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LearningDefinitions
ReviewofOrganizational
Due TOthe expansive implicationsof OL theory, impossibleto at-
itis virtually
tribute work,orevendiscipline.
itsgenesistoa singletheorist, Perhapspsychologists
wouldattributeitsdevelopment to pioneersof individuallearningresearchsuchas
Thorndike [136],Watson[146, 147],Pavlov [103],andSkinner[120]. OL theorists
wouldattributeitsbeginnings tomanyimportant cumulative developmentsmadein
ofStudy
Progression
This research progressed through three stages. First,a conceptual definition
oftheOL construct was derivedfroma content of
analysis theliterature.
Next,a set
ofitemswas generatedanda measurement instrumentwas designed,evaluated,and
refinedthroughseveralsteps.Finally,datafroman administrationoftheinstrument
weresummarized toprovidea statistical of
profile theextentto which organizations
engagein OL.
Results
ofOL
StageI: ConceptualDefinition
For this project a conceptual definitionofOL wasdetermined byconducting a
contentanalysisof selectedOL literature. Contentanalysisinvolvesanyof several
techniques usedtosystematically analyzeandconciselydescribethecontent ofwrit-
ten,spoken,orimagecommunications [4,23,25]. It was employed in this
research to
supportexistingtheory definingOL subconstructs (forexample,Huber's[71] four
OL subprocesses) andtoextendthetheory byuncovering additional important activi-
tiesrelatedto OL. The selectedliterature includedacademicandpractitioner articles
and booksconcernedwithOL in severaldisciplines.The ProQuestDirectdatabase
was accessedforarticlesandbooksthatmetthesearchcriterion; articlesandbooks
werechosenifthephraseorganizational learningwas foundinthetitleorwas inthe
keywordlistof thearticle.Bibliographies of theselectedarticleswerereviewedto
furtherexploreimportant concepts.Table2 presents a listofauthorsandtheirworks,
alongwiththeirspecificcontribution in articulating theOL construct, whichwere
discoveredandutilizedinthecontent analysis.
For thepurposesof defining OL, it is important to distinguish betweenwhatthe
conceptis andwhatitis not.The myriad ofdescriptive research on OL can be parsed
into(1) worksthatexplicitly discussOL and(2) worksthatreferto OL inrelation to
otherorganizational issues.WorksthatdiscusstheOL construct (see Table2) areuse-
fulinitsdefinition,whereasthelatter is usefulindescribing itsrelationship withother
concepts[87, 135]. This researchdoes notattempt to defineand measure non-OL
aspectsoforganizations, suchas performance outcomes, context,andresourceavail-
which
ability, might with
correlate OL. Even so, uniquelydefining theOL construct
can be an extremely arduousundertaking. a
First, belief prevailsamongtheorists that
variousperspectives on OL notonlyexist,butalso areappropriate [29]. Forinstance,
General
ISA-1 Is the unitof analysis clearly defined forthe study?
ISA-2 Does the instrumentation consistentlyreflectthat unitof analysis?
ISA-3 Is the respondent(s) chosen appropriate forthe research question?
ISA-4 Is any formof triangulationused to cross-validate results?
Measurement error
ISA-5 Are multi-item variables used?
ISA-6 Is content validityassessed?
ISA-7 Is field-based pretestingof measures performed?
ISA-8 Is reliabilityassessed?
ISA-9 Is constructvalidityassessed?
ISA-10 Is pilotdata used forpurifying measures?
ISA-1 1 Are confirmatory methods used?
Sampling error
ISA-12 Is the sample framedefined and justified?
ISA-13 Is random sampling used fromthe sample frame?
ISA-14 Is the response rate over 20 percent?
ISA-1 5 Is nonresponse bias estimated?
Internalvalidityerror
ISA-16 Are attemptsmade to establish internalvalidityof the findings?
Statistical conclusion error
ISA-1 7 Is statisticalpower sufficient?
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Organizationallearningis thesetofactions(knowledgeacquisition,informa-
information
tiondistribution, and
interpretation, organizational
memory) within
theorganizationthatintentionally influence
andunintentionally positiveorga-
nizationalchange.
Ouranalysisof theliteratureuncoveredwidespreadsupportfortheOL components
containedwithintheHuber[71] taxonomy. For thatreason,thisdefinitionis very
similarto Huber's.The methodology produceda definition
ofthesocial-actionper-
spectiveof OL, andnot its correlates.
hypothetical Further, depictsOL
definition
this
andan ongoingprocess.
-levelconstruct
as an organizational
Instrument
StageII: OL Measurement
StageII ofthisprojectinvolved andperfecting
developing an instrumentbasedonthe
conceptual of
definition OL above.
presented In to
addition the thecontent
definition,
analysisoftheliteraturefromStageI produceda sampleofitemstemsthatdepicted
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ProfileofOL
StageIII: Statistical
StageIII involvedcomputinga statisticalprofileofthepopulation As can
ofinterest.
be seen from themeans in Table 7, all of the28 itemsthatmade up theeightOL
dimensions on averagereceivedratingsgreaterthatthree.This indicatedthatthey
Conclusions
Managers often seek alternative organizational
formsin orderto facilitate
the
ongoingenvironmental
demandsforchange.Successfulmodels,liketheorganiza-
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Thethird contribution
ofthisstudyis theestablishment
ofnorming data:meansfor
theitemsin theOL construct, and dimensionmeansbased on thepositionof the
respondent andindustry Thesedatamaybe usedtobenchmark
classification. organi-
zationalassessmentresultsusingtheOL instrument. Organizationsscoringabove
thesestandardsmaybeconsidered learning Organizations
organizations. below
scoring
theselevelsmightwanttodedicatemoreresourcestowardtheareasindicatedin the
OL dimensions.
