is required to integrate the various
and in vitro.[35,40,63,89,90] Histological examination suggested models of induction of apoptosis in
of the livers of fatal cases of dengue virus liver cells as a consequence of dengue virus
infection note the presence of councilman infection.
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