1.

TENSES
PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE
It is used to express:
1. activities that we repeat regularly (habits, routines)
He wants to go home. I go to school every day.
2. general truth or an unchangeable fact
The earth revolves around the sun.
3. to talk about permanent situations and states (an action occuring at the moment of
speaking or writing) used only of state verbs. I don't like going with groups.
4. to talk about future fixed arrangement or timetables that we cannot change
My train leaves in two hours.

We often use ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY with the Present Simple: rarely, often, sometimes,
usually, always, never they go before the main verb but after the verb be.
She never eats meat. He is never late.

Sometimes and usually can both go at the beginning or the end. Sometimes we play cards.
Every day goes at the end. He phones me every day.

FORM: It is formed by adding an ending (e)s to the third person singular. The s ending can
be pronounced in three ways: -z (goes), -s (talks) or -iz (fixes). The negative and interrogative
form is formed by using the verb TO DO and the Infinitive: I don't ask. Do I ask?

Verb Endings in o; -s; -x;-ch;-sh add es

Verbs ending in a consonant and -y often change the -y to -ies: CRY CRIES
Verbs such as buy or play have no consonant before the "y", so you simply add -s
as usual.

PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

We use it:

1. to talk about activities that are going on at the time of speaking

My friends are waiting for me, I have to go!
2. to talk about activities that happen regularly but only for a limited period of time around
the present (temporary routines or habits)
I am eating only fruit and vegetables at the moment.
3. to talk about future events that we have already fixed or arranged
I am getting married in June.

FORM: It is formed by using Present Simple Tense of the verb to be and the Present Participle
of the verb required.

There are some rules like :when the verb ends with a consonant + e (write, smile) we drop the
final - e (writing, smiling) / when the verb ends with one vowel + consonant (sit, run) we double
the final consonant (sitting, running). Common time adverbials are: just, now, at the moment, at
present and their position in a sentence can be : between be and the - ing form (I'm just writing
a test) / at the end( We are having lunch now.)/ at the beginning

Generally, we use the Present Simple to talk about things which are permanent or long-lasting
and we use the Present Continuous to talk about things which are temporary or limited in time.
I read British newspapers. (I regularly do it.)
I am reading British newspapers. (I'm doing it at the moment.)

*STATE AND ACTIVITY VERBS

In English language there are verbs that are not normally used in the Continuous Tense, because
they describe rather state than an action. They are called STATE VERBS (stative verbs, non-
progressive verbs). The verbs that can be used in the Continuous Tense are called ACTION
VERBS (dynamic verbs).

State verbs describe such things as:

feelings - love, hate, despise, detest, like, care, dislike;
thinking and believing believe, think, know, suppose, admire, adore, deserve, doubt, appear,
astonish, agree, imagine, understand, suppose, realise;
wants and preferences - need, want, prefer, hope, desire, wish;
perceptions and the senses - look, smell, see, sound, taste;
possession - have*, consist, include, owncontain, belong, own;
being or seeming - be*, appear, seem, resemble.

Here are a few verbs that can be both state and action verbs depending on their meaning. For
example: 'This wine tastes good' describes an effect on the senses, while 'John is tasting the wine'
describes the activity of tasting.

I think you made a mistake. think = believe

I am thinking about my mum now. think = mental process

I have two cars. - have = possess, own

I am having my lunch now. - have = eat

I am seeing my friend tomorrow evening. - see = meeting with

I see what you mean. - see = understand

She' s looking at us. - look = watch

She looks beautiful in her new coat. - look = appear

PAST SIMPLE TENSE

We use it to talk about:

1. finished actions in the past

We watched a terrible film last night.
2. past situations and past habits
The weather was horrible. I went to primary school in England.
3. actions which follow each other in a story
John walked into the room and stopped. She listened carefully. She heard a noise

FORM: It's formed by adding an ending (e)d to the base form of most verbs.
It rained all day yesterday.
Other verbs are common irregular verbs. We have to memorize them. You bought it!
We say - ed in three different ways: - d (smiled), - t (cooked), - id (wanted). In questions and
negatives we use the infinitive and did or didn't.
Did you see the match last night? We didn't like the play, it was too slow. We
can use the following time adverbials with Past Simple: yesterday, last night, two days ago.
Last week I bought a new bike. My parents got married twenty years ago.

PAST CONTINUOUS

We use it to talk about:

1. an activity or activities that continued for some time in the past

I was trying to fix my bike all morning.
2. activities that form a background for some events. In other words, if an action began in
the past, lasted for a certain time and was not ended when another past action happened.
My mother was playing the piano when I entered the room.
/Or if two past actions are going on simultaneously, they are both expressed by Past
Continuous Tense.
He was singing while his sister was packing her bags.

FORM: We use the Past Simple form of the verb to be and the Present Participle to form it.
The driver was sitting behind the wheel.

Past Continuous refers to longer, background activities, while Past Simple refers to shorter,
completed action.
The children were playing in the garden when their grandparents arrived.

PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE

We use this tense to talk about:

1. past events and activities with results or consequences in the present

The manager has gone out. (He is still here)
2. a single or repeated action in the past, often with adverbials as often, sometimes, usually,
when we don't know or are not interested in exactly when something happened.
I have often travelled by plane.
3. things that started in the past and continue up till now, often with adverbials such as
always, all my life, since, for.
I have always liked jazz.

FORM: We form it with the Present Simple form of the verb have and the Past Participle.
He has had this car for years.
We use the following time adverbials with the Present Perfect:

o before, ever, never, seldom, sometimes, often, usually, just - the position is usually
in front of the main verb and sometimes at the end of the sentence.
We have never met him.
o already (usually after have/has) in statements and yet (at the end) in questions and
negative statements.
Have you had lunch yet? I have already had lunch.
o for, - tells us about the perid of time which the activity has taken, since tells us
about the point in time when the activity began, all my life.
I haven't seen him for ages. I've lived in this house since 1987.

She is a teacher. (We are not interested in the past)

She has been a teacher all her life. (She still is and we are looking back at her whole career.)
When we use this tense we want to make a connection between past event and present situation.
I was in the US in 1990.(We know precisely when it happened)
I have been to the US. (I was there in the past and it doesn't matter when)

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

We use it to talk about:

1. repeated or continuous action which started in the past and hasn't finished.
We have been learning English for two years.
2. past activities which have some consequences or side effects in the present.
I have been reading all night. (That's why I'm sleepy now.)

FORM: We form it with the Present Perfect Simple form of the verb to be and the Present
Participle. They have been playing football.

I have read his new book. (I have finished it, I know what the book is about)
I have been reading his new book. (I'm still reading it, I haven't finished it)
We use the Present perfect Simple to talk about finished actions and achievements and we use the
Present Perfect Continuous to talk about unfinished actions.
She has done the washing up. (The result is that dishes are clean)
She has been doing the washing. (The consequence is that there is no water on the floor.)

PAST PERFECT SIMPLE TENSE

We use it to talk about an event which happened before some other time past events
i.e. it denotes a past action finished before another past action began or was finished.
She didn't know that he had got married.

We use the Past Simple and the Past Perfect in one sentence to show order of past events
(the event expressed by the Past Perfect happened earlier)
He didn't realized that someone had robbed his safe.

We usually use it after as soon as, after, before

She phoned me as soon as she had found my phone number.

FORM: We form it with the Past Simple form of the verb have and the Past Participle.
Had he met Joan before?

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

We use it to talk about longer activities in the past that happened before another past event.
(It expresses an action which is continued.)
I realized he had been cheating since the beginning of the game.
It differs from the Past Perfect Simple tense which denotes a completed action.

FORM: We form it with the Past Perfect form of the verb to be and and the Present Participle
of the verb required. I had not been asking.

*EXPRESSING FUTURE

English has several forms for expressing different ideas about the future.

FUTURE SIMPLE / WILL + INFINITIVE

1. to make predictions based on experience or intuition.

I think she will win the competition.
2. to express a sudden decision made at the moment of speaking.
Don't wash up, I'll do it.
3. to express fixed intentions or promises.
I'll give the money as soon as possible.
4. to make a request or an offer.
Will you join us?
FORM: We use will/won't and Infinitive without to to form this tense.
You will find it on our website.

SHALL + INFINITIVE

We use it to make a polite offer or suggestion, or ask for advice with I or we.
Shall I help you with that? Shall we wait for the others?
We also use it for commands, promises or threats.
You shall pay for that. You shall go to the butcher's and bring some meat.

FUTURE CONTINUOUS

We use it to talk about activities that will be in progress at a certain time in the future.
At this time on Saturday I'll be dancing at your wedding.

FORM: It's formed of the auxiliary verb to be in the Future Simple Tense and the Present
Participle of the verb required.
They will be working in the field the whole day.

FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE

We use it to talk about actions that will be completed before a certain time in the future.

It is formed of the auxiliary verb shall/ will and the Perfect Infinitive of the verb required.

By the end of the month we will have done ten exams.

This heat will have disappeared before the beginning of September.

BE GOING TO FUTURE FORM

1. to make a prediction about a future event based on observing the present situation.
He is going to fail the test. (We notice that he doesn't study enough)
2. to express an intention to do something.
My parents are never going to sell their house.

FORM: I't's formed of the auxiliary verb to be (am,is,are) in the Present Simple Tense, going to
form and and an Infinitive without to of the verb required.

MAY / MIGHT + INFINITIVE

We use it to make uncertain predictions.
It may snow tomorrow. ( It's possible that it will rain but we are not sure.)

FUTURE-IN-THE-PAST
Like Simple Future - Future in the Past has two different forms in English: "would" and "was
going to." Although the two forms can sometimes be used interchangeably, they often express
two different meanings.
FORM Would (would + VERB) I knew you would help him.

FORM Was/Were Going To (was/were + going to + VERB) I knew you were not going to go to
the party.

Future in the Past is used to express the idea that in the past you thought something would happen
in the future. It does not matter if you are correct or not. Future in the Past follows the same basic
rules as the Simple Future. "Would" is used to volunteer or promise, and "was going to" is used to
plan. Moreover, both forms can be used to make predictions about the future.
I told you he was going to come to the party. - plan
I knew Julie would make dinner. - voluntary action
I had a feeling that the vacation was going to be a disaster. - prediction
He promised he would send a postcard from Egypt. - promise

REMEMBER No Future in Time Clauses

Like all future forms, Future in the Past cannot be used in clauses beginning with time
expressions such as: when, while, before, after, by the time, as soon as, if, unless, etc.
Instead of using Future in the Past, you must use Simple Past.

I already told Mark that when he would arrive, we would go out for dinner. - Not Correct
I already told Mark that when he arrived, we would go out for dinner. - Correct

2. KINDS OF SENTENCES

1. ACCORDING TO THE COMMUNICATIVE FUNCTION

a) statement or declarative sentence makes a statement. A declarative sentence ends with a
period. Mary plays the piano.
b) question or interrogative sentence asks a question. An interrogative sentence ends with a
question mark. Does Mary play the piano?
c) command or imperative gives a command. Stop talking.
c) exclamation or exclamatory sentence shows strong feeling. An exclamatory sentence ends
with an exclamation mark. How lucky you are! What a pity!

2. ACCORDING TO FORM AND THE ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS

a) The basic English language sentence is called a simple sentence. It requires a subject and a
verb. We ordinarily include some additional words that explain the subject. The sentence or a part
of a sentence that contains a subject and a verb and constitutes a complete thought is called an
independent clause. I like English.

b) A complex sentence contains an independent clause and a subordinate clause. The independent
clause can function as a complete sentence. The subordinate clause also contains a subject and a
verb but cannot function as an independent sentence.

Mary was playing the piano when John arrived.

They built a hotel that can accomodate 600 guests.
c) A compound sentence contains two independent clauses. Two independent clauses may be
joined by a comma and a conjunction, or by a semicolon, or by a colon. Mary plays the piano
and John plays the guitar.

3.NAME 10 WORDS THAT HAVE A SILENT CONSONANT

honest handsome climb
know lamb listen
bomb friendship calm
grandfather widow island

4. NAME AT LEAST 15 COMPOUND NOUNS AND 5 COMPOUND ADJECTIVES

blood pressure road map waterfall
daylight briefcase iceberg
birthday card paper bag landscape
rainbow sunset playground
notebook housekeeper homework
lipstick graveyard earthquake
weekend air-conditioning baby-sitter
phone bill grandchildren dishwasher

5 compound adjectives:
a ten-pound note
a five-star hotel
a six-month-old baby
a forty-five-minute tape
a hundred-watt bulb

5. NAME AT LEAST 5 ABBREVIATIONS & ACRONYMS AND THEIR DEFINITIONS

An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase that is used to save space or avoid
repetition. Some words or phrases are almost always abbreviated in ordinary text, including:
Courtesy titles: Dr., Mrs., Mr.
Time and period: AM, PM, BC, AD
ASAP - as soon as possible
Jr. - junior
kg - kilogram
km - kilometer etc.
An acronym is a word formed from the first letter of several words in a term or phrase. Most
acronyms are set in all capitals without punctuation or space between them.
AIDS - acquired immune deficiency syndrome
CIA - Central Intelligence Agency
FBI - Federal Burreau of Investigation
UN - United Nations
ATM - Automatic Teller Machine etc.

6. NAME AT LEAST 5 HOMOPHONES AND HOMONYMS AND DEFINE THEM

A homophone is a word that is pronounced the same as another word but differs in meaning. The
words may be spelled the same, such as rose (flower) and rose (past tense of "rise"), or
differently, such as to, two and too.
accept and except
weather and whether
made and maid
dye and die
been and bean
meat and meet
Homonyms are words with the same spelling and pronunciation but different meanings.
a dusty desert plain and the plain truth
on the bank of the Danube and an accountant in the bank
bear in mind and to kill a bear
not my type and to type words
I miss you and Miss Watson

7. NAME AT LEAST 10 SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS WITH THEIR EXPLANATIONS

Synonyms are different words with identical or very similar meanings.
student and pupil (noun)
buy and purchase (verb)
sick and ill (adjective)
on and upon (preposition)
faith / belief - an aim / goal
confess / admit - mad / insane etc.
Antonyms are words with opposite or nearly opposite meanings.
happiness and misery
criticize and praise
guilty and innocent
attack and defend
reward and punish

8.DEFINE COLLOCATIONS AND NAME AT LEAST 10 OF THEM

A collocation is two or more words that often go together. These combinations just sound "right"
to native English speakers, who use them all the time. On the other hand, other combinations may
be unnatural and just sound "wrong". Look at these examples:

the fast train not the quick train

fast food not quick food
a quick shower not fast shower
a quick meal not a fast meal

HAVE: a bath, a shower, a good time, a rest, a relationship, a problem

MAKE: a mistake, a deal, money, trouble, a noise, a difference
TAKE: a break, a chance, a look, an exam, a seat
DO: homework, housework, the cleaning, sports, running, nothing, business etc.

9. VAGUE LANGUAGE
Vague language is not totally accurate or clear. Although some people think this is "bad" English,
all native English speakers use vague language when they are unable or unwilling to give
accurate information, or they think it is either unnecessary or socially inappropriate to do so. A
good example of vague language is rounding up numbers when telling the time. Twenty-six
minutes past two becomes:
It's almost half past two.
It's half two-ish.
It's nearly half past two.

Often, speakers use vague language not because they do not have accurate information, but
because they feel it is more polite to make a less definite statement. That is wrong becomes:
"I'm not sure that's completely correct."

Sometimes a speaker might start a list of some kind and then cannot remember the rest of the list
or does not think the other items are important enough to mention. In these cases, list completers
are ideal: "You have to ask a doctor or a lawyer or someone like that."

Placeholders are for when a speaker does not know or cannot remember the name of something
or someone. "I gave it to whatsisname in the accounts department."

Grammatically these simply replace the name of the person or object that the speaker cannot
remember and never change their form. - whatsername (for a woman)/ whatsit
"He's not that old. I'd say he's about 30-ish."
"There were a lot of / lots of / loads of problems."
"I've been to Prague a couple of / a few times."

10. CAUSATIVES
In English we cannot say that we do, did or are going to do something if it is in fact another
person who is going to perform the action. In English, if you say "I am going to cut my hair" it
means that you will sit down in front of a mirror with the scissors and do it yourself.
When we wish to talk about arranging for things to be done by other people (usually experts), we
use the structure to have/get something done have/get + object+ the past participle:
I am going to have my hair cut.
I have my car serviced every two months.
We had the house redecorated over the summer.
I am going to get my hair cut.
I get my car serviced every two months.
We got the house redecorated over the summer.

11. TIME CLAUSES

We use these words: before, after, while and when to introduce time clauses to tell when
something happens.
The phone rang before we ate dinner.
The phone rang is an independent clause. It can stand alone grammatically.

before we ate dinner is a dependent clause. It needs an independent clause to be a complete

sentence. When the independent clause comes first in the sentence, no comma is needed.
When the dependent clause comes first in the sentence, the clauses are separated by a comma.
Before we ate dinner, the phone rang. / The phone rang before we ate dinner.

Clauses that refer to past time are formed with the verb in the PAST tense:
After we played golf, we went to a party.
As soon as we arrived at the party, they put the steaks on.
Until the party ended, there was plenty of good wine.

In time clauses refering to the future, we use the Present Simple (not will) after when, as soon as,
after, before. We sometimes use the Present Perfect to stress that one action has to finish before
the other can start.
When the game is over, we'll have a cup of tea.
I will write this letter before I go out.
Remember to switch on the alarm after you've locked the door.

12. RELATIVE AND PARTICIPLE CLAUSES

We use relative clauses to give additional information about something without starting another
sentence. By combining sentences with a relative clause, your text becomes more fluent and you
can avoid repeating certain words.

Words like who, that , which, where and whose are often referred to as relative pronouns when
they are used to introduce relative clauses. We use: who for people, which for things, and that
for both people and things; whom as the object of a relative clause (in more formal English),
though it is increasingly common to replace it with who; where for places; whose to indicate
possession, as a determiner before nouns. The man who(m) I saw yesterday is my friend.

Defining Relative Clauses

Defining relative clauses give detailed information defining a general term or expression.(We
need that information.) There are no commas.
She likes people who are good fun to be with.
I only pierce young people who come with their parents.

Non-Defining Relative Clauses

Non-defining relative clauses give additional information on something, but do not define it. (We
dont need that information,we could just fine without it)
Non-defining relative clauses are put in commas.
My friend Andrew, who is Scottish, plays the bagpipes.
Jack Watson, who is a qualified hairdresser, took me to his salon.
Note: In non-defining relative clauses, who/which may not be replaced with that.

How to Shorten Relative Clauses - using PARTICIPLE CLAUSES

Relative clauses with who, which, that as subject pronoun can be replaced with a participle. This
makes the sentence shorter and easier to understand.
I told you about the woman who lives next door. I told you about the woman living next door.
Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof? Do you see the cat lying on the roof?
You can see many people wearing rings everywhere.
I was looking at the walls, covered with photos of clients.
I met a woman riding a donkey.
participle clauses = adverbial clauses
Participle clauses often express condition, reason, cause, result or time in a similar way to full
adverbial clauses, only more economically.
Having taken the wrong train, I found myself in Bath, not Bristol. Because I had taken the
wrong train, I found myself in Bath, not Bristol.
Passing the theatre on my right, I walked up the steps and could see all the lights on the
Thames ahead of me. After I had passed the theatre on my right, I walked up the steps and
could see all the lights on the Thames ahead of me.

Participle clauses, with -ing particularly, can be used after various conjunctions and prepositions,
such as: when, while, before, after, on, without, instead of. Note the following examples:
Remember to take all your belongings with you when leaving the train.

13.CLEFT SENTENCES
We often emphasize a particular part of a sentence,perhaps to contradict what someone else has
said or for a dramatic effect. In speech we can do this with stress and intonation alone,but we can
also do this by changing the position of elements in a sentence in speech and in writing. We can
manipulate grammar to emphasise something by splitting one sentence into two parts (cleft
sentences) or by bringing the element we want to emphasise to the beginning (fronting).

Because there are two parts to the sentence it is called cleft (from the verb cleave) which means
divided into two.

Vanessa has made the greatest impact.

It was Vanessa who has made the greatest impact. (cleft sentence: two clauses,one verb)
Cleft structures include the reason why, the thing that, the person/people who, the place where,
the day when and what-clauses which are usually linked to the clause that we want to focus on
with is or was.

It cleft sentences have this structure:

It + a form of be(+not and/or adverb) + emphasised word/phrase + that/which/who clause
Sentence: Mike took Sally to the party on Saturday.
Emphasising the subject: It was Mike who took Sally to the party on Saturday.
Emphasising the object: It was Sally (that) Mike took to the party on Saturday.
Emphasising the adverbial: It was on Saturday (that) Mike took Sally to the party.
Emphasising the prepositional phrase: It was to the party (that) Mike took Sally on Saturday.
! with it clefts we cannot highlight the action in a sentence we do it with this pattern:

Wh-clause in cleft sentences

Wh-clause + a form of be + emphasised word or a phrase.
What Mike did was take Sally to the party.( wh-clause must contain averb.)
We often use DO as well in these sentences: What Mike did was to take Sally to the party.
We can emphasise an item with the(only/last) thing or all.
The only thing we didn't find was the keyto the cellar.

14. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

The Zero Conditional (Type 0)

The zero conditional is a structure used for talking about general truths, or scientific facts --
things which always happen under certain conditions.
A zero conditional sentence consists of two clauses, an "if" clause and a main clause.
If the "if" clause comes first, a comma is usually used. If the "if" clause comes second, there is
no need for the comma.
The simple present tense is the tense used in both clauses.
If you spend 10 $ in my supermarket, I give you a special discount of 10 %.

First Conditional (Type I)

The first conditional is a structure used for talking about possibilities in the present or in the
future.Type 1: if + present + future/ imperative
If I have the money, I will buy this car.
If you see Mr Fox tonight, tell him I am ill. (imperative).

Second Conditional (Type II)

The second conditional is a structure used for talking about unreal situations in the present or in
the future.Type 2: if + past + conditional
If I had the money, I would buy this car. (Since I do not have the money I cannot buy any new
car). The action in type 2 is characterized by unreality.
If dogs had wings, they would be able to fly.

- For the second conditional, were replaces was: If I were a rich man...
- Instead of if not, we can use unless.
He'll accept the job unless the salary is too low.

Third Conditional (Type III)

The third conditional is a structure used for talking about unreal situations in the past. In other
words, it is used to talk about things which DID NOT HAPPEN in the past.
Type 3: if + past perfect + perfect conditional
If I had studied harder, I probably would have passed the exam.
If I had had the money, I would have bought this BMW. (But I did not have it, and so did not
buy).
If you had driven more carefully, you would not have had an accident. (You had an accident
because you didn't drive carefully enough.)
If we had played a little better, we could have won the game.(We didn't play well, so we lost the
game.) The action in type 3 is characterized by impossibility.
While type 1 and type 2 focus on the present or future, the time in type 3 is the past and
signifies a completed action in the past.

Mixed conditionals
Sometimes conditional sentences are mixed, which means that the time in the "if" clause is not
the same as the time in the main clause. The following types of mixed conditionals are possible:

Past/present - present/past
If you hadn't taken so long getting ready, we'd be there by now.
If we liked shellfish, we would have eaten the lobster.

Past/future - future/past
If I had saved a bit harder, I'd be going to Jamaica with them next week.
If I didn't have to work this evening, I would have gone with them to the game.

Future/present - present/future
If he didn't have to study tomorrow, he wouldn't be depressed.
If she didn't like travelling, she wouldn't be going to the Amazon next weekend.

e.g. If + Past Perfect - would + inf.

If you had warned me (then), I would not be in prison (now).

15. THE PASSIVE

We use the passive when:

1. we don't know or don't care who the doer of the action is.
The walls were painted white.
2. the doer is obvious
The robbers will be found and arrested.
3. the action itself is more important than who did it.
My car has been stolen!

Sometimes we also use passive to put more emphasis on the doer of the action. Then we add the
by + person at the end of the sentence to say who the doer is.
The bicycle has been repaired by Peter.

To form the passive we use the appropriate form of be (in all tenses) + the Past Participle.
That bridge was built in 1867. (Past Simple Passive)

Apart from passive forms of tenses we can use some other passive forms:
Passive infinitive: It's nice to be taken seriously.
Passive gerund: We like being praised by the teacher.
Passive Perfect infinitive: The train may have been delayed by the storm.
16. EXPRESSING REGRETS WITH WISH
We use the verb wish to say:

1. what we are not happy with in the present:

I wish I was taller. (We use the pattern: wish + past tense)
I wish they weren't singing so loudly.
2. what we regret about the past:
I wish I had studied harder when I was at school. (wish + past perfect)
3. what we want to be changed in our present situation:
I wish you would stop smoking.(wish + present conditional)

17. IRREGULAR VERBS NAME ALL OF THEM

18. PHRASAL VERBS

In books they're referred to as 'phrasal verbs' and 'multi-part verbs' and 'prepositional verbs'.
They're verbs followed by what is sometimes called a 'particle'. This 'particle' is either a
preposition or an adverb, or possibly one of each.

We use phrasal verbs in two ways:

a) to describe an action literally.
He went out of the room.
She walked past him without saying a word.

b) to describe an action idiomatically.

Oh, no! The lights have gone out again.
I picked up some Italian when I was working in Rome.

There are four types of phrasal verbs.

Type 1 verbs - These verbs don't have an object.
He left his wife and children and went away.
All right, I don't know. I give up.

Type 2 verbs - These verbs have an object, and this object can go after the verb or between the
two parts of the verb.

He turned off the TV and went to bed.

He turned the TV off and went to bed.
He turned it off and went to bed.
He turned off it and went to bed.

When you don't use a pronoun, it doesn't really matter where you put the object. We generally put
the object where it sounds better. If you use a pronoun, you have to put it between the two words
of the verb.

Type 3 verbs - These verbs have an object, but the object must go after the verb. It doesn't
matter whether it's a pronoun or not.
I'm looking for my credit card. Have you seen it?
I'm looking for it. Have you seen it?
I'm looking my credit card for. Have you seen it?
I'm looking it for. Have you seen it?

Type 4 verbs - These are the same as Type 3 verbs, but they have three words instead of two.
The object must go after the verb.

I'm looking forward to the holidays.

I'm looking forward to them.
Do you get on with your neighbours?
Do you get on with them?

19.MODAL VERBS
We use CAN to say that something is possible/ allowed and to talk about ability
We can go home now if we want.
There are two negative forms: 'can't' and 'cannot'. These mean exactly the same thing. When we
are speaking, we usually say 'can't'.
We use 'can' in offers, requests and instructions.
Can I help?
Could I help? past form

We use MUST to express a strong obligation.

I must go to bed earlier.
We can also use HAVE TO to express a strong obligation.
I have to arrive at work at 9 sharp. My boss is very strict.
In British English, we often use HAVE GOT TO to mean the same as 'have to'.
We've got to finish now as somebody else needs this room.

There is a huge difference in the negative forms.

We use MUSTN'T to express strong obligations NOT to do something.
We mustn't talk about it. It's confidential.
We use DON'T HAVE TO (or 'haven't got to' in British English) to state that there is NO
obligation or necessity.
I don't have to listen to this. I'm leaving.
We use NEEDN'T to talk about a lack of obligation. The past form of needn't for lack of
obligation is NEEDN'T HAVE:
You needn't go to the meeting.
You must not eat that. IT IS FORBIDDEN, IT IS NOT ALLOWED.
You don't have to eat that. YOU CAN IF YOU WANT TO, BUT IT IS NOT NECESSARY.

We can use MAY to ask for permission.

May I borrow your pen?
We use 'may' to suggest something is possible.
I may not have time to do it today.
We use MIGHT to suggest a small possibility of something. Often we read that 'might' suggests a
smaller possibility that 'may', there is in fact little difference and 'might is more usual than 'may'
in spoken English.
It might rain this afternoon.

We use WILL to say we are willing to do something:

I will come, but only with a police escort.
We use WON'T to say we are not willing to do something. The past form of won't is wouldn't:
I wont do it, and thats final.
Will can also express intention (especially in the first person):
I'll do my exercises later on.
and prediction.
Themeetingwillbeoversoon.

WOULD is a modal verb and like all others of its kind is followed by the infinitive without 'to'
In Grammar definitions would is briefly mentioned under conditionals and reported speech.
Would can also be used to express willingness:
Wouldyoupleasetakeoffyourhat?
In a main clause, would can express a hypothetical meaning:
My cocker spaniel would weigh a tone if I let her eat what she wants.
Finally, would can express a sense of probability:
Ihearawhistle.Thatwouldbethefiveo'clocktrain.

SHALL is used to indicate future action. It is most commonly used in sentences with "I" or
"we," and is often found in suggestions, such as "Shall we go?" "Shall" is also frequently used in
promises or voluntary actions."Shall" is much more commonly heard in British English than in
American English.
Shall I help you? SUGGESTION
I shall never forget where I came from. PROMISE

SHOULD is most commonly used to make recommendations or give advice. It can also be used
to express obligation as well as expectation.
When you go to Berlin, you should visit the palaces in Potsdam. RECOMMENDATION
You should focus more on your family and less on work. ADVICE
I really should be in the office by 7:00 AM. OBLIGATION
By now, they should already be in Dubai. EXPECTATION

OUGHT TO is used to advise or make recommendations. "Ought to" also expresses assumption
or expectation as well as strong probability, often with the idea that something is deserved.
"Ought not" (without "to") is used to advise against doing something, although Americans prefer
the less formal forms "should not" or "had better not."
You ought to stop smoking. RECOMMENDATION
This stock ought to increase in value. PROBABILITY

*MODALS FOR SPECULATING

Modals of speculation are modal auxiliary verbs which express degrees of certainty. In other
words, they describe a fact or situation that is definite, probable, possible, or impossible from
the speaker's point of view. (As the speaker is speculating, he/she may be wrong.)

If we are certain about something we use

* to talk about present:
- must + inf. He must be a doctor.
- can't or couldn't + inf. He can't be a doctor.
*to talk about past:
- must + have + present participle They must not have moved it without help.
- can't/couldn't + have + past participle

If we are not certain about something but we think its possible

*to talk about present:
- may/ might/ could + inf. The shops may be open today.
*to talk about past:
- may/ might/ could + have + past participle
The islanders might not have moved the statues over land. They could have used boats.
*to talk about future:
- may/ might/ could + inf. It could rain today.

20. REPORTED SPEECH

STATEMENTS
1) If the sentence starts in the present, there is no backshift of tenses in Reported speech.
Example: Susan says: "I work in an office." Susan says that she works in an office.

2) If the sentence starts in the past, there is often backshift of tenses in Reported speech.
Example: Susan said: "I work in an office." Susan said that she worked in an office.

Simple Present - Simple Past

Simple Past - Past Perfect
Present Perfect - Past Perfect
will - would
Progressive forms
am/are/is - was/were
was/were - had been
has been - had been

Backshift of tenses
Peter: "I work in the garden." - Peter said that he worked in the garden.
Peter: "I worked in the garden." - Peter said that he had worked in the garden.
Peter: "I have worked in the garden." - Peter: "I had worked in the garden."
Peter: "I will work in the garden." - Peter said that he would work in the garden.
Peter: "I can work in the garden." - Peter said that he could work in the garden.
Peter: "I may work in the garden." - Peter said that he might work in the garden.
Peter: "I would work in the garden." (could, might, should, ought to) - Peter said that he would
work in the garden. (could, might, should, ought to)
Progressive forms
Peter: "I'm working in the garden." - Peter said that he was working in the garden.
Peter: "I was working in the garden." - Peter said that he had been working in the garden.
Peter: "I have been working in the garden." - Peter: "I had been working in the garden."

If the sentence contains an expression of time, you must change it as well.

Peter: "I worked in the garden yesterday." - Peter said that he had worked in the garden the day
before.

Shifting of expressions of time

this (evening) that (evening)
today/this day that day
these (days) those (days)
now then
(a week) ago (a week) before
last weekend the weekend before / the previous weekend
here there
next (week) the following (week)
tomorrow the next/following day

NB: In some cases the backshift of tenses is not necessary, e.g. when statements are still true.

John: "My brother is at Leipzig university."

John said that his brother was at Leipzig university. or
John said that his brother is at Leipzig university.

Mandy: "The sun rises in the East."

Mandy said that the sun rose in the East. or
Mandy said that the sun rises in the East.

REPORTED QUESTIONS
If you put a question into Reported speech there are some steps which are the same like in
statements: (changing of the person, backshift of tenses, changing of expressions of time).
In Reported speech there is no question anymore, the sentence becomes a statement.
That's why the word order is: subject - verb
Question without question words / If we don't have a question word in a sentence we usually
need WHETHER or IF:
Peter: "Do you play football?" - Peter asked me whether (if) I played football.
Question with question words / If we have the question word in a sentence we use it and in both
cases the word order is the same as in an affirmative sentence:
Peter: "When do you play football?" - Peter asked me when I played football.

ORDERS, REQUESTS, SUGGESTIONS

1. When we want to report an order or request, we can use a verb like 'tell' + the Infinitive with
to.
Examples:
He told me to go away.
Other verbs used to report orders and requests in this way are: command, order, warn, ask,
advise, invite, beg, teach, forbid.
2. Requests for objects are reported using the pattern
ask + for + object:
"Can I have an apple?", she asked. - She asked for an apple.
3. Suggestions are usually reported with a that-clause. 'That' and 'should' are optional in these
clauses:
She said: "Why don't you get a mechanic to look at the car?" - She suggested that I should get a
mechanic to look at the car. OR She suggested I get a mechanic to look at the car.
Other reporting verbs used in this way are: insist, recommend, demand, request, propose.

Say and tell have similar meanings. They both mean to communicate verbally with someone. But
we often use them differently.
The simple way to think of say and tell is:
You say something
You tell someone something (you need an object)

21. IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS AT LEAST 10 OF THEM

An idiom is a phrase where the words together have a meaning that is different from the
dictionary definitions of the individual words. (e.g. cold war) Idiomatic expressions are also non-
standard speech, slang or dialect that are natural to native speakers of a language.

" Between a rock and a hard place "- In a very difficult situation when any resolution will be
unpleasant
" Blow your top " Meaning - To lose your temper
" Break a leg " Meaning - Used to wish good luck to stage performers before an opening
" By the skin of your teeth " Meaning - Complete a task at the very last minute
" Drop someone a line " Meaning - To write to someone
" Excuse my French " Meaning - An apology for swearing
" Fire someone " Meaning - To end someone's your employment
" Get your wires crossed " Meaning - A misunderstanding
" Hit the sack " Meaning - To go to bed
" Keep an eye out for " Meaning - To look after anotherIdiomatic expressions are also non-
standard speech, slang or dialect that are natnative
22.DETERMINERS
DETERMINERS are words that are used with nouns to clarify the noun.
There are different types of determiners. The type of determiner depends on the type of the noun.
Singular nouns always need a determiner. Plural nouns: the determiner is optional. Uncountable
nouns: the determiner is also optional.
There are about 50 different determiners in the English language they include:
Articles: a, an, the
Demonstratives: this, that, these, those, which etc.
Possessives: my, your, our, their, his, hers, whose, my friend's, our friends', etc.
Quantifiers:few, a few, many, much, each, every, some, any etc.
Numbers: one, two, three, twenty, forty
Ordinals: first, second, 1st 2nd, 3rd, last, next, etc.
*What are QUANTIFIERS?
Quantifiers are words that are used to state quantity or amount of something without stating the
actual number.
Quantifiers answer the questions "How many?" and "How much?"
Quantifiers can be used with plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns.
Quantifiers must agree with the noun. There are 3 main types of quantifiers. Quantifiers that are
used with countable nouns, quantifiers that are used with uncountable nouns. and the 3rd type are
quantifiers that are used with either countable nouns or uncountable nouns.

* a few/a little - means that there are not a lot of something, but there is enough (POSITIVE
CONNOTATION)
There are a few apples. There are enough apples.
I know a little English. He knows enough English to manage.
*few/little - means that there is not enough of something. (NEGATIVE CONNOTATION)
There are few apples. There are not enough apples.
There is little money. We can't buy a lot of expensive food.

23. PRONOUNS
Pronouns are small words that take the place of a noun. We can use a pronoun instead of a noun.
If we didn't have pronouns, we would have to repeat a lot of nouns.

*PERSONAL PRONOUNS
Personal pronouns represent specific people or things. We use them depending on:
number: singular (eg: I) or plural (eg: we)
person: 1st person (eg: I), 2nd person (eg: you) or 3rd person (eg: he)
gender: male (eg: he), female (eg: she) or neuter (eg: it)
case: subject (eg: we) or object (eg: us)

When we are talking about a single thing, we almost always use it. However, there are a few
exceptions. We may sometimes refer to an animal as he/him or she/her, especially if the animal
is domesticated or a pet. Ships (and some other vehicles) as well as some countries are often
treated as female and referred to as she/her. Here are some examples:

This is our dog Rusty. He's an Alsation.

My first car was a Mini and I treated her like my wife.

For a single person, sometimes we don't know whether to use he or she.

If a teacher needs help, he or she should see the principal.

We is used by an author, an editor or a judge speaking of himself.

We are convinced that this book is a complete success.

*DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
A demonstrative pronoun represents a thing or things, it is used to point out a person, a thing,
etc.: near in distance or time (this, these) far in distance or time (that, those)
This tastes good. singular
That is beautiful. singular
Those were the days! plural
These are bigger than those. plural

SUCH is used as an adjective and as a pronoun.

Adjective: Such pupils always succeed. Pronoun: Such were the places they visited.
If we need a phrase SUCH A we also need countable noun Such a good person.
SAME as an adjective: They all sang the same song. As a pronoun: He said the same.

*POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
We use possessive pronouns to refer to a specific person/people or thing/things belonging to
a person/people (and sometimes belonging to an animal/animals or thing/things).
We use possessive pronouns depending on:
number: singular (eg: mine) or plural (eg: ours)
person: 1st person (eg: mine), 2nd person (eg: yours) or 3rd person (eg: his)
gender: male (his), female (hers)

Look at these pictures. Mine is the big one. (subject - My picture)

I looked everywhere for your key. I found John's key but I couldn't find yours. (object - your key)
My flowers are dying. Yours are lovely. (subject - Your flowers)
John found his passport but Mary couldn't find hers. (object - her passport)
Here is your car. Ours is over there, where we left it. (subject - Our car)

Notice that the following (with apostrophe [']) do NOT exist: her's, your's, their's

*RELATIVE PRONOUNS
A relative pronoun is a pronoun that introduces a relative clause. It is called a "relative"
pronoun because it "relates" to the word that it modifies. The person who phoned me last
night is my teacherIn the above example, "who":
- relates to "person", which it modifies
- introduces the relative clause "who phoned me last night"
(NB: EXPLAINED IN RELATIVE CLAUSES)

*INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
We use interrogative pronouns to ask questions. The interrogative pronoun represents the
thing that we don't know (what we are asking the question about).

There are four main interrogative pronouns: who, whom, what, which
Notice that whom is the correct form when the pronoun is the object of the verb, as in "Whom
did you see?" ("I saw John.") However, in normal, spoken English we rarely use whom. Most
native speakers would say (or even write): "Who did you see?"

Note that we sometimes use the suffix "-ever" to make compounds from some of these pronouns
(mainly whoever, whatever, whichever). When we add "-ever", we use it for emphasis, often to
show confusion or surprise. Look at these examples:
Whoever would want to do such a nasty thing?
Whatever did he say to make her cry like that?
They're all fantastic! Whichever will you choose?

*REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
Reflexive (adj.): reflecting back on the subject, like a mirror.
We use a reflexive pronoun when we want to refer back to the subject of the sentence or clause.
Reflexive pronouns end in "-self" (singular) or "-selves" (plural).
He hurt himself.
He himself did it. (to emphasize the subject or the object).

*INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
An indefinite pronoun does not refer to any specific person, thing or amount. It is "not definite".
Have in mind that many indefinite pronouns also function as other parts of speech. Look at
"another" in the following sentences:

He has one job in the day and another at night. (pronoun)

I'd like another drink, please. (adjective)

Some typical indefinite pronouns are:

all, another, any, anybody/anyone, anything,both, each, everybody/everyone, everything, few,

many, nobody, none, one, several, some, somebody/someone

ANY is used in negative and interrogative sentences

SOME is used in an affirmative sentence. Some can be used in questions when an affirmative
answer is expected (Can't you give them some hints?) or when some refers to a definite portion of
the thing. (May I give you some sugar?)

EACH, EITHER, NEITHER, ANOTHER, ANYBODY/ANYONE, ANYTHING, ENOUGH,

EVERYBODY/EVERYONE, EVERYTHING, NOBODY/ NO-ONE, NOTHING, ONE, OTHER,
SOMEBODY/SOMEONE, SOMETHING require the verb in the singular.
Each member has his number. Neither of these two rooms is large enough.

BOTH, OTHERS, SEVERAL require the verb in the plural form.

They all complained and several left the meeting.

ALL, ANY, NONE, SOME , SUCH require the verb with both a singular and a plural verb,
according to the context and the emphasis required.

Its important to emphasize that a singular pronoun takes a singular verb and that any personal
pronoun should also agree (in number and gender). Look at these examples:
Each of the players has a doctor. I met two girls. One has given me her phone number.