ThetenetsofOL offerrichinsightsintohowMIS researchers andpractitioners
may
inquireintoimprovingthefield.Indications
frompreliminary researchshowthatOL
can greatlyenhancetraditional
MIS functionssuchas IT development, deployment,
and In
support, training. many innovative ways,MIS can stimulate all
andfacilitate
threechange-relevantmodesof learning:single-loop,double-loop,and deutero.In
addition,severalimportant
researchtopicscouldbe studiedattheconvergenceofthe
fieldsofOL andMIS, suchas thenatureoftechnological innovationsandtheadop-
tionofknowledgemanagement withinorganizations.
Limitations
andOpportunities
forFutureResearch
The limitationsof the studyinclude thenatureoftheOL disciplineandmethod-
ologicalissues.Regarding thediscipline,oneproblem is thatOL theoryis stillemerging
in a widespreadeffort to conceptually explain its structureand function [94]. Al-
though a concentrated effortonproviding acceptabledefinitions,measures, andmeth-
ods is paramount to advancingthefield,we shouldexpectfindings havea relatively
shortlifespan.Thisresearchcontributes tothegoal ofadvancingOL theory bypro-
an
viding acceptable measurement instrument at a timeof unprecedented levelsof
theoretical andempirical inquiry intotheconstruct [36].Thisresearch represents the
firstgeneration ofattempts atmeasuring theOL construct, whichwillbe usedas the
foundation forsubsequent advancements madebythemultipledisciplinesattempt-
ing totake the fieldtoward the "normal science"state.Another problemwithadvanc-
ingtheconstruct is itscomplexity. Itconsistsofvarying perspectivesthatderivefrom
a multitude of disciplines.We focuson thesocial actionperspective of OL, at the
expenseofexcludingothers.Forinstance, we havedefinedOL as thoseactionsthat
precedeand influence positiveorganizational change.Therefore, theresulting mea-
suredoesnotassesschangeoutcomes, an aspectofmanyOL definitions. Subsequent
researchshouldbe done on positiveorganizational changesthatare intendedand
unintended consequencesofOL as measured here.Onlythenwillresearchers be able
to discoverhow specificorganizational changescan be assignedto specificOL be-
haviors.In addition, therearea myriad ofparadigms usedintheconceptualization of
howorganizations arestructured andwork.The researchreported hereinis basedon
theviewof organizations as a collectionofindividuals servingas agentsthatacton
behalfof the interests of thefirm.Adherenceto othersof the widelydiverging
conceptualizations aboutorganizations, such as the"collectiveof communalities"
designarticulated byBrownandDuguid[22,p. 54], mayrenderthefindings ofthis
studyless generalizable.
References
1. Alavi,M. Computer-mediated collaborative learning:An empiricalevaluation.MIS
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Appendix
Version
FinalQuestionnaire
Instructions: questionspertainto yourcompany'slocal operations,
The following
employees,and management.Please respondto each questionusingthefollowing
scale:
12 3 4 5
Strongly Moderately Undecided Moderately Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Agree
1. The companydevelopsexpertsfromwithin 12 3 4 5
2. The companystoresdetailedinformation
forguidingoperations 12 3 4 5
3. Thereis a formaldatamanagement function
in thecompany 12 3 4 5
4. The companyis slowtoreactto
technologicalchange 12 3 4 5
5. The companymaintains a certainmixof
skillsamongitspool ofemployees 12 3 4 5
6. The companyhireshighlyspecializedor
knowledgeable personnel 12 3 4 5
7. The companymakesextensive use of
electronicstorage(suchas, databases,
datawarehousing, scanneddocuments) 1 2 3 4 5
8. The companycollectsdataon all facets
ofperformance 12 3 4 5
9. The companyacquiressubunits (suchas,
functions,
organizations, departments)
basedon short-term financialgain 12 3 4 5
10. Wheninternal are
capabilities deficient,
we acquirethemfromtheoutside 12 3 4 5
The following
questionsrelateto yourcompany'slocal employees:
11. Employeesuse electronicmeansto
communicate 12 3 4 5
12. Employeeshavea largevariety of
communications tools(telephone,
e-mail,
and so on) fromwhichtochoose
Internet, 1 2 3 4 5
bestdescribesyourjob position(checkone)?
32. Whichof thefollowing
_ ChiefExecutiveOfficer
(CEO) _Technology Director
_ Chief Officer
Information (CIO) _ Data Director
Center
ofInformation
_Vice President Technology _ ProjectManager
_ Other
33. Numberofyearsyouhaveworkedinthiscompany
positionin thiscompany
34. Numberof yearsworkedin yourcurrent
35. Numberofemployeesin yourlocal companyoperations
36. Age (in years)ofyourlocal companyoperations
pleasewriteyournameandtheappropriate
To receivetheresultsofthisstudy,
contactinformationbelow: