INTRODUCTION

PRAGATI POWER PLANT

(PRAGATI-I COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANT)

The Government of India on July 1, 2002, implemented the reforms by

unbundling DVB into six companies, one holding company, one generation
company (GENCO), one transmission company (TRANSCO) and three
distribution companies (DISCOMS). The government handed over the
management of the business of electricity distributions to there private companies
since July 1, 2002 with 51% equity with the private sector.

It was thus that IPGCL (GENCO) came into existence with the aim of meeting the
power demands of a city which is the capital of one of the most populated
countries of the world and whose resources fall much below its demand and since
then its contribution to the power sector has been beyond the expectations as is
evident from the current power situation in the city

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 FIGURE- 1.1 PRAGATI-I COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANT

The following facts may summarize the success story of a never before
fundamental reform

330 MW capacity Pragati Power Station was commissioned in the year

2002-03 and performing excellently. Achieved 100.4% PLF during the

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 month of Jan.,05 and 88.27% PLF (Deemed PLF 95%) during the year
2004-05, Pragati Power Corporation Ltd. paid dividends of Rs.17.5 Cr.,
for FY 2003-04 & Rs.14 Cr. for FY 2004-05 as well as 2005-06.

The performance of Indraprastha Gas Turbine Power Station which was

47.24% in 2001-02 increased to 70.76% (deemed PLF 75.35%) in 2005-
06. This is the best performance of the station in a year since its
commissioning in 1985-86. The station also achieved highest ever
generation in a day, 5.743 MU (84.86% PLF) on 26.12.05 and highest ever
generation in a month, 166.227 MU (79.23% PLF) in October, 2005. The
forced outages of the station have also reduced from 17.75 % to 5.2 %.

The overall performance of GENCO increased from 45.90% during the year
2001-02 to 64.35% in 2005-06. IPGCL (Indraprastha Power generation Co. Ltd)
& PPCL (Pragati Power Co. Ltd.) are the companies which produces electricity in
Delhi. Under PPCL, 2 power stations are in operation to supply electricity
continuously.

Power station under PPCL are:

1.) Pragati Power Co. Ltd (PPCL -1), I.P Estate.

2.) Pragati Power Co. Ltd (PPCL -2 ) , Bawana.

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 COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANT

The Combined Cycle Power Plant or combined cycle gas turbine, a gas turbine
generator generates electricity and waste heat is used to make steam to generate
additional electricity via a steam turbine. The gas turbine is one of the most
efficient one for the conversion of gas fuels to mechanical power or electricity.
The use of distillate liquid fuels, usually diesel, is also common as alternate
fuels.

More recently, as simple cycle efficiencies have improved and as natural gas
prices have fallen, gas turbines have been more widely adopted for base load
power generation, especially in combined cycle mode, where waste heat is
recovered in waste heat boilers, and the steam used to produce additional
electricity.

Routing these gases through a water-cooled heat exchanger produces steam,

which can be turned into electric power with a coupled steam turbine and
generator.

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 Figure 2.1- combined cycle powerplant

This type of power plant is being installed in increasing numbers round the
world where there is access to substantial quantities of natural gas.

It is also possible to use the steam from the boiler for heating purposes so
such power plants can operate to deliver electricity alone or in combined heat.

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Combined cycle power plant as in name suggests, it combines existing gas and steam technologies into one
unit, yielding significant improvements in thermal efficiency over conventional steam plant. In a CCGT plant
the thermal efficiency is extended to approximately 50-60 per cent, by piping the exhaust gas from the gas
turbine into a heat recovery steam generator.

However the heat recovered in this process is sufficient to drive a steam turbine with an electrical output of
approximately 50 per cent of the gas turbine generator.

The gas turbine and steam turbine are coupled to a single generator. For startup, or open cycle operation of
the gas turbine alone, the steam turbine can be disconnected using a hydraulic clutch. In terms of overall
investment a single-shaft system is typically about 5 per cent lower in cost, with its operating simplicity
typically leading to higher reliability.

Working principle of CCTG plant

First step is the same as the simple cycle gas turbine plant. An open circuit gas turbine has a compressor, a
combustor and a turbine. For this type of cycle the input temperature to turbine is very high. The output
temperature of flue gases is also very high.

This is therefore high enough to provide heat for a second cycle which uses steam as the working medium i.e.
thermal power station.

