1
Euripides: Medea (M)
Cast of characters:
NURSE (in Greek, Trophos) MEDEAs old
Nanny from her homeland in COLCHIS
PEDAGOGUE (in Greek, Paidaggos) a SLAVE
who tends the CHILDREN
MEDEA Colchian princess, JASONs former
WIFE
CREON king of CORINTH
JASON IOLCAN prince, former husband of
Medea, recently married to Creons
daughter
AEGEUS king of ATHENS
MESSENGER slave of Jason
CHORUS of Corinthian Women (see also
CHORUSES; FEMALE CHORUSES IN GREEK
TRAGEDY)
Several extras represent the two young sons of
Medea and Jason (see also SILENT CHARACTERS),
the entourages of Creon and Aegeus, and the
Nurse at the end of the third EPISODE.
Medea was first produced for the GREAT
DIONYSIA in 431 BCE. It came third in competi-
tion with Euphorion (AESCHYLUS son) and
SOPHOCLES (see also FRAGMENTARY AND LOST
PLAYS 7). The STAGE BUILDING represents
Medeas house in Corinth. (See also ANCIENT
GREEK THEATERS; SPACE; THEATER ARCHITECTURE;
THEATRICAL SPACE AND THE LOCALE ITSELF.)
Plot PROLOGUE (1130): Medeas Nurse
fills in the backstory: how Jason had used
Medeas help, including her BETRAYAL of her
father and MURDER of her brother, in his quest
for the golden fleece, how they had returned
to Iolcus only to be denied the throne, and,
after killing Pelias the king, had come as refu-
gees to Corinth where they had two sons,
after which Jason abandoned her to marry the
kings daughter. The Nurse is interrupted by
the arrival of the children with their aged
attendant who brings the NEWS that the king
The Encyclopedia of Greek Tragedy, First Edition. Edited by Hanna M. Roisman.
2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
has EXILED Medea and the children. Medeas
cries are heard from behind the scenes.
PARODOS (131213): The Chorus enters to
SYMPATHIZE with Medea. They and the Nurse
sing while Medea continues to LAMENT behind
the scenes.
First EPISODE (214409): Medea enters and
gives a well-argued SPEECH on her plight and
that of women in general (see also GENDER
AND ITS ROLE IN GREEK TRAGEDY). Creon
enters abruptly and declares the sentence of
exile. Medea persuades him to give her one
day to prepare. After he leaves she vows
REVENGE.
First STASIMON (41045): The Chorus sings
of the reversal of everything and new respect
for women.
Second Episode (446626): Jason enters
abruptly. Medea and Jason argue. He claims
that what he is doing is for her good. She
refuses his help.
Second Stasimon (62762): The Chorus
sings of LOVE, country, and betrayal.
Third Episode (663823): Aegeus enters
abruptly. Medea PROMISES to help him cure
his CHILDLESSNESS. He offers Medea asylum.
After he leaves Medea announces her plan to
kill her children and sends her Nurse to sum-
mon Jason (see also CHILD MURDER).
Third Stasimon (82465): The Chorus
sings of ATHENS, land of grace and glory, and
of Medea, child killer.
Fourth Episode (866975): Jason returns.
Medea persuades him to ask that the chil-
dren stay with him in Corinth and gives
them POISONED gifts to take as a BRIBE to the
princess.
Fourth Stasimon (9761001): The Chorus
sings in PITY for the children, the bride, Jason,
and Medea.
Fifth Episode (1001250): The Pedagogue
returns with the children. Medea bids farewell
to her children. The Chorus sings of the
DEATHS of children. A Messenger arrives from
the palace and describes the gruesome deaths
2
of the princess and her father. Medea enters
her house to kill her children.
Fifth Stasimon (125192): The Chorus
PRAYS to avert the murder. The childrens
death cries are heard from inside.
EXODOS (1293419): Jason enters to save
his children. Medea appears with their bodies
on the roof of the house in a dragon-drawn
chariot (MCHAN) given her by her grand-
father, Helios (the sun god). She refuses to let
Jason touch the children (see also PHYSICAL
CONTACT IN GREEK TRAGEDY), predicts his
ignominious demise, and flies off to Athens
to join Aegeus HOUSEHOLD.
STAGING and SPECIAL EFFECTS Medea prob-
ably used only two ACTORS with speaking
parts. In that case, the Nurse and Medea
would be played by the PROTAGONIST and all the
other parts (the men) by the DEUTERAGONIST.
