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Small-scale Fading
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Multi-path Propagation
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Doppler Shift
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l
X Y
d
v
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Assumptions:
d is small and S is very remote
When the distance of S d SX is almost parallel to SY
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l = d cos = vt cos
where
t = time required for the mobile to travel from X to Y
= angle of arrival of the wave, which is the same at points
X and Y due to the assumptions in the previous slide
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where
A = amplitude of the signal
fc = carrier frequency
The received signal at point X is given by
x = propagation delay
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ry (t) = Aexp[j2fc (t y )]
= Aexp[j2fc {t (x t)}]
l
= Aexp j2fc (t x ) +
c
l
= Aexp j2 fc (t x ) +
v cos
= Aexp j2 fc (t x ) + t
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( )
2
a2
a32
2 a52
a1 2
a4
1 2 3 4 5
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The mean excess delay is the first moment of the power delay
profile and is defined as
P 2
a
= Pk k 2 k
k ak
P
P (k )k
= Pk
k P (k )
where
a2k
P (k ) = P 2
i ai
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The rms delay spread is the square root of the second central
moment of the power delay profile and is defined to be
q
= 2 ( )2
where
P 2 2
k ak k
2 = P 2
k ak
P
k P (k )k2
= P
k P (k )
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Notes
The mean excess delay and rms delay spread are measured
relative to the first detectable signal arriving at the receiver at
0 = 0
and 2 do not rely on the absolute power level, but only the
relative amplitudes of the multipath components
Typical values of rms delay spread are on the order of
microseconds in outdoor mobile radio channel
nanoseconds in indoor radio channels
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Notes (continued)
The rms delay spread and mean excess delay are defined from a
single power delay profile which is the temporal or spatial
average of consecutive impulse response measurements
collected and averaged over a local area
Typically many measurements are made at many local areas in
order to determine a statistical range of multipath channel
parameters for a mobile communication system over a
large-scale area
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max (XdB) = X 0
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Coherence Time
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If the coherence time is defined as the time over which the time
correlation function is above 0.5, then it is approximated as
9 0.179
Tc
= =
16fm fm
where
fm = maximum Doppler shift and is given by
fm = fd,max
v
=
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where
(t) = envelope of the equivalent lowpass channel
(t) = phase of the equivalent lowpass channel
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Remarks
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Remarks (continued
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Bs Bc
and
Ts
where Bs , Bc , Ts , are as defined previously
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Remarks
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Bs > Bc
and
Ts <
where
Bs = bandwidth of the transmitted signal
Ts = reciprocal bandwidth (e.g., symbol period) of the
transmitted signal
= rms delay spread of the channel
Bc = coherence bandwidth of the channel
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Remark
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Fast Fading
Ts > Tc
and
Bs < B d
where
Tc = coherence time of the channel
Bd = Doppler spread
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Slow Fading
Ts Tc
and
Bs Bd
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Bd < 1
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Rayleigh Distribution
2
p(r) =
0 (r < 0)
where
= rms value of the received voltage signal before envelop
detection
2 = time-average power of the received signal before
envelop detection
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P (R) = P rob (r R)
Z R
= p(r)dr
0
2
R
= 1 exp 2
2
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Ricean Distribution
where
A = peak amplitude of the dominant signal
I0 () = modified Bessel function of the first kind and
zero-order
A2
k= 2 2 = Ricean factor
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where
(t) = gain of the channel
(t) = phase shift of the channel
n(t) = additive Gaussian noise
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Probability of Error
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1
Note: At higher values of Eb /N0 , Pe is a linear function of
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Since in small time dt, the number of times R can occur with
slope z is either 1 or 0 and dz = zdt
NR,z = zp
(R, z)
dzdt
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where
fm = maximum Doppler frequency
A2
K = 22 = Ricean factor
= RR = value of the specified level R, normalized to the
rms
local rms amplitude of the fading envelope (i.e., 2 2 )
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where
i = duration of the fade
T = observation interval of the fading signal
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Remarks
v fm NR
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