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 Figure 2.2 Working principle of combined cycle gas turbine (CCTG) plant

Air Inlet

This air is drawn though the large air inlet section where it is cleaned cooled and controlled. Heavy-duty gas
turbines are able to operate successfully in a wide variety of climates and environments due to inlet air
filtration systems that are specifically designed to suit the plant location.

Under normal conditions the inlet system has the capability to process the air by removing contaminants to
levels below those that are harmful to the compressor and turbine.

In general the incoming air has various contaminants. They are:

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In Gaseous state contaminants are:

Ammonia

Chlorine

Hydrocarbon gases

Sulfur in the form of H2S, SO2

Discharge from oil cooler vents

In Liquid state contaminants are:

Chloride salts dissolved in water (sodium, potassium)

Nitrates

Sulfates

Hydrocarbons

In Solid State contaminants are:

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 Sand, alumina and silica

Rust

Road dust, alumina and silica

Calcium sulfate

Ammonia compounds from fertilizer and animal feed operations

Vegetation, airborne seeds

Corrosivea Agents:

Chlorides, nitrates and sulfates can deposit on compressor blades And may result in stress corrosion attack
and/or cause corrosion Pitting. Sodium and potassium are alkali metals that can combine with Sulfur to form
a highly corrosive agent and that will attack portions of the hot gas path. The contaminants are removed by
passing through various types of filters which are present on the way.

Gas phase contaminants such as ammonia or sulfur cannot be removed by filtration. Special methods are
involved for this purpose.

Turbine Cycle

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The air which is purified then compressed and mixed with natural gas and ignited, which causes it to expand.
The pressure created from the expansion spins the turbine blades, which are attached to a shaft and a
generator, creating electricity.

In second step the heat of the gas turbines exhaust is used to generate steam by passing it through a heat
recovery steam generator (HRSG) with a live steam temperature between 420 and 580 C.

Heat Recovery Steam Generator

In Heat Recovery Steam Generator highly purified water flows in tubes and the hot gases passes a around that
and thus producing steam .The steam then rotates the steam turbine and coupled generator to produce
Electricity. The hot gases leave the HRSG at around 140 degrees centigrade and are discharged into the
atmosphere.

The steam condensing and water system is the same as in the steam power plant.

Typica l Size and Configuration of CCGT Plants

The combined-cycle system includes single-shaft and multi-shaft configurations. The single-shaft system
consists of one gas turbine, one steam turbine, one generator and one Heat Recovery Steam Generator
(HRSG), with the gas turbine and steam turbine coupled to the single generator on a single shaft.

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Multi-shaft systems have one or more gas turbine-generators and HRSGs that supply steam through a
common header to a separate single steam turbine-generator. In terms of overall investment a multi-shaft
system is about 5% higher in costs.

The primary disadvantage of multiple stage combined cycle power plant is that the number of steam
turbines, condensers and condensate systems-and perhaps the cooling towers and circulating water systems
increases to match the number of gas turbines.

Efficency of CCGT Plant

Roughly the steam turbine cycle produces one third of the power and gas turbine cycle produces two thirds
of the power output of the CCPP. By combining both gas and steam cycles, high input temperatures and low
output temperatures can be achieved. The efficiency of the cycles adds, because they are powered by the same
fuel source.

The electric efficiency of a combined cycle power station may be as high as 58 percent when operating new
and at continuous output which are ideal conditions. As with single cycle thermal units, combined cycle units
may also deliver low temperature heat energy for industrial processes, district heating and other uses. This is
called cogeneration and such power plants are often referred to as a Combined Heat and Power (CHP) plant.

The efficiency of CCPT is increased by Supplementary Firing and Blade Cooling. Supplementary firing is
arranged at HRSG and in gas turbine a part of the compressed air flow bypasses and is used to cool the
turbine blades. It is necessary to use part of the exhaust energy through gas to gas recuperation. Recuperation
can further increase the plant efficiency, especially when gas turbine is operated under partial load.

Merits

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Fuel efficiency

In conventional power plants turbines have a fuel conversion efficiency of 33% which means two thirds of
the fuel burned to drive the turbine off. The turbines in combined cycle power plant have a fuel conversion
efficiency of 50% or more, which means they burn about half amount of fuel as a conventional plant to
generate same amount of electricity.

Low capital costs

The capital cost for building a combined cycle unit is two thirds the capital cost of a comparable coal plant.

Commercial availability

Combined cycle units are commercially available from suppliers anywhere in the world. They are easily
manufactured, shipped and transported.

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Abundant fuel sources

The turbines used in combined cycle plants are fuelled with natural gas, which is more versatile than a coal or

oil and can be used in 90% of energy publications. To meet the energy demand now a days plants are not

only using natural gas but also using other alternatives like bio gas derived from agriculture.