The basic structure of Medea is a series of
ENTRANCES of a MALE CHARACTER arriving from
the outside and confronting Medea, who
enters from the house and remains on stage
almost throughout. At the center of the play,
Aegeus enters unexpectedly and changes the
power structure from the males lording it
over Medea to the woman controlling the
action. The SILENT children are brought on
from the outside in the prologue, sent into
the house, brought out to entreat their father
and sent OFF STAGE with him, brought back by
their minder, and sent into the house once
more. Mannequins of them reappear as
corpses in the exodos, blurring the distinction
between PROPS and silent characters. The
focus on the house and the idea that the set-
ting is displaced from the palace are constant.
The mchan (or flying machine) is used at
the end, in a surprising scene in which the
other major scenic device (the EKKYKLMA) is
expected. Instead Medea appears on the roof-
top in a chariot drawn by serpents (1317).
Treatments and interpretations
(a) Background Medea was the foreign
princess picked up in her native Colchis at the
end of Jasons quest for the golden fleece
who helped the hero accomplish his mission
and, like nearly every helpful princess in leg-
end of whatever nationality, was abandoned
by the adventurer. Like those of many other
legendary figures, her story intersects with
reality and was believed by the historical
Greeks to be a true story from the distant
(prehistorical) past. This story concerns the
exploration of the world and the opening of
the seas to Greek seafaring: to the Greeks the
Argo was the first ship. It is also a heroic quest
legend, treated in tragedy, like many such
stories, after the epic glamor has faded. The
deaths of Medeas sons were commemorated
in historical times by a sacred rite in Corinth
in which children were separated from their
parents and sent to serve in the temple of
Hera Akraia for a year. This ritual suggests
that the Corinthians were required to atone
for the wrongful deaths of Medeas children
and must, therefore, bear the responsibility
for that crime. Medeas Athenian connection
was through her relations with Aegeus, who
gave her asylum and had a son by her. She was
caught plotting against Aegeus son, THESEUS,
and had to flee once more (Euripides Aegeus
was produced around 450 BCE). Such stories
have gaps and poets were free to fill them in.
(b) Medea and her children The story of
Medea was already known to the AUDIENCE in
connection with the saga of Jason and the
Argonauts and the killing of Pelias, king of
Iolcus (Euripides first play was the Peliades,
Daughters of Pelias, produced in 455 BCE). It
is likely that the early treatments of her story
did not represent her as killing her children,
the one fact that is most widely known about
her in the twenty-first century (Page 1938:
xxixxxvi; Webster 1967: 327, 7780;
McDermott 1989: 924; 1991: 12332;
Moreau 1994: 1989 et passim; Mastronarde
2002: 4464; Griffiths 2006: 4156). While
in Corinth Jason and Medea had two sons (or
in some versions seven sons and seven daugh-
ters, traditional numbers in Mediterranean
lore). Whether, as in EURIPIDES, she came to
Corinth as a refugee, or she was summoned
by the Corinthians because of connections to
the Corinthian royal family inherited through
her grandfather, Helios, the sun god (as in

Eumelus and Simonides), by the end of her
stay there, her children were dead. In one
version they are killed by the Corinthians
because they did not want to be ruled by a
FOREIGN woman who was also a witch (SCHOLIA
to Medea 264). In another, after she has killed
Creon, his relatives take revenge by killing
her children (Paus. 2.3.6; Apollod. 1.9.28).
Finally, there is a version in which Medea
accidentally kills her children in an attempt to
make them immortal (Paus. 2.3.8; see also
MAGIC).
The heart of Euripides Medea is her delib-
erate killing of her children, which has, fur-
thermore, become the standard and known
story (Easterling 1977: 17791; Corti 1998:
302 et passim). Was Euripides the first to
dramatize it? Claims have been made that the
tragic poet Neophron anticipated Euripides in
ascribing the child murders to Medea and
even that he was actually the author of
Euripides Medea (HYPOTHESIS to Medea [text
in Page 1938], Suda, under the entry for
Neophron [nu, 318]; Diog. Laert. 2.134;
see also Page 1938: xxx; Michelini 1989:
11535). Three fragments of Neophrons
Medea survive (Page 1938: xxxiixxxvi). It
cannot, however, be asserted with confidence
that Neophron antedates Euripides and the
fragments may be derived from Euripides
version rather than the other way around.