Similarly, plural pronouns need plural agreement: Many have expressed their views.
*RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS
reciprocal (adj.): given or done in return; expressing mutual action We
use reciprocal pronouns when each of two or more subjects is acting in the same way towards the
other. There are only two reciprocal pronouns (indefinites also), and they are both two words:
each other one another

When we use these reciprocal pronouns: there must be two or more people, things or groups
involved (so we cannot use reciprocal pronouns with I, you, he/she/it)

They must be doing the same thing.

John and Mary love each other.
The ten prisoners were all blaming one another.
Both teams played hard against each other.
We gave each other gifts.
Why don't you believe each other?
The gangsters were fighting one another.

You probably notice that each other is used in more examples above than one another. That's
because in general we use each other more often than one another, which sounds a little formal.
Also, some people say that we should use one another only for three or more people or things,
but there is no real justification for this.

*I OR ME

1. Mary and I are delighted to be here today. (NOT Mary and me)
2. The letter was addressed to Mary and me. (NOT Mary and I)

In 1, Mary and I are subjects, which is why the pronoun takes the subjective case ("I"). In 2,
Mary and I are objects, which is why the pronoun takes the objective case ("me"). An easy way
to check the correct case is to try the sentence without Mary. Would you say "I am delighted to be
here" or "Me am delighted to be here"? Would you say "The letter was addressed to me" or "The
letter was addressed to I"?

24. A SELECTION OF LATIN PHRASES ( NAME AT LEAST TEN WITH THE

DEFINITIONS)
Ad hoc for this purpose
Ad infinitum without limit endlessly
Alter ego other self
Carpe diem seize the day enjoy the day
Cogito ergo sum I think, therefore I am
De facto in fact in reality
Mea culpa my fault
Status quo the current state of affairs
Urbi et orbi to the city and to the globe
Veni vidi vici I came, Isaw, I conquered
Vice versa the other way around
25. NAME 10 COMMONLY CONFUSING ENGLISH WORDS WITH THEIR
EXPLANATIONS

o affect: to influence effect: to cause

o allusion: an indirect reference illusion: an unreal impression
o capital: the seat of government capitol: the building in which a legislative
body meets
o complement: to make complete; something that completes compliment: to praise
o farther: more distant in space further: an extension of time or degree
o historic: an important occurrence historical: any occurrence in the past
o cite: to quote or document sight: vision site:position or place
accept: to receive except:to take or leave out
o lie: to lie down (a person or animal. hint: people can tell lies) lay: to lay an object down.
o lose: verb, to misplace or not win loose: adjective, to not be tight; verb - to
release
o principal: adjective, most important; noun, a person who has authority
principle: a general or fundamental truth
o than: use with comparisons then: at that time, or next
o through: by means of; finished; into or out of threw: past tense of throw
thorough: careful or complete though: however; nevertheless

26. NAME 10 EPONYMS

Eponyms - words named for people

Bloody Mary - a vodka and tomato juice drink; after the nickname of Mary I, Queen of England,
notorious for her persecution of Protestants.
bobbies - in Great Britain, police officers; after Sir Robert Peel, the statesman who organized the
London police force.
boycott - to combine against in a policy of nonintercourse for economic or political reasons; after
Charles C. Boycott, an English land agent in County Mayo, Ireland, ostracized in 1880 for
refusing to reduce rents.
Braille - a system of writing for the blind; after Louis Braille, the French teacher of the blind who
invented it.
Casanova - a man who is a promiscuous and unscrupulous lover; after Giovanni Giacomo
Casanova, an Italian adventurer.
Chauvinist - excessively patriotic; after Nicolas Chauvin, a character devoted to Napoleon in a
19th-cent. play.
derby - a stiff felt hat with a dome-shaped crown and rather narrow rolled brim; after Edward
Stanley, 12th earl of Derby, who in 1780 founded the Derby horse race at Epsom Downs,
England, to which these hats are worn.
diesel - a type of internal combustion engine or a vehicle driven by such an engine; after Rudolf
Diese, who built the first successful diesel engine.
guillotine - a machine for beheading; after Joseph Guillotin, a French physician who proposed its
use in 1789 as more humane than hanging.
sandwich - 2 or more slices of bread having a filling in between; after John Montagu, 4th earl of
Sandwich, who supposedly ate food in this form so that he would not have to leave the gaming
table.
silhouette - an outline image; from Etienne de Silhouette (1709-67), a close-fisted French finance
minister.

27. NAME 20 IRREGULAR PLURAL NOUNS (FOREIGN AS WELL)

bacterium bacteria
child children
crisis crises
curriculum curricula
elf elves
fish fish
foot feet
hippopotamus hippopotami
knife knives
leaf leaves
life lives
man men
memorandum memoranda
mouse mice
sheep sheep
shelf shelves
thief thieves
tooth teeth
wife wives
woman women

28. POSSESSIVE CASE/GENITIVE CASE

The possessive case is used to show possession/ that something belongs to the person for whom
the noun stands.
You may still hear someone say something like "The mother of the bride," but it could equally be;
"The bride's mother."

SINGULAR NOUNS: + an apostrophe ('s)

my aunt's birthday the man's hat
PLURAL NOUNS: + an apostrophe (') for regular plural or ('s) for irregular plural
1. regular plural publishers' rights members' forum dogs' tails
2. irregular plural children's toys men's tools women's activities

If two nouns are closely connected 's is added to the last word only.
John and Mary's parents.

People's names that end in "s" you can write (') or ('s).
Charles' job was on the line. Charles's job was on the line.

29. NUMBERS
The cardinal numbers (one, two, three, etc.) are adjectives referring to quantity, and the ordinal
numbers (the first, the second, the third, etc.) refer to distribution.
There are twenty-five people in the room.
He was the fourteenth person to win the award since 1934.
Six hundred thousand people were left homeless after the earthquake.
Fractions and decimals
or 0.5 a/one half
or 0.25 a/one quarter
9/16 nine sixteenths
Counting: One at a time, one by one, by the hundred, in tens, in five hundreds
Multiplying and dividing quantity: double, twic e as much
Approximate number and quantity: about, almost, exactly, fewer than, at least, less than, more
than, nearly, over
Percentages: 25% twenty five percent; 100 % a/one hundred percent
Units
$1,200 one thousand two hundred dollars
16,486 sixteen thousand four hundred and eighty-
six pounds
545 kms five hundred and forty-five kilometres
$25.35 twenty-five dollars thirty-five

Years: 1984 - Nineteen eighty-four/ Nineteen hundred eighty-four; 1900 - Nineteen hundred BC
Before Christ; AD Anno Domini
Telephone numbers: 063 421 377 oh'six three four two one three double seven
Time: a.m. ante meridiem or before noon; p.m. post meridiem or after noon
13:10 ten past one p.m.
17:55 five to six p.m.
04:15 quarter/ fifteen past four a.m.
02:30 half past two a. m.

Names/ Titles: Henry VIII - Henry the Eight; WWII - World War The Second
Files: 32-41/70 thirty two dash forty one slash/stroke seventy
How to say '0'
0.3 nought point three (in mathhematical expressions and decimals)
-20C minus twenty degrees or twenty degrees below zero (temperatures)
063 267 540 oh' six three(telephone numbers)
2-0 = two nil or two nothing (the score in games such as football)

30.NOUNS
The simple definition is: a person, place or thing.

English nouns are often described as "countable" or "uncountable". Countable nouns are easy to
recognize. They are things that we can count. For example: "pen". We can count pens. We can
have one, two, three or more pens. (e.g. dog, cat, animal, man, person, bottle, box, litre, coin, note,
dollar, cup, plate, fork, table, chair, suitcase, bag)
Countable nouns can be singular or plural: My dog is playing. My dogs are hungry.

"People" is countable. "People" is the plural of "person". We can count people:

There is one person here. There are three people here.

Uncountable nouns are concepts that we cannot divide into separate elements. We cannot "count"
them. For example, we cannot count "milk". We can count "bottles of milk" or "litres of milk", but
we cannot count "milk" itself. (e.g. music, art, love, happiness, advice, information, news,
furniture, luggage rice, sugar, butter, water, electricity, gas, power money)

We usually treat uncountable nouns as singular. We use a singular verb.

This news is very important. Your luggage looks heavy.

We do not usually use the indefinite article a/an with uncountable nouns. We cannot say "an
information" or "a music". But we can say a something of: a piece of news, a bottle of water, a
grain of rice.

Uncountable nouns are also called "mass nouns".

Sometimes, the same noun can be countable and uncountable, often with a change of meaning.
There are two hairs in my coffee! countable
I don't have much hair. uncountable
Our house has seven rooms. countable
Is there room for me to sit here? - uncountable

A proper noun is the special word (or name) that we use for a person, place or organization, like
John, Marie, London, France or Sony. A name is a noun, but a very special noun - a proper
noun. You always write a proper noun with a capital letter, since the noun represents the name of
a specific person, place, or thing. The names of days of the week, months, historical documents,
institutions, organisations, religions, their holy texts and their adherents are proper nouns.

A common noun is a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a general sense - usually, you
should write it with a capital letter only when it begins a sentence. A common noun is the opposite
of a proper noun.

In each of the following sentences, the common nouns are highlighted:

All the gardens in the neighbourhood were invaded by beetles this summer.
Many child-care workers are underpaid.

A concrete noun is a noun which names anything (or anyone) that you can perceive through your
physical senses: touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell. A concrete noun is the opposite of an
abstract noun.

The highlighted words in the following sentences are all concrete nouns:
Whenever they take the dog to the beach, it spends hours chasing waves.
The real estate agent urged the couple to buy the second house because it had a new balcony.

An abstract noun is a noun which names anything which you can not perceive through your five
physical senses, and is the opposite of a concrete noun.

The highlighted words in the following sentences are all abstract nouns:
Tillie is amused by people who are nostalgic about childhood.
Justice often seems to slip out of our grasp.

A collective noun is a noun naming a group of things, animals, or persons. You could count the
individual members of the group, but you usually think of the group as a whole is generally as one
unit. You need to be able to recognise collective nouns in order to maintain subject-verb
agreement. A collective noun is similar to a non-countable noun, and is roughly the opposite of a
countable noun. The flock of geese spends most of its time in the pasture.

31.ADJECTIVES

An adjective is a word that tells us more about a noun. (By "noun" we include pronouns and noun
phrases.) An adjective "qualifies" or "modifies" a noun (a big dog). Adjectives can be used before
a noun (I like Chinese food) or after certain verbs (It is hard). We can often use two or more
adjectives together (a beautiful young French lady).

It is sometimes said that the adjective is the enemy of the noun. This is because, very often, if we
use the precise noun we don't need an adjective. For example, instead of saying "a large,
impressive house" (2 adjectives + 1 noun) we could simply say "a mansion" (1 noun).

When we talk about two things, we can "compare" them. We can see if they are the same or
different. Perhaps they are the same in some ways and different in other ways. We can use
comparative adjectives to describe the differences.

We can use comparative adjectives when talking about two things (not three or more things).

FORM: There are two ways to make or form a comparative adjective:

Short (1-syllable adjectives and 2-syllable adjectives ending in y) add "-er"
long (2-syllable adjectives not ending in y and all adjectives of 3 or more syllables) adjectives
use "more"

With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-er' or 'more':

quiet quieter/more quiet clever cleverer/more clever narrow narrower/more narrow
simple simpler/more simple

The following adjectives have irregular forms:

good better well (healthy) better bad worse far farther/further

A superlative adjective expresses the extreme or highest degree of a quality. We use a superlative
adjective to describe the extreme quality of one thing in a group of things.

As with comparative adjectives, there are two ways to form a superlative adjective:
short adjectives (1-syllable adjectives and 2-syllable adjectives ending in y) add "-est"
long adjectives (2-syllable adjectives not ending in y and all adjectives of 3 or more syllables)
use "most". We also usually add 'the' at the beginning.

With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-est' or 'most':

quiet the quietest/most quiet clever the cleverest/most clever narrow the narrowest/most
narrow simple the simplest/most simple

The following adjectives have irregular forms:

good the best bad the worst far the furthest

Difference in meaning:
Further vs farther Both of them may mean distance, but we use further for distance and time.
London is farther north than Moscow. (Refers to distance)
This plan requires further study. (Meaning "additional study," refers to amount)

Later vs latter - Use later when referring to time. Use latter when referring to the second of two
persons or things mentioned previously.
Our meeting is later in the afternoon.
We learn English and French. The former language is a Germanic language, the latter is a
Romance language.

Next vs nearest - Nearest is used for place and next is used for time.
Where is the nearest bathroom?
When does the next train leave?

Older vs elder - use elder if you speak about memebers of family and for other people use older
She is my elder sister.
I am older than Tom. ( he is my huband)

We use several different structures for comparing.

COMPARISON OF SIMILARITY
To say that people, things or actions are similar in a way, we can use as and like.
She looks just like her mother.
He fought like a lion.
He fought as a lion does.
Structures such as so do I and neither do I can also be used.
She doesnt like meat, and neither do I.
To say that people or things are identical in a way, we can use the same as.
Her eyes are just the same color as mine.
To talk about differences we use the negative forms of these structures.
Her eyes are not the same color as yours.
COMPARISON OF EQUALITY
To say that people or things are equal in a way, we use the structure asas or as much/manyas.
She earns as much money as he does.
In negative comparisons we can use not asas or not soas.
She doesnt earn so much money as he does.
To say that people or things are unequal in a way we use comparative adjectives and adverbs with
than.
She is taller than you.
We can also use less than or least to talk about inequality.
She earns less than I do./ I earn more than she does.

32.ADVERBS
Adverbs are an important part of speech. They usually answer questions such as how?, where?,
when?, how often? and how much?

An adverb is a word that tells us more about a verb. It "qualifies" or "modifies" a verb (The man
ran quickly). In the following examples, the adverb is in bold and the verb that it modifies is in
italics.
John speaks loudly. (How does John speak?)
Afterwards she smoked a cigarette. (When did she smoke?)

But adverbs can also modify adjectives (Tara is really beautiful), or even other adverbs (It works
very well).
Modify an adjective: He is really handsome. (How handsome is he?)
Modify another adverb: She drives incredibly slowly. (How slowly does she drive?)

We make many adverbs by adding -ly to an adjective, for example: quick (adjective) > quickly
(adverb); careful (adjective) > carefully; (adverb) beautiful (adjective) > beautifully (adverb)

But not all words that end in -ly are adverbs. The words friendly, lovely, lonely and neighbourly,
for example, are all adjectives. And some adverbs have no particular form. (well, fast, very, never,
always, often, still)

The basic kinds of adverbs:

Adverbs of Manner
Adverbs of Manner tell us the manner or way in which something happens. They answer the
question "how?". Adverbs of Manner mainly modify verbs.
He speaks slowly. (How does he speak?)
James Bond drives his cars fast. (How does James Bond drive his cars?)
We normally use Adverbs of Manner with dynamic (action) verbs, not with stative or state verbs.
He ran fast. She came quickly. They worked happily.

Adverbs of Place
Adverbs of Place tell us the place where something happens. They answer the question "where?".
Adverbs of Place mainly modify verbs.
Please sit here. (Where should I sit?)
They looked everywhere. (Where did they look?)

Adverbs of Time
Adverbs of Time tell us something about the time that something happens. Adverbs of Time
mainly modify verbs.
They can answer the question "when?":
He came yesterday. (When did he come?)
I want it now. (When do I want it?)

Or they can answer the question "how often?":

They deliver the newspaper daily. (How often do they deliver the newspaper?)
We sometimes watch a movie. (How often do we watch a movie?)

Adverbs of Degree
Adverbs of Degree tell us the degree or extent to which something happens. They answer the
question "how much?" or "to what degree?". Adverbs of Degree can modify verbs, adjectives and
other adverbs.
Mary is very beautiful. (To what degree is Mary beautiful? How beautiful is Mary?)
He drove quite dangerously. (To what degree did he drive dangerously? How dangerously did he
drive?)

Adverbs of Frequency
Adverbs of Frequency tell us How often something happens: weekly,every
day,once,twice,often,never,sometimes,usually

33. USE OF THE ING FORM

Oblik na ing moe biti pridjev, particip prezenta ili gerund.
a) Pridjev (adjective)poblie oznaava imenicu, npr. I'm reading an interesting story.
b) Particip prezenta (present pariticiple) ima svojstva i glagola i pridjeva,
npr. kao atribut I was wakened by a barking dog.
- u predikativnoj slubi Iwas wakened because my neighbour's dog was barking.
- u slubi reenice They stood arguing soundly.
Let's go shopping.
- umjesto prilone reenice. Arriving home late in the evening, he found the door closed.
- umjesto odnosne reenice They have put a sign warning of the danger.
- u nekim frazama Franlky speaking, John is dishonest.
c) gerund (glagolska imenica), onaj koji ima svojstva glagola i imenice.
She is fond of singing.
She doesn't like watching TV.
Swimming is a sport.
I hate telling lies.
34.GERUND
Gerund: a verb form, ending in -ing, which acts as a noun. Running in the park after dark can be
dangerous. Because gerunds and gerund phrases are nouns, they can be used in any way that a
noun can be used:

as subject: Being king can be dangerous for your health.

as object of the verb: He didn't particularly like being king.
as object of a preposition: He wrote a book about being king.

Although they are not, strictly speaking, verbs, infinitives and gerunds carry within them the idea
of action. Combined with auxiliary verb forms, like verbs, they also express various shades of
time.

SIMPLE FORMS - Seeing those athletes perform is always a great thrill

PERFECTIVE FORMS - We were thrilled about their having been in contention in the world
championships before.
PASSIVE FORMS - Being chosen, however, is probably not enough.

PERFECTIVE PASSIVE FORMS - Having been honored this way, they went out and earned it by
winning the gold.

Although a gerund and an infinitive will often have practically the same meaning ("Running in the
park after dark can be dangerous" and "To run in the park after dark can be dangerous"), there can
be a difference in meaning. Gerunds are used to describe an "actual, vivid, or fulfilled action"
whereas infinitives are better used to describe "potential, hypothetical, or future events". This is
especially true with three kinds of verbs: verbs of emotion, verbs of completion/incompletion, and
verbs of remembering.

Actual event - I hated practicing my violin while the other kids were playing outside.
Potential event - I prefer to work during the day.

*When a verb ends in -ing, it may be a gerund or a present participle. It is important to understand
that they are not the same.When we use a verb in -ing form more like a noun, it is usually a
gerund. ------Fishing is fun.

When we use a verb in -ing form more like a verb or an adjective, it is usually a present
participle:----------- Anthony is fishing. / I have a boring teacher.

*If we want to use a verb after a preposition, it must be a gerund. It is impossible to use an
infinitive after a preposition. There are no exceptions. So for example, we say:

I will call you after arriving at the office. Please have a drink before leaving. I am looking forward
to meeting you. Do you object to working late?
*We sometimes use one verb after another verb. Often the second verb is in the infinitive form,
for example: I want to eat. But sometimes the second verb must be in gerund form, for example:
I dislike eating.

This depends on the first verb. Here is a list of verbs that are usually followed by a verb in gerund
form: admit, appreciate, avoid, carry on, consider, defer, delay, deny, detest, dislike, endure,
enjoy, escape, excuse, face, feel like, finish, forgive, give up, can't help, imagine, involve, leave
off, mention, mind, miss, postpone, practise, put off, report, resent, risk, can't stand, suggest,
understand

*We often use a gerund after the verbs need, require and want. In this case, the gerund has a
passive sense. I have three shirts that need washing. (need to be washed) This letter requires
signing. (needs to be signed) The house wants repainting. (needs to be repainted)

35. IMPERSONAL REPORT STRUCTURES

Impersonal report structures are usually found in reports and newspapers when we want to
distance ourselves from information which is not necessarily our opinion.

Reporting with the Passive

1. it + Passive + that-clause

It is believed that an assassination attempt was mad on the president.

2. Subject + Passive + Infinitive

Knife crime is said to be on the increase in the western suburbs.

3. There + Passive + Infinitive

There is expected to be more unrest in the city centre following the presidents decision.

36. MODIFIERS
Modifiers are words, phrases, or clauses that provide description in sentences. Modifiers allow
writers to take the picture that they have in their heads and transfer it accurately to the heads of
their readers. Essentially, modifiers breathe life into sentences. Take a look at this "dead"
sentence: Stephen dropped his fork.

Now read what several well placed modifiers can do:

Poor Stephen, who just wanted a quick meal to get through his three-hour biology lab, quickly
dropped his fork on the cafeteria tray, gagging with disgust as a tarantula wiggled out of his
cheese omelet, a sight requiring a year of therapy before Stephen could eat eggs again.

Modifiers can be adjectives, adjective clauses, adverbs, adverb clauses, absolute phrases,
infinitive phrases, participle phrases, and prepositional phrases.
The sentence above contains at least one example of each:
Adjective = poor.
Adjective clause = who just wanted a quick meal.
Adverb = quickly.
Adverb clause = as a tarantula wiggled out of his cheese omelet.
Absolute phrase = a sight requiring a year of therapy before Stephen could eat eggs again.
Infinitive phrase = to get through his three-hour biology lab.
Participle phrase = gagging with disgust.
Prepositional phrase = on the cafeteria tray.
Without modifiers, sentences would be no fun to read. Carefully chosen, well-placed modifiers
allow you to depict situations with as much accuracy as words will allow.

37. INFINITIVES
The infinitive is the base form of a verb. It may be preceded by 'to' (the to-infinitive) or stand
alone (the base or zero infinitive). In other words infinitives can be used with or without 'to'.

The most common uses of the infinitive are:

To indicate the purpose or intention of an action (where the 'to' has the same meaning as 'in order
to' or 'so as to'):
She's gone to collect her pay cheque.
As the subject of the sentence:
To be or not to be, that is the question.
With nouns or pronouns, to indicate what something can be used for, or what is to be done with it:
Would you like something to drink?
After adjectives in these patterns:
It is + adjective +to-infinitive It is good to talk.
It is + adjective + infinitive + for someone + to-infinitive.
It is hard for elephants to see mice
It is + adjective + infintive + of someone + to-infinitive. It is unkind of her to say that.
After an adjective + noun when a comment or judgement is being made:
It was a stupid place to park the car.
With too and enough

To form the negative infinitive, place not before the to- or zero infinitive:
e.g. not to worry:
It's hard not to worry about exams.

The infinitive can have the following forms:

NB: as with the present infinitive, there are situations where the to is omitted, e.g. after most
modal auxiliaries.

THE PERFECT INFINITIVE:

to have + past participle, e.g. to have broken, to have seen, to have saved.

This form is most commonly found in Type 3 conditional sentences, using the conditional perfect.
Someone must have broken the window and climbed in. I would like to have seen the Taj Mahal
when I was in India.
THE CONTINUOUS INFINITIVE:
to be + present participle, e.g.to be swimming, to be joking, to be waiting

You must be joking! I happened to be waiting for the bus when the accident happened.
THE PERFECT CONTINUOUS INFINITIVE:
to have been + present participle

The woman seemed to have been crying. You must have been waiting for hours!
THE PASSIVE INFINITIVE:
to be + past participle, e.g. to be given, to be shut, to be opened

I am expecting to be given a pay-rise next month. These doors should be shut.

38. WORD FORMATION- TVORBA RIJEI

PREFIXATION formation of a word by means of a prefix (unchanged, non-smoker,

impatient, dislike, amoral); (untie, discover); (quasi-scholar, maltreat, misinform):
(transatlantic, overcoat); (ex-husband, rebuild); (cooperate, international, anti democratic),
(monotheism, bilingual, polytheism) etc.

SUFFIXATION - formation of a word by means of a suffix: (banker, socijalist, boyhood,

kingdom, alcoholism, discussion, machinery); (republican, Japanese, economic, golden,
cultural, lovely, , dangerous, possessive, amusing); ( satisfy, organize, widen), (firstly,
backward, partly)

CONVERSION is when a word is changed from one part of speech to another without changing
form or pronunciation, e.g. shave (obrijati) - shave (brijanje)

COMPOUNDS - Compounding forms a word out of two or more root morphemes. The words are
called compounds or compound words.
Compounds are written in various ways in English: with a space between the elements; with a
hyphen between the elements; or simply with the two roots run together with no separation.

e.g. noun-noun: homework,bookshelf,nobleman,night-watch; noun-verb: breastfeeding,finger-

pointing; adjective-noun: dry run, blackbird, hard drive; verb-verb: go and do, up and leave;
verb-noun: pickpocket,crossword,spoilsport,killjoy; verb-adverb: drop-out, fall-out, camp-out;
adverb-verb compounds: intake,foreground

CLIPPING is the word formation process which consists in the reduction of a word to one of its
parts. e.g telephone - phone, photograph-photo; influenza-flu, exam(ination), math(ematics),
and lab(oratory)

BLENDS are words formed from parts of two or more other words.
For example, brunch is a blend of breakfast and lunch; gigantic and enormous - ginormous etc.

INITIALISMS are formed by combining the initial letter (or sometimes letters) of a word. e.g.
RADAR - Radio Detection And Ranging