Reduced emission and fuel consumption

Combined cycle plants use less fuel per kWh and produce fewer emissions than conventional thermal power

plants, thereby reducing the environmental damage caused by electricity production. Comparable with coal

fired power plant burning of natural gas in CCPT is much cleaner.

Potential applications in developing countries

The potential for combined cycle plant is with industries that requires electricity and heat or stem. For

example providing electricity and steam to a Sugar refining mill.

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Demerits

1. The gas turbine can only use Natural gas or high grade oils like diesel fuel.

2. Because of this the combined cycle can be operated only in locations where these fuels are available

and cost effective.

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15
Gas Turbine

Six Gas Turbine Units of 30 MW each were commissioned in 1985-86 to cater to the power demand in peak
hours. Initially this Station worked as peaking power station but due to growing power demand, it was
converted into combined cycle gas turbine station with commissioning of Waste Heat Recovery Units in 1995-
96. The total capacity of this Station is 270 MW. The gas supply has been tied up with GAIL through HBJ
Pipeline. The APM gas allocation is not sufficient for full generation from the power station. Subsequently, with
the availability of Regassified LNG, an agreement was made with GAIL for supply of R-LNG so that maximum
generation could be achieved.

Principle of a Gas Turbine Plant

Air is compressed(squeezed) to high pressure by a fan-like device called the compressor.Then fuel and
compressed air are mixed in a combustion chamber and ignited.Hot gases are given off, which spin the turbine
wheels. Most of the turbines power runs the compressor. Part of it drives the generator/machinery.

Gas turbines burn fuels such as oil, nature gas and pulverized(powdered) coal.Instead of using the heat to
produce steam, as in steam turbines, gas turbines use the hot gases directly to turn the turbine blades.

Gas turbines have three main parts:

i) Air compressor

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 ii) Combustion chamber

iii) Turbine

Gas Turbine

A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a rotary engine that extracts energy from a flow of
combustion gas. It has an upstream compressor coupled to a downstream turbine, and a combustion
chambering- between. (Gas turbine may also refer to just the turbine element.)Energy is added to the gas stream
in the combustor, where air is mixed with fuel and ignited . Combustion increas es the temperature, velocity and
volume of the gas flow. This is directed through a nozzle over the turbine's blades, spinning the turbine and

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powering the compressor. Energy is extracted in the form of shaft power, compressed air and thrust, in any
combination, and used to pow er aircraft, trains , ships , generators, and even tanks.

Gas turbines are described thermodynamically by the Brayton cycle, in which air is compressed isentropic ally,
combustion occurs at constant pressure, and expansion over the turbine occurs isentropic ally back to the
starting pressure. In practice, friction and turbulence cause:

1. Non-isentropic compression: for a given overall pressure ratio, the compressor delivery temperature is higher
than ideal.

2. Non-isentropic expansion: although the turbine temperature drop necessary to drive the compressor is
unaffected, the associated pressure ratio is greater, which decreases the expansion available to provide useful
work.

3. Pressure losses in the air intake, combustor and exhaust: reduces the expansion available to provide useful
work.

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 Figure 3.1- Idealized braytons cycle

STEAM TURBINE

Steam turbines are devices which convert the energy stored in steam into rotational mechanical energy. These
machines are widely used for the generation of electricity in a number of different cycles, such as:

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 Rankine cycle
Reheat cycle

Regenerative cycle
Combined cycle

The steam turbine may consist of several stages. Each stage can be described by analyzing the expansion of
steam from a higher pressure to a lower pressure. The steam may be wet, dry saturated or superheated. Consider
the steam turbine shown in the cycle above. The output power of the turbine at steady flow condition is: Power
= m (h1 - h2) Where m is the mass flow of the steam through the turbine and h1 and h2 are specific enthalpy of
the steam at inlet respective outlet of the turbine..The efficiency of the steam turbines are often described by the
isentropic efficiency for expansion process. The presence of water droplets in the steam will reduce the
efficiency of the turbine and cause physical erosion of the blades. Therefore the dryness fraction of the steam at
the outlet Of the turbine should not be less than 0.9

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Figure 3.2- working of steam turbine in combined cycle powerplant

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 CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION

IN POWER PLANT

Instrumentation and control is an integral part of a coal-fired power station. A modern, advanced I&C system
plays a major role in the profitable operation of a plant by achieving maximum availability, reliability,
flexibility, maintainability and efficiency. These systems can also assist in maintaining emissions compliance.
The I&C chain begins with sensors that detect measured values. Controllers receive these values, upon which a
control strategy is activated. The response, where and when required, moves in final actuating control elements
to modify the affect process. This loop repeats over and over during plant operation through a complex and
multi-level communications schemes. "Smart" field devices, including sensors and actuators, continued to be
developed in order to simplify and improve the control system process. The two main control platforms that are
used in coal-fired power stations are the distributed control system (DCS) and the programmable logic control
(PLC). Personal computer (PC) based hardware and software has only recently been introduced in power plant
control. With the fast development, increasing power and reduced cost of personal computers, PC-based control
is expected to become a further platform for future development and growth. Today new coal-fired power plants
are, in general, built with modern, advanced DCS/PLC and a large number of existing coal-fired power stations
have been retrofitted with advanced digital systems in many countries, throughout the world.

New coal-fired power plants are built with modern, advanced systems. A advanced I&C system plays a major
role in the profitable and safe operation of a plant by achieving maximum availability, reliability, flexibility,
maintainability and efficiency. Recent advances in control technology, on-line testing, and performance
monitoring can help a power plant improve efficiency, maintain a high availability factor, and generally improve
plant operations. A large number of existing facilities have also been retrofitted with advanced digital systems in
many countries, throughout the world. Upgraded instrumentation and control systems, used in conjunction with
new sophisticated software programs, allow plant operators to identify factors affecting equipment performance
more quickly and accurately. Upgrading the instrumentation and control systems of an older power plant can
have the following benefits:

- Improved operating flexibility, i.e., the ability to meet a wider range of operating conditions more effectively.

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- Reduced maintenance costs through better monitoring of plant equipment condition and an enhanced ability to
detect equipment malfunctions.

- Reduced emissions of greenhouse gases and air

pollutants through better control of the combustion
process and of environmental control
equipment.

- Extended equipment life through the reduction of

excessive equipment operating stress.

However, some plants continue to operate with pneumatic/analogue systems and should be upgraded if the
facility is to continue operating safely and profitably. The average lifetime of modern I&C systems ranges

between 10 and 15 years. Payback of an upgrade has been evaluated from 2 years up to the lifetime of the
upgrade.

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Figure 4.1- control system

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Figure 4.2- control and instrumentation in powerplant

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 WHAT IS INSTRUMENTATION ??????

Instrumentation is the use of measuring instruments to monitor and control a process. It is the art and
science of measurement and control of process variables within a production, laboratory, or
manufacturing area.

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Figure 4.3- Instrumentation in powerplant

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Instrumentation is defined as "the art and science of measurement and control". Instrumentation is used
to refer to the field in which Instrument technicians and engineers work. Instrumentation also can refer
to the available methods of measurement and control.

Good example: the gauges that control the boilers for the school heating system

Measurement instruments have three traditional classes of use :

Monitoring of processes and operations

Control of processes and operations
Experimental engineering analysis
While these uses appear distinct, in practice they are less so. All measurements have the potential
for decisions and control. A home owner may change a thermostat setting in response to a utility
bill computed from meter readings.

Examples :-

In some cases the sensor is a very minor element of the mechanism. Digital cameras and wristwatches
might technically meet the loose definition of instrumentation because they record and or display sensed
information. Under most circumstances neither would be called instrumentation, but when used to

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measure the elapsed time of a race and to document the winner at the finish line, both would be called
instrumentation.

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 CONTROL SYSTEM ???

A control system is a device, or set of devices, that manages, commands, directs or regulates the
behavior of other devices or systems.

Industrial control systems are used in industrial production for controlling equipment or machines.

There are two common classes of control systems, open loop control systems and closed loop control
systems. In open loop control systems output is generated based on inputs. In closed loop control
systems current output is taken into consideration and corrections are made based on feedback. A closed
loop system is also called a feedback control system. The human body is a classic example of feedback
systems.

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 Figure 4.4- control system

Two common classes of control systems:-

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 Open loop control systems.
Closed loop control systems.

OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM

A control loop operated by human intervention or does not have a feedback loop to self adjust.

Example A fan that plugs into the wall with no switch to turn on or off.

1 .Plug fan into outlet power on.

2. Fan operates at the speed of the motor

3. Fan operates to fast to much air movement blows papers of desk.
4. Unplug fan to shut off.

CLOSE LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM

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A control-loop operated by a feedback loop allowing self adjusting of the loop. A mechanical, optical,
or electronic system that is used to maintain a desired output.

Good example: Fan with a switch to allow the speed to be changed

Figure 4.5- block diagram in closed loop control system

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 ELECTRONICS INSTRUMENTS USED IN

CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION

There are many electronic instruments and components which are used in control and instrumentation in
the power plant. Some of these are:-

RTD (RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR)

TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTER

ACTUATOR

TRANSDUCER

PRESSURE SENSOR

ADC

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 TRANSFORMER

etc.

Now we will discuss about the above mentioned electronic instruments and circuitry which are
necessary and used in control and instrumentation system.

In the discussion the very first equipment is "Resistance Temperature Detector" also known as RTD.

RTD

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 (RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR)

OVERVIEW:-

Innovative Sensor Technology is a world-class manufacturer of thin-film RTD temperature sensors,

capacitive humidity sensors, and mass flow sensors at the component level. With our state-of-the-art
manufacturing technology,

Innovative Sensor Technology offers both standard and custom sensors to satisfy unique applications.
Additionally, our highly qualified staff is now offering R&D consulting services for industrial
applications. Our sensors have applications in the automotive, HVAC, appliance, controls, and test &
measurement industries.

(RTD) - PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:-

An RTD (resistance temperature detector) is a temperature sensor that operates on the measurement
principle that a materials electrical resistance changes with temperature. The relationship between an
RTDs resistance and the surrounding temperature is highly predictable, allowing for accurate and
consistent temperature measurement. By supplying an RTD with a constant current and measuring the
resulting voltage drop across the resistor, the RTDs resistance can be calculated, and the temperature
can be determined.

RTD MATERIALS:-

Different materials used in the construction of RTDs offer a different relationship between resistance and
temperature. Temperature sensitive materials used in the construction of RTDs include platinum, nickel,

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and copper; platinum being the most commonly used. Important characteristics of an RTD include the
temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR), the nominal resistance at 0 degrees Celsius, and the
tolerance classes. The TCR determines the relationship between the resistance and the temperature.

There are no limits to the TCR that is achievable, but the most common industry standard is the
platinum3850 ppm/K. This means that the resistance of the sensor will increase 0.385 ohms per one
degree Celsius increase in temperature.

The nominal resistance of the sensor is the resistance that the sensor will have at 0 degrees Celsius.
Although almost any value can be achieved for nominal resistance, the most common is the platinum100
ohm (pt100). Finally, the tolerance class determines the accuracy of the sensor, usually specified at the
nominal point of0 degrees Celsius. There are different industry standards that have been set for accuracy
including the ASTM and the European DIN. Using the values of TCR, nominal resistance, and tolerance,
the functional characteristics of the sensor are defined.

RTD CONFIGURATIONS:-

In addition to different materials, RTDs are also offered in two major configurations: wire wound and
thin film. Wire wound configurations feature either an inner coil RTD or an outer wound RTD. An inner
coil construction consists of a resistive coil running through a hole in a ceramic insulator, whereas the
outer wound construction involves the winding of the resistive material around a ceramic or glass
cylinder, which is then insulated.

The thin film RTD construction features a thin layer of resistive material deposited onto a ceramic
substrate through a process called deposition. A resistive meander is then etched onto the sensor, and
laser trimming is used to achieve the appropriate nominal values of the sensor. The resistive material is
then protected with a thin layer of glass, and lead wires are welded to pads on the sensor and covered
with a glass dollop.

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Thin film RTDs have advantages over the wire wound configurations. The main advantages include that
they are less expensive, are more rugged and vibration resistant, and have smaller dimensions that lead
to better response times and packaging capabilities. For a long time wire wound sensors featured much
better accuracy. Thanks to recent developments, however, there is now thin film technology capable of
achieving the same level of accuracy.

OPERATIONS OF RTD :-

An RTD takes a measurement when a small DC current is supplied to the sensor. The current
experiences the impedance of the resistor, and a voltage drop is experienced over the resistor. Depending
on the nominal resistance of the RTD, different supply currents can be used. To reduce self-heating on
the sensor the supply current should be kept low. In general, around1mA or less of current is used.

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Figure 5.1- resistance temperature detector

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Figure 5.2- parts of resistance temperature detector

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 TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTER

A temperature transmitter is an electrical instrument that interfaces a temperature sensor (e.g.

thermocouple, RTD, or thermistor) to a measurement or control device (e.g. PLC, DCS, PC, loop
controller, data logger, display, recorder, etc.). Typically, temperature transmitters isolate, amplify, filter
noise, linearize, and convert the input signal from the sensor then send (transmit) a standardized output
signal to the control device. Common electrical output signals used in manufacturing plants are 4-20mA
or 0-10V DC ranges.

For example: 4mA could represent 0C and 20mA means 100C.

TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTER INPUTS:-

A thermocouple sensor is a pair of dissimilar metal wires joined at one end. The junction produces a low
level voltage proportional to the difference in temperature between the open and closed ends.

An RTD or Resistance Temperature Detector is a passive circuit element whose resistance increases with
increasing temperature in a predictable manner.

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Figure 5.3- temperature transmitter

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WORKING OF TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTER :-

A temperature transmitter works by connecting to it some form of temperature sensor.

For example a RTD (Resistance temperature device) or Thermocouple. In the case of a RTD connected
to the transmitter the transmitter measures a change in resistance of the RTD proportional to the change
in temperature measured. The transmitter then derives a current output (generally4-20mA) which can be
measured by an instrument, such as a PLC, loop indicator etc. In the case of a thermocouple a Milli
voltage is produced at a junction of two dissimilar metals, this change in Milli voltage again
proportional to the change in temperature and the transmitter again derives a current output measurable
by a instrument. The transmitter will be ranged by a programming device, say for example an
application where process temperatures need to be measured between 0-100 degrees, the transmitter will
be ranged 0-100 degrees and thus give an output proportional to the temperature measured by the
sensing element. 0 degrees = 4mA, 100 degrees = 20mA.A excitation supply will be connected to the
transmitter and the 4-20mA will flow in this loop back to the measuring instrument. It is necessary to
use the correct type of sensor for the application to get the best accuracy when measuring. RTD's are
generally used for measuring lower temperatures whereas thermocouples are used for measuring higher
temperatures. There are several types of RTD's such as 2 wire, 3 wire and4 wire and an even greater
range of thermocouples depending on the temperatures and measuring environment.

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 ACTUATOR

An actuator is a type of motor that is responsible for moving or controlling a mechanism or system.

It is operated by a source of energy, typically electric current, hydraulic fluid pressure, or pneumatic
pressure, and converts that energy into motion. An actuator is the mechanism by which a control system

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acts upon an environment. The control system can be simple (a fixed mechanical or electronic system),
software-based (e.g. a printer driver, robot control system), a human, or any other input.

Figure 5.4- actuator internal structure

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 Figure 5.5- actuator

EXAMPLE AND APPLICATIONS :-

In engineering , actuators are frequently used as mechanisms to introduce motion, or to clamp an object
so as to prevent motion. In electronic engineering, actuators area subdivision of transducers. They are
devices which transform an input signal (main l an electrical signal) into motion.

Examples of actuators:-

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 Comb drive
Digital micro mirror device
Electric motor
Electro active polymer
Hydraulic cylinder
Piezoelectric actuator
Pneumatic actuator
Servo mechanism
Thermal bimorph

HOW DOES AN ACTUATOR WORKS ?

Actuators perform mechanical work in several different kinds of systems. For example, an electric
actuator uses a motor to convert electricity into torque that can turn the spindle in a CD-ROM drive,
while hydraulic actuators can run pumps for swimming pools or turn cranks to move palettes of heavy
cartons around a warehouse. Picking the right actuator means considering a jobs requirement for speed,
force, acceleration, energy efficiency and other considerations.

Many factors can affect the performance of actuators. Working conditions and job type determine what
kind of actuator is needed to perform specific work .For instance, jobs that require rapid changes to the
components of a working system may be better handled by modular electric actuators. A pneumatic
actuator is a better choice for a job that requires a wide range of pressure changes than a hydraulic
actuator, as hydraulic fluid can only be compressed so much. Current developments in actuator
technology may lead to plug and play actuators that respond via wireless networking.

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 TRANSDUCER

A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy to another.

Energy types include (but are not limited to): electrical , mechanical electromagnetic (including light),
chemical , acoustic, and thermal energy.

Usually a transducer converts a signal in one form of energy to a signal in another (for example, a
loudspeaker driver converts an electric signal to sound), but any variable attenuation of energy may
serve as input; for example, the light reflecting off the landscape, although it is not a signal, conveys
information that image sensors, one form of transducer, can convert.

A sensor is a transducer whose purpose is to sense (i.e. detect) some characteristic of its environs; it is
used to detect a parameter in one form and report it in another form of energy, often an electrical signal.
For example, a pressure sensor might detect pressure (a mechanical form of energy) and convert it to
electrical signal for display at a remote gauge. Transducers are widely used in measuring instruments.

