GEOMETRY

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School Mathematics Study Group

Geometry

Unit 16
Geometry
Teacher's Commentary, Part I1

Prepared under the supervision of

the Panel on Sample Textbooks
of the School Mathematics Study Croup:

Frank B. Allen Lyons Township Mgh School

Edwin C. Douglas Taft School
Donald E.Richmond Williams College
Charles E.Rickarr Yale University
Henry Swain New Trier Townshp Rgh School
Robert J. Walker Cornell University

New Haven and London, Yale University Press

Copyright @ 1960, 1961 by Yale University.
Printed in the United States of Arner~ca.

All rights rcscrvcd. This bovk rnay not

bc rcproduccd. 111 whole o r 111 part. in
any form, without written pcrm~ssia~l from
thc publishers.
Financial support for t hc SchoijI Mar hcmntics
Study Group Ins bccn providcd bv t h e National
Science Foundation.
Below are listed t h e names of all those who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n any of the writing sessions
a t which the following SMSG t e x t s were prepared:
I n t e m e d i a t e Hathematics, Elementary F'unctlons, and I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Matrix Algebra.
H.W. Alexander, Earlham College
F.B. Allen, Lyons Tonnship High School, La
Grange, I l l i n o i a
Alexander Beck, Olney High School, Phila-
delphia, Pennaylvariia
E.F. Beckenbach, U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a
a t Loa Angelea
E.O. Begle, School Mathematlas Study Oroug,
Y a l e University
Paul Berg, Stanf'ord University
Bull Berger, Monroe High School, S t . Paul,
Minnesota
Arthur Bernhart, U n i v e r s i t y oi Oklahoma
R.H. Bing, U n i v e r s i t y of Wisconsin
.
A .L makers, U n i v e r s i t y of Weatem
Australia
A.A. Blank, New York U n i v e r s i t y
S h i r l e y b s e l l y , Franklin Ifi&- School,
seatile, ~aahington
K.E. Brown, Department of Health, Educa-
t i o n , and Welfare, Washington, D.C.
J ,M. Calloway, Carlet on College
Hope Chipman, U n i v e r s i t y High Suhool, AM
Arbor, Mlchigan
R.R. C h r i s t i a n , U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h
Columbia
R.J. Clark, St. Paul's School, Concord,
New Hampshire
F . H . Daus, Univeraity of C a l i r o r n i a a t Lo8
Angelea
R.B. Davis, Syracuse U n i v e r a i t y
Charles DePrima, Calif'ornia Institute of
Technology
Mary Dolcianl, Hunter College
Edwin C. Ilouglaa, The T a f t School, Water-
town, Connecticut
Flogd Downs, Eaat High School, Denver,
Colorado
E.A. Dudley, North Haven High School, North
Haven, ~ o h e oicut t Palo Alto, C a l i f o r n i a
Lincoln -st, Th& Rice I n a t i t u t e
Florence Elder, West Hempstead High School,
West Hempstead, New York
W .E. Ferguaon, Newton High School, Newton-
vf l l e , Massachusetts
N.S. Fine, University of Pennsylvania
Joyae D. Fontaine, North Haven High School,
North Haven, Connecticut
F.L. Friedman, Maesachuaetts I n s t i t u t e of
Technologs
Eather G a s s e t t , Claremore High School,
Claremore, Oklahoma
R.K. Getoor, University o f Washington
V . H . Haag, Franklin and Marahall College
.
R .R Hartman, Edina-Moningrride Senior High
School, Edlna, Minnesota
M.H. Heins, U n i v e r s i t y of I l l i n o i s
Edwin Hewitt, University o f Washington
Martha Hlldebrandt, Proviso Townahip High
Eehool, Haywood, I l l i n o i a
F i r s t Course i n Algebra, Geometry,
R.C. Jurgensen, Culver Military Academy,
Culver, Indiana
Joseph Lehner, Michigan S t a t e Univeraity
Marguerite Lehr, Bryn Mawr College
Kenneth LeiBenring, U n i v e r s i t y of Michigan
Howard Levi, Columbia U n i v e r s i t y
Eunice Lewla, Laboratory High School,
U n i v e r s i t y of Oklahoma
M.A. Linton, W i l l i a m Penn Charter School,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
A.E. Livingston, U n i v e ~ s i t yof Washington
.
L .H Loomis, Harvard U n i v e r s i t y
R.V. Lynch, P h i l l i p s F a e t e r Academy,
.
Exeter, New Fimpah1l.e
,
W .K MaNabb Hockaday School, Dallas,
Texaa
K . B . Michaels, North Haven High School,
North Haven, Connecticut
.
E.E. Moise, University of Michigan
E .P Northrop, University of Chicago
O.J. Peterson, Kansas S t a t e Teachers
College, mporia, Kansaa
B . J . P e t t i s , Unfvereity o f North Carolina
R.S. Pieters, P h i l l i p s Academy, Andover,
Massachusetts
H.O. Pollak, E e l 1 Telephone L a b o r a t o r i e s
Walter Prenowitz, Brooklyn College
Q . B . P r i c e , U n i v e r s i t y oi Kansaa
A .L. Putnam, U n i v e r s i t y of Chicago
Perais 0. Redgrave, Noxviich Free Academy,
Nomlch, Connecticut
Mina Rees, Hunter College
D .E. Richmond, Williams College
C .E. Rickart, Yale U n i v e r s i t y
Karrg Ruderman, Hunter College Kigh School,
New York C i t y
J . T . Schwartz, New York University
0 .E. S t a n a i t i s , St. Olaf College
Robert Starkey, Cubberley High Schools,
P h i l l i p Stucm, Roosevelt High School,
S e a t t l e , Washington
Henry Srrain, New T r i e r Township High
School, W i ~ e t k a ,I l l i n o i s
Henry Syer, Kent School, Kent, Connecticut
O.B. Thomaa, Massachusetts I n s t i t u t e of
Technology
A.M. Tucker, Princeton Univeraity
H.E. Vaughan, U n i v e r s i t y of I l l i n o i s
John Wagner, U n i v e r s i t y of Texas
R.J. Walker, Cornell U n i v e r s i t y
A.D. Wallace, Wane University
. ,
E .L Waltera William Penn Senior High
School, York, Pennsylvania
Warren Whits, North High School, Sheboygan,
Wiaconain
D.V. Widder, Harvard Univeraity
W l l l l a m Wooton, Pierce Junior College,
Woodland H i l l s , Calit'ornia
J.H. Zant, Oklahoma S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
 Contents

Page
A GUIDE TO THE SELECTION OF PROBLEMS ......... ix
Chapter 11 AREAS OF POLYGONAL REQIONS . . . . . . . 255
Chapter 12 SIMILARITY . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . 293
Chapter 13 CIRCLES AHD SPHERES .......... 329
Chapter 14 CHARACTERIZATION OF SETS. CONSTRUCTIONS 371
Chapter 15 AREAS OF CIRCLES AND SECTORS ...... 411
Chapter 16 VOLUMESOFSOLIDS . + + . . 433
Chapter 17 PLANE COORDINATE QEOMETRY ....... 459
TALKS TO TEACHRRS
Facta and Theories .................
Equality. Congrmence. and Equivalence . . . . . . .
The Concept of Congruence .............
Introduction to Non-Euclidean Oeometrg . . . . . . .
................
Miniature Oeometries
h a . * ......................
 A GUIDE TO THE SELtECTION OF PROBLEMS

Following is a tabulation of the problems i n this text. It

w i l l be noted that the problems a r e arranged i n t o three s e t s , I,
11, and 111. A t f i r s t glance, one might t h i n k t h a t these w e in
order of difficulty.
THIS IS NOT THE MANNER IN WHICH THE PROBLEMS AHE GROUPED !!!!
Before explaining the grouping, it should be mentioned that
it is understood that a teacher will s e l e c t from a l l of the
problems those which he or she f e e l s are b e s t f o r a p a r t i c u l a r
class. However, c a r e f u l attention should be given to the comments
on the problems i n ---- A Word About t h e Problem S e t s .
Group I contains problem that r e l a t e d i r e c t l y to the
material presented In the t e x t ,
Group I1 containa two types of problems: (1) some that are
similar to those of Group I, and ( 2 ) some that are just a little
more d i f f i c u l t than those in Group I. A teacher may use t h i s
group f o r two purposes: (1) for additional d r i l l material, if
needed, and ( 2 ) for problems a bit more c h a l l e n g i n g than those i n
Gmup I, that could be used by a better class.
Group 111 contains problems t h a t develop an Idea, using the
information given in the t e x t as a s t a r t i n g p o i n t . Many o f these
problems are easy, Interesting and challenging. The student may
f i n d them more stimulating than the problems in Groups I or 11.
However, if time is a f a c t o r , a student can very well not do any
of them and s t i l l completely understand the material in the t e x t .
These are enrichment problems.
It is aasuned t h a t a teacher will not f e e l t h a t he or she
must assign a l l of the problems in any s e t , or all parts of any
one problem. I t f a hoped that this listing will be helpful to
you in assigning problems f o r your students.
 We have included in the problem sets results of theorems of
the t e x t which are important principles in t h e i r own rfght. In
t h i s respect we follow the precedent of most geometry t e x t s .
However, a l l essential and fundamental theorems are in the t e x t
proper. The fact that many important and delightful theorems are
to be found in the problem s e t s is very desirable as enrfchment.
While no theorem stated in a problem s e t is used to prove
any theorem in the t e x t proper, they are used in solving numerical
problems and other theorems in the problem sets. This seem to be
a perfectly normal procedure. The difficulty (or danger), as moat
teachera define it, is in allowing the result of an intuitive type
problem, or a problem whose hypothesis assumes t o o much, to be
used aa a convincing argument f o r a theorem. The eaaieat and
surest way to handle t h e situation is to make a blanket rule for-
bidding the use of any problem result to prove another. Such a
rule, however, tenda to overlook the economy of time and, often,
the chance t o foster the creative s p i r i t of the student. In t h i s
t e x t we have tried to establish a f l e x i b l e pattern which will
allow a teacher and clase to s e t t h e i r own policy.
Chapter 13

S e t 13-4a

Chapter 1 4

14-1

Chapter 15
15-1
15-2

15-3
15-4
15-5
Chapter 16
Set 16-1
16-2
16-3
16-4
16-5
Chapter 17
17-3
17-4

17- 5
17-6
17-7
17-8
17-9

17-10

17-12

17-13
17-14
 C h a p t e r 11
AREAS OF POLYGONAL REGIONS

T h i s Chapter t r e a t s the conventianal s u b j e c t matter o f

the areas or triangles, parallelograms, trapezoids and so on.
Although i t s viewpoint is essentially that of Euclid two
p o i n t s may seem n o v e l . F i r s t the introduction of the term
polygonal region and aecond t h e study of area by p o s t u l a t i n g
i t s properties rather than by deriving them from a d e f i n i t i o n
of area based on t h e measurement process. Actually both of
these ideas are Implicit in the conventional treatment - we
have only brought them to the surface and sharpened and
c l a r i f i e d them. Once the basis has been laid, our methods
of proof a r e simple and conventional, although the order of
the theorems may seem a b i t unusual.
317 Observe t h a t in t h i s Chapter we are n o t t r y i n g to
develop a very general theory of area applicable f o r example
to figures with curvilinear boundaries. Rather we r e s t r i c t
ourselves to the relatively simple ease of a region whose
boundary 1s rectilinear, that l a , i t s boundary is a union
of segments. However, it is n o t obvious how to deflne the
concept of region or of boundary. One suggestion is to
t u r n the problem around and merely consider the f i g u r e
composed of a polygon and its i n t e r i o r . However, although
t h e r e is no essential d i f f i c u l t y in defining polygon ( s e e
S e c t i o n 15-1 of text) it is quite difficult to write down
p r e c i s e l y a definition of the interior of a polygon, even
though we can eaaily t e s t In a d i a ~ r a mwhether or n o t a
p o i n t is in the i n t e r i o r of a polygon. Observe how simply
our definition of polygonal region avoids t h i s difficulty.
We merely take the s i m p l e s t and most basic type of r e g i o n ,
the triangular region, and use it as a s o r t of building
block to define the idea of polygonal region. The essential
polnt is, that, although it is difficult to define i n t e r i o r
f o r an arbitrary polygon, it l a very easy to do I t f o r a
t r i a n g l e - we a c t u a l l y did t h i s back in Chapter 4. Moreover
 o u r basFc procedure in studying a r e a I s t o s p l i t a figure
i n t o triangular regions, and reason that i t s area is the
sum o f t h e areas of these triangular regions. Thus we
simply define polygonal reglons as figures t h a t can be
s u i t a b l y ''built up" from triangular regions, and we have a
good basis f o r our theory.
318 A f u r t h e r p o i n t . The d e f i n i t i o n r e q u i ~ sthat the
t r i a n g u l a r regiona must not "overlap", that is they must
not have a triangular r e g l o n in common ( s e e the discussion
in the t e x t followfng the definition o f polygonal r e g i o n ) ,
but may have o n l y a common p o i n t o r a common segment. If
we permit the regions t o "overlap" we can' t say t h a t t h e
area of the whole f i g u r e w i l l be the sum of the areas of
its component triangular regions (see discussion in the text
following Postulate 19). Thus f o r simplicity we Impose t h e
c o n d i t i o n that tne triangular regions shall n o t "overlap",
319 A final point, In your i n t u i t i v e picture of a poly-
gonal region you probably have assumed that a polygonal
region is connected o r "appears i n one p i e c e " . Actually
o u r definition does n o t requfre t h i s . It permfts a p o l y -
gonal region to be the union of two triangular regions
which have no p o i n t (or one point o r a segment) in common,
a3 in these figures:
 Thus our d e f i n i t i o n allows a polygonal region t o be a dis-
connected portion of the plane, and the boundary of a poly-
gonal region need not be a single polygon. T h i s causes no
trouble - it j u s t means t h a t our theory has somewhat broader
coverage than our intuition suggests .
In light of t h i s you w i l l note that t h e idea o f polygon
is n o t emphasized as s t r o n g l y in o u r t e x t as in the conven-
tional treatment. When the l a t t e r refers t o "area of a poly-
gon" it means the area of the polygonal region c o n s i s t i n g of
t h e polygon and i t s Interior - which is n o t explicitly s t a t e d
or clarified. We avoid the d i f f i c u l t y by defining polygonal
region independently of polygon.
319 Note that in t h e figures on page 256 it is intuitively
c l e a r t h a t t h e areas o f the regions can be found by d i v i d i n g
them up into smaller triangular r e g i o n s , and that the area
of' the t o t a l region is Independent of the manner in which
the triangular regions are formed.
Sometimes in a mathematical d i s c u s s i o n we give an
explicit d e f i n i t i o n of area f o r a c e r t a i n t y p e of f i g u r e .
For example, the area of a rectangle is the number of unit
squares i n t o which the corresponding rectangular region can
be separated. This Zs a difficult thing to do in general
terms f o r a wide v a r i e t y of figures. Thus the suggested
d e f i n i t i o n of area of a rectangle (rectangular region) is
applicable only if the rectangle has sides whose l e n g t h s
a r e i n t e g e r s . Literally how many unit squares are contained
In a rectangular reglon whose dimensions a r e 1
and ;?
The answer is none! C l e a r l y the suggested definition must
be modified f o r a rectangle with r a t i o n a l dimensions. To
formulate a suitable definition when the dimensions a r e
irrational numbers, say f i and n, is still more cornpli-
c a t e d and involves the concept of l i m i t s . Incidentally,
even when this is done, it would not be trivial t o p r o v e
t h a t t h e area o f such a rectangle is given by the f a m i l i a r
formula. (FOP example, s e e t h e Talk on A r e a . ) Furthermore,
 it would s t i l l be necessary t o define the area concept f o r
t r i a n g l e s , quadrilaterals, c i r c l e s , and so on. The complete
study of area along these l i n e s involves i n t e g r a l calculus
and f i n d s i t s culmination in the branch of modern mathematics
called the Theory o f Measure. (See the Talk on A r e a f o r a
treatment of area i n the s p i r i t o f the theory of measure.)
Clearly t h i s is t o o heroic an approach for our purposes.
So we don't attempt t o g i v e an e x p l i c i t d e f i n i t i o n of area
of a polygonal region by means of a measurement process
using u n i t squares, Rather we study area in terms o f i t s
b a s i c properties as s t a t e d i n Postulates 17, 18, 19 and 20.
On the basis of these postulates we prove t h e f a m i l i a r
formula f o r t h e area of a triangle (!Theorem 11-2), Con-
sequently we g e t an e x p l i c i t procedure for obtaining areas
of triangles and s o of polygonal regions i n general.
319 - Some remarks -- on the postulates. Observe t h a t our t r e a t -
merit of area i s similar t o t h a t for distance and measure of
angles. Instead of giving an e x p l i c i t d e f i n i t i o n of area
( o r dfstance o r angle measure) by means of a measurement
process, w e p o s t u l a t e i t s b a s i c properties which are i n t u i -
tively familiar from study of t h e measurement process.
320 Thus Postulate 17 a s s e r t s t h a t t o every polygonal region
there is associated a unique "area numbertt and i s exactly
comparable t o t h e Distance Postulate o r t h e Angle Measurement
Postulate. The uniqueness of the area number is based on
the i n t u i t i v e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t a fixed u n i t has been
chosen and t h a t we know how to measure area in terms of
t h i s unit.
320 Postulate 18 i s one of the simplest and m o s t n a t u r a l
properties of area. If two triangles are congruent then i n
effect t h e t r i a n g u l a r regions determined are "congruent",
one is an exact r e p l i c a of the other, and so they must have
t h e same measure.
320 P o s t u l a t e 19 is comparable to the Angle Addition
Postulate. It is a precise formulation, f o r the study of
area, of the vague statement fo he whole is the sum of its
parts". This statement is open to several o b j e c t i o n s . It
seems to mean that the measure of a figure is the sum of
the measures of its parts. Even in t h i s form it is n o t
acceptable, s i n c e the terms "figure" and "part" need to be
sharpened in t h i s context, and it permits the "parts" to
overlap. Postulate 19 makes clear that the "ffgures" are
to be polygonal regions, the "measures " are areas , and that
the "parts" are to be polygonal regions whose union is the
"whole" and which do not overlap.
Postulates 17, 18 and 19 seem to give the essential
p r o p e r t i e s of area, but they are n o t quite complete. We
pointed out above t h a t Postulate 17 presupposes that a unit
has been chosen, but we have no way of determining such a
u n i t , that is, a polygonal region whose area is unity. For
example, Postulates 17, 18 and 19 permit a rectangle of
dimensions 3 and 7 to have area unity.
322 Postulate 20 takes care of t h i s by guaranteeing that a
square whose edge has length 1 shall have area I. In
addition, P o s t u l a t e 20 gives us an important basis f o r
f u r t h e r reasoning by assuming the formula for area of a
rectangle.
An interesting p o i n t : We could have replaced Postulate
20 by the assumption of the familiar formula f o r the area
of a t r i a n g l e . T h i s is equivalent to Postulate 20,
The use of the term "at mostt' in Postulate 19 permits
R1 and R2 t o have no common p o i n t , aa in t h i s figure:

[pages 320-3221
 Since we are introducing a block of postulates concern-
i n g area, t h i s may be a good time t o remind your atudents o f
the s i ~ i f i c a n c eand purpose of postulates. They are precise
formulations of the basic intuitive Judgments suggested by
experience, from which we derive more complex p r i n c i p l e s by
deductive reasoning.
To make P o s t u l a t e s 17, 18 and 19 s f g n i f i c a n t f o r t h e
students, discuss the measuring process f o r area concretely,
using sfmple figures lfke rectangles o r right t r i a n g l e s w i t h
integral o r rational dimensions. Have them subdivide regions
i n t o congruent unit squarea, so that the student gets the
idea that every "figure" has a uniquely determined area
number. Then present the postulates as simple properties
of the area number which are verifiable concretely i n
diagrams.

--
Problem Set 11-1

324 2. 825square feet.

3. a. The area is doubled.
b. The area is four times as great.
4. 1800 tilea.
5. 792 square inches.
325 * 6 . a. False. A triangle is not a region at a l l , but is
a figure c o n s i s t i n g of segments.

b. False. See Postulate 17.

c. True. By Postulate 17.
d. True. By Postulate 18.
 e. False. If the regions overlap, their union is
less than t h e i r sum.
f . True. Since a square is a rectangle.
g. False. The region I s the union of a trapezoid
and its Interior.
h. True. A triangular region i s the union of one or
more triangular regions,
326 7. a. 4.

e. and f. Since f i and 6 are irrational, the

base and altitude in each case do not have a
common d i v i s o r , Hence the rectangular regions
cannot be divided exactly into squares.

c. The computation always results in 2.

d. The computation is not affected, since t h e addition-

al f o u r edges, three faces, and one vertex results
In zero being added to the t o t a l .
e . No change.

328 Notice t h a t , a f t e r postulating the area of a rectangle,

we proceed to develop o u r formulas for areas in the following
manner: r i g h t triangles, which then permit us to work w i t h
any triangle, parallelograms, and trapezoids. Of courae our
postulate permits ua to find the area of a square, since it
l a merely an equilateral rectangle. A t this point we have
t h e machinery to f i n d t h e area of any polygonal region, by
Just chopping it up i n t o a number of triangular regiona, and
[pages 325-3281
 findlng the sum of the areas o f these triangular regions.
Note t h a t in the discussion of the area of a t r i a n g l e ,
it does n o t matter which altltude and base we c o n s i d e r ,
juat so long as we work with a base and the correspond in^
altitude.
In t h e application of P o s t u l a t e 19 t o a s p e c i f i c case
we read from a f i g u r e that R is the union of the regions
R1 and R2; s e e For example t h e proofs o f Theorems 11-1
and 11-2. This is a kind of separation theorem whfch can
be j u s t i f i e d from our pos tulatea .
Just as w i t h triangles,
we may work with either side and the corresponding altitude
of a parallelogram.
In Problem S e t 11-2, Problems 13-17 form a sequence
of problems involving an interesting consequence of the
theorems of the text.

Problem S e t 11-2

333 1. a, Area A A B C = P'.7-24 =84.

b. 84=$,-25h. h = % . 18
2. 14.4 and 24.

4, Area A CQB = Area A DQB,

s i n c e C Q = DQ and the tri-
angles have the same altitude, the perpendicular segment
from B to CD. Area A AQC = Area A DQA, s i n c e
CQ = DQ and the triangles have the same a l t i t u d e , the
perpendicular aegnent from A to E. Adding, we have
Area A ABC = AreaABD. A
Alternate Proof: Draw and DF 1kB 1 z.
Then A CEQ = A DFQ by A . A . S . , and CE = DF. S i n c e
A ABC and ABD have 'the same base and t h e i r a1titudes
have equal lengths, the triangles have equal areas.
[pages 328-333 3
The area of the square is s 2 . 1
The area of each of t h e f o u r t r i a n g l e s is 9 s .
Hence, the area of the star la s2 - 2 b s .

d. Since GB and AF are measures of the same

altitude, t h e r e Is n o t enough information given
to determine a unique answer.
Slnce a diagonal of a parallelogram divides it into two
congruent triangles, Area A A F H is equal t o half t h e
area of t h e parallelogram. Area A AQH = A r e a A FQH
s i n c e the bases, 3 and &F, are congruent and the
triangles have the sarne a l t i t u d e , a perpendicular from
H to z. Each la then one-fourth of t h e area of the
parallelogram. In the sarne way it can be shown t h a t
Area A ABQ = Area A FBQ.

Area of triangle = $bh.

Area of parallelogram = bht .

The altitude of the triangle is twlce t h e a l t i t u d e of

the parallelogram.
a. Area parallelogram ABCD is twice area A BCE
because the figures have the same base (z) and
equal altitudes, since II E, AE
[pages 334-3351
335 11. b. The two areas a r e e q u a l .
c. The
- areas a r e e q u a l because the bases and (z
FD)
gruent since =
a r e congruent and their a l t i t u d e s are con-
11 BC.
d . Area A CFD =
1
p(area A BCE) since FD = P1
C and
the two triangles have equal altitudes. Therefore,
area parallelogram ABCD = 2(area A BCE)
= 4 (area A CFD) .

336 1 2 . The area o f trapezoid DFEC = 34.

The area o f trapezoid AGFD = 165.
And so, area of AGECD = 199.
Area A AGB = 30.

Area A BCE = 3%.1

Subtracting t h e sum of the areas of the two triangles
from t h e area of AGECD, w e have 136;. The area of
the field 1s 13% square rods .
- -
13. Given: Figure ABCD with AC 1 DB.
1
Prove: A r e a of ABCD = +CmDB.
Proof: A r e a of ABCD = A r e a A ACD + A r e a A ABC by
P o s t u l a t e 19.
1 1
B u t A r e a A ACD = ?ACmDP and Area A ABC = -$CbPS.
1
T h e r e f o r e , A r e a o f ABCD = 2AC.DP + TAC.PB
1

14. The area of a rhombus equals one-half the product of the

l e n g t h s o f its diagonals.

15. 12.

16. A =
1
4 d 1 = 150 = bh = 12b; therefore 1
b = 12T. The
2
area is 150; the l e n g t h o f a s i d e is l*
*17, Yes, The proof would be the same as f o r Problem 1 3
w i t h each + replaced by "-" .
[pages 335-3361
 All t h r e e triangles have
the same altitude. Hence,
s i n c e BD = DC, the two
smaller t r i a n g l e s have
e q u a l a r e a , by Theorem 11-6,
and each I s one-half the
area of the b i g t r i a n g i e ,
by Theorem 11-5.

19. a. By the previous problem,

Area A ABE = Area A BAD ;1Z ( ~ r e A
= a ABC) . S u b t r a c t -
ing Area A ABG from e a c h , leaves Area A AEG
= Area A BDG.

b. Since the medians are concurrent, the t h i r d

median, w i t h the o t h e r two, d i v i d e s the t r i a n g l e
i n t o six t r i a n g l e s :
Area A AEG = Area A BDG,
Area A CGE = Area A BGF, and
A r e a A CGD = Area A AGF. But Area A BDG
= Area A CGD by Theorem 11-6, and consequently
a l l the areas a r e equal. Therefcre,
1
A r e a A BDG = E ( ~ r e a A A B C ) .
C,
20. Since A3 is constant, t h e a l t l tude to AB must be

-
c o n s t a n t , by Theorem 11-6.

-
C,
Call the l e n g t h of t h e altitude, from P t o AB, h.
Then in plane E, P may be any p o i n t on either o f t h e
two llnes p a r a l l e l t o AB at a d i s t a n c e h from AB.
In s p a c e , P may be any p o i n t on a cylindrical s u r f a c e
e
having AB as its axla and h as its r a d i u s .

c. With the dimensions given ABN and AD6 would

not be s t r a i g h t segments, and s o the f i g u r e would
n o t be a t r i a n g l e .

[pages 337-3381
338 *22. If the line i n t e r s e c t s adjacent s i d e s , the area of the
triangle formed will be less t h a n one-half the area of
the rectangle, s o t h e line must intersect o p p o s i t e
sides.
Area ARSD = +(a + c)
1
Area CSRB = $(b + d) .

But a + b = c + d, so by s u b t r a c t i o n ,

-
Let be t h e p o l n t a t which
M i n t e r s e c t s RS.

-.
Then h ARM E h CSM by A . S . A . , so AM = CM. Therefore
M is the mid-point o f diagonal AC

339 We have here a very s i m p l e proof of the Pythagorean

Theorem. The p r o o f depends upon the p r o p e r t i e s o f the areas
o f triangles and squares. Notice how P o s t u l a t e 19 is used
In this proof.
Observe that the proof is p e r f e c t l y general, The
Pythagorean r e l a t i o n is proved f o r the sides of t h e c o n s t r u c t -
ed t r i a n g l e and s o h o l d s f o r the o r i g i n a l triangle.

Problem --
S e t ll-3a

AC = Jm.
He is miles from
h i s starting p o i n t .
( ~ e t w e e n 10.4 and
10.5 miles . )

[pages 3 38- 3 41 1
341 2. The single r i g h t triangle
AACB serves our p u r p o s e C
here .
(A%)
AB
2
= (11)
= m.
2

He is approximately 1 2 . 5
+

m i l e s from h i s s t a r t i n g
2
( 6 ) = 157.
4[(7+
7

point. A

3. (612 + (6)' = x2 .
7 2 = x2 .

1_
6 f i = X,
He is approximately 8.5 5 X
/
'

miles f r o m h i s s t a r t i n g /
1

point.

4. In r i g h t ABC, ( ~ 0= )( 4~) ' + (1212 = 16 + 144 = 160.

nc = m =4 f i . In r i g h t A ACD, AD)^ = 160 + 9
= 169.
AD = 13,
in A ARE, (AE)
2 = ( 4 ) 2 -t- ( 3 )2 = 16 4- 9 = 25.
Or,
AE = 5. I n A AED, (AD)' = (512 + (1212 = 25 + 144 = 169.
AD = 13.

2 2 2
342 6. a. It is sufficient t o show t h a t ( m - n )
+ (2m)2 = (rn 2 +4n2 ) 2 . (m2 - n 2 ) 2 + (-l2
4
= m4 - 2 m2n 2 + n + 4 m2n 2 = m + 2m2n2 + n

b. m = 2, n = I gives sides with lengths ( 3 , 4, 5).

m = 3 n = 1 g i v e s ( 6 , 8, l o ) .
m = 3, n = 2 gives (5, 12, 13).
rn = 4, n = 1 g i v e s (15, 8, 17).
m - 4, n - 2 gives (12, 16, 2 0 ) . I

m = 4, n = 3 gives ( 7 , 24, 2 5 ) .
There are two other r i g h t triangles w i t h hypotenuse
less than o r equal 25, ( 9 , 1 2 , 15) and (15, 2 0 ,
25), b u t they can n o t be obtained by this method.
[pages 341-3421
 b. AC = &. Next segment has l e n g t h =

(AY)* = ( A C ) ~+ ( Y C ) ~ , from which AY = 3.

2
343 ~ 9 . a. hc2 = 13 - x2 = 169 - x2;
also hc2 = 1 5 ~- (14 - x12 = 225 - 196 + 28x - x 2 .
Eliminating hc 2. .
169 - x 2 = 29 + 2 8 ~ x 2 - .

14.12 = 15ha
1
l l y = ha .
C ) @
*lo. Let CD meet AB at D. Let BD = x.

hc 2 = 1 4 ~- x2 = 196 - x2,

also 2
h c 2 = 18 - ( 6 + x12 = 324 - 36 - 12x - x2 .
Eliminating hc 2. .
196 - x 2 = 288 - 12x - x2 .

X =
2
7-3.
h = (approximately 11.71.)
c 3

[pages 342-3431
 pzJ
343 11. The shorter diagonal divides
the rhombus i n t o two e q u i l a t e r a l
t r i a n g l m . Hence i t a length is
8. Since the diagonals are
perpendicular b i s e c t o r s of
each o t h e r we can use the 60
8
Pythagorean Theorem t o get
the length of the longer
diagonal equal to 8JT.
12. Since the s i d e s are all
D C
congruent, and the area
of the rhombus I s the
product of the measurea
of any side and its
correapondfng altitude,
then all the altitudes
A E B F
are congruent. Hence,
it is s u f f i c i e n t to f i n d
one altitude. The
diagonals bfsect each other at right anglea. Hence,
each aide has length 4 13. Then,
Area of A ABD = $ a 4 4 3 = 6 = +E Jl3,
1

and
13. By the Pythagorean Theorem, AB = 13.
1
The area of A ABC = $.13h = 2*5-12.
Hence 13h = 5.12 and h =
60
m =4.
344 14. By the Pythagorean Theorem, AB = 17.
1 1
The area of A ABC = =-lh = 2*15*8.

Hence l 7 h c 15.8 and

120 T17. 1
h = T =
 1
344 15- Area AABC = ph, and

h = A liBC' . But Area A ABC =

1
pb,
and c = Therefore, h = ab

*16. Lengths are shown In

the f 1gure .
1
Area A AS& = H(n.2n) = n2 .
= m .
1 2
Area A ABS = F(rn4m)
Area A ABC = $(3n &?* 2n &)
= 6n2 .
Area
-
= 6n2
@PC
( ~ r e aA ABS
- 4n2
= Area

4-

= 2n
2
2
A A3C
A AS&)
. A
- 2nfi
0

17. Since A ABC E ABEI), BAC = rnL EBD. But L BAC I s

complementary t o L ABC, so L EBD is complementary
to L ABC. S i n c e EBD + L EBA + L ABC = 180, then
E B A = 90. Now,
Area of CAED = Area A ABC -k Area A AEB + Area A BED.

345 *18. a. % is a median of i s o s c e l e s A BCD and therefore

1 E. In the same
way, SALE.
-
. . CD plane BSA,
and % I %. SB = SA
(they are corresponding
medians of congruent
equilateral
- triangles) . D
SR is a median to the
base of i s o s c e l e s A SBA
and hence im.
[pages 344-3451
 1. Given.
2 Definition o f mid-point .
3. Pythagorean Theorem.
4. Definition o f mid-point.
5. Pythagorean Theorem.

*19. By Pythagorean Theorern, AC = n, T h e r e f o r e

CD =0 and BD = 1 -t n. Hence,
AD)^ = 1 + (i + f i 1 2 = 4 + 2 f i
Then AD = J4 + 2 JF.
Since AC = CD, m l ADC = rnL CAD. But ~LADC
4- mL CAD

= x = 45. Then 2 ( 4 ADC) = 4 5 , and ADC = 24.

1
mi DAB = 67T.

346 P r o o f s of Theorems 11-9 and 11-10

Theorem 11-9.- he 30-60 T r i a n g l e Theorem.)
The hypotenuse o f a right t r i a n g l e is t w i c e as long as a leg
if and o n l y if t h e measures of t h e a c u t e angles are 30 and
0. A
Restatement: Given A ABC
with mL C = 9 0 , AB = c and
BC = a.
(1) If rnL A = 30 and
rnL 9 = 6 0 , t h e n
c = 2a.

then mi A = 30 and
rnL B = 60.

[pages 345-346 I
 Proof: We begin in t h e same way for both parts. On
+
the ray opposite t o CB t a k e 5' such that B 1C = BC = a .
A B C A % A B!CA by S . A . S . Then
(1) rnL B' = 60 and m L BAB1 = 60. Hence BAB' is
equilateral so t h a t BBt = c = 2a, which was t o
be proved.
( 2 ) AB' = AB = c . By hypothesis, c = 2a. S i n c e
I331 = 2a, then BBt = c, and A B A B ' is e q u i -
l a t e r a l . Therefore A BABt I s equiangular and
m L B = 60. S i n c e rnL BCA = 90, then m L BAC = 30,
which was to be proved.
N o t e that we can now conclude that E,opposite the
30 angle is t h e s h o r t e r l e g , s i n c e mL A < mL B. B u t
0

before we had proved this inequality t h e r e was s t i l l t h e

possibility that AC was t h e longer l e g .
Since we know t h a t AC > BC it seems n a t u r a l to derive
their exact r e l a t i o n s h i p . By t h e Pythagorean Theorem we have
2 2 2
(AC) = c - a ,

Theref o r e , AC = a 6 or A C = B C ~

Using t h e above r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r a 30-60 triangle we

can always f i n d all sides if we know one of the sides.
3 46 Theorem 11-10. he Isosceles R i g h t Triangle he or em. )
A r i g h t t r i a n g l e is isosceles if and only if the hypotenuse
is f i times as long as a l e g .
Restatement: Given A ABC
w i t h mL C = 90, AB = c and

/;;;;;;;;
BC = a.
(1) If c = a f i , then
A A3C is i s o s c e l e s .
(2) t h e nA ABC
If c = a I s ias o s c e l e s , A C B
 Proof: (1) Using the Pythagorean Theorem,
2 2
(AC)*= e - a ,
(AC)~= ( a 2 a2, -
2
(AC ) = a
2,

AC = a, whlch was to b e proved.

(2) Using the Pythagorean Theorem,
(AB)2= a2 + a2 = 2a 2,

AB = a n , whlch was t o be proved,

These two theorems suggest many u s e f u l f a c t s In solving
numerical problems, For example, in an equilateral triangle
w i t h side s the a l t i t u d e I s z2 f i and its area is F2 a .
Certain of t h e problems In Problem Set 11-3b develop such
ideas. Such key Problems are numbers 4, 7 , and 17.

Problem Set 11-3b --

2. Draw CD 1 E.
Then AD = DB = 3 6
AB = 6 6
A D B

347 3. Let x = the length of the s h o r t e r l e g . S i n c e the

triangle is a 30' - 60 t r i a n g l e ,
-
( 2 x 1 ~ x2 = 75.
3x2 -- 75.

x = 5.
[pages 346-347 1
 The length of the hypotenuse i a
8
By Theorem 11-9, AC =
since (AC)~ + (BC)* = (AB)2,
2
we have, ($1 + h2 = s 2
from which s2
h2 = s 2 - T m

5. Since d B = 60, then r n L D = 60, and DF = 23 .

Then AF =

a = 10 a.A side is 10 f i inches long.

1
7. 3; 2; 6
3, Yea.

Area is 100f i square inches .

b. $base = 10 fi, a l t i t u d e = 10fi

Area is 200 square Inches .

c. $base = 10, altitude = 1 0 6 .

Area l a 100 6 square inches.

9. a.
1
9 a s e = 12, h - 12. Area is 144 square inches.
b. 91a s e = 12, h = 4fi. Area is 4 8 a square
inches .
1
c. 9 a s e = 12, h = 1 2 n . Area is 1 4 4 6 square
inches.
 11. FB=3; HF=3fij AH=6fi; AF=3&;
mL ABF = 90; rnL
ABH = 90; rnL H F B = 9 0 ; rnL HBF = 60;
mL BHA = m L BAH = 45.
*12. Let CD be the altitude to
E. L e t AD = x, CH = h ,
BC = a, DB = y. In 30' -
60' right A ACD,
h = ?1* 4 = 2, x = 2 0 .
Therefore y = 3 n - 2 f i A D
\ I

=D. In right A DBC, V

3 f i
a 2 = h 2 + y* = 4 + ( n 1 ~ = 7 .
a = fl.
NO, since (412 + ( fi12 + (3nlP.

[pages 348-3491
*13. Let CD
be the perpendicular
from
*
C to AB. L e t CD = h,
BD = r, BC = a.
I n 45' - 45' - go0 A ACD,
h = AD = I n - 1 0= 5 G , I
2
r = AD - 3 = 5 f i - 3. 45O -L-1
I

In right A BDC, A 3 0 0
2
as = r c h2 = ( 5 f i - 312 + (5fi)2.
= 50 - 3 0 a + 9 + 50
= 109 - 3 0 n .
a BC is approximately 8 -2.
14. By Pythagorean Theorem, the altitude equals 24.
The area is 240 square lnchea .

1. Aright
DFB and CFA
triangles.
are 1. Given.

2. FD = FC. 2. Given.
DB = CA.
3. ARDBZAFCA. 3. Bypotenwe-Leg Theorem.
4. FB = FA. 4. Corresponding parts.
5. A FA3 I s isosceles . 5. Definition of isosceles
triangle.

1. AE=BF. 1. Given.
2. EF = FE. 2 Identity.
3. AF = BE. 3. Addition of Steps 1
and 2.
4. DF = CE. 4. Given.
5. A A P D and A BEC 5. Olven.
are right triangles.
6. AAFDZABEC. 6, Hypotenuse-Leg Theorem.
7. Corresponding parts.
8. Theorem4-5.
350 17. Area A ABC = +h.
But by t h e Pythagorean Theorem, h = A,
?2
Substituting, Area B ABC = g(5~5)= &-.
351 18. a. JT. c. $0.
b, 16a.
19. Let s be the length of a s i d e .
2
4JT = 9 n *

20. Let s be the length of a s i d e .

2
$-A= 16z.

21. A side of the square is 9 , and so its perimeter is

36. Then a side of the equilateral t r i a n g l e is 12.
The area of t h e equilateral triangle equals 36 f i

Therefore h PAC is equilateral and r n l FAG = 6 0 ,

Area A FAC =

[pages 350-3511
 0 4 C
351 23. Make CE 11 K, making
e q u i l a t e r a l A EBC wlth
s i d e of 8, The altitude
is 4 A. Since AB = 12,
AE-4 and D C = 4 .
Hence, area of trapezoid
ABCD = $ ( h a ) ( 1 6 ) = snn.
-
24. Draw a l t i t u d e s DE and
-
CF. Since C B = 4 , F B = 2
and CF = 2 a, then b/D
-/b
-
45-
i 66
D E = 2& and A E = 2 f i , 2 5 E 5 F 2
s o AB = 7 + 2 6
Therefore, Area of AECD = $(26)(12 + 2 f i )
= 6 + 12JX
-
352 "25. Since 1 plane E, then @X and CG I&.
4 CAG = 45, s o ' A CAG is an i s o s c e l e s right triangle,
and CG = AG = 6 . Also, AC = 6&. In A ACD,
AC 6&
= AD = 2&, so by Pythagorean Theorem,
DC = 4 f i In A AGD, AG = 6 , AD = 2 6 , s o
1
DO = 2 n . Therefore DG = FC, so mL DCG = 30,
and 4 CDG = 60. Hence, rnL F-AB-E = 60.
+26. a. In right P A D M , DM=%, so A M = q e . In
right A AMN,
Pythagoras ,
AN = s. By the Theorem of

(NPl12 = - (Zl2.Hence,
($a)* NM = f i e.

b. AAHC EAAHD by Hypotenuse-Leg, and t h e r e f o r e

HC = HD. Then H must l i e on t h e perpendicular
z.
b i s e c t o r of Since i n an equilateral triangle
t h e perpendicular b i s e c t o r the median, and the
altitude to any s Fde are t h e same, H l i e s on
median z. S i m i l a r l y , H must lie on the medians
from D and C.

[pages 351-3521
 Hence BH = , But BM = AM = f9
i e.
so BH = fl
-5 e . Finally, in A ABH,
2
AH)^ = (m12- ( B H ) =~ e - e =$e2.

Hence, fi
AH =
- 3
353 27. YA 1 and FA1 because of the given square and
rectangle. By d e f i n i t i o n YAD is the p l a n e angle of
and'hence 4 YAD = 6 0 . By definition of
X-AB-E
projection YD
-I
E and hence 4 ADY = 90. Then
AYD = 30 and AD = $ 4 ~ . Therefore area ABCD
12 ayes mn = 18.
+28. Find the p o i n t of i n t e r -
s e c t i o n of the diagonals
of each rectangle. A
line containing these
intemection p o i n t s separates
each rectangle i n t o two
t~apezoidalregions of equal
area ( o r in special cases
the line may contain a
diagonal and the regions
will be congruent t r i a n g l e s ) .
The proof that the trapezoids
are equal in area involves
showing the pairs of shaded
triangles congruent by A .S . A .
353 Here is a problem t h a t m i g h t be interesting to the class.
It has t o do w i t h c u t t i n g up a square i n t o a certain number
of smaller squares, not necessarily equal in area. We will
talk of an integer k, as being "acceptablet' if a square
can be subdivided i n t o k squares. For example, given any
square we can divide it i n t o 4 squares, b u t n o t i n t o 2,
3, or 5. T r y it. Below are some diagrams showing how a
square may be d i v i d e d i n t o 6 , 7 , and 8 smaller squares:

We may ask is there some pattern or some i n t e g e r k , above

which this will always be possible. Actually any k 2 6
will always be acceptable.
We now show that if a square can be d i v i d e d i n t o k
smaller squares, then I t can be d i v i d e d i n t o k + 3 smaller
squares: Imagine that we have already divided a square i n t o
k squares. Now, s p l i t one o f t h e squares i n t o 4 smaller
squares by bisecting t h e ~ i d e s . In t h i s process we have
lost one l a r g e r square and gained four smaller ones, thus
gaining three.
We i l l u s t r a t e using k = 4:
 smaller squares,
A f t e r d i v i d i n g the o r i g i n a l square i n t o 4
we take one of them, and divide it i n t o 4 squares. Instead
of having 4 squares f r o m the f i r s t d i v i s i o n we have only
t h r e e , and now have 4 add1 tional ones g i v i n g a total of 7 .
Since we know that k = 6 , k = 7, and k = 8 a r e a c e p t -
able, and t h a t we can g e t k + 3 squares from any d i v i s i o n ,
we can form the following sequences:

Hence a l l k 2 6 are acceptable.

Review Problems

four.
12. This may be found by f i r s t showing that the area
of t h e triangle is 36.
10 miles.

L e t t h e length of t h e s i d e of the triangle be 2n.

Then (2n)' = n2 + 62 and n = 2 6 , so 2n = 4a.
The diagonals o f a rhombus are perpendicular and bisect
each o t h e r , forming f o u r congruent r i g h t t r i a n g l e s . By
t h e Pythagorean Theorem, h a l f the l e n g t h of t h e other
diagonal is 5. Each t r i a n g l e has an area of 30. The
area of the rhombus I s 120.

[pages 353-3541
 10. Separate the figure i n t o
a rectangular and a
trf angular region. The b-a
area of the rectangle
is a c . The area of the
triangle is g(b
I a) -
2
. G
The t o t a l area is

355 11. The o u t e r triangle has an area of ;be.

1
m e lnner triangle has an area T(b - 3a)(c - 'la).
The area o f the shaded portion i s found by aubtractlon

Consider BX as a base for A BXC and BA as a base

13.
f o r parallelogram ADCB. Then area A BXC
parallelogram ADCB. By a similar argument,
1
'ti' area -
areaAClD = 1 area parallelogram ADCB. S u b t r a c t i n g
the areas of these t w o triangles from that of the
1
parallelogram we find t h a t area AECX = area
parallelogram ABCD.
14. L e t the length of the side of the isosceles right
.
t r i a n g l e be e Then its hypotenuse has length e f l ,
and t h e area of a square on the hypotenuae is
( e r n 2 = 2e2. w area 0, the t ~ i m g l eis e2,

which is one-fourth t h a t of t h e square.

 Alternate solution: The
five triangles in the
drawing are all congruent,
so by P o s t u l a t e 18 all
have t h e same area.
Therefore, by P o s t u l a t e 19,
area BCDE = 4 area A ABC . A 0

355 *15. L e t ABC be t h e given

triangle and ABt C I t s
projection on the plane.
L e t X be the mid-point
of E , the side l y i n g
i n the plane.

1. =I 1LB'C,
TA and
1. Definition of pro-
j e c t i o n . D e f i n i t i o n of
a line perpendicular to
55 1Em a plane.
2. AABtBEACBrB. 2. Hypotenuse-Leg Theorem.
3. CB1 AB4 and
= 3, Corresponding p a r t s and
Definition of I s o s c e l e s .
A AB1C is i s o s c e l e s .
-
4. BX is an altitude of 4. The median to the base
A ABC; of an i s o s c e l e s t r i -
-
B t X is an a l t i t u d e of
angle is an altitude.

A AB'G.
5. mLBXB1 = 6 0 , 5. Given, and Definition
of plane angle of a
dihedral angle.
6 Corollary 9-13-2.
7. B'X = $ 3 ~ . 7. 30-60 Triangle Theorem.
8. Area bABtC 8. Theorem 11-2.
=
1 Area A ABC.
356 *16. On E, t h e longer of t h e
two parallel sides, l o c a t e

E\
a p o i n t X so that
AX = T(AB + CD) . Then
1
separates t h e trapezoid
into two regions of equal
area. A Y B
-

Proof: Area AADX = $(AX).

Area XBCD = ~ ( X +B CD) .
For these areas to be equal it is necessary that
+(AX) = +(XB + CD), which will be the case if
AX= XB + CD.
Since XB = AB - AX, the previous equatlon can be
written
AX = AFI - AX + CD, from which

AX = $(AB + CD).

+17. By the Pythagorean Theorem

any Pace diagonal such as
has length
- m.
The
diagonal CB has length
J 3 6 + 7 2 = m or 6 6 .
*18, AC = m 0 = 10n.
AG = 15.
6 0

-.-

1 . A.S.A.
I

2. Corresponding parts .
3. Given area of the
square.
4. Given and Statement 2.

5. Pythagorean Theorem.
 The area of RSPQ Ls
51 that of ABCD as can
be seen by rearranging
the triangular regions
as shown.

b. There are 45 amall squares and 10 half squares

so the area is 50 square units .
c . There are 42small aquarea and 14 half squares
so t h e area is 49 square unfts .
The area of the first t r i a n g l e is
1-
7 10*10= 50;
d.
The area of the second triangle is $-14-7 = 49.
A l e g of the f i r s t I s
10, and a leg of t h e second
is 7 o r approximately 9 ,go. One-tenth unit
i n length i s too small to n o t i c e when c u t t i n g one
triangle out and placing it on t h e o t h e r .

I l l u s t r a t i v e T e a t Item f o r Chapter -
--7
11

A. -
Area Formulas ,
1. The perimeter of a square is 20. Find I t s area.
2. The area of a square is n. Find I t s s i d e .
Find the area o f t h e figure
in terms of the lengths
indicated.

4. The base of a rectangle is three times as long as the

altf tude. The area I s 147 square inches. Find the
base and the altitude.
5. The area of a t r i a n g l e is 72. If one side is 12,
what is the a l t i t u d e to that side?
6. In t h e f i g u r e WY = XY
and WZ = X Z . WX = 8 X
and YZ = 12. Find t h e
area of WZXY.

7. RSTV is a parallelogram.
Tf the small l e t t e r s in V o T
the drawing represent
lengths, give the area of:
d
a. Parallelogram RSTV.
b. ASTU. c r
R U S
c, Quadrilateral VRUT.
8. Show how a formula for the
area of a trapezoid may be
obtalned from the formula
1
A = $h for t h e area of a
triangle,
9. In surveying field ABCD
shown h e r e a surveyor laid
off north and south line

-
C,
NS through 3 and then
located the east and w e s t
++
l i n e s CE, DF and W .
He found that CE = 5 rods,
AG = 10 rods, BG = 6 rods,
BF = 9 rods and FE = 4 rods
Find the area of the f i e l d .
B. Comparison --
of Areas.
1. Given:
Diagonals
ABCD
- is a trapezoid.
AC and
i n t e r s e c t at 0.
Prove: A r e a A AOD = Area b BOC . D
2. In t h i s figure
PQRS is a
parallelogram with PT = TQ
and MS = SR. In - a through
-
e below compare the areas
of the two figures listed.
a. Parallelogram SRQP and P T Q

Parallelogram
A MTR.
A PNS and A MTR .
A STR and A SPR.

e. A MTR and A RQT.

C . Pythagorean Theorem.
1. How long must a tent r o p e be to reach from the top of a
12 foot pole to a p o i n t on the ground which is 16
feet from the f o o t of the pole?
2. A boat travels south 24 milea, then east 6 miles,
and then north 16 miles. How far is it from i t s
starting polnt?
3. Gfven the rectangular solid
a t the right with AB = 12,
E
BC = 16 and BH = 15.
Find AC and EC. <--
0 /-

A A

4. For the flgure at the right,

find A 3 and CB. 20

15 0
 2, The diagonal of a square is n. Find its side.
3. The l o n g e s t and shortest s i d e s of a r i g h t triangle a r e
10 and 20. What is the measure of the smallest
angle of the t r i a n g l e ?
4. The measures of each of two angles of a triangle is 45,
What is the ratio of the longest s i d e to either o f t h e
other s i d e s ?
E. Miscellaneous Problems.
. 1. ABCD is a t r a p e z o i d .
CD = 1 and AB = 5.
What I s the area of
the trapezoid? A 6

2. What is the area of

ABCD?

3, ABCD is a rhombus wl th
AC = 24 and AB = 20. A B

a. Compute its a r e a .
b. Compute t h e length
of the a l t i t u d e to
-
DC .
D C
 /mc
4. Find t h e area of a triangle whose sides are g", 12",
and 15".
5 ABCD is a pa~allelogram
with altitude E. Find
the area of the parallelo-
gram if:
a. AB=+ and D E = % . A
r
L
B
b. A B = 10, A D = 4, and
m L A = 30.
6 Find the area of an iaosceles triangle which has
congruent sides of length 8 and base angles o f 30'.

Answers

3. ab + a(c - a), or ac + a(b - a), or ab + ac - a2.

4. Let a be the length of the a l t i t u d e and 3a the
length of the base. Then
3a2 = 147
a2 = 49
a = 7.
The altitude is 7. The length of the base is 21.

6. Consider the figure to be the union of triangular

regions Wm and XYZ . It can be proved t h a t is
the perpendicular bisector of E. Hence and XP WP
are altitudes of triangle WYZ and XYZ respectively.
The area of each of these triangles is 2 4 . Hence the
area of WXY is 48.
 mh
7. a. ad.

c. +(a+c).

8. Separate the figure i n t o tI

triangular regions by
drawing a diagonal. The
b,
areaa of the respective
1
triangles are $lh and
h The sum of these
-

1 1 1
two areas is $lh + $*h s $(bl + b2).
9. Area ABCD = Area AGFD + Area DFEC - Area AGB - Area CEB.
Area ABCD = 165 + 34 - 30 - 34.
Area ABCD = 13%.
The area of t h e field is 13% 1 square rods.
B. 1. Area A kDC = Area A BCD because the triangles have the
-
same base and equal altitudes.
DC
Area A DOC = Area A DOC.
Therefore, by subtracting, we have Area A AOD
= Area A BOC .
2. a. Area parallelogram SRW
= 2 Area A SW.
b. Area parallelogram SRW
= Area A MTR.
c . Area A PNS =
1
Area A MTR .
d. Area A STR = Area A SPR.
e. Area A MTR - 4 Area h RQT.
C. 1. 20 feet.
2. 10 miles.
(see ffgure at r l g h t ) .

AC = 20.
EC = 25.
AB = 25 and CB = 7.
a. 6 n . b. 12.
1.
30.

43. (AC =13.)

a. 384. ( s e e figure at right)

b. 19.2 (384 i 20.)

54. ($09 12. The triangle is a right t r i a n g l e . )

 Chapter 12
SIMILARITY

In Chapter 5 we explored the concept of congruence,

which encompassed the idea of a one-to-one correspondence
between t h e vertices of two triangles such t h a t corresponding
sides and corresponding angles were congruent. In t h i s
chapter we talk of a correspondence between triangles euch
that corresponding angles are congruent and the ratios of
corresponding s i d e s are equal. This correspondence is
c a l l e d a similarity. After a discussion of proportions,
there appears a proof of t h e fundamental proportionalFty
theorem f o r triangles t h a t is different from the usual one
given. This proof I s not new; quite the c o n t r a r y . I t was
found in a text-book, published in 1855, written by
the nated French mathematician, A . M. Legendre. More will
be said about it later. For the most part, t h i s chapter
presents a conventional treatment of similar t r i a n g l e s .
36Q The s t u d e n t i a expected to call upon h i s algebra in
working with proportionalities. We should need no statements
about t h e algebraic p r o p e r t i e s of proportions, The four
p r o p e r t i e s we do s t a t e , however, wfll provide a basts f o r
practice and review. The quantities used in proportions
are numbers, and the algebra of f r a c t i o n a l equations will
enable the student to do all that is required.
361 The geometric mean of two p o s i t i v e numbers, a and c,
is the positive number b, such t h a t 5 =z. You may
recognize t h a t b l s what has been called, in some t e x t -
books, the mean proportional between a and c . We speak
of t h i s as the geometric rnean of a and c, and b = f i .
Then ''geometric mean' and "mean proportionalii are names f o r
the same t h i n g , and we prefer to use "geometric mean" in
t h i s text. In mathematics t h e r e are such things as harmonic
and arithmetic means that do n o t ariae f r o m proportions, and
we have used "geometric meantt because it arose historically
in a geometric construction.
 --
Problem S e t 12-1

7a = 3b. b. 4x = 3. c. 6g=20.

-32 - C . 65 .
T
33
?* dm T .
a 2 and T
?;;='5 a =T
x.

4 m 5
m
a
6 =
7 and b
= =
4
7.
x
5 = 9 and
5 5 6
= T.
6bc c. a==.
21bd

22bd 12cd
d. a = ~ .
a + b 4 and a - b
-==. 2
b = T
+ 2 x + 3 x - 3
=
and +y = -*

a
c=4
4
and -
a - c = -3
C T*
b -+ a
-
a -
8
'5 and -
b - a = -2
a -5'
1,
7' 4 - /
3
The t h r e e new sequences
7 4.
1, T are i d e n t i c a l , s o each p a i r
of the orlginal three
1,
7 4.
g? sequences are proportional.

[pages 361-363 3
363 7. a and d.
a and i.
d and 1.

b and f.

b and h.

f and h.
c and e,

c and g.

e and g.

10. b and f are correct.

36411. p=18; q = 24; t=70.
12. a. G.M. = 6 , (6.000); A.M. = 6.5.
b. G.M.=6fi (8.484); A.M. =9.0.
c. Q.M. = 4 f i (8.944); A.M. = 9.0.

d. G.M. = 4fi (6.928); A.M. = 13.0.

e. G.M. =6,(2.449); A.M. = 2.5,

The d e f i n i t i o n of a similarity, l i k e the d e f i n i t i o n of

a congruence, requires two t h i n g s . For similar t r i a n g l e s we
could have based our definition on either one of the two
conditions, and proved the other. It seems b e a t , however,
to make a definition which may be generalized for o t h e r
polygonal figures .

[pages 363-3641
365 Notice that the i d e a of a correspondence which matches
v e r t i c e s is employed f o r similar triangles as f o r congruent
triangles: the s i m i l a r i t y Indicates, without recourse t o a
fL@;ure, the corresponding s i d e s and angles,

--
Problem Set 12-2

366 1. a. AB=r.
AC .DE a. A B DE-BC
= r .

b. AB EF
B C = r * e. BC=-. AC EF

c. AC=
BC DF DF .AB
EF' f. AC=-.

367 2. a, b; 3 = 48 = 6f ; 2 .
~

a, d; 3 = r42 = ,6.
g
b, d; =,
8 g6 =
12
m.
3. -2 1.6
7.5 = T*
h = mqA*
6.
h =
The height of the o b j e c t i n the enlargement is 6 inches.
4. Yes. If A ABC o A A'BI C t , the conditions necessary
for a similarity a r e met. That is,
(1) L A = L A ~ L, B E L B I , L c P I L C I and

(2)
A'B'
-, =
A'C*
= -.BICt

[pages 365-367 1
367 5. Given: A ABC; D, E, F
t h e mid-points of the sides
- - -
AB, BC, C A respectively.
P r o v e : A EFD - A ABC.
Proof: By Theorem 9-22,

ED =
1
FE = +,
1 A D
FD 1
= $B, and ED I ( E ,

FDEC, DBEF a r e
ADEF,
parallelograms. By Theorem 9-16, L FDE 3 BCA , 1
L DEF ZL CAB, 1 EFD % L ABC; s i n c e we have also
proved above that ED = FE = m,
FD A EFD A ABC by .
I

d e f i n i t i o n of similarity.

368 Conventional p r o o f s of t h e Basic Proport:onality Theorem

contended w i t h (1) a r e l a t i v e l y unconvincing d i v i s i o n of the
sides of a t r i a n g l e by a s e r i e s of parallel lines, and ( 2 )
the problem of what t o do when the ratio of the length o f a
segment to t h e length of a s i d e containing t h a t segment is
n o t a rational number (the ir,comrnensurable c a s e ) , It has
often been the practice to g i v e a proof o f t h e theorem f o r
the cornmensuxlable case and mention the other possibility.
The proof in t h e t e x t avoids t h i s difficulty since L t is
based on the a r e a p o s t u l a t e s , which involve real numbers .
369 In t h e proof o f Theorem 12-2 we tacitly assume t h a t E
is between A and C'. It 1s obvious from a figure t h a t
betweenness i s preserved under p a r a l l e l projectfon, but
we have not j u s t i f l e d it on the b a s i s of o u r p o s t u l a t e s .
It is e a s i l y p r o v e d as f o l l o w s :

Ipages 367- 369 1

 he Parallel P r o j e c t i o n Theorem. )
Given two transversals TI and T2 intersecting three
parallel lines LI, L2, L3 in p o i n t s A, B, and C
and A , B ' , and C 1 respectively. If B is between
A and C then B 1 is between A 1 and C .

-
Proof: S i n c e Ll 1 I L2, then t h e segment A A ' cannot
i n t e r s e c t L2 and hence A and A' are on t h e same side
-
of La. Likewise, s i n c e L3 11 L2, then the segment C C T
cannot i n t e r s e c t L2 and C and C f are on the same s i d e
of L2. S u c e B is between A and C by hypothesis,
-
segment AC i n t e r s e c t s L2 a t B; hence, A and C are
on opposfte s i d e s o f L2, Since A t and A are in the
same half-plane determined by L2 and C' and C a r e in
the same half-plane and A and C a r e in o p p o s i t e h a l f -
planes then it follows that A ' and C' a r e in o p p o s i t e

-
half-planes determined by Lp. Hence A'Cf meets L2 In
a p o i n t which must be B 1 , s i n c e B1, is the Intersection
of A ' C 1 and L2. Therefore, B t is between A t and C q .
370 We have assumed t h a t A # A ' and C / Cl. The argument
above is e a s i l y modified to apply to t h e cases where A = A '

Note t h a t t h e application o f this principle t o Theorem

12-2 i n v o l v e s t h e case A = A ' .

[pages 369-3701
 Problem --
Set 12-3a

5. No. g #%.
372 7. a. By Theorem 12-1, CA = CB m.
Then
CA - l = CCBp - 1 .
m
or
CA - CD CB - CF
C D =CF
The refore

[pages 370-3721
372 b. Taking the reciprocals of b o t h fractions of (a)
we get

Then

' or
CD+DA CF-tFB
DA =r-
Theref ore,
CA CB
m = m*
c . By Theorem 12-1, CA _- z
CB .

Clearing of fractions, C A h C F = CD*CB, and

d i v i d i n g by CFmCB we have

9. x m u s t be 8 or 11.

1. Given.

2. Theorem 12-1 .

3. F r o m S t e p 2.

4. Theorem 12-2.

No, the figure does not have to be planar.

373

G.
-
1 . Proof: Draw transversal

In b CAD we have by
H
DC i n t e r s e c t i n g BE in

Theorem 12-1, -
AC
BC =
CD
AB DG 0
from which = z.
Similarly, in A DCF, we

Hence, u
=
UL
E. -7
(An

-
alternate method of
proof might u s e an auxiliary
l i n e CW as shown at t h e
C*
right, or a line DR 11 AC
@
PI --+--/- \IF
\

as shown here .)

2 , b t I:
13. Since --
80 feet.
AB 1 1 ~
#
Lot 11:
0 .A = OB
~ i5jl
H
m.
160 f e e t . h t 111: 120 f e e t .

Similarly, BC 11 YZ mplles
03 OC
rn nz*
=

Hence,
by Theorem 12-2.

374 4 . x will be the length of the folded c a r d , so

z=3 and x 2 = 1 8 .
The width of the card should be a or 3 fi inches.
374-378 In the proofs of Theorems 12-3, 12-4, and 12-5 we have
drawn t h e figure w i t h AB > DE and used t h f a in each p r o o f ,
except that in Theorem 12-3 the case AB = DE was discussed.
( ~ o t i c ehere if AB = DE, A A E i F 1 and A ABC coincide,
t h a t is A AEtF' = A ABC.) In the case AB < DE a similar
4
proof would be g i v e n with El on DE and DEI = AB.
It m i g h t be advisable t o point o u t to the s t u d e n t s t h e
general plan of t h e proof of Theorem 12-5. F i r s t prove
AABC - A AEIF1 by the A.A. Corollary, then prove

AABC -
A AEIFT A DEF by the S . S . S . Theorem, and finally prove
A DEF by the A.A. Corollary.

--
Problem S e t 12-3b

379 1. Similarities are indicated in a, c, d.

Notice that the wording

of { e ) permits
A

2. The A . A . A . and the A . A . Theorems.

No. c. No.
Yes. d. Yes.
The triangles are similar . S .S .S .
Not similar.
The triangles are similar. A.A.A. or S . A . S .
Similar. A.A.A.

Similar. S.S.S.

Similar. A.A. o r S.A.S.

[pages 374-3801
380 5. a. LAXC or LBXC.
b. LACX.

c. A AXC, or A CXB.
6. X C = F , or XG=T. No.

c. A ABC ia not - A XYZ.

d. A ABC * d T S R .

-
-
8. A ABC A CDL s i n c e the v e r t i c a l angles at L are
congruent as w e l l as the given angles B and D. From
the given information = T. Since the triangles have
been proved similar DL = =.
4 Then -.
DL+BL = 4 + 1

Since L is between B and D, t h i s can be written

BD = 3
- or BD = 5BL.
BL
s
382 9. a. =
r r x = s , x = - s.
r
1
b. = x = mp.

e. Part b.
f. Part a.

g. No.

[pages 380-3823
382 10. Of the five equal p a i r s of parts three mwt be angles,
f o r if three were sldea the t r i a n g l e s would be congruent.
Hence the triangles a r e similar. Neither of the two
pairs of equal s i d e s can be corresponding sides or the
triangles would be congruent by A . S . A . The remaining
possibility can b e a t be shown by an example.

OB OX
Theref ore O,B, = rm'

OD
Therefore O~ = m.
OX

From Statements 2 and 3 , OB OD

O,B,=m-
A B S C * A BTD, ABC*ADRB, ARSB-ADST.
383 e. Construct perpendiculars 6 and 3 units long at
opposite ends (but on the same s i d e ) of any segment
-
BD. J o i n the ends of these perpendiculars to the
oppoaite ends of the segment, and where these l i n e s
intersect , draw a perpendicular to BD . Measure
this perpendicular. It should be 2 units long.
Therefore the task would require 2 hours.

1. ABRQ is a parallelo- 1. Given.

gram,
2. L Q3.A qBHF. 2. Vertical angles.
3 AQII5. 3 Definition of a
parallelogram.
Alternate i n t e r i o r
angles.
A.A.

Definition of simllar
triangles.
Clearing of fractions .
14. a . and b. L e t a, 2a, ha
stand f o r the lengths
aa shown in the figure.
Then it can e a s i l y be
shown f o r each pair of
triangles mentioned that
.
t h e S .A .S Similarity
Theorem applies.
38 3 c . L ADQ and L QAD are complementary angles.
LQADrL&DC, since they are corresponding
angles of slmilar triangle8 . Therefore L ADQ
and L QDC are complementary and 4 ADC = 90.
C, H C,
15. Let be papallel to AD, meeting AC in E.
BE
LABE= L DAB ( a l t . i n t . L a ) and A AEB n L CAD
(corr. L s) Alao, . L
DAB fY L CAD (given). Therefore
AEB L ABE. Therefore AE = AB. Since
CD = =,
CA
then CD =
CA by substitution.

38'1 *16. From the prevlous problem CD = BY an exactly

similar proof you can ahow that CD' =
CA
B. Therefore

*17. a. Let E be t h e p o i n t
on the ray opposite to
-3
AB such that AE = y.
Then A AEC ia equl-
-
l a t e r a l , EC
the e lmilar triangles
y. In

ECB and Am,

EC - EB
7m - BJ Or
x2 = = , X

f =l+S.
Dividing by y, we get
-1Z = -Y1 + -,
1
X
b. Yes, place the straight-edge against R1 on the
middle s c a l e and R2 on one of the o u t e r acales.
Then read o f f R on the o t h e r outer scale.

[pages 383-3841
 1 Given.

2. Given and L&

are medians.
3. S t e p s 1 and 2, and
substitution.
4. S . S . S . Similarity.
5. Derinitlon of similar
triangles.
6. Step 1 and Theorem 12-4.

1. 1y is the comple- 1.
-
RA 1 E , and defin-
ment of L x. ition of complementary
2. L y is the comple- 2.
angles
Given RH
.- -
AF, and
ment of R. Corollary $-13-2.
3. Complements of the same
angle are congruent.
4. LB=LRHA* 4.
- ~ mlz.
R H L and
5. A HRA * A BAF. 5. A.A. Corollary.
6, = - HA
-KR 6. Definition of similar
3A BF' triangles .
7. HRoBF =BA*HA. Clearing of fractions
an step 6,
386 20. a. No.
b.
-
B i s e c t XI,PB1, etc., and connect the resulting
mid-points .
PA2 L AIPBl
"' m q = YPBp
B; because both equal 2. is

common to triangles AIPBl and A2PB2. These

triangles are therefore s imilar by the S A .S . .
Slmllarity Theorem; and as a result of t h e i r being
similar the sides A2B2 and AIBl have the same
r a t i o as the o t h e r corresponding s i d e s .

( pages 385-386 ]
386 d. Not only and AIBI, but o t h e r corresponding
s i d e s of triangles A2B2D2 and AIBIDl are in
the r a t i o 2: 1 by a proof like that in part c .
A A2B?*
Theorem.
- A AIBIDI- by the S .S .S . Similarity

e. Yes, the method could be used f o r any point P;

but in some instances the enlargement would inter-
sect t h e given figure .
) so A SRX -
387*21. LSRX E L &TX and 1 RSX = L TQX (alternate interior
A QTX by A . A . Therefore
RX
~FJ
SX
= m, SO 3~
m-
RX = TX Since A QXR A TXS (given), .U

RX = QX
m e Therefore = m,
TX (a)' = (TX)*, and

QX = TX, since b o t h QX and TX a r e p o s i t i v e .

=
L XQR S i L XTS and L RXQ Cj: SXT ( d e f i n i t i o n of similar
t r i a n g l e s ) , so A Q X R = A TXS by A . S . A . Therefore
QR = TS.

Alternate proof: If TS > QR, then TX > QX and

XS > XR, from A QXR - A TXS, In A QXT,
mL
rnL XQT > XTQ, by Theorem 7-4, and In A RXS,
m L SRX > m L RSX. But m L XTQ = mL SFN, by a l t e r n a t e
i n t e r i o r L s , and m L X&T = 4 RSX. Contradiction.
S i m i l a r l y if QR > TS.

[pages 386- 3871

 -
-
1. AWL=.
BFRQ is a square.
II 1. Given.

2.

3,
LABQgLWELMFR.

Let mLA = a and

1 2.

3.
D e f i n i t i o n s of per-
pendicular and square.
Angle Measurement
rnL M = m. Postulate .
4. Thus, mL FRM = a 4. Corollary 9-13-2.
and mL AQB = m.
5. Also, 4 WQR = a 5. The sum of the measures
and dWR& =
m. of the angles at Q is
180 and the sum of the
meaaures of t h e angles
at R is 180.
6. A m p - A RFMcAQWR.16. A.A.A.
7. AB
= AB
and = BQ D e I i n l l i o n a f slmllar
triangles .
8. A B - W R = Q W * B Q and Clearfng of fractions
A B d F M = RFmBQ.

23. Since A ABF - A HRQ we know LF Q and

AF = AB = m.
BF A130 m ;F'B FW AF Then
TI$ = = m = Q H 0
9
AAW - A HXQ by S . A . S . Slmllarity, and then

It is p o s s i b l e to contlnue in the same way f o r the o t h e r

medians.
24. Sfnce A ABF .v h XWR then Lx a A and
XR = X
m - W T ( * m ~ A H P = ~ X e and
nW- E P R so A XQR-AAHF
by A . A , Then RQ = XR n.
A similar proof can be followed f o r each of the altitudes.
388 25. As shown in the two figures the two t r i a n g l e s a r e
similar by A . A .
26. Since the base angles a r e congruent, AE = BE and by
s u b t r a c t f o n EC = ED. Hence A CED A AFB by the .U

.
S .A .S Similarity Theorem.
Therefore L ECD =1
EAB and % 11 by corresponding
angles.
389 27. False. L e t A ABIC and A AB2C be such that AC = AC,

L A E L A, CB1 = CB2, as i n the diagram, b u t the tri-

angles are not congruent. Construct A AIBIC1 + b ABIC.

The triangles A7B'Cf and AB2C s a t i s f y the statements

of the hypothesis, but these triangles a r e n o t similar.
*28. a. 1. A ABC -
h ADE; AB =,
AC
=
BC , .,
2. A ABC and A ADF are n o t similar even though

m
i\B
= BCm since m~ B + m~ FDA.
b. False. The diagram shows a counter-example. The
hypothesis is true if X is e i t h e r E or F.
The conclusion is f a l s e I f X is F.
= E.
X
390 * 2 9 . In similar ABC and EDC, 3 From the s irnilar
ACG and AEF, - =+ b
a 7
a 3'

Answer. The ball h i t s the ground a t least 29'3" from

the n e t ,

[pages 388-390 )
390 *30, A C E B - A AEF since A x YL y ( a l t e r n a t e i n t e r i o r
angle8 of parallel lines BC and AD) and
H *
L PEA EF = -
BEC ( v e r t i c a l a n g l e s ) ; therefore - FA
EB BC
=
AE
m. A l s o , A CEG - A A E 9 s i n c e L ABE L CGE
(alternate i n t e r i o r angles) and L CEG 2 L AEB (vertical
angles); we g e t BA = AE = E.EB S i n c e in each case we

have AE as one of t h e f r a c t i o n s , we also have EF EB

'EB = E'
*31. Since
C,
AX 1 , A DAX -A DBY and DA
-
= m.
AX
- -
4+ C,
11 BY, A -6 BEY and EC CZ .
W

-
Similarly, s i n c e CZ CEZ =

But AX = C Z ,since opposite sidea of a parallelogram

are congruent, and so DA = EC NOW 1 - DA = 1 EC *.
- EIET'
DB - DA = EB - EC and BC merefore 11
m * EB'
W
by
M *
u %$
Theorem 12-2. And now AC 11 DE 11 XZ.
391 ' 3 2 . a. In rlght A A X E and
CXP, FXC a L EXA,
hence L XAE L XCF (L a ) .
L a I s a complement of
L C . L b is a comple-
ment of L c . Hence
LaELbMLXAE. Hence
A BFC w A ADC and
BP AD A E D
Bier = E'
b. Since AB o c c u r s in each denomlnator,one only
needs to show that

Since BE = FE + BF

one only needs to show that

This is essentially what was shown in p a r t a .

of t h i s problem.
[pages 390-3911
391 I n Theorem 12-6 we have assumed the following theorem:
In any r i g h t triangle t h e altitude from the vertex of t h e
r i g h t angle intersects the hypotenuse in a point between
t h e end-points of t h e hypotenuse,
Proof: L e t D be the foot of the p e r p e n d i c u l a r from
u
C t o AB.
391 There a r e 5 p o s s i b l e cases:
(1) D = A .
(2) D = B.
( 3) A is between D and B.
( 4 ) B is between D and A.
(5) D is between A and B .
We would like to show that cases (I), ( 2 ) , (3), and (4)
are impossible which leaves case ( 5 ) as the required r e s u l t .
Case (I) is impossible because A BDC then would have
t w o right angles, one at C and one at D.
Case ( 2 ) Is impossible f o r a sfrnilar reason as in
Case (1).
Proof t h a t case ( 3 ) is irnposslble:
C

Suppose t h a t A is between D and B. Then L CDA I s a

right angle of A CDA. Moreover L CAB is an e x t e r i o r
angle of A CDA and so is obtuse. B u t t h i s is impossible,
since L CAB is an a c u t e angle o f ABC.
A similar proof shows that Case ( 4 ) is impossible,
hence, Case ( 5 ) holds as was to be proved and the altitude
from C must intersect the hypotenuse at some point D,
such t h a t D is between A and B.
392 Once we have proved Theorem 12-6, it is now p o s s i b l e to
prove the Pythagorean Theorem using similar t r i a n g l e s . T h i s
has n o t been done in the text, however, since t h e theorem
has been proved once by areas. Tf time p e r m i t s , it might be
illuminating to the class to l e t t h e m see t h e follow!ng
proof, reminding them t h a t there is more than one way t o
a t t a c k a mathematical problem.
Theorem: Given a right triangle, with legs of length a and
2 2 2
b and hypotenuse of length c . Then a + b = c .