Whether or not Euripides was the first, he
makes the most of Medeas FILICIDE. The
Nurse voices her FEAR for the children from
the beginning (37, 44, 8994, 1004); the
Chorus sings an unusual astrophic song about
the loss of children (1081115). Medeas
most pathetic scene is her farewell to the chil-
dren (102180). Jason begs just to touch
their bodies (1377, cf. 141112). The chil-
dren are brought on stage three times while
alive (46, 894, 1002) and mannequins of their
bodies are props in the dragon-chariot after
their death. Two scenes have them tarrying at
the house door (89105 and 101976). The
two kings, Creon and Aegeus, are as much or
more concerned with children than with their
kingdoms (Creon, 329; Aegeus, 7212). The
actual children are a silent scenic element, part
3
of the SPECTACLE, until their death when they
are heard crying in terror as their MOTHER
chases them with her SWORD behind the scenes
(12728; Segal 1997b).
Why did Euripides either make this drastic
change or choose the lesser-known version?
First, there is the element of suspense. Of the
characters, only Medea and the Chorus know
of Medeas plan to kill the children and both
say over and over, No, you/I cannot do
this (814, 85665, 10428, 10568). Not
until Medea enters the house behind them
does their death at her hands become inevita-
ble (Ohlander 1989: 12974). One of the
two most compelling explanations for her
deed is suggested by Gill (1996: 154, 168):
Medea kills them as an exemplary gesture
to force Jason to realize what it means to be
human and to live as a human being. The
other is given by Medea herself: she kills them
to take vengeance and to keep the children
from being killed by her enemies (8712,
10601): that is, so that she will not be the
victim, but will take control of the story and
the drama (Rehm 1989; Fartzoff 1996: 158
66; Johnston 1997: 4468; Luschnig 2007:
85117). Even if Neophrons version in
which Medea herself kills her children ante-
dates that of Euripides, the filicide was still
associated with Euripides version, so much
so that he was accused of taking a bribe to
transfer the murder from the Corinthians to
Medea (scholia to Medea 9).
Anomalies of PLOT In the Poetics, ARIS-
TOTLE singled out two incidents in Medea to
criticize as inorganic to the PLOT: the arrival of
Aegeus (an example of improbability, to
alogon or alogia, 1461b20) and the solution
from the machine (which he believed did
not arise from the plot itself, 1454b1; Wor-
thington 1990; Luschnig 2007: 6384).
Aegeus, it is true, arrives abruptly to begin
the third episode. He is just passing through
Corinth on his way from DELPHI to TROEZEN
and does not come on purpose to see Medea
also (as he apparently does in Neophrons
version), though they are known to each
other (as is seen in their familiar greetings,
4
663, 665). His childlessness and fierce desire
for children have led some scholars to suggest
that it is he who gives Medea the idea of kill-
ing the children as the best revenge against
Jason. Before the Aegeus scene she had
threatened to kill Creon, his daughter, and
Jason (3745). After his departure she refines
her plans. What Aegeus gives Medea, besides
the respect one heroic-age personage shows
to another, is a place to go. Her plans had
been stymied over this (38690, 76871). It
is to be noted that she has never worried
about how she will escape, but only what asy-
lum will shelter her. Jasons claiming the chil-
dren as his in the second episode might
equally be said to be her MOTIVATION for kill-
ing them (550, 562, 5657, 5967; Gill
1996: 155).
Aegeus abrupt entrance imitates those of
Creon and Jason. The difference is that the
audience has reason to expect the two earlier
entrances: Creons proclamation has been
mentioned (702) and now needs to be
announced to Medea herself (not that Creon
would need to come in person), and we would
also expect to see something of Jason as the
other principal, though his entrance is delayed
so that we will see him only after we witness
the devastating effects of the sentence of exile.
Aegeus, on the other hand, is not necessarily
part of the story of Jason and Medea and,
therefore, would not be expected, though
Medea is known to have had a son by him and
initiated a plot against the life of Theseus who
was to become the heir to the Athenian
throne. The Aegeus episode places Medea in
the legend of Theseus by showing her (along
with the ORACLE of Apollo) in opposition to
his conception (67981; 71618; on Aegeus,
see also Page 1938: xxixxxx; Dunkle 1969;
Williamson 1990; Sfyroeras 1995).
The basic dramatic structure of the play is
already established in the prologue by their
surrogates, the female and male slaves
(Buttrey 1958). The first two men come to
exercise control over Medea, making her situ-
ation worse. Though Jason offers help, it is
only on the terms of denying her any value of
her own, reducing her status to unheroic
dependent (535, 5512). Aegeus and Medea
meet as equals, each offering the other some-
thing of value (paternity for him, asylum for
her). It is here that Medea experiences a
reversal of fortune from bad to better and
that she begins to take over the plot: after
Aegeus leaves, she summons Jason. Her
directorial control of the scene sending the
children to the princess sets in motion therest
of the play. Aegeus is an element in the plot
about which none of the other principal char-
acters knows: he is Medeas secret weapon.
The Aegeus scene might be said to fore-
shadow Medeas appearance on the rooftop
in the dragon-drawn chariot. Though the use
of the machine is irrational, it does arise from
the plot. Several times Medea refers to her
heritage as granddaughter of the Sun (406,
746, 954, 1321). It is when she is aloft that
she realizes fully the divine essence that is also
hers (Kerenyi 1979: 2040; Gredley 1987:
312; Lawrence 1997: 4955). The scenic
value of the denouement alone can justify its
existence. Jason runs onto the scene to save
his children (1303). He beats on the doors of
the house (131417), concentrating atten-
tion there, as if the playwright were about to
deploy the ekkyklma to reveal the result of
the horrific murders we have heard from
within. But, no, instead he uses the other
device available, the mchan, surprising the
audience: they would look up only after the
actors announcement of her presence there
(1317). It would not do to have Medea pun-
ished by the Corinthians or the relatives of
Creon (as in other versions and as Jason
expects, 13035). She has saved herself and
her children from that fate and she has, appar-
ently with divine sanction, punished the
OATH-breaker Jason, by killing his children
and denying him the opportunity to father
more: the penalty for breaking ones oath is
that the oath-breaker and his descendants be
rooted out forever. Medea has become the
instrument of divine retribution. She has
become, standing in the place from which
gods appear, part of the divine machinery.
With Zeus she is keeper of oaths (Kovacs
1993: 4570).

Heroic stature of Medea Many critics have
dismissed Medea by saying she is not tragic.
Medea is a child killer, witch, monster. Does
that remove tragic stature from her? Is she
too many things to be tragic (Gellie 1988)?
Does being a woman limit her possibilities?
She is a woman, yes, but she is also less than
human, named a lioness (187, 1342, 1407), a
rock (28, 1279), a wave of the sea (28), and,
at the end, she is more than a mere mortal
woman, a goddess or demon or avenging
spirit (1260, 1389, 1343; Bongie 1977; Knox
1977/1979: 295322; duBois 1982: 110
28; Barlow 1989; Friedrich 1993; Kovacs
1993: 539; Easterling 1997b). Medea takes
up roles in successive scenes wronged
woman (inside her home and to the Chorus),
hero (to Jason), loving mother (to her chil-
dren), agreeable wife (to Jason) and dis-
cards them. Is this attributable to dramatic
necessity or can she be all these things at
once? Her power, her godlike ability to turn
her will into action, separates her from the
common run of mortals. Does her variety
(her bestial rage at her FAMILY, her godlike
will for revenge) make her more or less like
us? Her appearance at the end in her dragon-
driven chariot suggests the divine, for she
appears aloft on the roof of the stage build-
ing, in the place usually reserved for the
appearance of gods. It was called (at least in
later antiquity) the THEOLOGEION, the plat-
form from which gods speak. The back-
and-forth bickering of Jason and Medea, the
name-calling and petty cruelties, on the other
hand, set them down on the human level.
Medea is in complete control of the plot
that she devises: how could she know that her
plan would destroy Creon but not Jason? She
has logic at her disposal, no character more
so; but she has other non-logical ways of
knowing and dealing with reality. Medea is a
reader of hearts. She is able to know so much
about the others in the story because they tell
her their secrets: Creon loves his child and his
country in that order; Jason is after renown
and security; Aegeus yearns for an heir.
Euripides has come close to giving women
a voice with his Medea. Not that women
5
are like Medea. Still in this play a womans
voice is heard. It is a true voice because it
includes many voices, some of which are veri-
fiable from common experience: a woman as
mother, as wife, as bride, as lover, as sister, as
daughter, as dependent on men, and as a
uniquely free entity. Others are not part of
shared reality, but perhaps of fantasy. A woman
as a hero and as a powerful goddess. A woman
as a heros helper and as a demon. Among the
nightmare figures that frightened children
and even caused their deaths was Mormo, also
a Corinthian woman turned demon.
According to the legend Mormo killed her
children, ate them, and flew away. Medeas
familiarity is more frightening than her alter-
ity. At the end she is beyond us, divinized
through her appearance in the mchan (fly-
ing machine) and removed from us by fiction
and apotheosis, and by the Chorus reminding
us that this is a play. From that lofty position
she predicts Jasons end and establishes a cult
to commemorate and atone for her childrens
death (13813), reexplaining a known ritual
in a disturbingly novel way (Dunn 1994;
Johnston 1997: 628). But before that she
had moved among us, been part of the human
community, been accepted at each place along
her route (1112). And she is given a voice for
presenting her cause: from beginning to end
of the drama the story is presented from her
point of view, through her Nurses narrative
and then in her own words. Tragic characters
are often people at the edge, but they show us
what we are as humans. It may be unsettling
that Medea should do this, but the real-life
cases of parents murdering their children are
too common for us to deny that it is somehow
part of the human condition. And tragedy
should make us uneasy. Euripides makes the
plot more compact by removing extraneous
avengers and shows his protagonist becoming
the author of her own legend rather than its
victim (Boedeker 1991, 1997; Galis 1992;
Hatzichronoglou 1993; Luschnig 2007:
17798).
Afterlife Of the scores of works poems,
dramas, paintings, operas, novels, songs,
6
musical compositions, films based on Medea,
a few will have to suffice to indicate that
Euripides version lives on, ever renewed (see
also Clauss and Johnston 1997: 103249,
297323; Hall et al. 2000: passim; Mastronarde
2002: 6470; Griffiths 2006: 8518).
Ennius (a Roman poet of the third to sec-
ond century BCE) produced a tragedy, Medea
in Exile, of which a few fragments survive,
which seems to follow closely Euripides ver-
sion but shows very different poetic sensibili-
ties (see also GREEK TRAGEDY IN/AND LATIN
LITERATURE).
The Medea of SENECA (a Roman philoso-
pher and dramatist of the first century CE),
one of his best plays, presents a Medea who is
more of a witch than Euripides and very
much in control of her destiny.
Twentieth-century versions include that of
Christa Wolff (Medea: A Modern Retelling,
translated by John Cullen [1998]): herinno-
cent Medea, a woman of nearly superhuman
goodness, wrongly accused, acknowledges
the Euripidean truth that she is forever to be
known as a child murderer. Dario Fos Medea
is equally political: she kills her children to
shatter Jasons laws and to create the New
Woman. In Wendy Wassersteins Medea the
heroine achieves an even more chaotic life
story than in Euripides version, when her
creator combines various ancient horror sto-
ries with modern acts of political and medical
violence, showing that in this MYTH, a happy
ending is nonsense (Luschnig 2007: 199
201). (See also RECEPTION.)
See also EMOTIONS; TITLES OF TRAGEDIES
References
Barlow, S. 1989. Stereotype and Reversal in
Euripides Medea. G&R 36: 15871.
Boedeker, D. 1991. Euripides Medea and the
Vanity of OO. CPh 86: 95112.
Boedeker, D. 1997. Becoming Medea:
Assimilation in Euripides, in J.J. Clauss and
S.I. Johnston (eds.), Medea: Essays on Medea in
Myth, Literature, Philosophy, and Art. Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press: 12748.
Bongie, E.B. 1977. Heroic Elements in the
Medea of Euripides. TAPhA 107: 2756.
Buttrey, T.V. 1958. Accident and Design in
Euripides Medea. AJPh 79: 117.
Clauss, J.J. and S.I. Johnston (eds.). 1997. Medea:
Essays on Medea in Myth, Literature, Philosophy,
and Art. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press.
Corti, L. 1998. The Myth of Medea and Murder of
Children. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
duBois, P. 1982. Centaurs and Amazons: Women
and the Pre-history of the Great Chain of Being.
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Dunkle, J.R. 1969. The Aegeus Episode and the
Theme of Euripides Medea. TAPhA 100:
97107.
Dunn, F.M. 1994. Euripides and the Rites of
Hera Akraia. GRBS 35: 10315.
Easterling, P.E. 1977. The Infanticide in
Euripides Medea. YCS 25: 17791.
Easterling, P.E. 1997b. Constructing the
Heroic, in C.B.R. Pelling (ed.), Greek Tragedy
and the Historian. Oxford: Oxford University
Press: 2137.
Fartzoff, M. 1996. Le pouvoir dans Mde.
Pallas 45: 15368.
Friedrich, R. 1993. Medea apolis: On Euripides
Dramatization of the Crisis of the Polis, in
A.Sommerstein, S. Halliwell, J. Henderson, and
B. Zimmermann (eds.), Tragedy, Comedy, and
the Polis. Bari: Levante Editori: 21939.
Galis, L. 1992. Medeas Metamorphosis. Eranos
110: 6581.
Gellie, G. 1988. The Character of Medea. BICS
35: 1522.
Gill, C. 1996. Personality in Greek Epic, Tragedy,
and Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Gredley, B. 1987. The Place and Time of Victory:
Euripides Medea. BICS 34: 2739.
Griffiths, E. 2006. Medea. Gods and Heroes
Series. London: Routledge.
Hall, E., F. Macintosh, and O. Taplin (eds.). 2000.
Medea in Performance 15002000. Oxford:
Legenda.
Hatzichronoglou, L. 1993. Euripides Medea:
Woman or Fiend? in M. DeForest (ed.),
Womens Power, Mans Game: Essays on Classical
Antiquity in Honor of Joy K. King. Wauconda,
IL: Bolchazy-Carducci: 17893.
Johnston, S.I. 1997. Corinthian Medea and the
Cult of Hera Akraia, in J.J. Clauss and S.I.
Johnston (eds.), Medea: Essays on Medea in
Myth, Literature, Philosophy, and Art. Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press: 4470.

Kerenyi, K. 1979. Goddesses of Sun and Moon:
Circe, Aphrodite, Medea, Niobe. Irving, TX:
Spring Publications.
Knox, B.M.W. 1977/1979. The Medea of
Euripides. YCS 25: 193225; repr. in Word
and Action. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins
University Press, 1979: 295322.
Kovacs, D. 1993. Zeus in Euripides Medea.
AJPh 114: 4570.
Lawrence, S. 1997. Audience Uncertainty and
Euripides Medea. Hermes 125: 4955.
Luschnig, C.A.E. 2007. Granddaughter of the
Sun: A Study of Euripides Medea. Leiden:
Brill.
Mastronarde, D.J. 2002. Euripides: Medea.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
McDermott, E.A. 1989. Euripides Medea: The
Incarnation of Disorder. University Park:
Pennsylvania State University Press.
McDermott, E.A. 1991. Double Meaning and
Mythic Novelty in Euripides Plays. TAPhA
121: 12332.
Michelini, A. 1989. Neophron and Euripides
Medea 105680. TAPhA 119: 11535.
Moreau, A. 1994. Le mythe de Jason et Mde.
Paris: Belles Lettres.
Ohlander, S. 1989. Dramatic Suspense in Euripides
and Senecas Medea. American University
Studies 6. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.
7
Page, D. 1938. Euripides: Medea. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Rehm, R. 1989. Medea and the Logos of the
Heroic. Eranos 87: 97115.
Segal, C. 1997b. On the Fifth Stasimon of
Euripides Medea. AJPh 118: 16784.
Sfyroeras, P. 1995. The Ironies of Salvation: The
Aigeus Scene in Euripides Medea. CJ 90:
12542.
Webster, T.B.L. 1967. The Tragedies of Euripides.
London: Methuen; 2nd edn., 1969.
Williamson, M. 1990. A Womans Place in
Euripides Medea, in A. Powell (ed.), Euripides,
Women, and Sexuality. London: Routledge:
1631.
Worthington, I. 1990. The Ending of Euripides
Medea. Hermes 118: 5025.
Further Reading
Jocelyn, H.D. 1967. The Tragedies of Ennius.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Reid, J.D. 1993. The Oxford Guide to Classical
Mythology in the Arts, 13001990s. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Warmington, E. H. 1936. Remains of Old Latin,
vol. 1. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
CECELIA A.E. LUSCHNIG