An actuator is a transducer that accepts energy and produces the kinetic energy of movement (action).
The energy supplied to an actuator might be electrical or mechanical (pneumatic, hydraulic, etc.). An

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electric motor and a hydraulic cylinder are both actuators, converting electrical energy and fluid power
into motion for different purposes.

Combination
transducers
have both functions;
they both detect and
create action. The
most common
example is an antenna
, a transducer of
radio waves that
can transmit,
receive, or both (transceiver ). Another example is the typical ultrasonic transducer, which switches back
and forth many times a second between acting as an actuator to produce ultrasonic waves, and acting as
a sensor to detect ultrasonic waves. Rotating a DC electric motor's rotor will produce electricity, and
voice-coil speakers can also act as microphones.

Transducer Block Diagram :-

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 Figure 5.6- block diagram of transducer

A transducer will have basically two main components. They are:-

1. Sensing Element:-

The physical quantity or its rate of change is sensed and responded to by this part of the transistor.

2. Transduction Element:-

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The output of the sensing element is passed on to the transduction element. This element is responsible
for converting the non-electrical signal into its proportional electrical signal.

There may be cases when the transduction element performs the action of both transduction and sensing.
The best example of such a transducer is a thermocouple. A thermocouple is used to generate a voltage
corresponding to the heat that is generated at the junction of two dissimilar metals.

SELECTION OF TRANSDUCER:-

Selection of a transducer is one of the most important factors which help in obtaining accurate results.
Some of the main parameters are given on next page.

Selection depends on the physical quantity to be measured.

Depends on the best transducer principle for the given physical input.
Depends on the order of accuracy to be obtained.

TRANSDUCER CLASSIFICATION:-

Some of the common methods of classifying transducers are given below.

Based on their application.

Based on the method of converting the non-electric signal into electric signal.
Based on the output electrical quantity to be produced.

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 Based on the electrical phenomenon or parameter that may be
changed due to the whole process. Some of the most commonly electrical quantities in a
transducer are resistance, capacitance, voltage, current or inductance.
Thus, during transduction, there may be changes in resistance, capacitance and induction, which
in turn change the output voltage or current.
Based on whether the transducer is active or passive.

Figure 5.7- transducer classification

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 PRESSURE SENSOR

A pressure sensor measures pressure, typically of gases or liquids. Pressure is an expression of the force
required to stop a fluid from expanding, and is usually stated in terms of force per unit area. A pressure
sensor usually acts as a transducer; it generates a signal as a function of the pressure imposed. For the
purposes of this article, such a signal is electrical.

Pressure sensors are used for control and monitoring in thousands of everyday applications. Pressure
sensors can also be used to indirectly measure other variables such as fluid/gas flow, speed, water level,
and altitude. Pressure sensors can alternatively be called pressure transducers, pressure transmitters,
pressure senders, pressure indicators, piezometers and manometers, among other names.

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Pressure sensors can vary drastically in technology, design, performance, application suitability and cost.
A conservative estimate would be that there may be over 50 technologies and at least 300 companies
making pressure sensors worldwide.

There is also a category of pressure sensors that are designed to measure in a dynamic mode for
capturing very high speed changes in pressure. Example applications for this type of sensor would be in
the measuring of combustion pressure in an engine cylinder or in a gas turbine. These sensors are
commonly manufactured out of piezoelectric materials such as quartz.

Some pressure sensors, such as those found in some traffic enforcement cameras, function in a binary
(off/on) manner, i.e., when pressure is applied to a pressure sensor, the sensor acts to complete or break
an electrical circuit. These types of sensors are also known as a pressure switch.

Figure 5.8- pressure sensor

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WHAT IS PRESSURE SENSING ?????

Industrial pressure sensors, also referred to as pressure transducers, pressure transmitters, pressure
indicators and pressure switches, normally have a diaphragm type design that uses strain gauges, which
are either bonded to, or diffused into it, with the strain gauges acting as resistive elements. Under the
pressure-induced strain, the resistive values change. In capacitive technology, the pressure diaphragm is
a single plate of a capacitor that changes its value under pressure-induced displacement.

Pressure sensing using diaphragm technology measures the difference in pressure of the two sides of the
diaphragm. Depending on the relevant pressure, the terms Absolute is used when the reference is
vacuum; Gauge (also known as 'gage') is used where the reference is atmospheric pressure; and
Differential is used where the sensor has two ports for the measurement of two different pressures.

Pressure sensors are used in a wide variety of applications for control and monitoring purposes. Pressure
sensors can also be used to indirectly measure other variables such as fluid flow, speed, water level and
altitude.

Pressure sensors vary considerably in their design, technology used, performance, application and cost.

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World-wide, there are hundreds of different technologies used in pressure sensor designs and thousands
of different suppliers of pressure sensors.

Figure 5.9- the

basic pressure sensor design

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 ADC

WHAT IS ADC ???

ANS.: ADC is
analog to digital
converter
which converts
analog signal into
digital signal.

Signals in the real

world are analog:
light, sound, you
name it. So, real-world signals must be converted into digital, using a circuit called ADC (Analog-to-
Digital Converter), before they can be manipulated by digital equipment. In this tutorial we will give an
in-depth explanation about analog-to-digital conversion yet keeping a very easy to follow language.

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 Figure 5.10- analog to digital converter

When you scan a picture with a scanner what the scanner is doing is an analog-to-digital conversion: it is
taking the analog information provided by the picture (light) and converting into digital.

When you record your voice or use a VoIP solution on your computer, you are using an analog-to-digital
converter to convert your voice, which is analog, into digital information.

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 Figure 5.11- working of ADC

Digital information is not only restricted to computers. When you talk on the phone, for example, your
voice is converted into digital (at the central office switch, if you use an analog line, or at you home, if

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you use a digital line like ISDN or DSL), since your voice is analog and the communication between the
phone switches is done digitally.

Figure 5.12-
waveform at input and
output of ADC

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Following are ADC generally used:-

1.Counter Type ADC.

2.Successive Approximation Type.

3.Flash Type

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62
 TRANSFORMER

A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more circuits
through electromagnetic induction. Commonly, transformers are used to increase or decrease the
voltages of alternating current in electric power applications.

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64
 Figure 5.13- schematic diagram of transformer

The transformer has its applications in many field. For increase or decrease the rating of voltage
transformer is used.

WHAT IS TRANSFORMER AND ITS OPERATION:-

A transformer can be defined as a static device which helps in the transformation of electric power in
one circuit to electric power of the same frequency in another circuit. The voltage can be raised or
lowered in a circuit, but with a proportional increase or decrease in the current ratings.

The main principle of operation of a transformer is mutual inductance between two circuits which is
linked by a common magnetic flux. A basic transformer consists of two coils that are electrically
separate and inductive, but are magnetically linked through a path of reluctance. The working principle
of the transformer can be understood from the figure below.

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TRANSFORMER WORKING:-

As shown above the transformer has primary and secondary windings. The core laminations are joined
in the form of strips in between the strips you can see that there are some narrow gaps right through the
cross-section of the core. These staggered joints are said to be imbricated.Both the coils have high
mutual inductance. A mutual electro-motive force is induced in the transformer from the alternating flux
that is set up in the laminated core, due to the coil that is connected to a source of alternating voltage.
Most of the alternating flux developed by this coil is linked with the other coil and thus produces the
mutual induced electro-motive force. The so produced electro-motive force can be explained with the
help of Faradays laws of Electromagnetic induction as:-

e=M*dI/dt

If the second coil circuit is closed, a current flows in it and thus electrical energy is transferred
magnetically from the first to the second coil.

The alternating current supply is given to the first coil and hence it can be called as the primary winding.
The energy is drawn out from the second coil and thus can be called as the secondary winding.

In short, a transformer carries the operations shown below:-

1. Transfer of electric power from one circuit to another.

2. Transfer of electric power without any change in frequency.

3. Transfer with the principle of electromagnetic induction.

4. The two electrical circuits are linked by mutual induction.

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INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER:-

Instrument transformers are typically used to operate instruments from high voltage lines or high current
circuits, safely isolating measurement and control circuitry from the high voltages or currents. The
primary winding of the transformer is connected to the high voltage or high current circuit, and the
meter or relay is connected to the secondary circuit. Instrument transformers may also be used as an
isolation transformer so that secondary quantities may be used without affecting the primary circuitry.

Terminal identifications (either alphanumeric such as H 1, X1, Y1, etc. or a colored spot or dot
impressed in the case) indicate one end of each winding, indicating the same instantaneous polarity and
phase between windings. This applies to both types of instrument transformers. Correct identification of
terminals and wiring is essential for proper operation of metering and protective relay instrumentation.

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68
 Figure 5.14- Instrument transformer

CONCLUSION:-

The discussed information about control and instrumentation is a part of my summer training in the
subject of ITRP.

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