P r o o f : L e t CD be t h e altitude from C t o E, as in
Theorem 12-6. L e t x = AD and l e t y = DB, as in t h e
figure. The scheme o f t h e proof is s i m p l e . (1) First we
c a l c u l a t e x i n terms o f b and c , usFng similar tri-
angles. ( 2 ) Then w e calculate y i n terns of a and c,
using similar triangles. ( 3 ) Then we add x and y, and
simplify the resulting equatl.on, using the fact that
c = x + y.
x b
(1) S i n c e A ACD - A ABC, we have = -
c'
b2
Therefore x = - .
(2) S i n c e b CBD - C

A ABC,
-2
a
we have = 5c '
Therefore y = 7 .
L;

(3) Thus we have x + y = a* + b 2,

Rut c = x + y .
2
Therefore c = a* + b
C '
and a2 + b2 = c 2 , which was to be proved.
395 Note to the teacher: A t t h i s point in the t e x t you
-
may wish to proceed directly to Chapter 17, Plane Coordinate
Geometry, and l a t e r r e t u r n to the remaining chapters.

Let the segments of the

hypotenuae be x and 25 - x.
X
men = 85-* by Theorem
12-6 and d e f i n i t i o n of similar
triangles.
144 = 2 3 - x 2 .
2
x -
2%+144=0.
(x -
9) (x - 16) = 0. The segments of the hypotenuse are
9 and 16. If a is the length of the s h o r t e r leg,

[pages 393-395 1
c. Let DB = x, then x(x + 10) = 144.
x2 + lox = 144.

DB = 8.
CA= J18'0=66
CD = a=
4 f i
d. Let AD=x, then x ( x + 1 2 ) = 6 4 .
x2 + 1 & - 6 4 = O .
(x - 4)(x + 16)= 0.
x = 4.
 Problem -
S e t $2-5

The base of the smaller is 8 inches.

7. Since DE IIE, AABC-A DEC.

CA = 3 and so
AreaA ABC
A rea
= g,
A E

S = 10 n- The sides will be 10 a.

11. IF the length of the wire is c a l l e d d, the side of the

square is $d and that of t h e triangles is
-2
Then +.
the area of the square is and that of the triangle
n

is G C 0 .Then, n

dZ
Area of t h e trianEle mn 4
F
Area o f the square =d2=
[pages 396-3971
 1
397 12. The area of A ABC = -0140-120 = 8400.
2
The area of the required l o t must t h e n be 4200. By the
Pythagorean Theorem, AD = 90, and area of
1
AADC = -.g0.120 = 5400. Then, by Theorem 12-7,
2

(6l=2m,
4200
and x = 3 0 ~ required distance
The
is approximately 79.4 f e e t .
13. Given: R i g h t A ABC, C a right angle, and M the
mid-point of a.
Prove: MA = PIB = MC.
Proof: Let be the perpendicular f r o m M to E,
meeting BC in K. Then IIE, so CK = KB.
-
Therefore %? is the perpendicular b l s e c t o r of CB.
Hence MC = MB. Since MB = MA ( g i v e n ) , then
MA = MB = MC.
C
398 14. By Problem 13, KC = 2, where A 3 = c. Therefore
4 KCB = 4 KBC = 60, so m L BKC = 60. Therefore
BC = KI3 =
i A
15. Since ARs RC, 4 A = d A C R .
,

A l s o , since RC = RB,
m L B = mL BCR. L e t
mL A
mL B = rnL acR X .
Then in A ACB,
-
rnL ACR = y and
2x + 2y = 180,
C

and x + y = 90.

Also L AHC U L CHB. Hence A AHC - A CHB by S . A . S .

S i m i l a r i t y Theorem. Therefore L HCB L A . Since
L HCB and L B are complementary, then L A and L B
are complementary, and A ACB is a r i g h t tri~ngle. By
1
the preceding problem MC = AM, and MC = $AB
1
= ?(AH + HB). But HC < MC, except when M = H
(i.e., when AH = HB). Therefore, ~THB
= HC < $(AH + HE). If AH = HB, the l a s t inequality
 becomes the equality do2 = F1 ( + ~AH),~ t h a t 1s
AH = AH.
Alternate solution. Let u and V be p o s i t i v e numbers,
u # v. Then
0 <- u -2pfl+ v.

398 17. Outline o f proof. A PXR A PYA, therefore PR = -

- PX
PA PY'
A PRS A PAB, therefore PR =
RS

-
.Y

AWT A ABC, therefore

Area RST =
Area A ABr
(m)
Rs 2 ,
From t h e above:
Area A RST = (PX12
Area A A X
399 *18. 1. Area Addition Postulate ( p o s t u l a t e 19) .
2. Division.
3. Theorem 12-6.
4. Theorem 12-7 and Step 2.
5. MultiplScation.
. ~ * 1 9 .a 2 = h 2 + y2 = h 2 + ( c - x) 2 .

In t h e similarity A ADC - A WT,

x = bk.
Theref ore

I pages 398- 400I

In t h e similarity A AM: A R~T,

x = bk.
Therefore
a 2 = b 2 + c 2 +2bck.

( ~ h l sis the case in which L C is a c u t e . IC L C l a

obtuse or a r i g h t angle, the proof is similar. )
L e t A RST have L R Z L C, L S a right angle,
hypotenuae = 1, RS = k. By the result of Problem 19,
a p p l i e d to A ACT,

ma = b2
a 2
+ (H) - 2b($)k,
2 2 2
(11 "'a = b + $ - abk.

Applying t h e same reault t o A ACB,

Multiplying both a i d e s of Equation (2) by and

subtracting from the corresponding sides of Equation (1):
2 1 2 b2 a2
ma - p = 2 - F ,
From p a r t ( a ) ma2 = ;b2+ p1 2 - 1 2
#3 ,
2
mb = 1F2 + 1p2 -$,
1 2

='c
2 = ;a2 + ;b2 - +**
Adding and collecting like terms,
2 2
ma2 + m b 2 + r n c2 = $ a 2 + b + o 1.

Review Problems

a* n2 = m ' hence FB = 22.

g1 = r, 6

'
b. FQ hence FQ = 5.

C' T =FQ
T , hence I?&=%.

d. 6
9 z,
= QB hence QB = 8.

a. Yes. b. AF = 8.

b. G.M. is 6, A.M. is gfi.

Sketches m i g h t be of t w o rhombuses; a rhombus and a
square; two p a r a l l e l o g r a m ; a parallelogram and a
rectangle.
l2 FC hence FC=6. hence AC = 6 6
E = 3' Ai7 = V'
--
-l5 hence BC = 3 G .
BC 3 '
- -
If DE ~ ( A B ,
x + 3
= - 5
x + 5 ' and x = 7.
402 7 , A ABE .U A CDE (A .A. ) . Corresponding sides are there-
fore p r o p o r t i o n a l and DE = BE. Hence BD = 5BE.
8. Let e be t h e length of the s i d e of the original tri-
angle. Then t h e length of t h e s i d e of the second tri-
4
angle is and the r a t i o of the areas is 5 .

(i) ~f x = 1 6 : a2=16*+8*; a=8&

y = 2 0 - x = 4 ; b = 4 6
(ii) ~f x=4: a2=4*+8'; a - 4 6 ;
y=l6; b=8&
Hence there are t w o p o s s i b f l i t i e s : x = 16, y = 4,

a=8&, b = 4 & and x = 4 , y=l6, a = 4 6 ,

b = 8 6
10. AABC-ADEF, hence m
AB
= AC
m =BCm .

AB AC
SZnce, above, the last r a t i o s are the same, m=m
and hence AB = A C .
11. a. A A F Q - A W A X (A.A.). Hence -AF
WA= - AQ
WX and
therefore AF-XW = AW-QA.
w &A
-
b. A AXW - A FQA (A.A.) and so AX = --
XW'
hence QFmXW = AX-QA.
c. Since A AXW - A FQA, E = W , hence
AW-FQ = FA-AX.
 13. 3 = = ,9
g hence y = 24.
3
=
x hence x = 6@.

9 &, = hence w = 18n.

*14. m L XYR = m L ABR, m L RYZ = mL RBC

(corresponding angles.) By
A
aitditlon, mL XYZ = mL ABC.
since XY1 1 E , A m A RAB,
XY = z. RY
- R

hence A Since
-
YZ IIE, A RYZ -A RBC,
YZ. Hence
RY = E
hence
XY

15. No.
=
YZ
x.
li$
Hence A XYZ
We can be s u r e t h a t
- B

A ABC (S.A.S .)
C

L t is when the plane of

the triangle and the plane
of t h e film are parallel.
Proof: Assuming t h a t t h e
planes of A ABC and 0
ADEF are parallel,

.'. A A OAB,
ODE ru

A OEF * A OBC, A O F D * A OCA .

-
EF = OE = ED = 5
BC iOD
K DF EF
t h a t is, 875 =
ED = E.
BA: DF

Therefore A ABC - A DEF by S . S . S . Similarity.

 ---
Illustrative Test Items f o r Chapter 12

A. 1. a. In A A B C , if A D Z ~ ,
1
AB = 7 , AE = 72,
EC = 3 , is DE )I=?
Explain.
b. In A ABC, if A D = 15,
AB = 25, AC = 3 3 , and B C
AE = 21, is DE IJBG?
Explain.
2. a. Given two slmilar t r i a n g l e s in which t h e r a t i o of
2
a pair of corresponding sides is 3, what is t h e
ratio of the areas?
b. If the r a t i o of the areas of two sirnllar triangles
1
is T , what is t h e ratio of a p a i r of correspond-
i n g altitudes?
3. If 2, 5 , 6 are the lengths of the s i d e s o f one tri-
1
angle and TT, 9 , 3 are the lengths of the sides o f
another triangle, a r e the triangles similar? If so,
w r i t e ratios t o show the correspondence of the sides.
4. If ABCD is a trapezoid
with I
(1 DC and lengths
of segnents as shown, give
numerical answers below:
a.
AB m=? A

Area A AEB = ? 3
b* A r e a * CED

c Area A ACD = ?
Area A BEC
 5. I n t h e fimre. ABCD is a
parallelogram with FG 11 DC.
DF = 4, DE = 6 , AB = 12,
KB = 2.m. Find AF, BC,
pvL 1 \

DH, KF and LF.

A

6. In quadrilateral in
KQRS
the figure, segments have

KS in t e r n of n.

Q
K 5
B. 1. Inthefigure, ABLE,
-
BH 1z, and the lengths
A
of the segments are as
shown. Find x, y, and 3
X
2.

C
B Y
2 With and
-
1

D\*
CH and with lengths
as indicated in the
figure, f i n d x, y, and
Y
2.

C Z 8

3. In t h i s figure A ACB is
a right triangle- with
altitude drawn t o the A
-
hypotenuse AB. Find
X, y, and z.
-
AF and B& are medians
of A ABH, as shown in
the figure. Prove
AABK .v A FQK. Write
three equal r i t i o a show- A B
i n g the proportionality
of t h e sides of these
t r i a n g l e s , and glve the
numerical value of the
ratios. H
m t h i s figure, BF = $KB
and BQ = $4B, Prove
the two t r i a n g l e s are
similar and wrlte three
equal r a t i o s showing
the proportionality of
t h e aides .
E 11 AB as shown in
the f i g u r e . Prove
AB*FQ = AQ-FH.

Answers

Yes, since

Yes. $ = 3 = 9.
6
73
B. 1. -
x -
- 5' hence x = 2 6 . y4 = qz , hence z = 6.

2
Y
= 2, hence y = 3 6

3.
4
=
6
hence x = 5. 5 =9, hence y = 2 6 .
Y
5 = 99 hence z = 3 6

C. 1. L AK3 'L FKQ ( v e r t l c a l angles)

and
1 BQ.F E L QBA (alternate i n t e r i o r a n g l e s ) ,
hence A AKB - A F'KQ ( A . A . ) FK = FQ = KQ = 7. 1

2. Since
BF = 2
m = and L HBF ' L I\BP, h HBF r A ABQ

(s.A.s.) and n = BFm eHFm .

3. AABQ-AFHQ (A.A.) and m
AB = p
AQg , hence
AB-FQ = A&-EW.
 -
Answers t o Review Exercises
Chapters -7-to- 12
 Chapter 13
C I R C L E S AND SPHERES

T h i s chapter falls I n t o two parts: the first studies

common properties of c i r c l e s and spheres relative t o I n t e r -
s e c t i o n w i t h lines and planes, the second deals with degree
measure of c i r c u l a r arcs and related properties of angles
and a r c s , chords, secants and tangents. The first part is
unusual s l n c e it t r e a t s c i r c l e s and spheres by unlform
methods and s t a t e s and proves the fundamental theorems on
the i n t e r s e c t i o n of line and circle (and sphere and plane)
with great precision. You will note that following the
fundamental theorems on c i r c l e a , there Is a corresponding
section concerning spheres, and probably nowhere else is
the analogy between plane and space geometry s o s t r o n g as
it Is here. Essentially t h e same proofs work f o r the sphere
as the c l r c l e , as relates to tangent and s e c a n t lines and
planes. The thecrems and methods of proof in the second
part are, in the main, conventional but the basic ideas of
types of c i r c u l a r arc, angles Inscribed in an a r c , and a r c
intercepted by an angle a r e defined with unusual c a r e .
The convention of letting c i r c l e P mean the c i r c l e
with center P is followed in many of the problems f o r
convenience, where no ambiguity r e s u l t s . The t e x t , however,
follows the more precise notation, where a separate l e t t e r
denotes the c i r c l e . We can then t a l k c o n c i s e l y about
concentric c i r c l e s C and C 1 or about l i n e L i n t e r -
secting c i r c l e C.
Use concrete situations to illustrate the idea of clrcle
and sphere. For example, ask students to describe t h e
f i g m e composed of a l l p o l n t s which are six inches from a
-
given p o i n t of t h e blackboard - but don' t say " p o i n t s of the
blackboardn. Use models, c u t a ball i n half t o indicate
its c e n t e r and radius, and so o n . Refer to the e a r t h and
 the equator (or meridtans) as examples o f a sphere and a
great c i r c l e . Contrast "great c i r c l e " w i t h "small circle",
such as the equator with a parallel north of the equator.

--
Problem S e t 13-1

411 1. a. False. e. False.

b. True. f. True.
c. False. g. True.
d. False. h. True.
2 a. False. e. False.
b. True. f. Falee.
c. True. g. True.
d. False. h. Falae.
412 3. a. A l l points lie on a c i r c l e with c e n t e r at the
given i n t e m e c t l o n , and radius 200 yards.
b. There are eight such points: four o f them lie
at the v e r t i c e s of a aquare, and four at the mid-
p o i n t s of the sides of t h i s square, as shown on
the diagram. (0 I s the given tntersectlon.)
 4. L e t c be the length of any chord not a diameter.
Draw r a d i l to i t s end-points. Then 2r > c, by
Theorem 7-7, The Triangle Inequality. But 2r is
the length of the d i a m e t e r . Hence t h e diameter I s
l a r g e r than any o t h e r chord.

We have not adopted the convention that t h e d i s t a n c e

from a p o i n t to itself shall be zero -
that is, t h e d i s t a n c e
between p o i n t s is always a p o s i t i v e number. For this reasgn,
in defining the i n t e r i o r of a c i r c l e (or sphere), we must
include the center in addition to p o i n t s whose distance to
the c e n t e r is less than the radius.
41 4 Caaes (I) and (2) of Theorem 13-2 should be easy f o r
students t o grasp. In Case (2) , the answer to "Why?" is
Theorem 7-6 h he perpendicular segment is t h e shortest
distance from a p o i n t to a l i n e ) .
415 Case (31, (see below) is more difficult and may cause
trouble f o r some students - also they may think it halr
s p l l t t l n g to prove something so "obvious". If they learn
and unders t a d the theorem and omit the proof of Case ( 3 ) ,
they still may be better off than in a conventional course
in which the precise relation between lines and c i r c l e s
is not made explicit, l e t alone proved. Incidentally,
Theorem 13-5 is an exact analog of Theorem 13-2, but is
less familiar and less obvious. After worklng t h ~ o u g hthe
proof of Theorem 13-5 they may better appreciate the proof
of Theorem 13- 2.
I

415 Remark - on Theorem - 13-2, -Case (3): Case ( 3 ) Is essential-

ly the same as an existence and uniqueness p r o o f . Since we
-
don' t h o w that L and C have point8 in common, we assume
they have a common p o i n t and try to find where it can
p o s s i b l y lie. P r e c i s e l y we t r y to l o c a t e it r e l a t i v e to F
which is a fixed point on L.

[pages 412-4153
 Thus i n t h e f i r s t part of the proof we show:
If a point is common to L and C its distance from
F Is. Since r 1s a definite positive
number, we see that there are only two possible p o s i t i o n s
on L f o r a pofnt common to L and C, namely the two
points on L whose distance to R is &.-
415 In the second part we show a converse: If a p o i n t is
on L and i t s distance from F then it 1s
common to L and C. To show t h i s we merely ahow t h a t

Thm the t w o p o i n t s described above are common to L and

C and constitute t h e i r i n t e r s e c t i o n .
415 If y o u r studenta prefer to derive some of these
corollaries by using congruent triangles and other earlier
principles r a t h e r than Theorem 13-2, by all means permit
them to do ao. The fact that Theorem 13-2 I s a powerful
theorem may be seen better in retrospect by many students.
In applying Theorem 13-2 (and Theorem 13-5) we generally
how t h a t since two of the cases do not hold in a particular
situation the o t h e r one m u s t hold.
 Proofs of the C o r o l l a r i e s
Corollary 13-2-1. Any line tangent to C is p e r -
pendicular to t h e radius drawn to t h e p o i n t of contact.
L e t L be a tangent to C

-
at point S . Draw the radius
PS. Let Q be the foot of the
perpendicular from P to L.
If Q # S, then L intersects
C l m exactly 2 points and
t h f s c o n t r a d i c t s t h e hypothesis
that L is tangent t o C a t
S . Therefore the p o i n t Q must
be the point S, hence the
tangent L is perpendicular to
the radius drawn to the point
of c o n t a c t .
416 Corollary 13-2-2. Any line in E perpendicular t o a
radius at its outer end, is tangent to the c i r c l e .
a l i n e i n E, per-
Given
pendicular t o a radius a t its
outer end, which is a point on
c l r c l e C.
This point is Q,
the foot of the perpendicular
from center P to L. Then,
by Theorem 13-2, the line
intersects the c i r c l e In Q
alone and is therefore tangent
to the circle.

[page 4161
 Corollary 13-2-3, Any perpendicular f r o m the c e n t e r
of C to a chord b i s e c t s t h e chord.
Consider a chord
of c i r c l e C -and the l i n e L
containing AB. The 1Fne L
intersects C in t w o p o i n t s
A and B. Let Q be the
foot of the perpendicular from
P t o L, The intersection
cannot be Q alone. Hence,
by Theorem 13-2, A and B
are equidistant from Q.
Therefore the perpendicular
from P t o the chord biaects
the chord.
Corollary 13-2-4. The segment joining t h e center cf
a c i r c l e to the mid-point of a chord is perpendicular to the
chord.
416 Given chord of c i r c l e
C and segment PS where P
is the center of c l r c l e C and
S is the mid-point of' chord
-
AB. ~ e t ZJ
1 B w i t h foot
Q. By C o r o l l a r y 13-2-3, Q is
i i
-
the mid-point of AB. Since

-
the mid-point of
(Q = S) , PS is perpendicular
is unique

to the chord z. -
A l t e r n a t e Proof:
L e t F be the mid-point of AB.
Then P and F are e q u i d i s t a n t f r o m A and 3 in plane
w -
E and PF is the perpendicular b i s e c t o r of AB in plane
E by Theorem 6-2.
T h i s a l s o can be done independently of Theorem 13-2 by
us fng congruent t r i a n g l e s .
[page 4161
 C o r o l l a r y 13-2-5. In the plane of a c i r c l e , the per-
pendicular b i s e c t o r of a chord passes through the c e n t e r of
the c i r c l e .
By Corollary 13-2-4 the segment joining the center of a
c i r c l e to the mid-point of a chord is perpendicular to the
chord, hence the line containing the c e n t e r of a c i r c l e and
the mid-point of the chord i s - a perpendicular biaector of
the chord. Since there l a only - one perpendicular to the
chord at i t s mid-polnt, the perpendicular b i s e c t o r of a
chord must pass through t h e center of the c i r c l e .
416 Alternate Proof: The perpendicular b i s e c t o r of the
chord in the plane of the c i r c l e contains a l l p o i n t s of this
plane which are equidistant from the end-points of the chord
.
h he or em 6-2) Therefore the perpendicular b i s e c t o r contain8
the c e n t e r .
Corollary 13-2-6. If a line in the plane of a circle
intersects the Interior of the c i r c l e , then it intersects
the c i r c l e In exactly two p o i n t s .
Consider line L in the
plane E of c i r c l e C which
containa a p o i n t S i n s i d e
C. L e t F be the foot of
the perpendicular from P to
L. By Theorem 7-6, PF - < PS. P
Slnce S is in the i n t e r i o r
of C, PS < r. Hence,
PF < r, and so F is in
the I n t e r i o r of C and
Condition (3) h o l d s .
 Note on Corollary 13-2-6. This corollary d i f f e r s from
Case (3) of Theorem 13-2 in t h a t the point In the i n t e r i o r
of C does n o t have to be F, the foot of the perpendicular
to the line. Probably most students will consider this
difference quite unimportant, and a proof of an obvious fact
as very superfluous. While you may not care to b r i n g it up,
a significance of this corollary is that it indicates the
p r e c l a i o n of o u r treatment of c i r c l e s using Theorem 13-2
which allows us to glve a formal proof of such an I n t u i t i v e l y
obvioua r e s u l t .
417 The idea of congruent c i r c l e s gives you an excellent
opportunity to discuas the general Idea of congruence.
Point out that to say two figures are congruent means that
they can be made to "fit" or that one is an exact copy of
the o t h e r . B u t It is very d i f f i c u l t to give the student a
precise mathematical definition of the Idea until he knows
a f a i r amount of geometry ( s e e Appendix on Rigid ~otion).
Therefore we d e f i n e congruence piecemeal f o r segments,
angles, t r i a n g l e s , c i r c l e s , arca of c i r c l e s and so on. B u t
in each c a s e we frame the d e f i n i t i o n to ensure that the
figures are congruent, that i s , "can be made to fit". So
in the present case, we define c i r c l e s to be congruent if
they have congruent radii n o t because we consider t h i s
condition to be the basic idea, but because we are
intuitively c e r t a i n that I t guarantees that the circle can
be made to fit.
417 It might be well to remind the studenta o f what is
involved i n the concept of the distance between a point and
a line, including the case where the distance is z e r o ,
Note that In t h e proof of Theorem 1 3 - 3 we have assumed
t h a t t h e distance from each chord to the center I s n o t zero.
If it is z e r o , each chord is a diameter and the theorem
still holds.
 Proofs of Thearema 13-3 and 13-4
Theorem 13-3. In the same c i r c l e or congruent c i r c l e s ,
chords e q u i d i s t a n t from the center are congruent.

Given: Chords AB and m,

equidistant from P.
- -
To prove : AB E CD .

- Let PE 1 AB
and
PF 1 as in the figure.
Draw r a d i i PE and PD.
Then in r i g h t triangles
PEB and PFD we have:

(1) PE = PF. (1) Given.

(2) PB =
PD. (2) Radii of same or congruent
c i r c l e s are congruent.
(3) h PEB = A PFD. ( 3 ) Hypotenuse and Leg Theorem.
(4) EB = FD. ( 4 ) Corresponding p a r t s .
(5) EB = $4~. ( 5 ) Corollary 13-2-3.
,=+$D.
(6) = &D. (6) Subs t i t u t l o n .
(7)
- -
AB = CD or AB CD. (7) Algebra.
-
Note that t h i s proof s t i l l holds if AB intersects CD
as shown below:
 Proof of Theorem 13-4: In the same c i r c l e or congruent
c l r c l e a , any two congruent chords are equidistant from the
center.
Given: Chords E.
P is t h e c e n t e r of the
circle.
To prove: PE = PF where
-
1
PE % and 1 as 0
i n the figure.

-
Draw radii PB and

( I ) Radii o f same or congruent

c i r c l e s are congruent.
( 2 AB = CD. (2) Given.

(3) +AB = ;CD. (3) Multiplication, Step 2.

(4) Corollary 13-2-3.

( 5 ) EB = m. (5) S t e p s 3 and 4.
(6) A PEB % A PFD. (6) Hypotenuse -Leg Theorem.
=
( 7 ) PE PF or PE = PF (7) Corresponding p a r t s .

417 As in the conventional treatment we have implicitly

assumed that the d i s t a n c e s of the chords f r o m center P a r e
not zero. If both distances are zero, t h e chords are
diameters and the theorem 1s c o r r e c t . Could one dfstance
be zero and t h e o t h e r not? The answer of course is no, and
is j u s t i f i e d by the following minor theorem: A diameter is
the longest chord of a c i r c l e . (See Problem S e t 13-1,
Problem 4 .)
In this chapter there are very many interesting results
of t h e theorems in the t e x t proper. Many of these i n t e r e s t -
i n g facts are to be found in the problem s e t s , accompanied
 by problems providing numerical application of the fact.
In asalgning problems, teachers should be careful to watch
f o r such sequences and select accordingly.

--
Problem Set 13-2

418 1. a. Corollary 13-2-4. e. Theorem 13-3.

b . Corollary 13-2-2. f . Corollary 13-2-1.
c. C o r o l l a r y 13-2-6. g. C o r o l l a r y 13-2-3.
d. Corollary 13-2-5. h. Theorem 13-4.

2. (See Teacher's Commentary f o r proof of Corollary 13-2-3.)

3. (See Teacherfs Commentary f o r proof o f C o r o l l a r y 13-2-5.)

4. By Corollary 13-2-5, the perpendicular b l s e c t o r of a

chord passes through the center of the c i r c l e . Hence,
to find the center draw any two chords in the c i r c l e
and the perpendicular bisector of each. The i n t e r -
section of these bisectora will be t h e center of the
circle.
419 5. Draw aperpendicular from C to MN, formlnga 3-4-5
right triangle. Then the distance from C to is
16.
6. As in the figure,
CB = 15 and DC = 12.
Then DB = 9 , and
the chord is 18
Inches long.

[pages 418-419 1
 e. C. j. D.
420 8. Let PT intemect
a t F. Then FB = 6.
A BFP is a 30 60 -
right triangle. Hence
PB = 4 fi.
420 9. S l n c e a tangent t o a c i r c l e is perpendicular to the
radius drawn to the p o i n t of c o n t a c t , the two tangents
will be perpendicular t o the same line and are, there-
fore, parallel.
"10.

CD is tangent

Corresponding angles of
parallels.
3. OC=OA=OB. Definition of c i r c l e .
4. L A fuL ACO. Theorem 5-2.
5. LACOGLCOD. Alternate i n t e r i o r angles.
6. L COD E L B O D . Steps 2, 4, and 5 .
7. OD=OD. Identity.
8. b OCD~AOBD. S . A . S . and Steps 3 , 6, and
7
Definition of congruent
triangles.
Corollary 13-2-1.
OBD = 90. Steps 9 and 10.
12. is tangent Corollary 13-2-2.
at B.

[pages 419-420 1
0 11. Draw OR. %LAB, by Corollary 13-2-1. AR = BR,
by C o r o l l a r y 13-2-3.
421 12. Here are three arrangements.

*13. Let
- L be the common tangent.Then in both cases,
1
PT l and 1
L by Corollary 13-2-1. But there
exists only one perpendicular to a line at a p o i n t on
the line. Hence and &T are collinear. T h i s
means t h a t P, &, and T are collinear.

[pages 420-4211
422 "15. ( S e e TeacherTs Commentary f o r proof of Theorem 13-3 .)
16. Glven: AEP Y L DEP .
Prove:
- -
AB h! CD.

Draw
- - 1 and
PK 1CD.Then A PGE
and A PKE: are right
triangles with
rnLGEP = rnL HEP, and
EP = EP. Hence,
A PGE A PHE, making
PC = PH. By Theorem
-
13-3, AB S Z .
17. Since RD = RE, AB = BC by Theorem 13-3. But
DA =
1B and
F EC = 91 C by Corollary 13-2-3. Hence,
DA = EC.
18. By Corollary 13-2-4 t h e sewent joining a mid-point o f
a chord to the c e n t e r is perpendicular to the chord.
By Theorem 13-3 these segments a l l have equal lengths.
By t h e definition of a circle, all points equidistant
from a p o i n t lie on the circle having the p o i n t as
center and f t a radius equal to the distance. By
Corollary 13-2-2 the chords are all tangent to the
inner c i r c l e .

Definition of a circle.
w1m Corollary 13-2-1.
C
AC 1 CD,
- , * -
BDLCD. Given.

- 11 w llW*
- Theorem 9-2. .
CT Q TD. Theorem 9-26.
mL CTO = mL DTO Perpendicular lines form
= 90. right angles.
-
OT OT. Identl ty .
A CTO DTO. S .A.S.
-
CO a DO. Corresponding parts .
423 Notice how c l o s e l y the basic theorem on secant and
tangent planes, Theorem 13-5, follows the pattern of Theorem
13-2, the basic theorem on s e c a n t and tangent l i n e s of a
c i r c l e . As in the case of ~hgorern13-2, the point Q plays
a major r o l e in Theorem 13-5 and Its c o r o l l a r i e s .
425 Note that to prove (3) we show that two aets are
identical; that is, the inters,ection of E and S is the
same s e t as the c i r c l e w i t h center P and radius

Jn.
Q ia
If the
T h i s 18 why there a r e two parts to prove:
in
(1)
intersection then Q is in the c i r c l e ;
and conversely, ( 2 ) if Q is In the c i r c l e then Q is In
the i n t e r s e c t i o n . (Compare the discussfon of the alleged
identity of t h e Yale Mathematics Department and the Olympic
Hockey Team of the Commentary, Chapter 10.)
Observe that we establlah (1) and ( 2 ) by showing:
( I + ) If a p o i n t is common to E and S its distance
fmm P is Jn.
(2') If a p o i n t is in E and its distance f r o m F
la then it La common to E and S.
Compare w i t h Case ( 3 ) of Theorem 13-2.
Proofs of the Corollaries
426 Corollary 13-5-1. Everg plane tangent t o S i a per-
pendicular to the radLus drawn to the p o i n t of contact.
Given: Plane E tangent
t o S at p o i n t R.
To prove: Plane E perpendicular
to the radius drawn to the point
of contact.

[pages 423-1261
 We will use the same method as in C o r o l l a r y 13-2-1.
L e t F be the foot of the perpendicular from P to E.
Slnce E is tangent to S and meets it in only one point,
Cases (1) and (3) of Theorem 13-5 do n o t apply. Therefore
(2) a p p l i e s so t h a t F 1s on S and E is tangent to S
at F. Therefore PF is the radius drawn to the p o i n t of
contact and E 1 PF.
426 C o r o l l a r y 13-5-2. Any plane perpendicular t o a radius
at its o u t e r end is tangent to S.
Given: Plane E is
p e r p e n d i c u l a r to radius
-
PR a t X.
To prove: Plane E is
tangent t o S .
Then R
is the f o o t of the per-
pendicular to plane E
f r o m P. By Theorem 13-5,
plane E intersects S
only at R, hence, E
is tangent to S .
C o r o l l a r i e s 13-5-3 and 13-54 are a c t u a l l y n o t
corollaries t o Theorem 13-5 s h c e t h e i r proofs do n o t require
the theorem. They are easily proved and are placed here
simply f o r convenience.
Corollary 13-5-3. A p e r p e n d i c u l a r from P t o a chord
of S, b i s e c t s the chord.
By Theorem 13-1, the plane determined by F and AB
i n t e r s e c t s S in a g r e a t circle. Then a p p l y i n g Corollary
13-2-3 we g e t A& = BQ.
A proof using congruent triangles is also p o s s i b l e .
 C o r o l l a r y 13-5-4. The segment joining the center to
the mid-point of a chord is perpendicular to the chord.
Given: Sphere S with
D the mid-point of chord E.
P is the center of S .
TO prove: PD 1AB.
in Corollary 13-5-3,
As
the plane PAB intersects
S in a great c i r c l e . Then
-
PD 1 by C o r o l l a r y 13-2-4.
Other proofs are p o s s i b l e .

--
Problem S e t 13-3

2. By C o r o l l a r y 13-5-3, the perpendicular b i s e c t s t h e

chord. By Pythagorean Theorem, one-half the chord
I s 8, so the l e n g t h of the chord is 16.

3. By the Pythagorean Theorem,

QX = 4 inches.

-
4. OQ and % are perpendicular
to the planes .
- of the c i r c l e s
Theref ore OQ 1
- and
OP 1%. OA = OB, by the
d e f i n i t i o n of sphere, and
0Q = OP , by hypothesis.
Then, by the Pythagorean
Theorem, QA = PB. Hence
c i r c l e Q S c i r c l e P,.
by definition.
[pages 426-4271
427 ' 5 . AF = B F s i n c e they a r e ' r a d i i o f the c i r c l e of inter-
- -
s e c t i o n , and OF = AF by hypothesis. A l s o ,
-
1 OF AF,
OF LG, and I=. Hence, A A F B Z A AFO E A BFO,
and A AOB I s e q u i l a t e r a l . Therefore A 0 = 5 ,
mL A O B = 60, and OG, t h e altitude of' A AOB,
equals JT.
*6. Call the t h r e e p o i n t s A , B, C. To f i n d t h e center o f
t h e c i r c l e , in the plane ABC c o n s t r u c t t h e perpendicu-
- -
l a r b i s e c t o r s o f any two of t h e t h r e e segments AB, BC,
-
AC, The b i s e c t o r s i n t e r s e c t a t t h e c e n t e r , Q, o f t h e
- - -
c i r c l e . QA, QJ3, o r QC is a radius o f the c i r c l e .
Construct t h e p e r p e n d i c u l a r to plane ABC at Q. T h i s
p e r p e n d i c u l a r meets the sphere in two p o i n t s , X and
Y. Determine t h e mid-point, P, of XY. P is t h e
- - -
center of the sphere. PA, PB, or PC is a r a d i u s
o f the s p h e r e .
428 *7. By Theorem 13-5 we know t h a t plane F i n t e r s e c t s S in
a c i r c l e . By P o s t u l a t e 8, the two planes i n t e r s e c t i n a
l i n e . S i n c e both i n t e r s e c t i o n s contain T, t h e c i r c l e
and l i n e i n t e r s e c t at T. If they are n o t tangent a t
T , t h e n they would i n t e r s e c t in some o t h e r p o i n t , R ,
a l s o . Point R would then lie in p l a n e E and in
sphere S . B u t t h i s i s i m p o s s i b l e , since E and S
are t a n g e n t a t T. Hence, t h e c i r c l e and the line a r e
t a n g e n t , by definition,
8. By d e f i n i t i o n , a g r e a t c i r c l e lies i n a plane through
t h e c e n t e r o f t h e sphere. The i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e two
p l a n e s must contain t h e c e n t e r of t h e sphere, s o that
t h e segment of the i n t e r s e c t i o n which is a chord of the
sphere is a diameter o f t h e sphere, and a l s o o f each
circle.

C pages 427- 428 3

428 *9. The plane of the perpendicular great c i r c l e Is the
plane perpendicular t o the l i n e of i n t e r s e c t i o n of
t h e planes of the given two, at t h e center of the
sphere. There is only one such plane, by Theorem 8-9.
Any two meridians have the equator as their comon
perpendicular.
*10. The i n t e r s e c t i o n of the spheres is a circle. This can
be shorn as follows : Let M and M' be any p o i n t s of
the intersection. Then A AMB Si A AM'B by S . S . S . If
- -
MO and M t O ' are altitudes from M and MI,
AAMO 9 A AM'Ot by A . A . S . , so that A 0 = AOi and
0 = 0'. Hence all points M l i e on a plane perpendicu-
@
l a r to AB a t 0 and on a c i r c l e with center 0 and
radius OM. S i n c e A and B are each eouidis t a n t
from M and N, then a l l points on AB are equi-
*
C,
d i s t a n t from M and N, by Theorem 8-1, and AB is
perpendicular to the plane of the i n t e r s e c t i o n , by the
argwnent above. By Theorem 11-10, we have M O = 5 in
A MOB. In A MOA, by Pythagorean Theorem, we get
A 0 = 12. But OB = 5 . Hence A 3 = 17.

430 Caution the students that they will be finding t h e

degree measure of arcs and not the length of arcs.
432 If is a minor a r c then t h e theorem f o l l o w from
The Angle AdditLon Postulate. (postulate 13)
432 It may be noted t h a t if ' 2 is a semi-circle, the
theorem follows Fmmedlatelg from The Supplement Postulate
(postulate 14) .
The proof of the general c a s e , though more
troublesome, is made to depend upon these two c a s e s . F o r a
complete proof of Theorem 13-6 see Chapter 8 of Studies 11.

[pages 420-4321
432 In the definition of an angle inscribed in an -' -- a r c it is
important to g e t across to t h e student that we are talking
about angles Inscribed in -- arcs of circles. Two p o i n t s
separate the c i r c l e into two arcs. The student should see
that if an angle 1s inscribed in one of the arcs, the vertex
is on that arc and the angle Intercepts the o t h e r a r c . In
many geometry t e x t s t h i s is abbreviated to "an angle inscribed
in a circle", but t h i s can only mean "inscribed in an arc of
a circle", since t h l s is the way it has been defined in the
text.
433 Condition (2) f o r an intercepted a r c says, "each a i d e
of the angle contains an end-point of the arc". Notice that
in the 4th example, in the preceding figurea if one s i d e is
tangent t o the c i r c l e , the o t h e r s i d e or the angle contains
both end-points of the intercepted arc and the tangent
contains one end-point. For a discussion of Theorem 13-7
see S t u d i e s 11.
435 The "Why?" in the first case is t h e Angle Addition
P o s t u l a t e ; in t h e second case I t Is Theorem 13-6.
437-440 In Problem S e t 13-4a, Problem 1 and 6 define two terms
which you may want students to be f a m i l i a r w i t h . A l s o ,
Problems 5 , 6, 10, 11 and 12 point up interesting facts.

--
Problem Set 13-4a

437 1. The center is the intersection of the perpendicular

bisectors of t w o or more chords of the a r c . ( s e e
Problem 4 of Problem Set 13-2.)
2. Since an inscribed angle is measured by half the arc L t
intercepts, ii$ m u s t contain 90'. Since the measure
of a central angle is the measure of i t s intercepted
a r c , 4 P = 90 and 1E.
437 3. a. mLA = d B by Corollary 13-7-2.
rnL AHK= mL BHP since the i n t e r c e p t e d a r c ? have
equal measure. Therefore A AHK w h BHF by t h e
A .A. Cbrollary .
b. ABFK, aince mLBFA = p1n-A B =1p-B = q B H F , and
L HBF la common to the triangles.
438 4. Draw E. We know that is a diameter of t h e smaller
c i r c l e and therefore that 4 ARO = 90, by Corollary
13-7-1. men I s b l s e c t e d by the smaller c i r c l e
at p o i n t R, by Corollary 13-2-3.
5 Draw and BC and
draw the perpendicular

-
b i s e c t o r of each segment.
Sfnce the segments AB
and BC are not parallel
or collinear, the per-
pendicular bisectors are A
not parallel and therefore I

I n t e r s e c t in a p o i n t P.
This can be seen by using Theorem 9-12, Theorem 9 - 2 ,
and the P a r a l l e l P o s t u l a t e , in t h a t order. AP = BP,
and BP = CP by Theorem 6-2. Hence AP = BP = CP.
By definition of c i r c l e , A,B,C must lie on a c i r c l e
with c e n t e r P.

Since t h e sum of these two arcs is the e n t i r e c i r c l e ,

m L c + 4 A = 180. S h i l a r l y , mL B + mL D = 180.
~s^T= 80,
k?= 150,
~LT = 95,
= 60,
4s = 120.

[pages 437- 438 1

439 8. By Problem 6 , and L B X Y are supplementary and
L C
L D and L AXY are supplementary. But L AXY and
L BXY are supplementary. Therefore L D and L C
are supplementary and so AD I I BC .
9. Draw radii and E. Since 1 , AM = BM by
C o r o l l a r y 13-2-3. APM 3 A BPM by S . S . S . (or S . A . S .
o r ~gpotenuse-Leg), s o that mL APC = rnL BPC. Also,
rnL APD = m L B P D by supplements of congruent angles.
Therefore r d? = &?and a = &, by the definition
c
of measure of an arc. Hence CD blsects ACB and

10. A ACBis a r i g h t triangle with rlght angle at C, by

Corollarg 13-7-1. CD is the geometric mean of AD

-
and BD, by Corollary 12-6-1.
11. By Theorem 13-7, 4 .
A = pBD Since 4A = 90, then
mBDC = 180, and
n
a is a semi-circle. Hence, by
d e f i n i t i o n , BAC is a semi-circle.
440*12. By Problem 5 we know there is a c i r c l e through A ,B,C
C*
.
Let CD Intersect t h i s c l r c l e In Dl. Then ABCD' is
inscribed in the c i r c l e , and, by Problem 6 , 1
BAD1 is
supplementary to L C . But L BAD is supplementary to
L C by hypothesis. Therefore, L BAD'S L BAD, s i n c e
supplements of the same angle are congruent. Hence,
%?=st and D = D t .
*13. Since AC and a r e tangent at the end-points of a
-
diameter, then AC 11 E. A l s o , AC and are
segments of chords In the larger c i r c l e which a r e
congruent by Theorem 13-3. By Corollary 13-2-3, the
-
radii
- and bisect these chords, so that
AC CS BD. Therefore quadrilateral ADBG I s a parallelo-
gram, by Theorem 9-20. But the diagonals of a parallelo-
gram b i s e c t each other, so t h a t and 5 bisect
each o t h e r at some p o i n t , P. Now 0 I s the mid-point
of E, so P = 0, and C , 0, D are collinear,
making CD a diameter.
[pages 439- 4401
 Other proofs are p o s s i b l e .

441 Theorem 13-9. In the aame c i r c l e or in congruent

c l r c l e s , If two arcs are congruent, then so also are t h e
corresponding chords.
Using the figure In the text f o r Theorem 13-8 we see
that :
Given: 3 E mt.
To prove: AB = A I B ' .
n
Since = AlBl, L P Pi L Pl, and by S.A.S. Postulate we
have d APE P: A A t B f PI
n
.
Therefore AB = A t B 1 , by corre-
sponding parts. If and A t B t are major arcs the same
concluslon holds. If t h e arcs are semi-circles then the
chorcds are diameters and are congruent.
442 Theorem 13-10 is m e d i a t e if 1 SQR
is a right angle,
since then the Intercepted a r c is a semi-circle.
Here is a proof f o r Theorem 13-10 in t h e case in which
L SQR l a obtuse.
Given: L SW is obtuse.
To prove:
Let
+
QT
4 SQR 1
= pQXR.

be the ray opposite

-
--+
to QS. Let x and y be
the measures of L SQR and
L T W , as in the figure.

I1 1. Theorem 13-10, Case in

-
text.
2. Supplement Postulate.
3. x - 180 - TQYR.
1 1 3. Steps l a n d * .

I 5. D e f i n i t i o n of measure of a
major a r c .

[pages 441-4421
443 In Problem S e t 13-4b, Problems 8, 9, 10, 14 and 16 are
i n t e r e s t i n g theorems in t h e i r own r i g h t and are applicable
to many numerical probleme. They a r e e a s i l y grasped and
proved. However, they am n o t essential to l a t e r deductive
proof in the t e x t .
In the theorems on these pages we w i l l be e s t a b l i s h i n g
relationships about the products of the l e n g t h s o f segments
by f i r s t establishing a p r o p o r t i o n Involving t h e s e segments
using s irnllar triangles .

Problem --
S e t 13-4b

443 1. (See Teacherls Commentary f o r proof of Theorem 13-9.)

-
2. a. S i n c e chords and
AF are congruent, they c u t
n n
off congruent minor arcs HAB and F'BA, By
a
Theorem 13-6,
n
+ n@ = n@ + s, and so
ia=m.
b. From a a = we g e t HA = FB by Theorem 13-9.
mL A = 4B and rnL AHB = rnL BFA by Corollary
13-7-2. Then A AMH a ABMF by A . S . A .
-
3. Since ABCD is a s q u a r e , DA AB
a E , and therefore,
S Z by Theorem 13-8. Then 4 DEA = AEB rnL
= mL BEG s i n c e they are Inscribed angles which i n t e r -
cept congruent arcs in the same c i r c l e .
4. a. L BAC. f, LADC.
b. LCAF. g. L DCA, L DBA.
c, L ADB, L BAF. h. DAF.

d. L DAF. 1. LEAL
e. LDCB. $. L DBC.
444 5. Since
-
PQ 1E ,
-
mFB = 120, mL BPC = 60
so t h a t rnL BPQ
by Theorem 13-10.
= 30. A APQ 1s a 30 - 60
right triangle. Hence, AP = 4 n .

"6. Draw the common tangent at H. Then the angle formed

by the tangent at H and l i n e u is measured by the
same arc as the angles formed by the line u and the
tangents at M and N. Then t h e tangents at M and
N are p a r a l l e l by corresponding angles in one case
and by alternate i n t e r i o r angles in the o t h e r case.

*7. Draw
13-10,
E.

= r n l 5PT.
BPT =
i&mind
-
By Theorem 13-7, mL BPR = p B R .
1-

But mk~= KB, so rnL BPE

BE
By Theorem

by d r f i n l t i u n of
d i s t a n c e from a p o i n t t o a l i n e . PB = PB, so
.
d PBE S h PBF by A . A . S Theref o r e , BE = BF, which
was to be proved.
445 8. Draw E, forming A BCE. Then, mL DEB = mL C + mi B

9. Draw E, forming A BCE. Then, m L E = m L ABC - mi C

10. The proof is the same as f o r Problem 9 , except that

Theorem 13-10 is used to g e t the measure of one angle
in each case.
11. &=30. mLBAD=30.
n
mCD = 30. mL AGE = 70.
= 25. mL DGE = 110.
rn& = 30. rnL ADK = 140.

[pages 444-4451
446 12. ~DT = 88 and I&? = 122.
mL EDC = m L DBC = 31.
4 CMD = mL AMB = 4 ABC = 75.
mLDMA = 4 CM3 = 105.
m L FDB = 4 DCB = 88.
4 ACB = rnL ACD = 4 DBA = 44.
mLCAB = 4 CDB = 61.
~ D C E~ B D =
= E 92.
DEC = 57.
mL DFA = 48.
4 CAP = 119.
4 CDF
4 ACE -
= 149.
136.
13. a. By Corollary 13-7-2, ADP = 4 BCP and
m i DAP = cBP. Hence A APD - A BPC by A . A .
b. Since similar triangles have corresponding sides
proportional, = F.
PD Clearing of f r a c t i o n s we
have AP PC = PB PD.
4 . a. By Theorem 13-10, 4 DAC = h?,
and by Theorem

13-7, 4B = $&?. Therefore 4 DAC = 4 B.

Since LDis common to the triangles,
A A B D - A C A D byA.A.
b. Since similar triangles have corresponding sides
BD AD
proportional, = m.
Clearing of fractlona we
have BD CD = AD
2
.
 +
m@ = mG$ + a.Similarly, working with L b,
&+&=&+m@.
Now 4 PRQ =

=
i(m$
1 -
,{muc
+ 116=9 ) + m@ +
+(m@
+ &) + ;(mG + a)
+ m?~)

Therefore L PRQ Is a right angle, by deffnition.

+16. Case I:

-
Draw t h e diameter from P. Since the diameter
is perpendicular to the tangent it is per-
pendicular t o AB, By Theorem 9 - 1 2 . There-
fore,
n
= mBP.

Case TI: Draw the diameter perpendicular t o the secants.

By Case I, n@ = a fi
and m@ = mDP. By
subtraction, m ~ =3 a.
Case 111: The diameter from P will have Q as i t s
o t h e r end-point, by Theorem 9-12 and Theorem
13-2. Then the two arcs are semi-circles
having equal measures, by d e f i n i t i o n .
Alternate proofs involve drawing radii to form congruent
t r i a n g l e s , or drawing chords which am transversals and
using alternate interior angles.
450 Theorem 13-13 i s sometimes stated, " ~ l v e na tangent and
a secant t o a circle from an external point, t h e l e n g t h of
the tangent 1s the geometric mean o f the l e n g t h of the secant
.
and the length of i t s external sement " The reasons in the
proof are as follows: (1) Theorem 13-7; ( 2 ) Theorem 13-10;
( 3 ) Substitution; ( 4 ) C o r o l l a r y 12-3-1 (L Q = L Q, ~dentity);
(5) Corresponding s i d e s of similar triangles are proportional ;
( 6 ) Multiply both s i d e s by QR QT.
451 Theorem 13-14 stated in words is, "1f two chords i n t e r -
s e c t w i t h i n a c i r c l e , the product of the lengths of the
segments of one equals the product of the lengths of the
segments of the other. "
If the labeling of the figures f o r Theorems 13-12, 13-13,

-
and 13-14 is kept consistent as illustrated below
A SQU A TQR in each case,

A SQU -
Theorem 13-12
A TQR

W - Q S= QU0QT

A SQU * A TW
Notice that we used U as
t h e name of the p o i n t of
C,
contact of the tangent QT
in A SQU and used T as
the name in A TQR. Theorem

but since T = U
Q R q Q S = Q U 2 = W2 .

{pages 450-451j
A SQU A T&R-
Theorem 13-14
Q R m W= QUO QT

&R-QS = QU-QT
Since R = S and -
T U
we g e t QR QR = QT W
m 2 = &2T .
Since &R and QT are
p o s i t i v e numbers we have
Theorem 13-11, &R = m.

QR =QU- QT.
S i n c e Q = R = U then
QR = 0 and QU = 0 , hence
0-Q3 = o*&T
o = o
and t h i s is a t r i v i a l
result, but the pattern
W ' Q S = Q U * W still
holds.
 --
Problem S e t 13-5

452 1.
t, u M
I. AC, CE EH and 1. Given.
are tangents at
3, D, and F
respectively.
2. CB = CD. 2 Theorem 13-11.
EF = ED.
3. CB+EF=GD+DE 3. Addition.
= CE.

2. By Theorem 13-12, x(x + 13) = 4 a 12.

x2 + 13x = 48.

3. Let BK = a. Then by Theorem 13-13,

453 4. By Theorem 13-14, we have

 1.
t,
AB and BC are
M
1 1. Given.
tangent a t A and (
C, respectively.
2. AAOB and h COB 2. Corollary 13-2-1.
are right tri-
angles .
3. 4 ABO = rnL CBO 3 . mL ABC = 120, and
= 60. Theorem 13-11.
4. 1
AB=$IB; 4. Theorem 11-9.
CB =
1
+B.
5 A3 + CE = OB. 5. Addition.
6. Since tangents to a circle f r o m an external p o i n t a r e
congruent , SN = SP,
NR = RM,

Adding and grouping,

-
CL = CP,
DL DM.

(sn + m) + (CL + DL) = (SP e CP) + (m + DM)# or

SR + CD = SC + RD.
7. Let r b e the radius.
Then, by Theorem 13-14,
(r + 8)(r - 8) = 6 . 6 ,
P
2
- 64 = 36, r = 10.

454 9. L e t the radius of the c i r c l e be r. Then by Theorem

454 10. Since a l l angles of the triangle have a measure of 60
the minor arc has a measure of 120. This leaves 240
for the measure of the maJor a r c .
11. If m is t h e length of the shortest of t h e f o u r segnents,
t h e rest of i t s chord would have to be the longest of the
segments. Otherwise t h e product of the segments of t h i s
chord would certainly be less than the product of the
segments of the other. Hence, if it were p o s s i b l e to
have consecutive integers for the lengths they would be
labeled a s shown. But in t h i s case, by Theorem 13-14,
it would be necessary that:
m[m + 3) -
(m + l)(m + 2 )
or m2+3m=m2 +3m+2
or 0 = 2.
Since t h l s is impossible, the lengths of the segments
cannot be consecutive integers.
'12. Applying Theorem 13-13, we have AM^ = MR and
MB* = MR -MS. Hence, AM^ = MB2 and AM = MB.
Similarly CN = ND.
455 13. a. Four; two internal, two external.
b. One I n t e r n a l , t w o external.
c. Two external only.
d. One external only.
e. None.
455 *14. Draw r a d i i and &8. L e t AB interaect 5 at P .
rnL A = B = 90, and rnL APR = rnL BPQ by v e r t i c a l
angles. Therefore A APR .v A BPQ by A . A . This g i v e s
-
RP
m RR
QB*
NOW suppose DC meets % at p o i n t . PI
RP' _ RA
=
Then, by a similar argument, we a r r i v e at
v - a.
Hence RP'
&P1= RP
P ' and P and PI are bothbetween
R and Q. Therefore Pl = P.
"15. Problem 14 assures us t h a t and CD meet R& at
the same point P. Therefore, by Theorem 13-11,
PA = PC and PB = PD. Addlng, we have
PA + PB = PC + PD, or AB = CD.

456 16. Draw 5 1z.In A PW, RQ = PQ) - (PR)2 Hence 4 * .

RQ = 48. But AB = RQ, sfnce RQBA is a rectangle.
Therefore, AB = 48.
17 - As In the previaus problem, draw a perpendicular from
the center of the smaller c i r c l e t o a radius of the
larger c i r c l e . By the Pythagorean Theorem, t h e
distance between t h e centers is 39 Inches.
18. Draw &E iv.Since PQ = 20 and PE = 7 + 9 = 16,
then QE = 12 = AI~.
*lg. Let d be t h e required distance. By Theorem 13-13

d2 = @I(-) + h 2
.
2
Now since h is very small compared to 5280, [=I h
is exceedingly small, and is n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . So

ap>roximately, d = d m = 1.23 f i .
Hence, d is roughly 2 A.

[pages 455-4563
 Review Problems

a, chord. f. minor a r c .
b. diameter. ( a l s o chord.)
C. secant. g. major arc.
d. radius. h. inscribed angle.
e. tangent. i. c e n t r a l angle.
55 and 70.
mL AXB = 90, because it is inscribed in a semi-circle.
n
4 AXY = 45. mAY = 90 s I n c e L AXY I s inscribed.
Hence the measure of central angle ACY is 90 making
E 1 E.
a. True. f. True.
b. True. g. False.
c. False. h. True.
d. True. i. True.
e. False. j. True.

Let = r. Then PCH = 90 - r,

NHC = 180 - (90 - r) or 90 -t- r. Then
4 N)IR = 4NHC -
90 = ( 9 0 + r) 90 = r. -
Hence, I& = 4 NHR.
The f i g u r e shows a cross-
s e c t i o n with x the
depth to be found.
2 2
25 = 20 + (25 - x12
225 = (25 X) - 2
15 = 25 x -
10 = x .The depth is 10 inches .
459 8. By the Pythagorean Theorem, A
AQ = 9 . If r is the
radlus, then OD = r - 9
and OC = r . Hence, in
A DOC,
r2 = ( r - 9 ) 2 + 1 22,
r2 = r2 - 18r + 81 + 144,
1 8=~ 225,
r = 12.5. The diameter of t-he wheel is 25 inches
long.
A
9. Consider the distance
BX to any other point
X on the c i r c l e , and
the radius CX. X
BC + AB = AC = CX. By C"
Theorem 7-7,
BC + BX > CX. Hence,
BC -t. BX > BC + AB and
BX > BA. D
Alao BX < BC + CX,
or Ex ( B C + ca = BD.
*lo. (4000)~
= (loo)*+ (4000-x)~
(4000 - x12 = 15,990,000.
4000 - X = 3,998-75.
x = 1.25, approx.
The shaft will be about 4000
1 miles deep.
lT

460 11. AY = AP and AX = AP, because tangent s e p e n t s to a

c i r c l e from an external point are congruent. Therefore,
AY = AX.
*12. 2
AP = l(8 + I) = 9 , by Theorem 13-13.
~p = PX = XY = 3 , 8 0 QX = 2 and XZ = 6.
3 AX = 2. 6, by Theorem 13-14.
AX = 4.

The angle measwes can

be determined as shown.
Hence, A PAR and
A QCR are equilateral
triangles and PRQB is
a parallelogram.
PC = PR + RC = AR + RQ.
But AR = AP and
RQ = PB. Hence,
PC = AP + PB.
 ---
Illustrative Test Items for Chapter -
13

A. Indicate whether each of the following s t a t e m e n t s Is true o r

false.
1. If a diameter of a c i r c l e b i s e c t s a chord of t h a t circle
which is n o t a d i a m e t e r , then the diameter is perpendicu-
l a r to the chord.
2. If a line b i s e c t s both the major and minor arcs of a
given chord, then It alao b i s e c t s that chord.
3. If two chords of a c i r c l e are not congruent, t h e n t h e
shorter chord I s nearer the center of the circle.
4. If the measure of an angle inscribed in a c i r c l e 1s 90,
then t h e measure of i t s i n t e r c e p t e d arc is 45.
5. Any two angles which intercept the same arc of the same
c i r c l e a r e congruent.
6. Two concentric circles have at least one point in comon.
7. A n angle inscribed in a semi-circle is a right angle.

8. If the i n t e r i o r s of two spheres each contain the same

given p o i n t , t h e n the spheres i n t e r s e c t in a c i r c l e .
9. If two c i r c l e s are tangent internally, then t h e segment
j o i n i n g their centers is s h o r t e r than the radlus of
either circle.

10. If t w o arcs, each of a different c i r c l e , have the same

measure, then their chords are congruent.
-
Given: AB I( C D as
ahown, with mR = 100
A
and mCD = 40.
Find: a. B.
b. mLC.
c . m L DAB.
 w
In the f i g u r e , XY is
tangent to c i r c l e 0
at B. Find

C. 1. The mid-point of a chord inches in length I s 12

10
Inches from the center of a cfrcle. Find the length of
the diameter.
2 Two parallel chords of a c i r c l e each have length 16.
The distance between them is 12. Flnd the radius of
the c i r c l e .
3. Two concentric c i r c l e s have radii of 6 and 2
r e s p e c t i v e l y . Find the length of a chord of the l a r g e r
c i r c l e which is tangent to the smaller c i r c l e .
4. The distance from the mid-point of a chord 12 inches
long to t h e mid-point of its minor a r c is 4 i n c h e s .
Find the radius of the c i r c l e .
-
5. In a c i r c l e , chords AB and CD intersect a t E.
AE = 18, EB = 8 and CE = 4 . Find ED.

6 Given: Chord BP
bisects
t,
chord ACat
H. DE is a tangent.
FH = 3 , BH = 12 and

Find: AC and DE.

 4-+
1. Given: CA is tangent
to c i r c l e 0 at A .
Prove: BAC =& 0.

C
A

2. Given:
- =a.
Prove: AB 11 CD.

3. Prove t h a t a parallelogram inscribed in a c i r c l e is a

rectangle.
4. Given: C i r c l e P with A
w w C-,
AB, , and DE
tangent to t h e circle
as shown.
Prove: AB + ED = BD.
Given: Two c i r c l e s are tangent at A and t h e smaller
c i r c l e , P, passes through 0, the center of the
larger c i r c l e . The l i n e of centers c o n t a i n s A .
Prove: The s m a l l e r c i r c l e b i s e c t s any chord of the
l a r g e r circle that has A as an end-point.
-
NO is a radius of
sphere 0. A t 0,
plane F NO. A t1
P between N and 0 ,
-
plane-E Z.PY 1
and OX a r e coplanar ---- X
r a d i i of the c i r c l e s
in which E and F
i n t e r s e c t sphere 0.
If =+a,
explain why PY = $ OX.

True . 6. False.
True. 7. True.
False. 8. False.
False. 9. False.
False. 10. False.

a. 60. b, 100 c . 20. (use auxiliary

-
segment RS or OB. )
26 inches.
10.
8 f l (from 2 a ) .
4. Let r be the radius.
36 = 4(2r - 4 ) .
52 = 8r.
6.5 = r. The radius
is 6.5 inches long,

4 BAC =
4 0 = mA3. h

Hence mL BAC = +l 0.
Draw AD. Then rnL BAD = mL CDA since they i n t e r c e p t
-
congruent a r c s . AB )I m, because of the congruent
a l t e r n a t e i n t e r i o r angles formed,
Given: ABCD is a
parallelogram i n s c r i b e d
in c i r c l e 0 .
Prove: ABCD is a
rectangle.

3. Opposite angles o f a
parallelogram are congruent.
n n
ADC Z ABC, and 2. A r c s intercepted by con-
gruent inscribed angles.
@ I s a semi-circle.
LD is a right angle. 3. An angle i n s c r i b e d i n a
semi-circle is a right
angle.
ABCD is a rectangle. 4 D e f i n i t i o n of rectangle
and Theorem 9-23.
4. Since tangents to a c i r c l e from an external p o i n t are
congruent, we have AB = BC and DE = DC, By addition,
AB + DE = BD.
5. Let AX b e a chordof
c i r c l e 0 which i n t e r -
sects c i r c l e P at Y.
X
Prove: AY = XY.
Consider z. L AYO
18 a right angle, because
it is inscribed in a semi- A
c i r c l e . AY = XY because a line perpendicular t o a
-
chord and containing the center of the c i r c l e b i s e c t s
the chord. (Since OA and PA are perpendicular to a
common tangent at A , P must lie on x.)
6. since N b l ~at P,
-
NO 1F,and A OPY
l a a right triangle.
Since F at 0,
rnLNOX = 90, and

F r o m properties of a
30 - 60 r i g h t triangle
PY = 1 p. But OY = OX.
merefore, PY = +OX.
 Chapter 14
CHAWCTEBIZATION OF SETS. CONSTRUCTIONS.

This chapter could be entitled Loci and Constructions.

It deals w i t h the traditional material of loci and ruler
and compass c o n s t r u c t i o n s , and t h e treatment is mostly con-
ventional. The only r e a l innovation is t h e use o f the term
tt
characterization of a set" rather than "locus" as explained
below,
The teacher may notice w i t h r e l i e f o r chagrin t h a t the
word locus does not occur in t h i s c h a p t e r of the t e x t . I t s
omission is deliberate. Conventional texts generally
c o n t a i n the phrase "locus of points" or " l o c u s of a p o i n t " .
The phrase arose historically t o mean (1) a description of
t h e "location' of a l l p o l n t s which s a t i s f y a glven condition
o r ( 2 ) the path of a p o i n t which "moves" so as to s a t i s f y
t h e condition. In each case the l o c u s i s a f l g u r e , that i s ,
a s e t of p o i n t s . Since we a r e already farnillar w i t h the
term s e t , i t seems u n d e s i r a b l e t o Introduce a superfluous
term which students o f t e n f i n d conflrsing.
A more s l p i f i c a n t advantage, however, is that it allows
us to concentrate on and develop the essential issue: t o
d e f i n e each s e t by a common, o r characteristic, p r o p e r t y of
its elements. We are concerned w i t h defining, or character-
i z i n g , a s e t of p o i n t s by means o f a property which each
p o i n t of the s e t must satisfy. Note that this poLnt a r i s e s
i n o t h e r branches of mathematics. F o r example, in algebra
we define the s e t of even integers by speclf'ying a character-
istic property (namely, d i v i s i b f l i t y by 2) s a t i s f i e d by every
even i n t e g e r and by no o t h e r i n t e g e r ,
462 To summarize: We characterize a s e t by specifying a
condition which is satisfied by all elements of the set,
but no other elements; we call the condition a
characterization of t h e set. To show t h a t a c e r t a i n set i s
characterized by a given condition, we muat show (I) t h a t
each p o i n t of t h e s e t s a t i s f i e s the given c o n d i t i o n ; and
(2) each point satisfying the condition is a point of the
set. Thus, we muat prove (1) a theorem and (2) I t s converse.
Sometimes it is convenient to prove (2) by the indirect
method .
We mentioned above that i n o r d e r t o characterize a
figure, we must prove a theorem and i t s converse. Conslder
t h e following example'; I d e n t i f y the set of points equi-
d i s t a n t from two intersecting lines. Having drawn two
i n t e r s e c t i n g lines L1 and L2 as below, a student might
proceed to use t h e property t h a t each p o i n t of the bisector
of an angle is equidistant Prom the sldes of the angle and
conclude , t h a t L3 is the required set of points.

His solution, however, is not correct, s h c e he has found

only a part of the required s e t . If he said t h a t every
point In this s e t was equidistant from the two intersectlng
lines, he would be coprect, but if he were to try to
establish that every p o i n t t h a t satisfied the given condition
was In this s e t , he would readily see his error, For there
is a p o i n t Q, as in the figure below, t h a t is equidistant
from L1 and L2, but whfch does n o t l i e i n Lg. In f a c t
there are many points which have this property, and we see
that the set defined is not just one l i n e , b u t two l i n e s
determined by t h e bisectors of the a n g l e s .
[page 4621
 In Problem S e t 14-1, the term cylindrical surface is
used. The meaning should be Intuitively clear to students
and may be used accordingly.

--
Problem S e t 14-1

463 1. The s e t of p o i n t s is a sphere with c e n t e r C and radFus

3 inches.
2. The set of p o i n t s is a c i r c l e in E with center C
and radius 3 inches.
3. The s e t of points is the line In the plane E which I s
parallel to each of the given lines and equidistant
from them.
Given Line
i

Solution Set
4 >
Given L i n e P

4. Let 0 be t h e point of E which is the foot of the

-
perpendicular from C to E (1.e. OC l a 3 Inches
long) .
a. The s e t of points is a circle with center 0 and
radius 4 inches.
b. The s e t consists of the single p o l n t 0
443 c. There a r e n o p o i n t of E 2 inches from C. Hence,
the required s e t is the empty s e t ,
5 a. There are four such points.

- - -
L; CD 11 L; AD ( 1 M; BC 1 1 M. The
11
required s e t consists of the p o l n t s of the
parallelogram A3CD together with all i n t e r i o r
points.
6 a.
-
The s e t c o n s i s t s of t w o p o i n t s , the t h i r d v e r t i c e s
of the two equilateral triangles which have AB
a s one sfde.

b. The solution s e t is the intersection of the t w o

c i r c u l a r regions with centers A and B respec-
t i v e l y and radii 4 feet.
463 c. The mid-point of is the only point of t h e s e t .
d. The empty s e t .

7. The s e t is the union of a p a i r of line segments p a r a l l e l

-
to and having the same length as AB and two semi-
c i r c l e s with radius 1 inch and centers A and B
respectively, as shown.

--
Problem Set 14-2a

464 1. a. The sphere whose center is the given p o l n t and

whose radius is the given distance.
b. The cylindrical surface with t h e given l l n e as
axis and the given distance as radius.
c. The two planes parallel to the given plane and at
the glven distance from it.
d. The four lines which are the Intemections of the
following s e t s of planes: t w o at the given dls-
tance from one of the given planes, t w o at the
given distance from the o t h e r given plane.

[pages 463- 4 4 4 )
 e. The intersection of the two spheres having the
given p o i n t s as centers and the given distances as
radii. T h i s i n t e r s e c t i o n may be a c i r c l e , one
p o i n t , o r the empty s e t .
f. A cylindrical s u r f a c e ( s e e b above) capped by
two hemispheres .
2. a. The l i n e which is the perpendicular bisector of' the
segment jolning the two given p o i n t s .
b. The I l n e p a r a l l e l t o the given l i n e s and midway
between them.
c. The two lines which bisect t h e angles made by the
given l i n e s .
d. One p o i n t - the i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e perpendicular
b i s e c t o r s of t w o of the s i d e s of the triangle
determined by the given p o i n t s .
k55 3. a. The perpendicular b i s e c t i n g plane of t h e segment
joining the given p o i n t s .

b. The perpendicular b i s e c t f n g plane of a segment

which i s perpendicular a t i t s end-points t o the
given lines.
c. The plane which is p a r a l l e l t o the given planes
and midway between them.
d. Two planes which b i s e c t the dihedral angles made
by the given planes.
e. A c o n i c a l surface composed of l i n e s through t h e
foot of the perpendicular and making 45' angles
with the given l l n e .
4. a. 1. true. 2. false.
b. 1. true. 2. false.
5. The pole should be placed at t h e point where the per-
pendicular bisectors of two sides of t h e t r i a n g l e
intersect .
[ pages 46 4- 465 1
 ,
7

46 6. The perpendicular bisecting plane of minus the

-
mid-point of AB.
466 7. The p o i n t is t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of the perpendicular
b i s e c t o r s of t w o of the segments joining the pairs of
p o i n t s . If the points are collinear the two per-
p e n d l c u l a r bisectors will, of course, be parallel.
8. P o i n t s e q u i d i s t a n t from t w o given p o i n t s l i e in a plane
P o i n t s equidistant from two g i v e n parallel planes
rl,
a l s o lie In a plane r2. In general, t h e intersection
of two planes I s a line, but if the two planes should
be parallel, the i n t e r s e c t i o n is the empty s e t or if
the two planes should be equal the requlred s e t is a
plane. In summary the s e t may be a l i n e , a plane, or
the empty s e t ,

"9. The unlon of the i n t e r i o r s

of two c i r c l e s with 4 cm.
radii and centers at the
given p o l n t s.

[pages 465- 4661

 \ /
-,
,,,
c,
\
'-
,
,,,4
/
/
I \ d= l (Center of
1 1 square is part of
I the se t 1
I I

*12. Two pins are put I n a

drawing board, at F
and G , and a loop of
s t r i n g of length 9
is placed around them P
and pulled taut by a
pencPl at P. As the
p e n c i l moves, always
keeping the string
taut, it describes a
figure c a l l e d an
"ellipse" .
467 To Justify Statement 1 we are assuming f r o m the diagram
t h a t since D is in the i n t e r i o r of L BAC so is P.
+
(D is in the i n t e r i o r of L BAC since AD is the b i s e c t o r
of L BAC.) This can be proved formally by using Theorem
6-5 and t h e definition of the i n t e r i o r of an a n g l e .
In o r d e r to i l l u s t r a t e the p r e c i s i o n with whlch we must
define a set of p o i n t s , t h e following problem m i g h t be
presented to the class:
Given two p o i n t s A and B, what is t h e s e t of
p o i n t s C such t h a t A ABC i s a r i g h t triangle?
A t f i r s t thought, one might c o n s i d e r that the angle
i n s c r l b e d in a semi-circle is a r i g h t angle and give t h e
f o l l o w i n g as a p l c t u r e of the set: C

N o t e that p o i n t s A
and B a r e n o t i n the
set.

However, the problem d i d - not say, "What is the s e t of p o i n t s

C such that A ABC is a right triangle w i t h right -- angle a t
-C." The r i g h t angle might equally well be a t A o r at 3,
and we have t o draw the s e t like t h i s :

Note again that p o i n t s

A and B a r e not in
the s e t .

-
The set c o n s i s t s of a l l p o i n t s on a c i r c l e with diameter AB

-
and also a11 points on the l i n e s perpendicular t o t h i s
diameter at A and B excluding t h e p o i n t s A and B .
469 In Theorem 14-2 we are referring, of course, to the
perpendicular bisectom of the sides in the plane o f the
triangle.
Theorem 14-2 wlll be used later to circumscribe a c i r c l e
about a triangle. The construction is a d i r e c t consequence
of the theorem. Since the p o i n t of concurrency is the center
of the circumscribed circle, it is called the clrcumcenter
o f the triangle.
In the proof of Theorem 14-2 we can answer the questfon
" ~ h y ? " , as f o l l o w s . Suppose L~ 1 1 L*. we h o w L~
and AC
M
1
L2. Hence
C+
AB 1 Lp. Thus the t w o lines v, %?
are perpendicular t o L2, and m u s t be parallel.
Proofs of the Corollaries
470 Corollary 14-2-1. There is one and only one c i r c l e
through three non-collinear p o i n t s .
Since the existence and uniqueness of a point equidistant
from the three vertices of a t r i a n g l e 1s proved in Theorem
14-2, the center and radius of a c i r c l e containing m y three
non-collinear p o i n t s are uniquely detepmined.
C o r o l l a r y 14-2-1. Two d i s t i n c t c i r c l e s can intersect in
at most two p o i n t s .
Theorem 13-2 rules out the possibility of more than t w o
c o l l l n e a r p o i n t s and Corollary 14-2-1 rules out the possibility
of three, or more, non-colllnear points.

470 w In the proof * ,

of Theorem 14-3, L1 is
DE because L1 1 BC and BC 11 DE.
perpendicular t o

The point of concurrency of the altitudes of a triangle

i s called the orthocenter. - I

We have shown in Theorem 9-27 that the medians of a

triangle are concurrent a t a p o i n t , c a l l e d the centrold of
the triangle.
 It is interesting to note that in a given t r i a n g l e , the
orthocenter, circwncenter and t h e centroid are collinear.
This leads t o an interesting problem. If we draw the segment
between t h e orthocenter and the circwncenter and find i t s
mid-point, then using t h i s point as center and the d i s t a n c e
from t h i s p o i n t to the mid-points of the sides of the tri-
angle as a radius and draw the c i r c l e defined by these
conditions, we g e t what is called the Nine-poht C i r c l e .
This c i r c l e has the following properties: It passes through
the mid-points of the s i d e s , it passes through the feet of
t h e t h r e e altitudes of the triangle, and I t passes through
the mid-points of the segments j o i n i n g the orthocenter (point
of Intersection of the altitudes) to the vertices.
471 For complete rfgor in the proof of Theorem 14-4, one
+ -a
should f i r s t prove that AD and BE really do i n t e r s e c t .
The proof is as follows : S h c e 4 A 4- 4 B + mL C = 180,
and rnL ABE < 4 B, and 4 BAD < L A , then we have
m L ABE + rnL BAD < 180.
M M
Now BE and AD are n o t . p a m l l e 1 , since otherwise we would
have rnL ABE + 4 BAD = 180. (we are using the fact that E
and D are on t h e same s i d e of to ensure that L ABE
and / BAD are a air of i n t e r i o r a n-~ l e son the same s l d e
L

of the transversal
* s.) t, @
Thus BE and AD Intersect.
L e t BE1 and be the rays
+
opposite to BE and AD. Then

-+
one of the f o u r cases must hold:
(1) i n t e r s e c t s A D This
is impossible s i n c e if their
E'
-2-

p o i n t of Intersection were T,
the t r i a n g l e TAB would have

-
two angles the sum of whose
measures was more than 180.

-
( 2 ) BE' I n t e r s e c t s AD.
l i e onopposite s i d e s of AB.
+
b' "
This is impossible, s i n c e the rays

.
( 3 ) BE i n t e r s e c t s This l a impossible for the same
reason as ( 2) .
[page a 470-471 1
 --* -+
(4) BE i n t e r s e c t s AD. Being the only possibility left,
t h i s must be true.
Notice that we have used no special property of b i s e c t o r s ,
4 +
merely the fact that BE and AD (excluding B and A )
are in the i n t e r i o r s of B and L A .
Theorem 14-4 will be used to inscribe a c i r c l e in a
t r i a n g l e . We can see that the p o i n t o f i n t e r s e c t f o n is
equidistant from the sides of the t r i a n g l e , and a c i r c l e
with t h i s p o i n t as center and the distance from t h i s p o i n t
to a s i d e as radiua, will have the sides of the triangle as
tangents. T h i s p o i n t of concurrency is called the i n c e n t e r
of the t r i a n g l e .

472 1.
of L B .
Problem --
Set 14-2b

The p o i n t is the i n t e r s e c t i o n o f
-
PQ and the b i s e c t o r

2. The fountain should be placed a t the i n t e r s e c t i o n of the

-
bisector of LB and the perpendicular b l s e c t o r of DC.
The proof is almost
i d e n t i c a l with t h a t of
Theorem 14-4: If t h e
b i s e c t o r s of L BAC

-
and L DBC meet at P,
P is equidistant from

frorn%8and%?
C,
AB and A C , and a l s o
A
But ==%?, hence,
P is equidistant from
C e
CE and BC and lies
on the b i s e c t o r of L BCE .
472 4. This follows by applying Theorem 14-4 and Problem 3 to
the bisectors of the i n t e r i o r and exterior angles of
the triangle as shown.
p4

Let rn be the radius of any c i r c l e w i t h center M and

n be the radius of any circle with center N. Then
the situations are:

6. The angle b i s e c t o r s are not necessarily concurrent.

They are concurrent f o r a square or a rhombus. In
general, they are concurpent if and only if there exists
a c i r c l e tangent to each of the aldes of the quadrilater-
al.
7. Each of the s l x segments is a chord of the c i r c l e .
Hence, each perpendicular b i s e c t o r passea through the
center of the c i r c l e .

[pages 472-4731
473 8. The required s e t is the c i r c l e w i t h the segment as
dlameler, but with the end-points of the segment omitted.
If P is in t h i s s e t , then L APB is a right
triangle by Corollary 13-7-1.
If L APB is a right
angle, l e t 3 i n t e r s e c t
t h e c i r c l e in Q. Then
L A Q B is a r i g h t angle by
Corollary 13-7-1, and hence,
Q = P by Theorem 6-3,
Therefore P lies on the
A
c i r c l e , but P # A and
P #B.

--
Problem S e t 14-3

474 1. There will be two p o i n t s P, the i n t e r s e c t i o n s of the

c i r c l e with center A and radius 4 , and the c i r c l e
w i t h center 3 and radius 5 .
2. The two p o i n t s P, PI , 4~
are the intersections Y

of t h e perpendicular
AB
b i s e c t o r of and
the c i r c l e whose center C

[pages 473- 4741

 Y
7 '3. 1, m, n are the 1 ?
bisectors of E, E,
and BC respectively.
Each passes through the
n
center 0 of the c i r c l e . *
Thus the p o i n t s i n t e r i o r
to the c i r c l e and to the
Y
left of 1 (shaded
horizontally) are nearer
to A than t o B.
S i m i l a r l y the points in-
s l d e the semi-circular
region shaded vertically are nearer to A than to C.
The required s e t is the i n t e r s e c t i o n of the i n t e r i o r s
of these two seml-circular regions (the interior of the
sector ODAE) .
475 4, a. Twopoints,the
intersections of
the c i r c l e w i t h
c e n t e r B and
radius 4, and
the c l r c le with
center C and
radius 3 .
Two p o i n t s , t h e
intersec t l o n s of
circles with
c e n t e r s B and
C and radius 10.
47 5 c. Two p o i n t s , t h e
intersections of
t h e circle with
c e n t e r R and
radius 10, and
the perpendicular
b i s e c t o r of G.

d. One p o i n t , the
intersection
- of
BC and the c i r c l e
with center B and
radius 2, and t h e
circle with c e n t e r
C and radius 4.

475 The inclusion o r some compass and straight-edge con-

structions in the text is a luxury, a concession to the
i n t e r e s t t h l s t r a d i t i o n a l t o p i c has always generated in
geometry classes. Under ruler and p r o t r a c t o r postulates the
r e s t r i c t i o n Go compass and unmarked s t r a i g h t -edge is quite
a r t i f i c i a l . FOP example, to d i v i d e a aegrnent i n t o seven
congruent segnents w e need only t o d i v i d e i t s length by seven
and plot the a p p r o p r i a t e points on the segment. A n angle can
be divided up by a s i m i l a ~process uslng a protractor.
C e r t a i n l y one of t h e quickest ways to construct a perpendicu-
l a r t o a line is t o u s e a p r o t r a c t o r t o c o n s t r u c t an angle
of go0
The main reason f o r t h i s bow to tradition, t h e n , i s t o
attempt t o capture the interest which arises from the challenge
t h a t c o n s t r u c t i o n s provide. Historically, compass and straight-
edge constructions have been tremendously important in stimu-
lating simlffcant advances in mathematics, as in the theory
of higher degree equations or in provlng t h a t r is a t r a n s -
[page 4751
 cendental number. We hope that your students will likewise
enjoy and benefit from the many challenges found in the
theorems and problems of these sections.
47 6 The absence of Theorem 14-5 in Euclid's Elements is one
of the reasons why present-day geometers state t h a t t h e
p o s t u l a t e system of Euclld Is incomplete. For a more complete
discussion of the need f o r t h i s theorem see S t u d l e s 11.

477 Notice that for every construction, the t e x t gLves a

proof. When the students do some of the constructions f o r
themselves, some of these should be aceompanled by a proof
that the c o n s t r u c t i o n is c o r r e c t . A c a r e f u l a n a l y s i s of a
c o n s t r u c t i o n problem w i l l y i e l d a proof w i t h just a l i t t l e
more work than doing the construction.
479 Notice how the Two-Circle-Theorem is used to e s t a b l i s h
t h a t the two c i r c l e s in t h i s construction theorem do a c t u a l l y
intersect.

P~oblem--
Set 14-5a

460 1. Part d is n o t possible.

4. a. If the length of the given segment AB

I s c,
draw the c i r c l e s w i t h center A and radius c,
c e n t e r B and radlus c . Since c + c c, >
these
c f r c l e s intersect a t C and C 1 , say, and A ABC
and A ABCt are e q u i l a t e r a l .
 b. If c Is t h e length of the given base 5 and r
is the l e n g t h o f the s i d e , then t h e two c i r c l e s
wlth c e n t e r s A and B and r a d i u s r will I n t e r -
sect a t C, C 1 , say, if and only if, r > %,
and A ABC and A ABCf will be i s o s c e l e s w i t h
base E.

48 1 In Construction 14-8, the condition that r should

s a t i s f y to insure the intersection of t h e c i r c u l a r arcs in
1
two p o i n t s , is that r must be greater than the l e n g t h
of t h e given segment. In t h i s particular problem, r > $B.
A value of r that is sure to work is r equal to the
length of t h e given segment; in t h i s problem r = AB will
always work.
482 Notfce that Construction 14-9 works just as w e l l if P
I s on L.

--
Problem Set 14-5b
A
C* -
483 1. Construct B C L A C .
Make % B: E.
A ABC is t h e requf red
triangle,
I
N
J

Construct t h e perpendicu-
lar blsector- of
\
z,
-
meeting AC in M. Mark
-
o f f MB, MD on 1 ,
-
each congruent to AM.
ABCD is the required

[pages 480-4831
 - -
483 3. Make F H S A B . Construct
the perpendicular bisect d ~ *

of E. w e Z SEE.
Bisect E&. Make
XR=XW=PQ. 1 FWHR is F H
the required rhombus .

@
4.
-
On
QW
AF as a "working line", make XW = d and XQ = e .
is the base of our triangle. C o n s t r u c t +
XR w
1AF
and on it make XP = h.

I F

PQ=AB, QR=CD.

of E.
+ -
+
QT L
y-
-
M is the mid-point
----
I PR.
QT meets semi-circle /
at S. QS is the
geometric mean of P
1
d Q
I,
R
AB and CD.
48 4 Other ways to construct a line parallel to a given line
through an external p o i n t are (1) c o n s t r u c t corresponding
angles congruent and (2) construct a line perpendicular to
a line through the given p o i n t perpendicular to the given
line.
48 5 On the basis of a c o n a t m c t i o n very aimilar to 14-11 it
is possible to divide the length of a given segment in a
-
given ratfo. Given a sement AB, we want to divide AB
i n t o two segments such that the lengths of these segments
will be in some given ratio, say . The construction is
-- follow:
as -

3,
-
S t a r t i n g at A drew any rag and a ray not
+ + ----*
-
collinear with ray AD. On AD mark off AB and on AC
mark off? AE = a and EF = b. Draw BF, and through E
+
construct a l i n e L parallel to BF intersecting AD at
Then

M t*
Proof: Since we have in A ABF, EG parallel t o BF and
-
Intersecting AF and E, then I t follows from Theorem 12-1
AG
that; i?;~=
AE
hence, AG = a
m,
 -
Probley Set

as center and the

length FX as radius,
s t r i k e an arc and with
K aa center and length
i
as radius, strike

on the opposlte aide

4+
J
another a r c i n t e r s e c t -
ing the first a t X E 7

of KE f r o m D. D E E is t h e required parallelogram.
(1f both pairs of opposite sides of a quadrilateral are
congruent, it is a parallelogram.)
486 2. UsIng OA as radius and 0 as center, construct an
arc as shown. Count the number of small arcs ( 9 in
this example) and draw a radius from 0 to the fnter-
section of t h e a r c and the (n + 11th line (10th in
t h i s c a s e ) . The radius OB congruent to the original
segment, will be divided by the lines o f t h e paper i n t o
CI

congruent segments, which may be marked off on OA. We

assume that the lines of the paper are parallel and
that they intercept congruent se-ents on one trans-
versal (the margin of the sheet of paper). See
Theorem 9-26.

[pages 485-4861
486 3. Corresponding segments on
e qua 1 length.
--
BD, AC are parallel and of

Hence, the sefgnents PN,

- -
QM,
- -
RL, SA are p a r a l l e l .
Hence, BX - BP = 1 and BX = XY. Similarly,

XY = YZ = ZA.

487 4. Divide i n t o three congruent segments. Construct an

e q u i l a t e r a l triangle with one of theae segnents as s i d e .
5. Divide AB i n t o five congruent segments. Use one of
them as the base.
6. In effect we have here, " ~ the f diagonals of a quadri-
l a t e r a l b i s e c t each other, then the quadrilateral is a
parallelogram", and we know that the opposite a i d e s of
a parallelogram are parallel.
Alternate proof: Uae S . A .S . and alternate i n t e r i o r
angles.
7. On an arbitrary ray
through A lay-off
segments AC and x,
with C between A
and D, of lengths a
and b.- Through C 0
draw CX [I E.A ACX A
X B
and A ADB are similar
AX a
( A . A . ) and have ~8 = 6.

[page 486-4871
487.8. Construct a triangle ARC with AC = b, C R = c,
AR = 2m.

Bisect AR at T. On %? take B so t h a t CT = TB.

Then A ABC is the required t r i a n g l e for A ABT S A RCT
-
by S . A . S . , so AB = CR = c . C l e a r l y , AT is the median
and AT = m by construction,
488 +g . Construct AB = x and divide it i n t o three congruent
segments. A t E (one of the t r i s e c t i o n p o i n t s )
construct CE
M
1 -
AB, Make EX = AE, CE = BE. A DBC
is the required t r i a n g l e . C
-
To prove that BA and CX -
are medians, draw AX.
NDW, A EAX and ECB
are isosceles triangles
with congruent vertex
angles and so angles s
are all congruent.
Then
-
AXI [ CB and
A EAX A EBC w i t h
-
0

E -- 2'
-
Also A DAX A DCB
and DA =
1
7, so A is
C,
the mid-point. If CA and BX were p a r a l l e l , AX
would have t o equal CB. T h i s we have shown is not
C--*
true, so 3 and BX must i n t e r s e c t .
 4
488 *lo, Analysis of problem: The common tangent LN meets m
at L, and LK = LN = Dl, so L is the mid-point of
- - -
KM. PN and PM 1
m. Now proceed as follows:
Bisect m;
let L be the mid-point. With center L
and radius LK construct an arc i n t e r s e c t i n g c i r c l e C
u
at N. Construct %?lm
and f j f f l L N , intersecting
in P. Then PM = PN and the required c i r c l e has
center P and radius PM.

The problem will be s o l v e d if we c a n f i n d Q, the

intersection of t h e cormnon external tangent and the
l i n e determined by the centers. In the figure,
A QDB and QCA are similar, being right triangles
with a cormnon acute angle.
Theref ore.

+
We can find Q by drawing a ray A F maklng a con-
+ 4
venient angle with AB, then drawing the ray BG
+
p a r a l l e l to 3 and on the same side of AB. Q is
+
determined as the intersection o f FG and x,
slince
triangles AFQ and BGQ are sfmilar, and
AF
A&
m=m= ,r as desired.
 Let c be an a r c of 120'. Then 4 AQC = 120 f o r
n
any p o s i t i o n o f Q on the a r c . S i m i l a r l y , l e t BRC
be an arc of 120'. Hence, if P is t h e p o i n t of
i n t e r s e c t i o n (other than C) of the two a r c s , we have
mL APC = mL BFC = 120. It follows t h a t rnL APB = 120.
( A complete analysis of t h i s problem, including the case
in which one angle has measure > 120, is v e r y
-
complicated. )
*13. By A . A . , A BPM wA DPN and A MPC - A NPA so t h a t
- MP
MB - MP and MC = 5.
ND-m

Hence,

By A . A . , A Q3M
*
- h QAN and h QCM - A QDN
and MC m=m.
MQ
so t h a t

NA = Fiq
Hence,

Thus the ratios "

MC and a r e each equal to
ND
m.
Theref o r e
and MC = MB.
499 d. g o 0 + 45', or 180'- 45'.
e. 60' + 60, or 180' - 60.
f. 30+450, or 90'- 1
5
'
.

g. 60+450, or 90*+15O.
h. 2%' is half of 45', and 6 7 * 0 = 4 5 0 + 2 % lo
.

500 3 . In t h e d i s c u s s i o n t h a t f o l l o w s , each figure is merely a

sketch o f the completed f i g u r e .
a. Construct L B
congruent t o the
glven angle. Make
BC = a. Find t h e
mid-point D of
-
BC. U s e D as
center and m a as
r a d i u s to i n t e r -
+
s e c t BA at A .
There are cases in which the c o n s t r u c t i o n is
impossible and cases in which t h e r e are two
solutions,
b. Construct LACRZLX.
Then 1 ACB is t h e
third a n g l e of the
t r i a n g l e . Make
C A = b and CB B=+ aA. , ' B/ 0 C---- R
 0

-
500 c. Construct
- segment
a
RB perpendicular to
a "working l i n e " ,
XW, at any con-
venlent p o i n t and
make RB = %. w
Using B as c e n t e r X A C W
b
and a as radius,
c o n s t r u c t an arc
H
Using C as center and
i n t e r s e c t i n g XW a t C. u
b as radlus construct an arc intersecting - at
A. (Two solutions in general, depending upon where
+
A is taken, on the ray CR o r on the opposite

d. Construct LWAB
congruent to L A .
Construct i t s bi-
-
s e c t o r , AX. F ~ k e
AB = c . Connect
B w i t h X. The
w
goint at which BX
w
meets AW is C.

e.
-
solution, in c a s e
BX I I E.
)
Since we are given
L 3 and s i n c e
m L A X B = 90, we
can construct
XAB. Then con-
s t r u c t A ABX by
- *
constructing AX
(of length ha) I=,
and L XAB. Using
A as center and ma
as radius, f i n d M, then make MC = MB.
[ page 500 I
 . -
-
500 f S t a r t by constructing
AX (of length ha) A
perpendicular to a
"working line", BC .
S i n c e we are given
B and since
4 BXA = go,
b
m L B A X can be B X C
.
eas ily cons t r u e t e d
Similarly L CAX
can be constructed.
Construct these two
angles at A .
Construct CX (of
length hc) per-
pendicular t o
U s e C as center
=.
and t, AS radius

the b i s e c t o r of
L C, c o n s t r u c t
on each s i d e of
- A X Y 0
CY and angle
whose measure is
B
idc.
C o n s t r u c t an angle
congruent to L A
and make AC = b.
Using C as center
and tC as r a d i u s , c b A
find X. We now
have A XCA of measure 1 4 C. construct
L XCB 2 L XCA.
500 4. A BPM - A DPA, by A . A . A . , and so

Hence, BP =
1 BD.
3
A similar argument shows W =I 1 DB, so that P and Q
are t h e trisection p o i n t s of BD.
In the right t r i a n g l e ABM, the r a t l o 2. -
If rnL BAM = 30, t h i s r a t i o would have to be , and
hence, BAM # *go0.
Hence the t r l s e c t l o n of the segment BD would -
not lead
t r i s e c t i n g L BAD.
Definltlon of isosceles
triangle.
D and E will be
inslde the c i r c l e ,
because AD and
AE are each less
than the radius. A
This can be shown
by considering a
segment joining A to t h e mid-point M of BC-,
-
AM L E and D and E a r e nearer M than B
and C a r e .
If RE is drawn, area A BRD = area b EDR, hence,
area DRSE > area A BRD, and, by a d d i t i o n ,

6. Let
-area A ARS > area A ARB. But if L BAC were
trisected, we would have area A ARS = area A A R B .
QD meet
-at 0 , anddrop A H I Q P . Then
BA
A Q?IA 2 A QGA A QGB, =
- 4

+
from which the d e s i r e d r e s u l t follows. Notice t h a t &A
+
and QG are t r i s e c t o r s of (L PQR.
 Review Problems

-
2. Divide AB into 4 congruent segments. B i s e c t a 90'
angle. Construct the rhombus us i n g a 45' angle and
1 -
AB f o r each s i d e of the rhombus,

3. a. Construct the c i r c l e on as diameter. The

c i r c l e minus A and B is the set of points P.
b. See the solution of Problem 8 of Problem Set 14-2b.
4. The s e t is t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of two parallel lines (each
at diatance d from L) and a c i r c l e (with radius r
and center P). T h i s i n t e r s e c t i o n may be the empty set
or 1, 2, 3 or 4 p o i n t s .
5. Examples of such quadrilaterals are rectangles and
isosceles trapezoids. More generally, if a quadrilateral
has t h i s property, then the point of concurrency is
equidistant from each vertex, hence, the c i r c l e with the
point of concurrency as center and t h e distance to each
vertex as radius passes through each vertex. Conversely ,
any quadrilateral whose v e r t i c e s l i e on some c i r c l e has
the property that t h e perpendicular bisectors of the
a i d e s are concurrent, so that a quadrilateral has t h i s
property if and only if, there is a c i r c l e on which a11
four v e r t i c e s lie.
6. The perpendfcular b i s e c t o r s of any two chords of the a r c
will intersect at the center of the c i r c l e .
 Let d be the length of the given segment. Using any
square f i n d d r , t h e difference between the diagonal
-
and s i d e . In the p r o p o r t i o n d = -
''
s '
s will be the
length of t h e side of the required square.
504 8. No, n o t If a > b + A3 or b > a + AB.
-
9. Consider a c i r c l e with center P and radius PA. A ,
B,
lines Intercept congruent a r c s ,
a = m ~ i . Hence, m?~ +
n -
C and D will lie on this circle. Since parallel
= m a and
n
= mCD + mAD. Hence, AC
is a semi-circle and mL B = 90 so the parallelogram
is a rectangle.
10. Consider a c i r c l e ' w l t h center P and radius PA. The
parallel chords and CD I n t e r c e p t congruent arcs
3 and e. These arcs have congruent chords so that
the trapezoid is i s o s c e l e s . Conversely, only one such
p o i n t P exists f o r a given isosceles trapezoid.
504 11. L e t fl, m, be the given
parallel lines, and n
the t r a n s v e r s a l . Any
p o i n t equidistant from n
m and n must lie on
one of the b i s e c t o r s
p , q, of the angles
determined by m, n.
S i m i l a r l y , any pofnt
equidistant from 1
and n must lie on
one of the bisectors
r, s of t h e angles
determined by 1, n.
J
Thus, any p o i n t equi-
distant from 1 , rn,
n, must l i e on the
intersection of the s e t A , consisting of l i n e s p
and q, and s e t B, consisting of lines r and s .
Since these lines are parallel in pairs (easily proved)
the intersection of s e t a A and B consists of two
points only. In the diagram these are the points X
and Y where q i n t e r s e c t s s and r i n t e r s e c t s p.
 -
Illustrative Test Items -
for Chapter

Given and p o l n t s
K and Q in vlane E.
A < *B
Tell how t o locate a
p o i n t on W fiifh~ihis
'0
equidistant from K
and Q.
M
Consider all c i r c l e s in one plane tangent to AB at A.
Describe the s e t of p o i n t s which are centers of the
circles.
Describe the s e t of centers of c i r c l e s Fn one plane
w
w i t h radius 3 which are tangent to AB .
Describe the set of points I n the plane which are equi-
distant from the sides of ABC and at distance x
from B.
If t w o parallel planes are d units apart, what will be
the length of the radii of spheres t a n g e n t to both
planes? Describe the a e t of centers of spheres tangent
to both planes.
Describe the s e t of points which are at distance 5
from A and at distance 6 from B.
Given r i g h t A ABC with as hypotenuse. Describe
the s e t of polnts C in the plane of the t r i a n g l e ; in
apace.
Describe the s e t oP mid-points of parallel chords in a
circle.
Under what conditlona will the centers of c i r c l e a
inscribed in and circumscribed about a triangle be the
same point?

Describe the s e t of centers of c i r c l e s tangent to the

s i d e s of an angle.
 11. Under what conditions will one vertex of a triangle be
the i n t e r s e c t i o n p o i n t of t h e altitudes of the t r i a n g l e ?
12. Under what conditions will the p o i n t s of concurrency of
altitudes, medians and angle b i s e c t o r s of a t r i a n g l e be
t h e same p o i n t ?

Construct an isosceles triangle in which t h e base is

half the length of one of t h e congruent s i d e s and f o r
which AB Is t h e length o f the perimeter.

Construct a rhombus in which the l e n g t h s of the diagonals

are a and b.
3. Construct an i s o s c e l e s
-
triangle with base A 3 A 0
1 I
and base angles each
measuring 7 5 .

C. If problems are chosen from t h i s s e c t i o n , we s u g g e s t g i v i n g

each s t u d e n t a mimeographed sheet on which the problems are
arranged an8 on which t h e s t u d e n t does t h e constructions.
T h i s will make the papers easier to check.
1. By c o n s t r u c t i o n locale
points a t distance d
from and a t
d i s t a n c e h from Q.

d
I t
h
I I
A
 3 y construction locate
points which are squi-
4
distant from AB and
4
BC and equidistant
from X and K, as
shown.

3. %3 and W intersect
at some inaccessible
point C *
By con~trmctLondetermine
the bisector of & ACF ,
F H

4. Given line / and

c f r c l e C, as shown.
C o n s t r u c t a c i r c l e of
radius x tangent to
-%'and C.
 Answers
w
The i n t e r s e c t i o n of AS and t h e perpendicular b l s e c t o r
- w
of KQ is the p o i n t in question. If K& 1
AB t h e r e
w i l l e i t h e r be no such or an infinite number.
The line perpendicular to
*
AB at A except p o l n t A.

Two l i n e s parallel and at the d i s t a n c e from

M
AB .
The intersection of the b i s e c t o r of L ABC, and the
c i r c l e w i t h center 3 and radius x . There is one
point.
1 d . The plane p a r a l l e l to b o t h given planes and midway
between them.
The i n t e r s e c t i o n of the sphere w i t h c e n t e r A and
radius 5,
and t h e sphere w i t h center B and radius
6. If AB < 11, t h i s i n t e r s e c t i o n will be a c i r c l e .
If AB = 11, the intersection will be one p o i n t . If
AB > 11 there will be no i n t e r s e c t i o n .
-
The c i r c l e whose diameter is AB minus A and B.
-
The sphere whose diameter is AB minus A and B.

The diameter perpendicular to one of the chords, minus

the end-points of the diameter.
If and only if t h e t r i a n g l e is e q u i l a t e r a l .
The b i s e c t o r of t h e angle minus the v e r t e x of the angle.
If and only if the triangle is a r:ght triangle.
If and only if the t r l a n g l e is equilateral.
B. 1. Divide i n t o 5 congruent s e p e n t s h he or em 14-11) .
1
Use AB as base and then using F AB as radius and
A and B as centers construct i n t e r s e c t i n g a r c s t o
l o c a t e a third vertex of t h e triangle.
2. L e t B = a . L e t M bethemid-point
- of AB. O n t h e
1
perpendicular b i s e c t o r of AB make QM = XM = b.
Then AXBQ is the required rhombus.
Cons t m c t an angle whose measure is 60. By b i s e c t i n g
get angles with measures 30 and 15, hence
75 = 60 -t 15. At A and B c o n s t m c t angles w i t h
measure 75.
w
Construct l i n e s parallel t o AB at distance d .
Construct the c i r c l e Q with r a d i u s h. The points
required are the i n t e r s e c t i o n s of the p a r a l l e l s and
the circle.

2. One p o i n t , t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of the b i s e c t o r o f
- 1 ABC
and the perpendicular b i s e c t o r of XK .
4+a C*
3. C o n s t m c t llnes 1 and / parallel to AB and F'H
at the same distance from & e
and FH. If / and
i n t e r s e c t at Q, the bisector of L Q w i l l be
the required b l s e c t o r slnce each of its p o i n t s is
equidistant f r o m
f,
and s.
4. construct parallels to / a t distance x f r o m I t .
With G as center construct the c i r c l e whoae radiua
is r + x . The intersections of t h i s c i r c l e and
either parallel will be centers of c i r c l e s of radius
x tangent to 2
and C .
 Chapter 15
AREAS OF CIRCLES AND SECTORS

In this c h a p t e r we study the length and area of a c i r c l e ,

t h e length of a c i r c u l a r a r c and the area of a c i r c u l a r
s e c t o r , deriving t h e famllfar formulas. The necessary treat-
ment of l i m i t s i s lest a t an i n t u i t i v e level. We study t h e
measurement of a c i r c l e in the familiar way by means of
inscribed regular polygons and so the chapter begins by
d i s c u s s i n g the idea o f polygon. T h i s has not been needed
e a r l i e r s i n c e the idea of polygonal region (chapter 11) was
s u f f i c i e n t f o r our purposes.
506 We want a polygon to be a simple "path" that doesnlt
croas itself. Property (1) takes care of t h i s , s i n c e , it
prevents two segments from crossing . Property ( 2 ) is
included for simplicfty of treatment. For example, suppose
p2, -
Pg, P4 were permitted t o be collinear. Then, in the
face of Property (I), P2P3 and P3Pq would be c o l l i n e a r
sements having only P3 in common so t h a t t h e union of
-
P2P3 and P3P4 would sLmply be the segment P2P4 and there
would be no need to introduce P3 in t h e definition a t a l l .
As we indicated i n Chapter 11, there i s a c l o s e
connection between the Ideas of polygon and polygonal region:
The union of any polygon and i t s i n t e r l o r is a polygonal
region. Although th%a seems quite obvious i n t u i t f v e l y , it
is very d i f f i c u l t to prove since there is no simple way to
507 define i n t e r i o r of a polygon. However, for a convex polygon
it is relatively easy to define i n t e r i o r and t o see what is
involved i n a proof of the p r i n c i p l e s t a t e d above. (see
508 Problem 3 of Problem Set 15-1.)
 --
Problem Set 15-1

508 1. It has 6 sides, but o n l y 5 vertices.

509 2. Yes. 1 2 2 All sides have the same length. All
angles are r i g h t angles.
"3. a. By d e f i n i t i o n of a convex polygon, given any s i d e
of the polygon, t h e entire polygon, except f o r that
one side, lies entirely in one of the half-planes
determined by that s i d e . The Intersection of a l l
such half-planes is the i n t e r i o r of t h e polygon.
Alternatively:
The 3 m t e r ~ e c t i o nof the interiors of a l l the angles
of the polygon is the i n t e r i o r of the polygon.
b.

i n d i c a t e ways In which any convex polygon and i t s

i n t e r i o r can be c u t i n t o triangular regions.
4. a. 0, 2, 5, 9 , 5150, w. (*diagonal of an
n-gon can be drawn from each vertex t o all but
three o t h e r vertices. In doing t h i s , each diagonal
is counted twice.)
509 5. Since the polygon is convex i t s diagonals l i e in the
i n t e r i o r of each angle, so that the Angle Addition
Postulate can be applfed to show the sum of the angles of
the polygon equals the sum of t h e angles of the triangles.
Consider the point from which the diagonals are drawn,
the vertex of each triangle and t h e opposite s i d e the
base. A n n-gon then has n-2 such bases, and therefore
there are n-2 trlanglea. S l n c e the sum of the a ~ g l e s
of each is 180, the sum of the angles of the polygon
i a (n - 2) . 180.
6. The number of triangles formed with v e r t e x Q is the
same as t h e number of sides of the n-gon, so that
the sum of the angles of the triangle is 1 8 0 ~ The
sum of the angles at Q I s 360. Hence, the sum of
the angles of t h e polygon I s 18m - 360 = 180(n - 2).

510 We indicate how a c i r c l e can be divided i n t o n congruent

arc8 end to end. L e t Q be the center of the c i r c l e and
QP1 a given radius. Let H1 be a half-plane lying in the
H
plane of the c i r c l e with edge &PI. By the Angle Con-
struction Postulate there is a point X in H1 such that

-
360
4 PleX = -
n '
By the P o i n t P l o t t l n g Theorem,
there is a p o i n t P2 on QX
such that &P2 = &PI. Then
n
the minor a r c P1P2 has measure
-
360
n Now repeat the proceas
replacing F1 by P2 and half-
plane HI by Hz, the half-
plane opposite to P,I , w i t h

f
s
edge QP
- 4
. This yields a minor
arc P2P3 of measure 7 -
360 which i n t e r s e c t s P ~ P * only in
P2. Continuing in t h i s way we g e t a sequence of p o i n t s
..., pn - such that successive minor
P1* P%P3-
arcs PIP2, P2P3, ..., ' n - l nP have measure 360 and

[pages 509-5101
 n
have in common only an end-point. Then the maJor arc
PIP,

- n -
has measure T4360
1
1

PIP, must be ,4360.

and t h e measure of the minor a r c
Thus the p o i n t s P1, PZ, , . ..
n' - 1,Pn divide the c i r c l e i n t o n congruent a r c s , end
to end.
511 An inscribed polygon whose s i d e s a r e congruent and whose
angles a r e congruent can be proved to be convex, and s o is
regular in accordance w i t h our d e f i n i t i o n . We do not prove
this because we do not need it for our application of regular
polygons to c i r c l e s .
512 -
We speak of the regular n-gon inscribed in a given
circle. Obviously there are many such regular n-gons f o r
a g i v e n n, but they a l l are congruent and have congruent
sides, congruent angles, and equal apothems, perimeters and
areas.
The apothem of a regular polygon can a l s o be described
as the distance from the center to a s i d e , or the radius of
the inscribed c i r c l e of t h e polygon.
We write "A s u b s c r i p t n" here to emphasize that the
area of the r e g u l a r n-gon depends on the value assigned t o
n and t o distinguish I t from the area of the c i r c l e
( c i r c u l a r region) whlch is denoted by A (see S e c t i o n 15-4).
Of course a , t h e apothem o f the regular n-gon, and p ,
i t s p e r i m e t e r , also depend on n and could be written an
and Pn*

[pages 510-5123
 Problem S e t 15-2

b. Draw a c i r c l e and construct eight 45' central

angles. Join i n order the p o i n t s where t h e s i d e s
of the angles i n t e r s e c t the circle.
c. D r a w a c i r c l e and construct two perpendicular
diameters. B i s e c t the four r i g h t angles formed.
J o i n in order the points where the a i d e s of the
r e s u l t i n g angles intersect t h e c i r c l e .
3. Draw a c i r c l e and c o n s t r u c t f i v e 72' central angles.
J o i n in order the p o i n t s where the sides of the angles
i n t e r s e c t the c i r c l e .

5. No. It is a 12-sided polygon a l l of whose s i d e s are

congruent and all of whose angles are congruent, b u t
it I s not convex.
 b. Regular hexagonal regions. 3.
c. Two pentagons and a decagon.
Two 12-gons and an equilateral triangle.
Two oc tagons and a s quare.
d. Three polygons with dlfferent numbers of s i d e s may
be used: 4, 6, 12; 4, 5, 20; 3, 7, 42; 3, 8, 24;
3 , 9, 27; 3 , 10, 15.
8. The meaaure of each exterior angle is 180 less the
measure of an i n t e r i o r angle.
Adding n of these we get
-
n 180 sum of the measures of t h e i n t e r i o r angles,
515 11. The angle sum l a increased by 180 while the number of
sides I s increased by one.
12. The radlus is a l s o 2. The apothem is the altltude of
an e q u i l a t e r a l triangle w i t h side 2, or
0
n.
"13. In the ffgure, s i d e
of a regular inscribed
octagon is 1 unit long.
Since A ADO is a right
isosceles triangle,
RD=DO=
5
r
B D = r -
A' In right
2 2
triangle AHD, AD + BD = m2 oor
2 r 2
( L) + ( r - -) = I, from which r =
fi J2c
or approximately 1.3,

Beginning in S e c t i o n 15-3 the text introduces t h e notion

-
of a limit. It is n o t intended t h a t the students be given a
formal treatment of limits, but rather t h a t they develop an
F n t u i t i v e idea o f what a limit is. A discussion like the
following may be helpful.
When we write p + C, we have in mind that C is a
fixed number, t h e length (or circumference) of the c i r c l e ,
but that there a r e many successive values fop p , depending
on which inscribed regular n-gon we are considering. So it
l a desirable to write p, instead of p for t h e perimeter
of the inscribed regular n-gon. Then we say p,+C,
meaning t h a t the successive numbers pn approach C as a
limit. O b ~ e r v et h a t we have an i n f i n i t e sequence or
proaresalon of numbers which are the perimeters of regular
inscribed polygons for successive values of n; we begin
with n = 3 , giving us an inscribed e q u i l a t e r a l t r i a n g l e ,
then n = 4 yfelds an inscribed square and so on. We re-
present t h e I n f i n f t e sequence p, as pg, p4, P,...,
... and we t h i n k of these numbers as being approximations
to C which g e t better and b e t t e r as we run down the
sequence. As a simple analog consider the I n f i n i t e sequence
. 3 , .33, .333, .3333, ,33333, ...
which arises when we divide 1 by 3 and take the successive
decimal q u o t i e n t s . These numbers are approximations t o
which get better and better as we t r a v e l down t h e sequence
1
+
and we may say that t h i s sequence approaches f as a l i m i t .
Other examples are the two sequences
1 1 1
1, 2, q? --. ,-
an'
.. I

which have limits 0 and 2. The essential p o i n t In a l l

f o u r c a s e s 1 s that each sequence has a uniquely determined
"boundary" or "limit number" and that we can reason about the
l h i t of a sequence if we know the sequence, that is, if i t s
successive numbers a r e determined. However, we can not assume
that every sequence has a limit. For example, the following
sequence has no l i m i t : I , -2, 4, -8, 16, ...
.
We need t h r e e basic properties of sequences:
(I) If a sequence h a s a limit it has a unique limit.
(11) If sequence a,-a, then sequence Ka,-Ka for
any fixed number K.
(111) If sequence a,+a and sequence b,-b then
sequence anb,-abo
Property (I) says in e f f e c t that if t h e terms of a
sequence are g e t t i n g closer and c l o s e r t o a number a, they
can't, at the same time, be getting c l o s e r and c l o s e r to
another number b. As an llluatration of (IT) observe that
...
1

. 3 ? .33, , 3 3 3 , 3
and that the sequence of "doubles" haa double the llmit:
.6, .66, .666, . .. +3' 2

To illustrate ( 111) consider

6 , 5.1, 5.01, 5.001, ...4 5 ,
 You will easily convince yourself t h a t t h e sequence of
products of corresponding t e r n approaches 15 = 5 . 3 .
Notice t h a t in the d i a c u s s i o n s concerning limits, no
mention of "infinity" is made.
The concept of a limit does not involve any n o t i o n o f
i n f i n i t y , While the word and the symbol ) for it are
convenient in c e r t a i n branches of hfgher mathematics, they
should be avoided in introductory discussions where they a r e
neither u s e f u l n o r enlightening.
517 The p r o p e r t i e s of limits used here are easily clarhfied.
Let us write p, for p and pnl f o r p T t o emphasize
t h a t we have t w o sequences of perimeters, one f o r each c i r c l e ,
Further, we have p n d C and pn I d C t , and

NOWwe apply Property (TI) above to p-,C taking K = -1

P
and g e t P" +- Similarly, pnl-C1 yields pn '
--T. C'
r' r r
To summarize, we have sequences

whose corresponding terms are t h e same numbers. That is,

-
the sequences are the same. Thus, by Property (I) they must
-
have the same l i m i t . Therefore
C C'
'F = 7.
518 For a treatment of irrational numbers, see the f o r t h -
c a d n g book, Irrational Numbers, by Ivan Niven to be publish-
ed by Random House and the Wesleyan University Press.
 Problem S e t 15-3

a. The r a d i u z of t h e c i r c l e .

d. T h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e of t h e c i r c l e .

C = 2m,
628 = 6.281.,
100 = r.
The radFus of t h e pond is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 100 yards.
22
7 is the c l o s e r approxlrnation.

C = 2 ~ =
r 480,000~. The circumference i s approximately
l,5OG,OQO miles.
The formula g i v e s 2m = 6.28 X 93 10b = 58ll . 10' or
584 million miles, approximately.
Our speed is a b o u t 67,000 miles p e r h o u r .
The r a d i u s of t h e i n s c r i b e d c i r c l e is 6 s o t h a t i t s
circumference is 2 The radius o f t h e circumscribed
c i r c l e is 6 f i so t h a t i t s c i r c u m f e r e n c e Ls 1 2 ~ 6 ,
The p e r i m e t e r o f P&RS is greater than t h e circumference
o f the c i r c l e .
AD = 2 and XW = &?. Hence PS = $(2 + &).
T h e perimeter of t h e s q u a r e is 2{2 + f i ).
The circumference of t h e c i r c l e is 2 ~ .But 2 + fi > -rr

The i n c r e a s e in circumference is 27r in each c a s e .

520 Justification of limit properties used in Theorem 1 5 - 2 :
W ? h a v e , w r i t I n g an for a and pn f o r p , a,-+r and
p,-+C. By P r o p e r t y 111 ( s e e above) anpndrC, and by
1 1 1
P r o p e r t y 11, 7 anpn + T rC. Since An = a,p,, by
substitution we g e t
A n d F
1 rc.
But we have S i n c e by P r o p e r t y I sequence
A, -A. An
1
can have only one limit, A = rC.

F r o b l e m S e t 15-4

3. a. 4a - B = 3 ~ .The area would be approximately 9.4

square cm.
b. No.
4. The a r e a of the f i r s t is 9 times the area o f the
second.

A r e a of c i r c l e = -
ioo
Tr

= 32 approx.
P = 4s = 20
s = 5.
Area of square = 25.
The area of the c i r c l e is greater by about 7 square
lr,ches ,
 6. ~ ( 5 ~ 2 ) ~ - ~ ( 5 ) ~ = 2 5 7 ~ ,
The area is 2 5 ~square i n c h e s .

52) 7 Radius = 4 f i inches.

Circumference = 8 fir
inches .
Area = 487~square inches.

8. It is only necessary to find the square of the radius of

the circle. If a radius is drawn t o a vertex of the
c r o s s it I s seen to be the hypotenuse of a right triangle
of s i d e s 2 and 6 The square of the radius is there-
2 2
f o r e 2 + 6 = 40. The area of the c i r c l e is therefore
40r, 125.6 approximately. The required area is there-
fore 125.6 - 80 = 40.6.
9. D r a w PB and PC. The area of t h e annulus is
T(PC)* - ~ ( P B2,) the difference af the areas of the
.
two c i r c l e s . Thls can a l s o be written T ( P C ~- P B ~ )
By Pythagorean Theorem, PC' - PB* = BC*. Therefore
t h e area of the annulus is TBC 2 .
10. The section nearer the center of the s p h e r e will be the

Therefore,
'3
rl > r.
524 +13. a. Note that rl=OA=OR=BP and r2=OS = C P .
By successive use of the Pythagorean Theorem we
g e t rl = r f i , r , = r n , r3 = r f i .

b. Now, using the area formula f o r a c i r c l e , we have

a = m2 ;
b = T(rfi12 -
a = m 2.,
c = ,(Ffil2 - ( a + b) = 3 m 2 - 2m2 = m2;
-
d = a(2r12 (a + b + o ) = 4m2 - 3 m .2 = a2 .
14. From the second figure,
( 4 ) * - (212 = 12, and
6
so the altltude of' the
trapezoid is 2 6 . A 3 F 3
In the f i r s t f i g u r e ,
since the bases are
parallel and tangent
to the c f r c l e we see
that (altitude
of the trapezoid) must D I H I C
be a diameter, and so y2
the radius is &.
A r e a of the c i r c l e is,
then, 3 0 . Area of
t h e trapezoid is 8&
The area outside the
c i r c l e is ( 8 f i - 37~)
square lnchea . This
is approximately 4
square inches.
525 Notice t h e common procedure In treating length of c i r c l e
and length of a r c . In each case we "approximate" by means
of chords of t h e same length,
526 The agreement to consider a circle as an "arc", enables
us to include in Theorem 15-3 the case of the whole c i r c l e
as an a r c o f measure 360.
To illustrate t h e application of Theorem 15-3 and 15-4
assign Problems 1, 3, 6 and 7 ,
527 One concrete i l l u s t r a t i o n of a sector of a c i r c l e is a
lady's fan, with t h e ribs of the fan standing f o r the
- h

segments QP. The a r c AB, of course, need n o t be a minor

a r c . Observe t h a t the definition can a l s o be phrased: If
is an a r c o f a c i r c l e with center Q then the s e t of
a l l p o i n t s X each of which lies in a segment j o h i n g Q
n
to a p o i n t of AB is a s e c t o r .

Problem --
Set 15-5

3m
-7F in each c a s e .
528 4, The measure of the arc is 90. The length of the arc

5. a. Area of s e c t o r =
1.
-6 2
012 = 2 4 ~ .
Area of t r i a n g l e = = 3 6 6

Area of segment = 248 - 3 6 f i or 13.04.

b. Area of sector = 3 T 6=! = 12~.
Area of triangle = 1 L
6& 3 = 9 n .
Area of s e p e n t = l27r - 9 f i or 22.11.
 1
c. Area of sector = 8 T *8* = 8a.
Area of t r i a n g l e = $ 4 = 16 f i .
Area of segment = 87r - 16& or 2.51.
a. 28. b. T.

Draw I F . Then GC = 6 , AG = 24. In t h e r i g h t

triangle A AGB, the length of t h e hypotenuse is twice
the length of one leg, so 4 ABG = 30: BAG = 60,
A
and C E = GB = 2 4 n . The major a r c CD has the length
2
5(2r 30) = 4Olr and t h e minor a r c has the length
$12 7 ~ . 6) = 4rr. Thus, the total length of t h e belt is
2(24a) + 40a + 4a = 48A -t 44~.
The belt is approximately 221 inches long.

To f i n d one small shaded

area s u b t r a c t the area of
a 90' s e c t o r whose radius
is 2 trom the area of
a square whose s i d e is 2 5 .

The area o f the shaded area is 4 - 2). This is

approximately 6,87 square inches .
Review Problems

Thk f i r s t and t h i r d are polygons.

The t h i r d is a convex polygon.
a. Yes. c. No.
b, Yes.
108, 120, 135, 144.
12.
530 5. a. The regular octagon In each case.
b. The apothems are equal. The aquare has t h e greater
perimeter.
1
From the formula A = 7 ap for t h e area of a regular
polygon .
1 and 2.

Hence, A = n ( 9 )*+2,

15. inches, a dlstance equal to g3 of i t s circumference. i

4s and $ r.
There are several methods
of showing that the four
small triangles are con-
gruent to each other.
For example, each of the
angles marked w i t h an a r c
will have a measure of 60.
In t h i s case the congruence
3.8 by A . S . A . Hence, each
of the four small triangles
has the same area, and then
the circumscribed triangle
has an area four times that
of the inscribed triangle.
 -
The woodchuckis burrow will be in the region bounded
by XOY and XPY.
The area of each of the
n

e a u i l a t e r a l trian~les
-
2
1s 6 . The area of
each segment IS h /
\
I

2
im2-$n. Then
t h e area in which t h e
woodchuck can s e t t l e is

any woodchuck b o w s .
18. Let a and p be the apathem and perimeter of the
smaller polygon and a' and p 1 be the apothem and
perimeter of the larger polygon. The ratio of the areas
is . But = s, SO t h a t , the r a t l o of the areas

is 4.
P
Hence,
2
5 =a=q=
.: The s l d e s also

have t h e ratio 3.

I l l u s t r a t i v e Test Items f o r Chapter 15-

A. Indicate whether each of the following is true o r f a l s e .
1. The r a t i o of circumference t o radius is the same nwnber
f o r a11 c i r c l e s .
2. If the nwnber of sides of a regular polygon inscribed in
a given c i r c l e is increased indefinitely, its apothem
approaches t h e radius of the c i r c l e as a limit.
3. Any polygon inscribed in a c i r c l e is a regular polygon.

4. A polygon is a polygonal region.

If the radiw of one c i r c l e I s three times that of a
second, then the circumference of the f i r s t is three
t l m e s that of the second.
The area of a square inscribed in a given c i r c l e is half
the area of one circumscribed about the c i r c l e .
In the same c i r c l e , the areas of t w o s e c t o r s a r e pro-
p o r t i o n a l t o the aquares of the measures of t h e i r arcs.
The r a t i o of the area of a c i r c l e to the square of i t s
radius is w.
The length of an arc of a c i r c l e can be obtained by
d i v i d l n g its angle measure by a.
Doubling the radius of a c i r c l e doubles its area.
Find the measure of an angle of a regular nine-sided
polygon.
I n t o how many triangular regiom would a-convex polygon-
al region with 100 s i d e s be separated by drawing a l l
p o s s i b l e diagonals from a single vertex?
If the circumference of a c i r c l e is a number between
16 and 24 and the radius is an i n t e g e r , find the
radius.
If the number of aides of a regular polygon inscribed
in a c i r c l e is increased without llmlt, what l a the
limit of the length of one side? of i t s perimeter?
Write a formula for the area of a c i r c l e in terms of
i t s circumference.
If the area of a c i r c l e is , find its radius.
The area o f one c i r c l e l a 100 times the area of a
second. What I s the r a t i o of the diameter of the first
t o that of the second?
 8. The angle of one s e c t o r of a c i r c l e is 50' .
The angle
of a second s e c t o r of the same c i r c l e i s 100~. Find
t h e ratio of the l e n g t h of the a r c of the Simt s e c t o r
to t h a t of t h e second, and the ratio of t h e area of the
first a e c t o r to t h a t of the second.
9. A c i r c u l a r lake is 2 miles in d2arneter. If you walk
at 3 mlles per hour, about how many hours wlll it take
t o walk around it? ( ~ i v ethe answer t o the nearest
whole number. )
10. An angle i a Inscribed in a semi-clrcle of radius 6 .
What is t h e least p o s s i b l e value of the sum of t h e areas
of the two c i r c u l a r segments t h a t are formed?
C. 1. I n c i r c l e 0, chord
I s the perpendicular bl-
-
s e c t o r of radius OA .
OA = 6 .
Find mXAY,
n the length
of Y the area of
s e c t o r XOY, and the
A
area of the region A
bounded by and m.
ABCDEF is a regular hexagon F
circumscribed about c i r c l e
0. If its perimeter l a 12,
find the circumference and
the area of the c i r c l e . E C

On an a e r i a l photograph t h e surface of a reservoir is a

c i r c l e with diameter 7 Inch. If the s c a l e of the photo-
graph is 2 miles to 1 inch, find the area of t h e
surface of t h e reservoir. (use 7 22 for r . Give t h e

result t o the nearest one-half square mile,).

True. 6. True.
True. 7. False.

False. 8. True.
False. 9. False.
True. 10. False.

0. The circumference of the circle.

Since C = 2m, r =
-
s.
C;

since A = rr2 , A = (
C =
c2

1 to 2 in each case.

The sum of the areas of

t h e segments will be
least when t h e area of
A ABC is greatest. In
t h i s case the altitude
t o A C is the radius of
the c i r c l e . The sum of
t h e areas of the segments
is found by subtracting
the area of t h e t r i a n g l e
from t h a t of the semi-
c l r C l e . The r e s u l t is
1 8 -~ 36.
 n
C. 1. mXAY = 120, The length of = 4s.
Area sector XOY = 1 2 ~ . Area s e g e n t XAY = 127r - 9 n .
The radiua of the c i r c l e is the altitude of equilateral
2.
triangle A OAB, a o that, r
and A = 3a.
- A. Hence C =

3. The diameter of the reservoir in miles is 7 7

2 = T,
"
so that i t s radius is A.The area is
1
. The area of the reservoir is about 9
square miles .
 Chapter 16
VOLUMES OF SOLIDS

In t h i s chapter we study mensuration propertfes of

familiar s o l i d s : prism, pyramids, cylinders, cones and the
sphere. Our proofs are conventional in spirit, although
o u r d e r i v a t i o n of the formula f o r surface area of a sphere,
based on an assumed approximation t o the volume o f a
spherical s h e l 1 , I s quite unusual In an elementary t e x t . W e
assume Cavalierits Principle (postulate 22) in order to
avoid coming to grips with fundamental d i f f i c u l t i e s of a
type occurring In Integral Calculus. We emphasize strongly
analogies between prisms and cylinders, between pyramids
and cones. In fact OUP definitions of prism and pyramid
are formulated so as to be applicable to cylinder and cone.
These figures are d e f i n e d , quite precisely, a s a o l i d s
( s p a t l a l regions) rather than surfaces, since our basic
concern is f o r volumes of solida rather than f o r areas of
surfacea .
534 Notice that we deflne a prism d i r e c t l y as a s o l i d
(region o f space) rather than as a surface (prismatic
surface). This I s quite natural since o u r main o b j e c t of
study in t h i s chapter is volumes of regions, rather than
areas of surfaces. This is analogous t o our e a r l i e r
emphasis on polygonal regions rather than polygons. Note
how simply our d e f i n i t i o n generatea the whole solid from
the base polygonal region K, and how e a s i l y it enables
ua to pick out the "bounding surface", (see the def l n i t l o n s
of lateral surface and total surface in the t e x t ) , If we
used the alternative approach and defined a prism as a
surface we still would have the problem of defining the
i n t e r i o r of t h i s surface in order t o get the corresponding
s o l i d . S i m i l a r observations hold f o r our treatment of
pyramids, cyllnders and cones.
535 Note that in our use of the word "cross-section", t h e
interaectlng plane must be p a r a l l e l to t h e base. It 1s
p o s s i b l e to have sections formed by a plane whlch is not
parallel t o the base, but such sections would not possess
all the properties of a cross-section. Note that slnce a
prism in our treatment l a a solid, i t s cross-section is a
polygonal region, n o t a polygon.
535 In Theorem 16-1, t h e t e x t s t a t e s that the cross-sections
of a triangular prism are congruent to the base. Up to t h i s
point no mention has been made of congruence of trianwlar
regions, but only of congruence of triangles. It is
intuitively apparent that if two triangles are congruent,
then their associated triangular regions alsa are congruent.
This can be proved formally wing the ideas of Appendix
VfII. We will n o t speak of the congruence of polygonal
regions o t h e r than triangular regions, since any polygonal
region can always be divided i n t o triangular regions.
536 Corollarg 16-1-1 I s a direct consequence of Theorem 16-1,
s i n c e the upper base I s a cross-section of the prism. A
similar obsemration applies to Corollary 16-2-1.
537 A "parallelogram region" is defined formally as the
union of a parallelogram and its interior. The interior

-
of parallelogram ABCD consists of a l l point8 X whlch
are on the aame side of
H
as C and D, on the same
side of BC as D and A , on the aame side of CD as
w
A and B and on t h e same a i d e of DA as B and C. A n
w

alternative definition whfch is suggested by the t e x t

d e f i n i t i o n of prism I s the following: L e t ABCD be a
parallelogram.-Then the union of
a l l aegrnenta PPf where P is
in E, PI is in CD and
- -
PP' 1 1 AD or PP' 1 1 BC is a
parallelogram region.

A I' B
537 Theorem 16-3 is easy to grasp intuitively, but tedious
to prove formally. Here is an outline of a proof.
L e t El and E2 be the
planea of the bases, L ~f
be the transversal and I
a s i d e of the base.
We want to show t h a t the
l a t e r a l face F which
1s the union of all s e p e n t s
-
PPt , where P is in 3,
is a parallelogram region.
Remember that by definition
-
of a prism, PP1 ) ( L and
-
P 7 I s in 2.
AA'
E
and BB7 where
Consider

- -
A A I 11 L, BBt 1 1 L and
At, B1 are in E2. Then A3B1A1 is a parallelogram
and the l a t e r a l face F is the corresponding parallelogram
region. To prove t h i s , f i r a t show that every p
- oint PI is
- - -

on A ' B t , and in fact that A t B t is the s e- -

t of all such
points P i . men show that every p o l n t of PP' is on '
ABBrAf or is in its i n t e r i o r . Finally show that every

PPt . -
po-lnt on ABBIAt o r I n its i n t e r l o r lies in some segment
-
Thus, the segments PPf constitute the parallelogrm
region composed of ABBtA1 and its i n t e r i o r .
 Problem --
S e t 16-1

-
538 1.
A

FW 11 ( D e f i n i t i o n of prism) .
Hence, FK and 5
determine a plane h he or em 9-11 .
By d e f i n i t i o n the
upper and lower bases of a prism are parallel, hence,
-
FB )I HA h he or em 10-1) Hence, A3FH is a.
parallelogram.
539 2. 30 + 40 + 50 + 70 + 20 = 210.
3. 3 ~ 8 ~ 1 0 + 8 ~ 4 f i = 2 4 0 + 3 2 6
The total surface area is 240 + 3 2 f i square inchea .
4. Since each l a t e r a l face is a rectangle, its area is the
product of base and a l t i t u d e . If e is the length of
a lateral edge and S1, S 2 , S3, . ..
are lengths of
t h e sides of the prism base, then A1 = Sle, A 2 = S2e,

A3 = S3e, ... . Adding these areas to get the l a t e r a l

area, A = Sle + S e +
2
... = ( s +~ S2 + Sg + ...) e .
But S1 + S2 + S3 + ... = p, t h e perimeter of the
base. Therefore, A = p e.

6 L e t the required perimeter be y inchea. Since

52 = 10y, we have y = 5.2. The perimeter of the
base I s 5.2 inches.
5b Cross-section is defined for pyramid exactly as for
prism.
When we say in Theorem 16-4 that two triangular regions
are simllar, we mean of course t h a t they are determined by
s i m L l a ~triangles. -

-
In (1) of Theorem 16-4, to j u a t l f y

in AP and A I P 1 . Thus, -
Similarly In (2) we show A
H
AP 11 A I P t
I(
)I A 7 P t note
t h a t E [I Eq and that plane V A L i n t e r s e c t s E and Et
w
by Theorem 10-1.

542 Our procedure In Theorem 16-5 l a simply to split the

pyramid into triangular pyramids and apply Theorem 16-4
to each of these.

--
Problem S e t 16-2

544 1. square; an equilateral triangle; 3.

2. 25 square inches.

Hence, VA = VB. Similarly,

definition, so
h AVB =
h w c s A CVD = ...
by S.S.S.
Let P , Q, R and S be
-
the mid-pointa of Af3, AC,
-
VB and respectively.
Then and PQ are each
parallel to BC and equal in
-I

length t o
- i
3C. Therefore,
SR and PQ are p a r a l l e l ,
coplanar, and equal In length
making PQRS a parallelogram.

[pages 540-5441
544 5. L e t each edge of the base have l e n g t h s . Each face
is a triangle w i t h base s and altitude a .
Hence, 1 1
A = p a +pa+ .., or

545 6. By Theorem 16-5,

Area FGHJK = 10$ square inches .

7, The altitude of each face is
13 inches by the Theorem of
Pythagoras. Hence,
4(F1 10 13) = 260.
The l a t e r a l area is
260 square i n c h e s .
If x is the area of the c r o s s - s e c t i o n 3 inches f r o m

the base then m

X 9 * =
=(=) 9 and x = 56.25.
Hence, i t s area is 56.25 square inches.

-
-
38. Let
- PK = a and PB = b. Draw altitude PS.
-
PS 1 JKLMN a t R . PB and PS determine a plane
which i n t e r s e c t s JKLMN and ABCDE in KR and
C-,
respectively. S i n c e JKLMN I( ABCDE, KR )I BS.
I n A PBS, by t h e Basic Proportionality Theorem,
PK
w = =.
PR By Theorem 16-5, area JKLMN - PR
area ABCDE- (ETl .
area JKLMN PK =! 2
Hence 9 area ABcDE = = ) .
 The t e x t postulates the formulas f o r the volume of a
rectangular parallelepiped and proceeds to prove t h e remain-
i n g formulas far the volumes of prisms, pyramlds, cones,
cylinders and spheres. This is analogous to the procedure
followed in Chapter 11 when the formula f o r the area o f a
rectangle was postulated.
546-547 Cavalieri's Principle Is an extremely powerful p o s t u l a t e .
It can be proved as a theorem by methods resting on the theory
o f l i m i t 8 a s developed in i n t e g r a l c a l c u l u s . It will be used
throughout t h e chapter to prove theorems concerning the
volumes of solids.
A model f o r making Cavalierils Principle seem reasonable
can be made using thin rectangular rods in an approach
slightly d i f f e r e n t from that of the t e x t . Consider the
following statement: Glven a plane containing two regions
and a line. If f o r every line which intersects t h e regions
and is parallel to the given line the two intersections have
equal lengths, then the two regions have the same area.

Here too, it should be pointed out that the approximations

to the areas of the regions Improve as the thickness of the
rectangular rods becomes s m a l l e r and smaller. ( ~ l s o ,see
Problem 8 of Problem Set 1 6 - 3 . )

[pages 546-5471
5 49 You may wish to p o i n t out that while the proof3 of
Theorems 16-7 and 16-8 require t h e s o l i d s to have t h e i r
bases coplanar, in numerical application t h i s is n o t
necessary.
5 50 In the proof of Theorem 16-9, to h e l p the students
v i s u a l l z e how three triangular pyramids a r e formed by
cutting a triangular prism, some v f s u a l a i d should be u s e d .
Dlsected s o l i d s can be purchased from an equipment supply
company; or one could try to make them by cutting up a bar
o f laundry soap. The three pyramids are formed by c u t t i n g
the triangular prism by t h e planes through t h e p o i n t s S ,
P, R and the p o i n t s S, P, U,
551 Theorem 16-10 can be proved without recourse to
Cavalierits P r i n c i p l e by splitting the pyramid into tri-
angular pyramids and applying Theorem 16-9. The proof in
the text was chosen because it applies j u s t as well to
cones as to pyramids, ( s e e Theorem 16-15) .

-
--
Problem Set 16-3

552 1. 5 x 4 x v 3= 1 5 . 15 cubic feet of water In the

tank .
15 x 1728
= 112 approx. 112 gallons approximately.

2. 20 x 8 x 4.6 = 7 3 6 . The volume is 736 cubic inches.

33 f i s h c a n be kept in the
tank.

[pages 549-552 1
552 4. The base can be divided into s i x e q u i l a t e r a l triangles
with sLde 12. Therefore, altitude &F of A ABQ has
l e n g t h 6 6 . Slnce QC = 9 , by Pythagorean Theorem
CF = 4189. Hence the l a t e r a l area is

"2 ' 72 = 3 6 m . Now, V = $h, or

5. 1836=$m(18)2*h. o r h=17. The height is 17 feet.

6 The lateral edges w i l l a l s o be b i s e c t e d and therefore

corresponding sides of the section and base will be In
the ratio and the areas of the sectfon and base
in the rati:, ''
1 The volume of t h e pyramid above t h e
section w i l l be of that of the entire pyramid because
its base has 1 the area of t h a t of the pyramid and its
height is half a s great. The s o l i d below t h e plane will
then have the volume of the entire pyramid and the
r a t i o of t h e t w o volumes is 1
?.
553 % 7 . The volume of the complete pyramid which is 60 f e e t tall
is 320 cubic feet. The base of t h e smaller pyramid is
30 f e e t above the ground s o the part of the 60 foot
pyramid to be included contains 7 0320 or 280 cubic
feet ( s e e Problem 6 ) . The small pyramid capping the
monument has volume $ 4 2 or about 2.7 cubic f e e t .
Hence, the volume of t h e o b e l i s k in cublc feet is
approximately 282 - 7 .
*8. Given a plane c o n t a i n i n g two r e g i o n s and a l i n e . If f o r
every line which i n t e r s e c t s t h e regions and is p a r a l l e l
to the g i v e n line the t w o intersections have equal
l e n g t h s , then the t w o regions have t h e same area.
Various examples are possible, Here is one:
C
L

<
553 Here I s a formal definition of c i r c u l a r cylinder, and
associate terms. I;et El and E2 be two parallel planes,
L a transversal, and K a
circular region in El, which
does not intersect L. For
each point P of K, l e t
-
PP9 be a segment parallel
to L with PI in E2.
The union of a l l such s e m n t s
is called a circular cylinder.
--
K is the lower base, or j u s t
the base, of the cylinder.
The set of a l l points PI,
that -la, t h e p a r t of the
cylinder that l i e s in E2,
-
-
I s called the upper base. Each segment PPt is called an
element of the cylinder. ( ~ o t ewe d l d n o t introduce the term
element in defining p r i s m . ) The distance h between El
and E2 is the altitude of the cylinder. If L is per-
*pendicular to El and E2 the cylinder I s a r1P;ht cylinder.

M.
-
Let M be the bounding c i r c l e of K and C the center of
The union of all the element8 PPr f o r which P belongs
to M is c a l l e d the lateral surface of the cylinder. The
t o t a l surface is the union of the l a t e r a l surface and the
bases. The element CC1 determined by the center of M l a
-
the axis of the cylinder. Cross-sections are defined for
cylinders exactly as f o r prisms .
554 Here is a f o r m a l definition of c i r c u l a r cone, and
associate t e r n . L e t K be a c i r c u l a r region in a plane
E , and V a p o i n t n o t in E.

-
For each p o i n t F in K there
is a segment W . The union of V
a l l such segments is called a
- -
c i r c u l a r cone with base K- and
vertex V. Each segment W
is an element of the cone. - The
union of all elements PV f o r
which P belongs to the bounding
c i r c l e of K is the lateral
surface of the cone. The t o
surface is the union of the
l a t e r a l surface and the base.
The distance h from V to E
is t h e altitude of the cone.
If the center of the base c i r c l e
Is the f o o t of the perpendicular
from V to E, the cone is a
r i g h t c i r c u l a r cone.
555 A formal proof of Theorem 16-11 is somewhat involved -
we present a basis for a formal proof. L e t M be the c i r c l e
which bounds the base of the cylinder. Let C be the center
of M and r its r a d i u s .
L e t E be the sectioning plane,
and C1 i t s i n t e ~ s e c t i o nwith
the element of the
cylinder. Then the intersection
of E with the lateral surface
of t h e cylinder is the c i r c l e
M1 in E w i t h c e n t e r CI and
radius r.
555 To prove t h i s we must show that:
(a) Any point PI comon to E and the lateral surface
lies on MI.
(b) Any point P1 of c i r c l e M1 iB common t o the lateral
surface and E.
Proof of (a): Let PI be comon to the lateral surface
and E. Then PI l i e s on an element E l where P I s on
circle -
- M (by definition of l a t e r a l surface). Then
PP1 1 1 C C 1 , since any two elements of a cylinder are parallel.
-
And PICl 1 1 W by Theorem 10-1. Thus, PPICIC I s a
parallelogram and PICl = PC = r, That is PI lie^ on
c i r c l e MI.

Proof of (b): let PI be a p o i n t of c l r c l e MI.

(~ o t e P , P and P t are defined differently than in (a)).
Let ii;bl
-
A
be p a r a l l e l to &
and meet the baae plane in P.
Then PICl 11 W by Theorem 10-1 and PPICIC is a
parallelogram as above. Thus PC = PICl = r, so that
- P
lies on c i r c l e M. Then P determines an element PPt and
w w
PP1 11 CCL. Since,
C+
1 C C , we see that and w1
-.
aoinc ide and PI l i e s on . From the diagram PI lies
on P P i Thus, PI I s on the lateral surface. Slnce PI
is in E, the proof o f (b) l a complete.
Since MI bounds the cross-section, we have shown that
t h e cross-aection is a circular region. It remains to show
it is congruent to the baae. Thia l a a relatively simple
matter as outlined In the t e x t ,
555 Theorem 16-12 I s immediate from Theorem 16-11, since
the cross-section and the base are congruent cfrcular regions.
 In Theorem 16-13 the proof that the c r o s s - s e c t i o n is a
c i r c u l a r region I s somewhat similar to that of Theorem 16-11.
F i r s t one would prove t h n - t the intersection of the plane and
the l a t e r a l surface is a c i r c l e .
In the diagram f o r Theorem 16-13, P is t h e center of
the base c i r c l e and W is a p o i n t on it. Q and R are the
intersections of the elements and w i t h the section-
ing plane.
The reasons in the proof of Theorem 16-13 are:
(1) The A . A . Similarity Theorem and the d e f i n i t i o n of
similar triangles.
(2) 1 1 PW BO that A V&R - A m . Then

(4)
area of c i r c l e Q =
ape. o r c i r c l e P
% = 2
(#) =
2,
RPW

557 J u s t as In proving Theorem 16-7 on the volume of a p r i s m ,

consider a rectangular parallelepiped with the same a l t i t u d e
and base area as the given cylinder, and with I t s base
coplanar with the base of t h e cylinder. Apply Cavalierits
PrFnciple .
557 To prove Theorem 16-15 proceed aa In Theorem 16-10.
Take a triangular pyramid of the same altitude and base area
as the cone and with i t s base coplanar with the base of the
cone. Apply Cavalierits Principle.
 Problem S e t 16-4

8 . 1 4 ~ 4 30 -
- 22. 1/) 4 1 & . 3 0
2. The number of gallons is 23 1

=
80 = 265
2
( m e f a c t o r s of 231 are 3 - 7 .11. By
using 722 the computation can be simplified by reducing
fractlons ) .
3. Subtract the volume of t h e inner cylinder f r o m t h a t of
the o u t e r . This gives
16r(2.812 - 16n(2.512
or 16~(2.8*- 2.5 2 ) = 161r(2.8 - 2.5)(2.8 + 2.5)
16~(.3)(5.3) = 80 approximately.
=
Approximately 80 cubic inches of clay will be needed,
4. The ratio of the volumes 1s the cube of the r a t i o of the
altitudes, so

Hence V2 = .064 x 27 = 1.73 approx-

558 5. L e t r be t h e radius of the base of the f i r s t can and

h be its h e i g h t . Then the radius of the aecond can is
2 r and its height is Then .
Volume of f i r s t can = m2h .
Volume of second can = a ( 8 ~ ) ~ =- 21rr2h. $
Since the volume of the second can is twice t h a t of the
first, and the c o s t is twice the cost of the f i r s t ,
n e i t h e r is the b e t t e r buy.
 202. 36
558 6. The volume of the pyramid is 7 = 4800.

7.
and the volume of t h e cone is
approximately .
-
The radius of the base of the cone is half the diagonal
of the square, or 1 0 f i .

20m*36
2 = 2008,
The area of t h e base of the cone l a r(10fi)
= 2400s = 7,536

L e t the radius of the base of eaoh cylinder be r and

the altitude be h . Then the volume of the cone in
A

Figure 1 is rrzh The volume of t h e t w o cones in

Figure 2 is

The volumes are the same.

No, since the sum of altitude8 would be the same as the
altitude of cone In Figure 1.

559 " 9 . The volume of the f r u s t u m is the difference of the

volumea of two pyramids. Hence their heights m u s t be
found. If x represents the height of the upper pyramld

+ =64'
x = 16
from which
and x + 8 = 24.

The volume I s approximately 636 cubic Inches.

559 To prove Theorem 16-16 we show t h a t the sphere and the
s o l i d bounded by the cylinder and the two cones have t h e same
volume by Cavalierits P r i n c i p l e . Then we can find t h e volume
of the sphere by subtracting the volumes of the t w o cones
from the volume of t h e cylinder.
560 The answer to the "Why?" is as follows :
Consider One of the cones. Since the altf tude of the cylinder
is 2r the altitude of the
cone is r. A l s o the radius
of the base c i r c l e of t h e
cone is r. Therefore, an
isosceles r i g h t triangle I s
formed by the altitude, t h e
radius, and a segment on the
surface of the cone j o i n i n g V
the verfiex V to a p o i n t on
t h e base. Any line parallel to the radius, intersecting the
o t h e r two sides of this triangle, will form a t r i a n g l e
similar to t h e original one. Hence, the c r o s s - s e c t i o n of
the cone a t a distance s f r o m the vertex will be a c i r c u l a r
region w i t h radlus s ; and a will be the inner radius of
the s e c t i o n of the solid.
561 The argument of Theorem 16-17 should n o t be considered
a formal proof, but an i n t e r e s t i n g example of mathematical
reasoning based on a rather plausible assumption, namely,
that S , the surface area of the inner sphere I s the limit
of 6 as h approaches zero, where V is the volume of t h e
spherical shell and h is its t h l c h e s s . (we must e i t h e r
define t h e area of a surface or introduce some p o s t u l a t e
concerning it, if we want to reason about it mathematically.)
To Justify intuitively that hS is approximately the volume
of the spherical shell, we may consider it c u t open and
f l a t t e n e d o u t l i k e a p i e c r u s t t o form a thin, nearly flat,
cylinder. Then S becomes the area of the base of t h e
cylinder and h I t s height, so t h a t , i t s volume is hS.
(~ctuallysuch a process would involve d i s t o r t i o n and the
volume of t h e s h e l l would be s l l g h t l y greater than hS.)
In t h e course of reasoning when we say c v S as h
grows smaller and smaller (or h approaches zero) we mean
precisely the following: L e t h take as its successive
values an endless sequence of p o s i t i v e numbers,
hl, ha, ..., hn, ... which approach zero ( f o r example,
I 1 -1 ...). Then since V I s determfned by
,
' ,'. * ' ' 9'
the value assig-ied to h, V will take on a corresponding
sequence of values, V1, V2, V, ...,
We assert ...,
that the sequence of quotients v1 r, v2
. . . , Vn . .
1 %' X'
will approach t h e f l x e d number S .
You may better appreciate t h i s method if we apply it in
a sampler case t o derlve the formula f o r the circumference
of a c i r c l e . Conslder a
circular ring with fixed
inner radius r , o u t e r
radius r + h and inner
circumference C . The area
A of the r i n g is approxi-
mately hC (it c a n be
flattened out to approxi-
mately a thin rectangle)
and A is approximately C . As the r i n g g e t s t h i n n e r and
thinner the approximation g e t s better and better, that is,
A
-h-C as h-0. But A = i r ( r + h ) 2 - a r 2 = * r h + r h 2
so that
A
= 2m -t ?rh.

Now l e t h-0. Then -A+ 2 n r . But C is the value which

A approaches. Therefore, C = hrr.
 A corresponding derivation for the area of the l a t e r a l
surface of a cylinder is similarly handled ( s e e Problem 11
of Problem S e t 16-51,
For t h e lateral surface of a right c i r c u l a r cone it is
somewhat more complicated and is gfven In d e t a i l below.
Derivation of Lateral Area of a R i g h t Cfrcular Cone.
The figure shows a v e r t i c a l
section of a right circular cone
of base radlus R, altitude H,
and s l a n t height S. It is
covered w i t h a layer of paint
of thiclmess t. From similar
t r i a n g l e s we have
t = 5, a and B a
b = ii.

Hence,

The volume of the p a i n t I s

We assume t h a t t h e l a t e r a l area A Is the limit approached

by v as t approaches zero. From above,
V a
2
= &(R .I. a + m).
As t gets very small so does a get very small, and so
v approaches the limit 7TSR.
 --
Problem Set 16-5

Surface area: 4~16. Approximately 201.

Volume : $~64. Approximately 268.

The tank will hold approximately 10,752 gallons.

The area of a hemisphere is one-half t h e area o f a sphere,
2 2
or 2 , Since t h e area o f the floor is TP , twice
as much p a i n t is needed f o r the hemisphere, o r 34
gallons.
Volume of cylinder is
T R ~ 2R = 2 r R3 ,
2 3 4 3
$~TR ) = YR , which

is the formula f o r the

volume of the sphere.

4
S i n c e r = 1, the volume of the i c e cream I s TT and
t h e volume of the cone Is 5 .
Therefore, the cone
will not overflow.
a. The volume o f a cube o f edge s is s 3 ; the
volume of a cube of edge 4s Is ( 4 s ) o r 64s 3 .
Hence, t h e r a t i o of the volumes is 64 to 1.
b . If R and 4R are r a d i i of the moon and the e a r t h

the volumes have t i e ratio q3 J m.

= I
y(4 R )

[pages 562-563 1
563 8. The altftude of the cone is r plus the hypotenuse of
a 30' - 60' r i g h t triangle w i t h short s i d e r. So
the a l t i t u d e 1s 3r. Uslng a r i g h t triangle determfned
by the altitude of the cone and a radiua of t h e base,
the radius of base of the cone is rfi,
so the area
of the base is 3m 2
.
The volume of the cone is there-
fore 7 1 .3m2 3r = 3m3 .
*9. Let r be the radius of
the tank in feet.
r2 = 18* + (r - 6)*.
r2 = 324+ r2 - 12r + 3 6 .
12r = 360.
r = 30. The radius is
30 feet. Using
4 3
V = y , the volume
of the tank in cubic 18
4~ 303
feet is 7.
Converting this to cubic inches, finding the number of
gallons contained, and d i v i d i n g by 10,000, the number
of hours a tank f'ull will last is 4 27000 1728
231
.
.
.
or about 85 hours.
*lo. L e t V be the original volume and R the o r l g i n a l
radius, v the new volume and r the new radius.
Then
"v = T2= = 43 ' =3 7 *R3
d
Therefore, 3 --
R~ 2 Or
R
r=-.3fi

Hence,

Since, 3fi is approximately 1.6,

r is approximately 54 R.
[page 563 I
563 "11. Let V be the volume of a cylindrical s h e l l ,
the S
lateral area of the cylinder, and h the thickness of
the shell. Then - vS aa h gets smaller and
smaller. By Theorem 16-14 we know that
2 2
V = a ( r + h ) a - m a

Therefore,
Kv = m a + m.
Since, h-0, ha--+O and E-2.ra.
Hence , S =arm.

Revlew Problems

6 1. a. rhombus, 120, 60.

b. 8. c. 3 2 n .

2. 61 approx. &*$-$-~-$r*l*l*ld

(4 12 - 4 -8-
1) = y- 117 = 9 = 61.26

3. 19 approx. + - 2 5 - h = 5 0 0 .

h = 60-
a = 19 approx.

4. 48 square inches. $5 - 12 = 432.

108. B =
If A is the area of the cross-sectlon,

5. The volume of the first Is half the volume of the second.

[pages 563-5643
564 6. 4872 approx.
4000
~ ( 2 8 8 0- -.) - 4
~~144.20-y-1O010.10=
=
4640 rr = 4872 approximately.

565 "8. The volume of the s o l i d equals the volume of the large
cone decreased by t h e sum of the cylinder and the small,
upper cone. L e t h be the a l t i t u d e of the small cone.
Then 15 - h is the altitude of the cylinder. Since the
cones are similar,
and 45 .
h = B
T5=8
Hence, V = y1 6 4 - 1 5 - (@ 75 + '45

.v,
a~ rg.

= 320a - 7= = 687.5 approx.

9. A diagonal of a parallelogram divides it into congruent

triangles. Therefore, by Theorem 16-8 the pyramid is
L
d i v i d e d i n t o t w o pyramids of equal volume.
* 10. In t h e rectangular
parallelepiped, diagonals
AX and % of rectangle
ABXW a r e congruent and
b i s e c t each o t h e r at 0 .
-
Sfmilarly , .diagonals KF
A 0
and HQ b i s e c t each o t h e r
a t Or . By conaidering
the intersection of KP and G, it is evident that
0 ' = 0 . Therefore, a l l f o u r diagonals b i s e c t each other
at 0 . S i n c e the diagonals are congruent, it follows
that 0 is equidistant from each of the v e r t i c e s , and
is t h e center of the required sphere.
 Illustrative ---
T e s t Item f o r Chapter -
16

A. I n d i c a t e whether each statement is t r u e or f a l s e .

1. A plane s e c t i o n of a triangular prism may be a region
whose boundary is a parallelogram.
2. A plane section of a triangular pyramfd may be a region
whose boundary is a parallelogram.
3. The volume o f a t r i a n g u l a r prism is half the product of
the area of its base and its a l t i t u d e .

4. In any pyramid a s e c t i o n made by a plane which b l s e c t s

the altitude and I s parallel to the base has h a l f the
area of the base.
5. Two pyramids with the same base area and the same v o l m e
have congruent altitudes.
6, The volume of a pyramld with a square base Is equal t o
one-third of i t s a l t i t u d e multiplied by t h e square o f a
base edge.
7. The area of t h e base of a cone can be found by d i v i d i n g
three times the volume by the a l t i t u d e .
8. me volume of a sphere 1s glven by the formula 1 3 p d
where d i a I t s diameter.
9. A l l cross-sections of a rectangular parallelepiped are
rectangles.
10. A cross-section of a c i r c u l a r cone 1s congruent to t h e
base.
11. Two prisms w i t h congruent bases and congruent altitudes
are equal in volume.
12. In a sphere of radius 3 , t h e volume and the surface
area are expressed by the same number.
The area of the c r o s s - s e c t i o n of. a pyramid t h a t b i s e c t s
t h e a l t i t u d e is one-fourth the area of t h e b a s e .

The diagonal of a r e c t a n g u l a r parallelepiped 1 s 1

the sum of t h e t h r e e dimensions of the parallelepiped.
In a r i g h t circular cone t h e segment joining the vertex
with t h e center of the base I s the altitude of t h e cone,
A school room is 22 feet wide, 26 f e e t long and 12
feet h i g h . If there should be an allowance of 200
cubic f e e t of a i r space for each person i n t h e room,
and i f t h e r e are to be t w o teachers in the room, how
many p u p i l s may t h e r e be in a class?
A 24 i n c h length o f w i r e is used t o form a model of the
edges of a cube. How long a wire is needed to form t h e
edges of a second cube, if an edge of the second is
double an edge of the f i r s t ? What is the r a t l o of the
s u r f a c e areas of the t w o cubes? Of t h e i r volumes?
A square 6 inches on a side is revolved a b o u t one
diagonal. Give t h e volume of the solid thus "generated1',

If a r i g h t circular cone is i n s c r i b e d in a hemisphere

such that b o t h have t h e same base, f i n d the r a t i o o f
the volume of the cone to the volume of the hemisphere.
If a cone and a c y l i n d e r have the same base and the same
altitude, the volume of the cylinder is times the
volume of t h e cone.
If the area of one base of a c y l i n d e r is 24 square
inches, the area o f the o t h e r base I s s quare
inches,
5
and altitude 6,
In a c i r c u l a r cylinder w i t h radius
t h e area of a cross-section one-half inch from the base
In a c l r c u l a r cone with radius 5 and altitude 6 , the
area of a cross-section at a distance 2 from the
vertex I s

The area of the base of a pyramid with altitude 12

Inches is times the area of a cross-section 2
inches fpom the base,
If the area of a croas-section of a pyramid is 1
the area of the base, t h i s cross-section of the pyramid
divides the altitude of the pyramid i n t o two segnents
whose r a t i o I s to -
The base of a pyramid 1s an equilateml triangle whose
perimeter is 12. If the altitude is 10, the volume
of the pyramid is -
The base of a prism is a parallelogram with s i d e s 10
and 8 determining a 30' angle. If the altitude of
the prism l a 14, the volume is
If the dimensions of a rectangular parallelepiped are
3, 5 , 6 , the length of a diagonal is ; the
total surface area l a ; and the volume is
If the diameter of a sphere I s 12, the volume of t h e
sphere is , the area of a great c i r c l e is f

and the area of the sphere is

 Answers

A. 1. T, 6 T, 11.
2. T, 7. T, 12.
3. F, 8. T, 13.
4. FJ 9. TJ 14.

5. T, 10. F, 15.

B. 1. 32 pupils. 22 x 26 x 12 = 32.3
200
1 1
2. 48 inches. T . g.
3. 3 & z The s o l i d consists of two r i g h t circular cones
with a common base having r = h = 3fi.
 Chapter 17
PLANE COORDINATE GEOMETRY

The inclusion of a chapter on a n a l y t i c geometry in a

t e n t h grade geometry coume is a r e c e n t innovation. We
introduced I t at the end of the book f o r two reasons.
F i r s t , f o r flexibility In using the t e x t . Some t e a c h e r s
may prefer to teach analytic geometry in the eleventh grade
(or l a t e r ) In order to do j u s t i c e t o t h i s very important
i d e a which shows t h e complete l o g i c a l equivalence of
synthetic geometry and h i g h school algebra. They may feel
t h a t the t e n t h grade already I s crowded w i t h many essential
t h i n g s , and t h a t t o crowd it further does n o t do a s e r v i c e
to the understanding of s y n t h e t i c geometry as a mathematical
system or of the analytic approach. On the o t h e r hand, some
teachers may feel a sense of excitement over the opportunity
to i n t r o d u c e students to analytic geometry, and may be
g r a t e f u l f o r a chance t o communicate t h i s excitement t o
their students at the expense of omitting some more con-
ventional material.
Secondly, t h e analytic geometry was introduced a t the
end in order to do j u s t i c e to both synthetic geometry and
analytic geometry. I f t h e student is t o obtain a deep
a p p r e c i a t i o n of the equivalence of Euclidean Geometry and
c l a s s i c a l algebra, he m s t undera tand these as separate
disciplines. H e already has spent much time in the study
of algebra, and it does not seem desirable t o fragment the
treatment of s y n t h e t i c geometry w i t h the piecemeal intro-
duction of analytic Ideas - he may f a l l t o grasp t h a t t h e r e
is an autonomous subject of geometrg which i s logically
equivalent t o the autonomous subject of algebra.
 In f a c t , a aurprlsing number of the concepts traeated
earlier in the book are necessary f o r analytic geometry.
The most obvious of theae concepts l a t h a t of the number
scale, but much more than t h i s is involved. The idea of
plane separation is involved in d i s t i n g u i s h i n g the location
of points w i t h positive coordinates and points w i t h negative
coordinates. The theory of parallels j u s t i f i e s the r e c t -
angular network used f o r graphs. Similarity is used in
establishing the constant slope of a l i n e . The Pythagorean
Theorem f o m the basla for the distance formula. The
n o t i o n of a s e t of points a a t l s f y l n g certain conditions,
which is baalc in coordinate geometry, is treated syntheti-
c a l l y in Chapter 14. These f e w examples will serve to
i l l u s t r a t e the considerable background of concepts it is
desirable f o r a student to have before beginning a c a r e f u l
treatment of analytic geometry.
567 The h i a t o r y of geometry, like the history of a l l of
mathematics, is a fascinating s t o r y . When one b o w s the
h i s t o r y of a subject, he can better appreciate the years
of development necesearg to p u t ft i n t o the form we m o w
it today. Since the development of analytic geometry waa
a major break-through in mathematical thought a t the time
Descartea discovered i t , students might be interested in
t h e h i e t o r y of fts development and discovery, j u s t as they
might be interested in the h i s t o r y of synthetic geometry.
Suggest to them the t i t l e of an available book on the h i s t o r y
of mathematics. ( ~ excellentn bibliography has recently
been published by the National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics. Write for the pamphlet h he High School
Mathematica Library", by William L. Schaaf. Address:
NCTM, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N . W . , Washington 6 , D.C.)

[page 567 1
 The idea of translating between algebra and geometry
can be used by the teacher as a means o f organizing a
cumulative summary of the chapter. The students can be
asked t o keep a geometry-algebra dictionary l i k e the
followlng .
Geometry Algebra
A point P in a plane An ordered pair of numbers
(X~Y)
The end-points of a segment (xl,yl) and (x2,y2) .
The slope of PIP2. The number m =
Y2 - Y1
X2
- X1'

The dlstance PIP2. I The number

+ Y2
The mld-point of P1P2.
X1 X2
.TIY1 +

A line. The s e t of ordered pairs of

numbers t h a t s a t i s f y some
llnear e q u a t i o n
Ax + By + C = 0 . +

The i n t e r s e c t i o n of two The common s o l u t i o n of t w o

lines. l i n e a r equations.
Two n o n - v e r t i c a l lines
a r e parallel. I m1 = m2*

568
Two n o n - v e r t i c a l lines
are perpendicular. I mlmp = -l*
Notice t h a t we now set up a coordinate system on each
of two perpendicular lines, r a t h e r t h a n on only one l i n e ,
as we did in Chapter 2. T h i s enables us t o find the co-
ordinates of the projections of any p o i n t on the two l i n e s .
We w r l t e these coordinates as an ordered pair (x,y) .
 We again have a one-to-one correspondence, this time
between ordered palrs of real nwnbera and points in a plane.
To each ordered p a i r of real numbers there corresponds one
and only one point in the plane, and to each point in the
plane there corresponds one and only one ordered p a i r of
real numbers.
Sections 17-2 and 17-3 cover material t h a t is familiar
to most students, and classes should move on aa quickly as
p o s s i b l e . X f students already know the terms abscissa and
ordinate, there is no reason to o b j e c t to t h e i r use of these
words. The terms are superfluous, however, and need n o t be
introduced by you.

Problem -
Set

574 1. I' ~arteslan"I s used t o honor the discoverer, Descartes.

2. (0,o).

3. -3.
4. The o r i g i n , or (0,~).
5. (2,l) and (2,0).
6 a. IV. c. I.
b. 11. d. 111.
7. One of the coordinates m u s t be 0.

c. IV.
d. 111.

[page 5741
i
/ 575 "12. a . y-axis, x-axia, z-axis.
I b. xz-plane, yz-plane, xy-plane.

576 When we d e f i n e t h e s l o p e o f a line segment t o be the

1 q u o t i e n t of t h e d i f f e r e n c e between pairs of coordinates,
I there is no need to introduce t h e notion o f directed distance,
ir b u t it is absolutely necessary to p u t the coordinates of the
r two p o i n t s (xl,yl) and (x2,y2) in the proper p o s i t i o n in
F
the formula. That is m = 'X2
* -- X1 cannbt be used as

m = Y2 - although rn = - '*
is a l s o c o r r e c t . n o t i c e
X1 - X 2 X1 - X2
t h a t in finding the s l o p e o f AB
it doesnTt matter which
point is labeled P1 and which one is l a b e l e d P2.
578-579 It Is Important t o note here that RP:, and PIR are
positive numbers and we have to p r e f l x the minus sign t o the

fraction
v RP2 if the s l o p e is negative.

formula defining the s l o p e of a aegment wlll give t h e slope

However, the

m as p o s i t i v e or n e g a t i v e without prefixing any minus sign.

RP2
For t h e Case (1) if rn ) 0, then m =
V'
RP2 = yp - y1 and PIR = x2 - xi. For the Case ( 2 ) if

m<O, then m = - 2
RP2 = Yg - y1 and PIR = x1 - x2,

Therefore Case ( 2 ) becomes rn = - Y2 - which is

X1 - X2

equivalent t o m =
Y2 - Y1
2 - X1'
 --
Problem Set 17-4

d. The two p o i n t s in each part have the same

y-coordinate.
e. If t w o p o i n t s in a plane have the same y-coordinate,
then t h e d i s t a n c e between them is t h e a b s o l u t e
value of t h e difference of t h e i r x-coordinates.
f. No.

e. The two p o i n t s in each p a r t have t h e same

x-coordfnate .
f. If two p o l n t s in a plane have t h e same x-coordinate,
the distance between them is the a b s o l u t e value of
the difference of t h e i r y-coordinates ,

[pages 580-5811
"11. Flrst assume that
w f,
PA, PB have the
same slope m.
L e t F = (a,b),
R = (a + 1,0).
Let be p e r -
pendicular to the
x-axis. Neither
w C )
PA nor PB is
perpendicular to
the x-axis, hence,
H
n e i t h e r PA nor
H
PB is parallel to
H H M ++
RS. L e t PA, PB i n t e r s e c t RS in Q, Q',
respectively, L e t Q = ( a + l , c ) , Qt (a + 1,~') -
Whence, c = c f and hence Q = Q t .
(by P o s t u l a t e 2) .
Hence, ==
The converse has already been proved h he or em 17-1).
f;r w
Hence, if PA, PB have d i f f e r e n t s l o p e s , then P,
A, B cannot be c o l l i n e a r .

-
12. a. Yes. b. No.
b. 3
-?. C.
a - b .
7
H 100
14. Slope of AB ia 96 = 1. Slope of BC Is = 1.
g-E;
f, H
Point B is common. Therefore AB and BC coincide.

[pages 582-583 I
 H w 1 = 1.
583 15. S l o p e of A3 is = 1; slope of CD is
H C*
We are tempted to say t h a t AB 11 CD, b u t we must
make s u r e that they are a c t u a l l y two different lines.
We test by finding the s l o p e o f E, which is
101 = 1. Hence, H 4-w
AB and AC must c o i n c i d e s o that
e
C is on AB and the lines can't be parallel. It
C* C*
f o l l o w s that AB and CD c o i n c i d e .

16. D r a w the segment which j o i n s ( 4 , 3 ) and the origin;

any o t h e r segment through the o r l g l n l y i n g on the line
determined by t h i s segment will a l s o s u f f i c e .

583 The information concerning slopes of parallel and

perpendicular lines c o n s t i t u t e s a very important p r i n c i p l e
f o r t h e s o l v i n g of geometric problems analytically. For
instance, if a student were asked t o show that two non-
v e r t i c a l l i n e s were parallel, he would have to show that
their s l o p e s were equal; t o show t h a t a p a i r of oblique
l i n e s were perpendicular would require that he establish
the slopes t o b e negative reciprocals of each o t h e r .
Note that to show two s e p e n t s parallel it is n o t sufficient
t o show they have the same slope; it is necessary to show
a l s o that t h e segments are n o t collinear ( s e e Problems 11
and 15 of Problem Set 17-4).
585 To show why A PQB 3 h Q i P R t we f i r s t show t h a t
L QtPR' is complementary t o L QPR. This follows from
4 QIPRI + mL Q I P Q + m L WR = 180 and rnL Q q P Q = 9 0 .
Therefore L Q t P R ' a L PQR and L PQtRI PL &PR. Since
PQ = PQ1, the triangles are congruent by A . S . A .
.
In the converse we use S .A .S to show h PQR = A QTP R 1
By construction, R 1 P = RQ and L R and L R t are r i g h t
angles. We get R t Q t = PR as followa: m = RQ and

m' = - R I Q t Then mt = - -m becomes - R ' Q' = - PR

m. m, and
s i n c e the denominators are equal we have R f QI = PR.
 Finally, we get L Q' PQ
a r i g h t angle by us i n g the
fact that L Q' PR IS an exterior angle of A PQt R l and
that L QPR = L P Q f R t .
Note that Theorem 17-2, and some theorems which follow,
-
are s t a t e d af'ter t h e proof rather than before. In this
way, the full theorem seem to be a reeult of the discussion
p e r t i n e n t to the t o p i c being considered.

-
Problern S e t 17-5
- 3 - 3 w *
586 1. Slope AB = 2; slope CD = F; hence, AB II CD or
M=%. slope C - -4
3' hence, A, B, C, are not
collinear. (See Problems 11 and 15 of Problem Set 17-4. )
Hence, a# w
CD, so that )I E .
Similarly, prove fX 1) AD.
2. Slopeof
-
AB= 2
-T, 2
slope of C D - -3.
-
- -
Slope of BC = -3, slope of DA = - 3 .
Therefore oppoafte s i d e s are parallel and the
quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
3- L1 1 L3 ~ n d L2 1 L4, by Theorem 17-3.

587 4. The second ie a parallelogram, as can be shown from the

!
- - -
s l o p e s of PQ, RS, QR, and E, which are
2
respectively, -5, 2
3, - 3, - 3- The f i r s t is not a
- - -
parallelogram since the slopes of AB, BC, CD and
- 1 3
AD are respectlvely, 4 , ?, 5 , ana S.

Slope of BC = 3-
Slope of AC = 0.

[ p a g e s 586-5187 1
b. Slope of altitude to = 5.
-
Slope of altitude to BC = - 3.
The altitude to AC has no slope; it is a v e r t i c a l
segment.
-
Both and CD have t h e same a l o p e , -1; AC has
s l o p e 0. Therefore AB 11 E . AD and BC have
d i f f e r e n t slopes. Therefore the figure is a trapezoid.
-
Diagonal AC I s horizontal since I t s slope is 0.
-
Diagonal BD is v e r t i c a l . A vertical and a horizontal
l i n e are perpendicular.
The s l o p e in each case is t h e same, ; 1 the a l o p e of
line joining (3n,0) to (6n,0) la 0. Hence, the
given lines are parallel.
The s l o p e of the first line I s
z. The slope of the
second is - Q. Since the negative reciprocal of b

is -, the lines are perpendicular.

Appllcation of the slope formula shows that the slope

of ia ,b
- -and that of is a
By -
1
Theorem 17-3, XY E. Hence, L X ia a right angle.
L
-
PQR will be a r i g h t angle If
- E l z.
PQ will be perpendicular t o QR if their slopes are
negative reciprocals; that I s , if:

from which b = -17.

- -1 - -1 -
Slope PQ = -
-; alope RS = =;slope QS = 0.
If
*
PQ
M
were the same as RS these three slopes would
have to be equal; but neither of the first t w o can be
zero for any value of a or b.
- -
If PQ 1 1 RS then -1 = -1 m,
whence,
588 Notice that it would be impossible f o r us to develop
the diatance formula without the Pythagorean Theorem, which
ln turn rests upon the theory of areas, parallels, and
congruence.
It might be in8 tructive with a good class t o have them
derive the distance formula and various
positions in the plane. In working with the d i ~ t a n c e
fomula, it does n o t matter in which order we t a k e PI and
P2 In as much as we will be squarhq the difference between
coordinates. The distance formula holds even when the
-

segnent PIP2 is horizontal or vertical.

Problem S e t 17-6
I-

590 1. a and b. A B - 1 , AC=3, AD=4.5, BC=4,

BD = 3.5, CD = 7.5.

3. a. 5. e, 17.
b. 5. f. fi
c. 13. g. 89.
d. 25. h. 56.
2 2
4. a. ( y 2 - yl) + (xl -x2)
2 2
b. x + y = 25.
591 5. By the distance formula RS = 5, R T = C and S T - 5.
Since ST = RS the triangle I s isosceles.
591 6. A DEF wlll be a right triangle with 1D a right
angle only if D E +
~ D F ~
= E F ~ . This is the case since

DE 2 - 5 , DF 2 = 4 5 and EF 2 = 5 0 .
7. AB = a= 2 f i . BC = 6 2 = 6&. AC = = 8 f i .
Hence, AB + BC = AC, and therefore, from the T r i a n g l e
Inequality, A , B, C, are collinear. It now follows
from t h e d e f i n i t i o n of "between" that B is between
A and C.

Hence, WY = XZ.

"10. a. Let A = (2,0,0), B = (2,3,0). Fromthemeaning

of the x, y, and z-coordinates, OA = 2, AB = 3 ,
and BP = 6 . By the Pythagorean Theorem a p p l i e d
to A OAB, OB2 = 13, then a p p l i e d to A OBP,
OP 2 = 49 and OP = 7. (G may a l s o be considered
a diagonal of a rectangular b l o c k . )
b. Generalizing the procedure in part (a), the

distance 1s J x * + y2 + z
2
.
592 The mid-point formula will prove to be very u s e f u l in
the work which f o l l o w s . This w i l l be true, f o r example,
when we are speaking of the medians of a triangle. If we
know the coordinates of the v e r t l c e s of a triangle, and
apply the definition of a median, we can find the coordinates
of the p o i n t In which the median intersects the opposite
side. T h i s will give us t h e coordinates of its end-points
and enable us to f i n d t h e length and s l o p e of t h e median.
The proof of the mid-point formula is e a s i l y modified
to hold f o r horizontal and vertical segments.

s e t 17-7
Problem -

x = -31. y = 41.
The o t h e r end-point is at (-31,41).
- -
4. AC S B D since b o t h have lengths by the distance
formula. 1 -
- since the slope of AC is 4 and
the slope of BD 1s
- -2. These are negative
r e c i p r o c a l s . AC and BD bisect each o t h e r s i n c e
us lng the mid-point formula each has the mid-point ( 3 , 5 ) .
594 5. The mid-point X of' AB
is (3,2).
The mid-point Y of is (-1,3).
The mid-point 2 of CA is (I,o).
By the distance formula CX = fi, AY = fi or
2 m , and BZ = 5.
6. Byfo-la, themid-points o f
-
E, BC, CD
-
and
are w ( o , ~ ) , --6 , ~ ( 4 , 6 ) and ~ ( 5 , 1 ) ,
respectively. WX has length
- a
and s l o p e - 5 .
-
YZ also has length
C-* H
a
and s l o p e -5. XY has
- m.
slope 0, hence, WX # YZ, so that, WX I(
With the aame two aides p a r a l l e l and congruent the
figure la a parallelog~am.
7. By the mid-point formula the o t h e r end-point of one
median is ( a 3a , and the other end of another
-a 3a
median is (T,-F). By the slope formula, the slopes
of these medians are 1 and -1. Since 1 is the
negative reciprocal of -1, the medians are pep-
pendlcular.
8. From the similarity
between A PLPR and
A FlP2S, PIR 3 P 1S.
Since TU = FIR and
TV = P,S, TU = 1 W . I
I
I
I I
In terms of coordinates I
T1 !U IV

x = -
T1 ( ~ a XI) + XI.
This can a l s o be written x = 7.
x2 2X1 By a similar
argument with
-
PIP2
+

projected Into the y-axia,

 Therefore the c o o r d i n a t e s of f are

1
595+9. a. Replacing 5 by -
r + s in t h e s o l u t i o n of the
previous problem, if x2 > XI, we get

r(xp - xl) +. xl(r + S)

from which, x =
r + s >

If x2 < xl, a similar argument leads to the

same result.
By a similar argument, with PIP2 projected i n t o
the y-axis,
595 Although we may place our axes in any manner we d e s i r e
in relation to a figure, there are advantages to be had by
a clever choice. For instance, if we are given an iaosceles
triangle, we may place the axes wherever we wish, then w e
the properties of an isosceles t r i a n g l e to determine the
coordlnatea of t h e vertices. Suppose we place it like this:

The student should be permitted to draw upon his howledge

of synthetic geometry and make use of the f a c t that the
altitude t o the base of an isosceles t r i a n g l e b i s e c t s the
base. Hence, the x-coordinate of the vertex should be
half the x-coordinate of the end-point of the baae that is
not at the o r i g i n . On the other hand the y-coordinate of
the v e r t e x is n o t determined by the coordinates of the other
vertices and ie an arbftrary p o s i t i v e number. Suppose we
place t h e axea like this with the vertex on the y-axis:

Then, since the altitude bisects the base, the lengths of

the segments i n t o which it divides the base are equal, and
therefore the end-points of t h e base may be indicated by
( a , ~ ) and (-a,~).
 There a l s o are l i m i t s t o what we can choose f o r co-
ordinates. For parallelograms, we find t h a t t h r e e v e r t i c e s
may be labeled a r b i t r a r i l y , but the coordinates of the
fourth vertex are determined by those of the other t h r e e .
Naturally there is more than one way In which we may label a
parallelogram. Below in t h e figure on the left the co-
ordinates of p o i n t s A , B, and D were assfgned f i r s t .
Then the coordinates of C were determined in terms of the
coordinates of the other three pofnts. In the f i g u r e on
the right A , B and C were chosen first. Notice how the
coordinates of D a r e given in terns of the o t h e r co-
ordinates.
AY A Y

D (b,c) c(a+ b,c) ~ ( -a,c)

b

A (opl

One word of CAUTION. The above discussion is based

upon the f a c t t h a t such things as i s o s c e l e s triangles or
parallelograms are given in the problem. If t h e problem
is to prove that a q u a d r i l a t e r a l i s a parallelogram or that
a triangle is isosceles, then we cannot assume such properties
to be true, and must establish, aa part of the exercise,
sufficient properties to characterize the figure.
If class time i s l i m i t e d , the end of Problem Set 17-8
would provide a satisfactory conclusion to the coordinate
geometry work. The balance of the chapter could be covered
in l a t e r courses.
 --
Problem S e t 17-8

Therefore, DB = AC .
Y
2. Locate the axes along A
the legs of the triangle ~ ( 0 , b)
2
as shown.

point PA -
By d e f i n i t i o n of mid-

Therefore P = (a,b)
PB.
.C(OPI
It must be shown that
PA = PC (or that
fB = PC). By the distance formula

PA = J(2a - a12 + ( 0 - b ) 2 =J= and

3. L e t the x-axis contain

the segpnent and the
y-axis contain I t s mid- IPCO.b)
polnt. Then the y-axis
is the perpendicular
bisector of' the segment.
Let ~ ( 0 , b ) be any
p o i n t of the y-axis, and
b u
A ( - a , ~ ) and B ( ~ , o ) be A(-0.0) B(O,O)
t h e end-points of the
segment. Then:

Hence PA = PB.
599 4. Place the axes so that
the segnent will have
end-points A(-a,O) I

B(~,o), and t h e y-axis /

will be its perpendicular /
his ec t a r . L e t ~ ( xy,)
be any p o i n t equidistant /
/
from A and B. From A(- o,O)
I
the distance formula
QA
2
= (x + a)* + y2 and QB2 = (x - a ) * + y 2.
Since QA=QB, w 2 = w 2 or
(x + a)* + y2 = ( X - a12 + y2.
Simplif'ying, 4ax = 0.
x = 0, since a # 0.
Hence Q must lie on the y-axis which is the per-
-
pendicular bisector of AB.

5. The mid-point of AC = -)(, a + b c + O = ( aT ,+F )b. c

- a + b O + c
The mid-point of BD = )-,( = (aT ,+T b) . c
Since the diagonals have the same mid-points, they

-
b i s e c t each other.

*3
Since R and S have the same y-coodinates, RS 11 AB.
Since RS is h o r i z o n t a l ,

R S = b- -- tpa= - .d b + a - d

D C = d - b and AB=a.

Therefore +(AB - DC) = = -.

Hence, RS = $(AB - DC) which was t o be proved.
Mid-point of WS = ( a + d + b , e + c ) .
Mid-point of TR = (a I- b + d,c + e ) .
Therefore % and TR b i s e c t each o t h e r .
Area A ABC = area (XYBA) +
area (YZCB) area ( X Z C A ) . -
Area A ABC = T(s -
1 + r ) (b a ) +?(t+
1 1 -
s ) ( c b ) - ?(r + t) ( c a). -
Multiplying out and combining terms,
1
area A ABC = ?(rb - sa + sc - t b + ta - rc), or

area A ABC =
a(t - s) + b(r
2
- t) + c(s - r)

XY = a. XR = b.
2
Slnce (b - a)* + cP = (b2 + c ) + a2 - 2ab,
Therefore Z Y ~= X Z +
~ XY2 - 2XY . XR.
Observe that this proof remains valid if R lies
between X and Y.
S e l e c t a coordinate system indicated.
C(2b.2C)
M = ( b , ~ ) , N = ( a +d,e) .
A B = ~ 4a 2 .
BC* = 4 ( a - b ) 2 + 4c 2 .

From these expressions the given equation can be

v e r i f i e d . Note t h a t
(a + d - b
]
' = a* + d + b + 2ad - 2ab
2 2
2bd. -
 Y
600 11. Place t h e axes and label 4
the v e r t i c e s as shown.
2
A C ~ =+ c~ .
2
-
BC 2 = (2a b) 2 + c 2 .
T = 2 a ,2
MC* = ( a - b 1 2 + c 2 ,
Si n c e
-
(b2+ c2) + (4a2 4ab + b 2 + c 2) = 2a 2 + 2(a2 - 2ab + b 2+ c 2) ,
2 2 2
= 2 a + 2 [ ( a - b ) + c 1.
Therefore AC
2 + BC' A B ~
= 7 + 2MC
2
.

Problem --
Set 17-9
Y
A
Y
4

A A A

15,O)
*X
I-5 0 ) (5,O)
0 0
t
t t

la. The v e r t i c a l line lb. The two vertical lines

through ( 5 , O ) . (5,0) and

[pages 600-6031
2a. The half-plane above 2b. A l l p o i n t s between the
the h o r i z o n t a l line l i n e s y = 3 and y = -3.
through (0,3) .

3. A l l p o i n t s between the 4. A l l p o i n t s wlthin or on

y-axis and the line the boundary of t h e in-
x = 2. dicated strip.
 5. A 1 1 p o i n t s within, or 6. A l l p o i n t s within the
on the l o w e r boundary second quadrant.
of the i n d i c a t e d s t r i p .
60 4
Y

7. A l l p o i n t s w i t h i n Lndicated angle.

[pages 603-6041
 A
e etc.
I
4 b
0

8a. A 1 1 points on the 8b. A 1 1 points on the

vertical lines horizontal lines
lndlcated. Y indicated.

8c . The i n t e r s e c t i o n of the
aolutiona for ( 8 a ) and
(8b). 1 . e . , a l l points
Fn the f i r 6 t quadrant
with integral coordinates.

I
9. The Fntersection of the 10. A l l pointa within or on
three half-planes formed the boundary of the in-
by the three given dicated rectangle.
conditions. i.e., a l l
p o i n t s within t h e angle
formed by the p o s i t i v e
part of the y-axis and
the ray from the origin
as shown.
[page 6041
All p o h t s in the i n t e r f o r A l l p o i n t s except the end-points

The rays bisecting the Lines b i a ec t ing the angles

angles formed by the x formed by the x and y-axes.
and y-axes fn first and
second quadrants.
604 "15. The square with vertices
(510), (0,513 (-510)
and (0,-5).

--
Problem Set 17-10

[pages 604,6101
i The graph is
the y - a x l e .
611 18. a .
b .
The yz-plane.

The xy-plane.
I The graph is the x-axis.

c. A plane p a r a l l e lto the yz-plane, i n t e r s e c t i n g

t h e x-axis at x = 1.
d. A plane parallel to the xz-plane, intersecting
t h e y-axfs at y = 2.

611 The material in Section 17-11 may have been previously

covered In a f i r s t year algebra course. If t h i s is the c a s e ,
do not spend any m o r e time than is necessary on t h i s section.
You will note t h a t in the discussfon on this page, it
is necessary f o r us t o f i n d an additional point in o r d e r to
plot: the graph of the e q u a t i o n . We may do this in two ways.
The f i r s t would be to assign to x a value, substitute t h i s
value i n t h e given equation and compute the corresponding
value of y (or we could assign a value to y and compute
x). The second method depends upon t h e discussion here in
the t e x t . For we know how a l i n e with a p o s i t i v e o r negative
s l o p e will lie, and we also h o w that if a line has a p o s i t i v e

1
[pages 610-6111
611 s l o p e then Rp2 and if i t s s l o p e is negative,
"=P;R " =-v
RP2

Then, given one point on the graph and the s l o p e we can find
a second p o i n t by counting t h e units in t h e legs of the
right t r i a n g l e , Consider the example used by the t e x t ,
y = 3 x - 4. We see immediately that the y-intercept is -4
and that the s l o p e is 3. Since the slope is p o s i t i v e , the
graph w i l l r i s e t o the r i g h t . Hence, we can f i n d a second
p o i n t by s t a r t i n g at (0,-4) and counting 1 unit to the
right and three units up t o t h e point ( 1 - We can check
to s e e t h a t we are c o r r e c t by a p p l y i n g the s l o p e formula to
these coordinates.
L e t us consider one more case, namely, when t h e s l o p e of t h e
given line is negative. Draw the graph of the equation
y = 2
- ~x c 3. We see t h a t the p o i n t (0,3) lies on the
graph, and to locate a second point by this method, we must
r e a l i z e that we w l t l l be working with a slope of - 3. The *
graph, then, wfll r i s e t o t h e left and we can locate a
second polvlt by counting 3 u n i t s to the left from (0,3)
and 2 units up, as in the figure below.
 Problem Set 17-12

5. The graph is the whole xy-plane.

6 The graph I s t h e empty s e t ; l . e . , there are no p o i n t a
whose coortiinatea satiaPy the equation.
7. The graph contains a single p o l n t , the o r i g l n (0,O).
8. The graph I s t h e empty s e t .
 --
Problem S e t 17-13

The emptg a e t .

The equations are

equivalent. Any
pair of numbers
whose sum is 3
is a comon solution.

3. 4000 miles.
619 4. a. The i n t e r s e c t t o n is
point (2,4).

Y
b. The i n t e r s e c t i o n is ?I I
I
I

the ray shown with

.
L a

end-point (2,4) . (2,4)

It

c. The intersection l a
the i n t e r i o r of
L ABC.

d. The conditions are y<2x and y < 4.

5. a. The i n t e m e c t l o n is
the interior of the
triangle with vertices
1 (2,419 and
(-1,41
b. x + y < 3 ,
x > 0,
Y > 0. 11
619 6. The mid-point M has
coordinates
4-
B t5,8 1

The slope of AB is
8 - 4 2, so t h e
n=
slope of L is - and --
A (3.4)

i t s equation is L: --
7 - 6 = - $(x -
41,
I l 1
l

--
I
U
l
1
l
l
r
. (
I
"
n . ,
n
1
-
4.

y - 6 = - ~ + 2 , 0 r

x +
2y = 16.
Alternate solution: L is the s e t of points ~(x,y)
for which PA = PB. Thls gives

which reduces to x + 2y = 16.

In the preceding problem, we found the equation
L: x + ~y = 16.
S i m i l a r l y , f o r M and N we f i n d
M: 3x - y = -3,
N: a -3 y = - 1 9 ,
The i n t e r s e c t i o n G o f L and M i s obtained by
solving their equations:
10 51
G = (7'7) -
Substltutlng in t h e thi& equation, we f i n d that G
lies on N a l s o .
620 *8. Take a coordinate system in which Queen's Road is the
x-axis and Kingis Road is the y-axis.

The coordinates of the elm, apmce, and pine are as

indicated. The maple is gone, but its assumed p o s i t i o n
i a labeled ( 0 , m ) . * 3
The s l o p e of EP is ?i, so i t s
equation (in slope-intercept form) I s
w:M
y = l 3f X + 3 .
The slope of SM is - so i t s equation (in point-
slope form) is
C,
SM: y = - $X
m
2).-
S o l v i n g these two equations simultaneously , we find
t h e coordinates of A:

Similarly, we g e t the equations

w 3
SP: y = p 3, - +
t,
EM: y = $(x + 4).

B:
X* = - w,
and the point of i n t e r s e c t i o n is

{ 9m
Y2 = m*
\
m e line has the equation,
 H
620 The i n t e r s e c t i o n T of AB and the x-axis is found by
l e t t f n g y = 0 and solvFng f o r x:

X =
X1y2 - X2Y1
y2 - Yl .
Now

Dividing, we get x = 8. ThereZ~rethe treasure.was

buried 8 miles e a s t of the c r o s s i n g .
Suppose now that the pine were a l s o missing. Assume
coordinates (0,p), for P and carry through the
calculation in terms of both m and p . The algebra
is a little more complicated, but if it is done
correctly both m and p drop out in the final
r e s u l t , which is again x = 8.
620 *9.
-
The y-axls is a llne through
base
C, perpendicular to the
i.e., it contains the altitude f r o m C. If
AB,
%$ where rn is its s l o p e , contalns the altitude
from A , 1t has the equation
Y - m(x + 41,
SLnce
H
A M 1 BC,
H
n = - -.
slope
~ u stl o p e %Z= - 8 ao 7 and the equation of
m = 8,
C+ 7 ( +~4 ) .
AM is y = 8
-
-
To f i n d the y-inlercept, l e t x 0:
J = 7 - 4 =T'
8 7

Now do the same for BN. which contains the altitude

P m m B. Slope X? = 8- = 2, s o the slope of %? 18
1 and its equation is
-,
y = - z1(x - 7)
Letting x = 0, we get the y-intercept

M H
Therefore and EN meet at the point
AM (0,s) on

-
the line containing the altitude from C.
For t h e general triangle,

-
C
slope BC =- b,
slope W = z, 80
b
- a),
-
AM: y = -$x and
the y-intercept is . ,- ba
C
S i m i l a r l y , slope AC =--
a'
slope = , so
w
BN: y - a
$X - b), and
the y-intercept i s -. ,
ab
620 Therefore the three altitudes meet at the point
ab
( 0- ) .
Note that this proof does not depend on the
signs of a, b, and c, but only on the fact that
A , B, lie on the x-axis and C on the y-axis.

621 *lo. Let A = (x1.y1). B = ( X ~ ~ Y ~ C) ,

= (x3,y3)
Then we have

w A I x, , YI)
The s l o p e of AR is

If G = (
X 1 f X 2 + X
3 y1 + Y 2 + Y 3 ) then
w
t h e d o p e of AG is

C,
so G is on t h e median AR. Similarly, the slope of
H
BT is

[pages 620-6211
 f--*
621 and the slope of BG is
Y1 + Y2 + Y3
rnZ1 = 3 - 72
Xl + X2 9- xX3
= m2,

3- X2 w
so Gis on the median BG. Similarly, we rind that
f,
G is on the median CS. Hence, the three medians
Fntersect in the p o i n t G whose coordinates are t h e
averages of the coordinates of t h e vertices.
Y

The equatfon x + 3y -k 1 = 0 is equivalent t o

y = - 3. - 5'w h ~ o his in slope-intercept form.

Therefore the s l o p e is - 3.1 The line M through
(1,2) perpendicular to L has s l o p e 3, so an
equation f o r it is

S o l v i n g the equations f o r M and L simultaneowly to

find t h e i r Intersection P, we get

Computing the distance d from (1,2) to P by t h e

distance formula, we find d =
-5 f i .
[page 621 I
621 "12. The lFne L with
epuatlon y = x haa
slope 1, so the
line M through (a,b)
perpendicular t o L has
alope -1, An equatAon
for M l a
M: g - b = - [ x - a),
x + y - a + b , M
Solving for the point of
Intersection P, we get
a + b a + b
p = I*-(
The distance is obtained
2
from d = -
a + b a) 2 + (-a + b - bj2 - I

*13. From Problem 9 , we have H ab

= (0,- T ).
From Problem 10, we have M =
a + b c .
To f i n d D we get the perpendicular bisectors u, v of
-
AB and E:

Therefore, D =
a + b c2 + a b .
Now
621 From these equations we get,
m = 2MD, HD = 3MD,
HM+MD=HD.
This ahows that H, M, and D are collinear, that M

is between H and D, and that M trisects HD:

--
Problem S e t 17-14

626 1. In each case the result is 25. This becomes obvious if

radii are drawn to the points on the c i r c l e .
2. a. (11, (31, (41, (6)
b. (31, (4).
c. (1).
3. a. Center (0,O); r = 3 . f. (4,3); r = 6.

627 4 . a. Replacing x
and y In the equation by the given
coordinates s a t i s f i e s the equation.

(x2 - lox + 25) + y2 = 25,

(X - 512 + -
012 = g2*
(y
The center of t h e c i r c l e is ( 5,O) ; the radius
is 5.

[ pages 621, 626-6271

 c. The ends of the diameter along the x-axis are
(0,0) and '(10,o). The s l o p e of the segment
joining (0,0) and (1,3) is 3 . The slope of
the s e p e n t joining (10,0) and (1,3) Is - J. 1
1
Since 3 and - 3 are negative reciprocals, the
lines are perpendicular and a r i g h t angle is formed.
5. a. The x-axla intersects the circle where y = 0, t h a t
is where (x - 3 ) 2 = 25, or at p o h t s (-2,0) and
( 8 , O ) . The y-axis intersects the c i r c l e where
x = 0, that is where 9 + y2 = 25, or at points
(0,4) and ( 0 , - 4 ) .
b. 2 - 8= 4 - 4 = 16.
The radiua of the larger circle fs 1 + So the
eauation is

There would be another tangent c i r c l e of radius

- 1 and the same center.

The including c i r c l e l a x2 + y2 = 100.

If 16 - 33rn2 > 0, there are t w o points of
intersection:
 c. IP 16 - 33rn2 = 0, t h e r e is one point of
Intersection :

and rn2 =16m , m = - +- 4

m*
Thia means t h a t the two lines

are tangent to t h e c i r c l e .
If 16 - 33rn2 < 0, there is no p o i n t of inter-
section.
628 9. Put the given equation in standard form
(X - 512 + (y - 3)2 = 22.
The given c l r c l e has center ( 5 , 3 ) , radius 2.
Let the required c i r c l e have center (a,b) and radius
r. Then b = a = r, s l n c e t h e c i r c l e touches t h e x-
and y-axes, and the distance from center (a,b) to
center (5,3) is P + 2. Hence,

Thus, there are two solutions:

where r = 10 + 6 (approx. 18.37) and r2 = 337.3

(approx.) or 10 - (approx. 1.63) and r2 = 2.7
..
( approx )
[pages 627-6281
 Review Problem

median is v e r t i c a l and has no slope.

3E- The

Place the axes and

aa s ign coordinates as
shown.
a. T = (2a9a), U = (a,2a).

PT = 4a -t- a

QU =J-= aJ5;
Therefore PT = QU.
- a - 0 1
Ir
b. Theslopeof PT=-=?.

The slope of
-
QU = 0 - 2a = -2.

1
Since -2 is the negative reciprocal of T,
the segments are perpendicular.
 w
628 *c. Using the point-slope form the equation of PT is:
y - 0 = $(x - 0)
or y = p .
1
M
The equation of QU ia:

The coordinates of V, given by the common

solution of the equations of $? and are

(77. The distance V9

8a,
-5 is then

J(%- 2
0) + ( $ -p e l 2 = 2a = length
of side.
629 lo.
Y
A

X
A

Take coordinate system as shown. Then M = ( b , c ) ;

N = (a + d , c ) .
w
Equation of MN is: y = c.
Equation of diagonal is: y = aC
x.
PoMt R of intersection 1s ( d , c ) , which is a l s o
t h e mid-polnt of

[pagea 628-629)
 Equation of %? is y = x - 6.
Equation of %8 I s y 3&.
13. Lengths of parallel Y
sides are: l a l , Ib - dl.
Altltude is l c 1 . t

15. A c i r c l e with center at the o r i g i n and radius 2.

*17. Find f i m t the lnteraection of the line x + y

the c i r c l e , Now x = 2 - g.
2 and -
merefore. -
(2 J r ) 2+ y2 = 2,
2
4 - 4 + y 2 = 2,
- 2
(Y 1) = 0,
so that y = 1 and x = 1,
Thus the point (1,l) 18 the only point of intemection,
so that the l h e is tangent to the circle.
Review

-
Anplwera t o Review Berciaes
Chaptem 13 to 17
26. 1.
2-7. 0.
28. 1.
29. 1.
30. 0,

31. 0.
32. 1.
33. 1.
34. 1.
35. 1.
36. 1.
37. 0.

38. 0,

39. 1.
40. 0.

41. 1.
42. 0.
43. 0.
44. 0.
45. 1.
46. 0.

47. 1.
48. o.
49. 1.
50. 0.

[pages 630-6331
 ---
Illustrative Test Items f o r Chapter -
17

What name l a given to the projection of the point (5,0)

i n t o the y-axis.
State the number o f the quadrant in which each of the
following points is located: ( 3 , 3 ) , (6,-21, (-2,8).
What are the coordinates of a point on the x-axis if the
distance from the p o i n t to the y-axis is 4?
A ray with its end-point at the o r i g i n makes a 30'
angle with the p o a i t i v e x-axis and extends i n t o the
first quadrant. What are the coordinates of a point
on t h e ray whose distance from the origin is 27
Determine t h e slopes of the l i n e segments between the
following pairs of points:
a. (0,0] and (5,3). d. (-110) and (-33-2)-
b. (1,4) and (4,8). e. (-2,-3) and (-2,3).
c. (-2,2) and (3,-4).
If a aquare is placed with t w o of i t s sides along the
x- and y-axes, what are the slopes of each of its
diagonals .
If scalene A ABC is placed with AB along the x-axis
-
which of the following lines has no slope?
AB,
-
the median to E, the altitude to AB, the angle
b i s e c t o r of L C .
Determine the distance between each pair of p o l n t s :
a. (1,4) and (2,3). c. (a,b) and (-a,-b) ,
b. (-1,0) and (-9,15),
 2. If t h r e e of the v e r t i c e s of a rectangle a r e a t (0~11,
( 5 , l ) and (5,4) what is the length o f a diagonal
of the rectangle.
3. The v e r t i c e s o f a trapezoid a r e (b,c)
(0,0), ( a , ~ ) ,
and (d,c). What is t h e l e n g t h of t h e segment joining
mid-po i ~ t s
of its non-parallel s ides ?
D. 1. A triangle has v e r t i c e s A(o,o), ~(12,0) and ~ ( 9 , 6 ) .
-
What i s the e q u a t i o n of the median to s i d e AB?
2 Of the following equations which p a i r s of lines a r e
a. parallel, b. c o i n c i d e n t , c. intersecting,
d . pewendicular.

3. v e r t i c e s ( 0 , 0 ) , ( m , ~ ), (0,n).
A right t r i a n g l e has
What is t h e equatlon of the median which passes through
the origin?
E. 1. Using coordinate geometry p r o v e that the mid-point of
the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equidistant from
the v e r t i c e s .
2. Show that the p o i n t s A , B, C, D whose coordinates a r e
(2,3), ( 4 , ( 8 , (6,4) are vertices of a
parallelogram. Show that the f i g u r e formed by joining
the mid-points of t h e sides of ABCD is a parallelogram.
3. Prove by coordinate geometry t h e theorem: If a l i n e
parallel to one side of a triangle b i s e c t s a second
s i d e , then it a l s o b i s e c t s t h e t h i r d stde.
 Answers

The o r i g i n .

e. The line is vertical and has no slope.

The altitude to E.

b. None.
c. (ljand(3); (1)and(4); (2)and13);
( 2 ) and ( 4 ) ; ( 3 ) and ( 4 ) .
d. ( 3 ) and (4).

Take a coordinate ~ y s t e m Y
as shown, wlth vertices
(o,o), (a,@,(0,2n)
Then mld-point P of
hypotenuse haa coordinates
(m,n) . Distanoe of P
f r o m each vertex l a x

J- IO,OI (em,01
 -
2. Slope E = - l = s l o p e CD.
- 1 -
Slope AD = P = slope BC .
Hence, , so that I( 5.
Likewise AD
- 11 -
BC.
The mid-pofnts of t h e sides taken in order are ( 3 , ~ ,)
6 , ( 7 , 3 ) and 4 , Slopes of sides of the
figure formed by joining these mid-points are - 5 1
f o r each of one pair of sides and 3 for each of the
other pairs. Hence, t h i s figure a l s o is a parallelogram.
3. Select a coordinate
system in such a way Y
A
that the vertices are
A(o,o), ~(2a,0),
~ ( 2 b , 2 c ) . Let M be
-
mid-point of AC,
-
MN I I E. Then
K
M = (b,c). Slope
- A ~(20,o)
MN=O. Hence,
w
equatlon MN is y = c.
I
w C
Equation BC is y = =(x - Pa).

Solving these equations we find N = (a + b, c ) .

Hence, (from mid-point formula) N is the mfd-point
of BC.
 --
FACTS AND THEORIES

Science today is playing an I n c r e a s i n g l y important p a r t in

the life of the individual. No one can claim to be truly educated
unless he has a reasonable understanding of the f a c t s and methods
of science. This does n o t mean t h a t we must all become nuclear
p h y s i c i s t s , nor t h a t we must spend a l l our time reading books and
attending lectures on the latest c o l l e c t i o n of p a r t i c l e s discovered
by the physicists. But it does impose on us the o b l i g a t i o n t o
learn enough of the f a c t s of modern science to provide a foundation
for understanding. It does imply an intelligent eelection of
material t o be learned.
We, as educators, are e s p e c i a l l y obligated t o make such a
selection for o u r students. They come t o us wlth a miscellaneous
hodgepodge of disjointed f a c t s and pseudo-facts, gleaned from
newspapers, magazines, books, and other sources. We must help
them -- with our own l i m i t e d Information-- to s t r a i g h t e n out
thefr ideas, to build a reasonable conceptual structure upon which
they c a n hang new f a c t s , to distinguish between t h a t which is
significant and that which I s not, and, perhaps most Mportant of
all, to understand how new howledge is acqutred. If pursued t o
the extreme, t h i s last goal would lead us t o the f a r reaches of
epistemology and scientific method, which have been the subjects
of m a n y weighty tomes w r l t t e n by scholars over many l i f e t i m e s ,
and about which the last word has certainly not been uttered. But
to dismiss this t o p i c e n t i r e l y as being t o o subtle f o r the m a -
ture minds of our students is t o deny them t h e opportunity of
becoming a l i t t l e more mature in our classrooma.
What should be the aims of t h e mathematics teacher, fn the
light of what we have just said?
C e r t a i n l y we should help the student to become acquainted
with the facts of mathematics by working with t h e m . We agree t h a t
our subject is an essential tool in science and in daily life,
and t h a t the student should acquire a working f a c i l i t y in it.
Therefore we teach him arithmetic, elementary algebra, intuitive
geometry in the lower grades, advanced algebra, synthetic and
analytic geometry, possibly c a l c u l u s and o t h e r topics in t h e
.
h i g h e r grade s
It would be dffficult, however, t o defend the teaching of a l l
these subjects on t h e grounds of u t i l i t y alone. No one pretends,
for example, t h a t i t i s of p r a c t i c a l importance t h a t the bisector
of an angle of a triangle d i v i d e s the o p p o s i t e s i d e in the way
that it does. kle proceed, then, t o t h e second alm, of developing
in the student an apprecration of clear, l o g i c a l reasoning as
exemplified in mathematics, and an ability to transfer this type
of reasoning to o t h e r situations. We have been moderately, though
nat eminently, successful in this respect in the p a s t . Wether
our present e f f o r t s w i l l t e n d t o f u r t h e r t h i s obJective remains t o
be seen. We certainly hope so.
A third am, which has been receiving more a t t e n t i o n of l a t e ,
is to develop in t h e s t u d e n t an understanding of the structure of
mathematical systems. We are beginnfng to speak of closure,
commutativity, dlstributivity and so on in d e a l l n g w i t h number
systems, and -- s t i l l t o o t i m i d l y , perhaps -- of t h e aximatic
nature of geometry.
This third aim is closely r e l a t e d t o t h e b r o a d e r one mentioned
e a r l i e r , of helping t h e student t o understand how new lmowledge is
acquired, how man learns about t h e physical world, how he con-
structs, develops and t e s t s t h e o r t e s about the physical, b i o l o g i c a l ,
s o c i a l , and econonlc aspects of l i f e around him. L e t us address
ourselves b r i e f l y to these questions.
Whether we recognize it o r n o t , theory plays an i n d i s p e n s a b l e
r o l e in our study of any f i e l d whatsoever. The a c t s of naming,
classifying, and g e n e r a l i z i n g are conceptual in nature. Even
emotional r e a c t i o n s t o stimuli depend on a structuring of experl-
ence. The r e a l vrorld -- whatever t h a t may mean -- reaches us only
by constructing a conceptual world to correspond to it. In setting
up a p a r t i c u l a r discipline, it is n o t necessary, however, t o refer
back always to t h e p r q ~ a r yd a t a s u p p l i e d by our senses. The raw
material f o r a theory a t one stage may be t h e conceptual world of
a previous stage. For example, the c l a s s f c a l geometry of various
surfaces in three dSmenslons may be taken as t h e jumping-off place
f o r a study of abstract metric spaces, and we would then a b s t r a c t
from t h i s c l a s s i c a l geometry, testing our new theory against it.
In every case, then, we operate ajmultaneously in two different
It
p l a n e s , I! One is the primary, intuitive plane, containing the
raw data from which our theory will be abstracted. This, follow-
ing Bridgman, we call the "P-plane." The second I s the conceptual
plane, the "c-plane." I n i t i a l l y , t h e C-plane i s empty, waiting t o
be f i l l e d with the concepts and relations which we construct.
We have complete freedom with respect to the concepts and
relations which we choose to insert in the C-plane, so long as we
do not assert any connection between i t and the P-plane, Natural-
ly, we hope eventually t o set up a correspondence between the two
planes, and this hope guides our constructions and our choice of
language. Logically, there is no necessity to make the language
In the C-plane correspond to that of the P-plane, and in order to
avoid confusion it might be better to use different terms entirely.
For example, the "poln t s ," " l i n e s ,l' and ''planes " of axiomatic
geometry (the C-plane) might be replaced by other terms which have
n o t been preempted in physical geometry ( t h e P-plane). But once
the formal d i a t i n c t f o n between the two planes and t h e i r languages
has been established and understood, there is a psychological
advantage t o be gained from the use of the same terms, f o r the
proposed correspondence i s then t r a n s p a r e n t l y indicated, Thus,
we h o w that the geometrical "pointt' is meant to correspond to
the physical point, the geometrical "line" to the physical line,
and so on. We can intuit, conjecture, and then perhaps prove
theorems i n the C-plane by peeking over i n t o the P-plane at the
corresponding 'Ifac t s ," arrived a t by experiment there. For
example, the concurrence of the medians of a triangle could be
guessed from drawing a number of physical triangles and t h e i r
medians on a piece of paper. This type of experience i s extremely
valuable and con~titutesan important psychological adjunct to
mathematical dfscovery. It must be pointed out carefully, though,
t h a t formal proof in the C-plane is necessary. Furthermore, the
l o g i c a l conclusion t o be drawn from this combined guessing and
proving process is - not that we have made the geometrical theorem
more c e r t a i n by experimental v e r f f i c a t i o n , The truth of the
theorem has been established (in t h e C-plane) with complete cer-
t a f n t y by l o g i c a l deduction from the axioms. Rather, our feeling
of satisfaction on seeing t h a t the theorem works out on paper
should stem from the confirmation of the correspondence between
the t w o planes. What we do tend to establish by such empirical
tests 1 s t h e adequacy of our postulate system to b r l r g about a
close correspondence.
Consider for example, what our situation would be i f we had
In our system all of the postulates of Euclidean geometry except
f o r the parallel p o s t u l a t e . Suppose, then, that we measured the
angles of many triangles and found, w3.thin the limits of experi-
mental error, that the sum of the measures of the angles was 180.
Then, pasaing to the C-plane, we attempted to prove the correspond-
ing result as a theorem, and of c o u r s e f a i l e d , The correct con-
clusion to draw would be that (a) we were not clever enough t o
f2nd a proof, or (b) that our axiom system was not adequate f o r
the purpose, H i s t o r i c a l l y , i t was the bellef that ( a ) was the
only possibility, together w i t h an hnperfect understanding of
axiomatlcs, that delayed the development of non-Euclidean geoemtry.
Eventually, of course, this very problem l e d to our present deeper
understanding of t h e connection between fact and theory.
What a r e the considerations that govern our choice of un-
defined elementa and relations and unproved p r o p o s i t i o n s (axioms,
postulates)? Certainly we want our system to be consistent: a
p r o p o s i t i o n and I t s contradfction should not both be provable in
the system. If we regard our axioms as inputs and our theorems as
outputs, then econonry and fruitfulness are desirable as increasing
output p e r unit input. Of course, this analogy is n o t t o be
taken t o o seriously, but it indicates why we should n o t p o s t u l a t e
everything. Unfortunately, some geometry t e x t s nowadays go t o
the extreme of setting down fifty or more postulates. There is
nothing logically wrong with this, but it militates against
economy, elegance, intuitiveness, slmplicfty, and ease of
verification i n a particular i n t e r p r e t a t i o n -- properties that are
c e r t a i n l y desirable.
One property that we have not mentioned is that of bewg
c a t e g o r i c a l . This means that every two concrete I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s
(models) of the system w i l l be essentially the same: it is
p o s s l b l e t o s e t up a one-to-one correspondence between the elements
and r e l a t i o n s of the two i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , so that they may be
regarded as identical except f o r t h e names assigned t o the elements
and r e l a t i o n s . The two models a r e then s a i d to be isomorphic. If
we start d t h a p a r t i c u l a r P-plane and wish to describe it com-
pletely by means of an axiom system, wlthout permitting any non-
isomorphic models, then we try to make our system categorical.
This is the case with Euclidean geometry or t h e real number system,
Somethes we reap an unelcpected harvest from the construction
of a c a t e g o r i c a l system. We may find two apparently d i f f e r e n t
Fnterpretations, and c a n then conclude t h a t they are essentially
identical because the system is categorical. Any theorem which
holds in one model is then sure to hold in the other. A n example
is the p a i r of models %, consisting of the real numbers under
addition, and M2, consisting of the p o s i t i v e r e a l numbers under
m u l t i p l i c a t i o n . The one-to-one correspondence is
established by the exponential function (from M1 t o m2) and t h e
logarithm (from M2 to M~). Another example is the pair of
physical processes, diffusion of a gas and heat-flow, b o t h being
governed by t h e same differential equation. S t i l l another example
1s t h e isomorphism of Euclidean plane geometry with the collection
of a l l peaf-number pairs, Thfs isomorphism allows us to s o l v e
geometrical problems by m e a n s of algebra, and v i c e versa.
A t o t h e r times, we find it more profitable t o make our
system non-categorical. This is true when we have several P-planes
which bear some resemblance t o each other. If t ~ ec a n construct, a
suitable C-plane so that each of the P-planes is an interpretation
of it, then anything we prove in the C-plane vcl12 hold Ln all of
i t s non-isomorphic models. This happens, f o r example, in the
case of group theory. It also happens when we s t a t e a few, but
not a l l of the axioms of Ehclidean geometry. In this case our
520
theorems, being provable, say, without the parallel postulate,
must hold a l s o f o r a l l geometrfes satisfying the stated axioms.
There I s no reason t o hide t h i s desirable state of affairs from
o w l students, f o r f e a r of violating t h e i r . T n t u i t i o n s about space.
Rather, we should regard such occasions as valuable opportunities
f o r teaching an important lesson.
Our discussion here has been f a r from exhaustive. We hope
t h a t it has served the purpose of pointing to a desirable and
sometimes neglected goal in education, and that it has indicated
how we, as teachers of mathematics, can approach t h i s goal.
 EQUALITY, CONGRUENCE, & EQUIVALENCE

1. Angles and Segments.

In describing the r e l a t i o n of "equalityt'between angles and
segments, t h l s book departs from common usage, Before explaining
why this has been done, let us first note quickly how the new
usage compares with the o l d . Suppose we have two angles w i t h the
same degree measure r, like this:

and two segments of the same length, l i k e this:

In these t w o instances, t h e f a c t s a r e p l a i n . They would be

reported in the following ways, in the o l d and new terminologies.

In Words In Symbols
Old New Old New
The angles The angles are AA=LB L A ~ L B
a r e equal, congruent. (or m L A = rnL B)
- - * -
The segments The segments AB =m AB = CD
a r e equal. a r e congruent. (or AB = .
CD)

From the t a b l e it is p l a i n that the new usage is n o t complicated.

We have simply substituted one word for another, and one symbol
for another. Of course, even slmple changes should be made only
f o r good reasons; they go against everybody's habits, and cause
much more trouble at first than t h e i r slmplic-lty would suggest.
We b e l i e v e t h a t there are very g o d reasons f o r the use t h a t we
have made of the word congruence. Followfng is an explanatSon
of what these reasons are.
2. Various --
Kinds of Equality.

The word "equals" is commonly used in mathefnatics I n a t

least t h i s many d i f f e r e n t senses:
(1) When we write 2 + 4 = 3 + 3, we mean that t h e number
2 + 4 and t h e number 3 + 3 are exactly t h e same number (namely, 6 )
Here "equals" means "is the same as."
( 2 ) When we say that two angles are equal, vre mean t h a t
they have the same measure, or the same shape.
(33 Two circles are equal if they have the same radius,
4 Two segments a r e equal if they have the same length.
( 5 ) Two triangles are equal if they have the same area,
(6) Two polyhedrons a r e equal if they have the same volume.
These uses of d i v i d e sharply into three groups.
(I) The f i r s t meaning ("is the same a s t t ) stands entirely
alone. T h i s is the l o g f c a l i d e n t i t y . It arises in a l l branches
of mathematics, including geometry.
(11) ' ' ~ q u a l i t y "expresses the same basic i d e a for angles,
circles, and segments, in (2), (31, and ( 4 ) . It means in each
case t h a t t h e f i r s t figure can be moved so as to c o i n c i d e w t t h
t h e second without stretching, or a fuller explanation, s e e
Appendix VIII, on Rrlgid Motion.) This idea is geometric, and is
one of t h e most b a s i c ideas in geometry. Applied to triangles,
it is always described as congruence and not as equality.
(111) " ~ q u a l i t y "t o mean equal areas or equal volumes, as
in (5) and ( 6 ) , implies t h a t two t h i n g s are equal if they contain
the sm,e amount of " s t u f f . "
These are the three main ideas involved. We n o t i c e t h a t the
words and the i d e a s overlap b o t h ways. Not only is the word
"equals" used in two widely d i f f e r e n t senses, but the baslc idea
involved in ( 2 ) , (3), and (4) is expressed by two apparently
unrelated words.
 Obviously students can and do l e a m to keep track of what is
meant, even when the words and the ideas overlap in this way. A l l
of us learned to do this, when we were in the tenth grade. The
whole thing becomes easier t o learn, however, and easter to keep
t r a c k o f , if the words match up wtth the ideas in a simpler and
more natural way, This can be done as follows:
"=I' ,
(I) We can agree to write and say "equals, ' t only when
tt
we m e a n is t h e same a s . " (This is the standard usage Fn nearly
a l l of modern mathematics.)
(11) We already have a word to express the i d e a that one
t r i a n g l e can be made t o coincide with another; we say t h a t they
a r e congruent. We can use the same word to express t h e same idea
when we are t a l k k g about angles, circles or segments,
I ) When we want to convey the i d e a t h a t two triangles
have the same area, we c a n simply s a y t h a t they have the same area.
Notfce t h a t if we do this we have n o t introduced any new
words into the language of geometry. We me not t m to be
technical, A l l t h a t we are t r y i n g to g e t at is a situation i n
which the familiar and available words correspond in a natural
way to the familiar and basic ideaa. The correspondence looks
like this:
(I) =, between any two things whatever, means "is the same
It
as,
(11) 2, between any two geometric figures whatever, means
that one can be moved so as to coincide with the other.
(311) Equality of area, e q u a l i t y of volwne, and so on, a r e to
be described e x p l i c i t l y as such.
A l l t h i s is straightforward language. We believe t h a t your
students w i l l find it easy to learn and easy t o use.
3. Equivalence Relations.
All the uses of "equals, I' In mathematics or otherwise,
Involve the notion of two things belng ---
allke in some respect.
The particular respect to be considered may be made e x p l i c i t , as
in usage ( 5 ) above, or it may not, as in " ~ l lmen are created
equal. 1l As mentioned above, mathematicians have pretty generally
agreed to use t h e word to mem "alike in - all respects"; that I s ,
tdentlcal, Instead of the o t h e r usage they speak of an "equiva-
lence r e l a t i o n , " A r e l a t i o n between pairs of objects, from
some given s e t , is called an equivalence relation if it has the
followlng three p r o p e r t i e s :
(1) It is reflexive. That is, any object of the s e t 1s
equivalent to itself.
( 2 ) It is symmetric. That is, if A is equivalent to B,
then B is equivalent to A.
(3) It is transitive. That I s , if A is equivalent to B,
and B 1s equivalent to C, then A is equivalent to C.
In a mathematical development we may use several different
kinds of equivalence relations. To keep them separate we give
them different names and different symbols. In o u r geometry we
have used the followlng equivalence relations.
(a) Identity. The r e l a t i o n Itis the same as" is easily seen
to satisfy t h e three p r o p e r t i e s l i s t e d above. The word "equal1'
and the symbol 'I=" are reserved f o r this equfvalence relation.
(b) Congruence, Here again, the properties are easily
checked. ( ~ e f e to r the talk on Congruence f o r a general t r e a t -
ment .) The symbol i a " 2 ".
( c ) Similasity. Here again we have an equivalence r e l a t f on,
denoted by 'I-".

(d) We have not Introduced any s p e c i a l n o t a t i o n f o r

"equality of area, " or "equality of volume, I' but each of these
relations is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, We could, if
it were convenient, introduce words and symbols for these equiva-
lence relations.
Such insistence on exactitude of language and symbolism may
sometimes seem mere quibbling, b u t it is on such extreme careful-
ness that modern mathematics is based.
4, Classification Functions.
Equivalence r e l a t i o n s are connected closely with another
concept which is important in mathematics. This is classification.
The connection is as follows.
 Suppose we have an equivalence r e l a t i o n defined for a
c e r t a i n set S, We can then classify the elements of S into
disjolnt classes (i.e. no two classes i n t e r s e c t ) S1, Sp, ...,
by p u t t i n g i n t o the same class a l l elements which are equivalent
to each o t h e r . Conversely, suppose that we have a classffication
of S into disjoint classes. Then we can define an equivalence
r e l a t i o n by saying t h a t a is equivalent to b If and only if
-
a and - b a r e in the same class, These two constructions
Equivalence Class ifi c a t i o n ,
Classiffcation- Equivalence,
a r e inverses of each other. If rue s t a r t with an equivalence,
pass to i t s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , and then pass from t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
-
to I t s induced equivalence, we end up with t h e same equivalence.
Similarly, if we s t a r t with a classification; form t h e induced
-
equivalence, then f o m i t s induced c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , we end up
with the same classification.
A n example may make thls clearer. Suppose S is the s e t of
all polygons. Let us d e f i n e 2 among polygons by sayfng that
P, 2 Pg if P1 and Pg have t h e same number of sides. his
r e l a t i o n 2 obviously i s ref lexlve, synrmetric and transitive. )
The induced classification is then into triangles, quadrilaterals,
pentagons, hexagons, ..., n-gons, .., , If we start with this
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , i t s induced equivalence is: P1 2 Pg if PI and
Pp are in the same class, i.e., if they are both n-gons ( f o r the
same n). This is t h e same a5 the original equivalence.
Notice t h a t in t h i s example, our classification was by means
of a unique number attached to each polygon, namely the number of
sides, Whenever we have a unique number attached t o each o b j e c t
of a set S , we have a numerical function f ( a ) Thus, every .
numerical function induces a classification: each class consists
precisely of those elements - a wlth the same functional value
f(a). As another example l e t S be the set of angles and let
f ( a ) = mla. The corresponding equivalence r e l a t i o n is then o u r
familiar congruence 2, between angles.
On t h e o t h e r hand, not every equivalence r e l a t i o n is e a s i l y
characterized by a f u n c t i o n . If S is the s e t of triangles it
526
is hard to see how the simflarity relation, -, o r the congruence
relation, 2 , c a n be associated w i t h a f u n c t i o n . As a matter of
fact this can be done, but the methods involved are v e l l beyond
elementary mathematics, as w e l l as being h i g h l y artificial,
 -
THE CONCEPT CONGRUENCE

Congruence is a rich and complex idea with many ramifications

in geometry - there really l a nothing q u i t e like I t in algebra.
It applies to figures of a l l kinds - aements, anglea , triangles,
circular arcs, polygons, truncated pyramids - in f a c t to any con-
ceivable f i g u r e . It plays an essential r o l e in the t h e o r y of
geometric measure of length, area and volume - it is intimately
related to the important concept of r i g i d motion.
We will examine c a r e f u l l y the conventional theory of
congruence and the related theory of l i n e a r measure. T h i s will
be contrasted with the theory of congruence adopted in our t e x t .
Finally we treat the concept of congruence f o r general figures
and i t s r e l a t i o n to the idea of rigid motion.
I. - Conventional Theory -
The of Con~ruence-
Linear Measure
and

-----
1-1. Congruence in t e r n of s i z e and shape. The term
congruence Immediately c a l l s t o mlnd the famous dictum: Two
figures are congruent if they have the same s i z e and the same
shape. Certainly this statement emphaslzes the basic intuitive
or informal idea t h a t If two f i g u r e s a r e congruent, one is a
"replica" of the other. Also it p o i n t s up the important property
t h a t if we know two figures t o be congruent we can i n f e r t h a t
they have the same area (or volume) and t h a t they are similar.
B u t t h i s Is n o t the essential Issue. It l a : Does our
dictum define congruence? Is it r e a l l y a fomnal d e f i n i t i o n of
the term congruence in terms of more baslc ideas? Clearly the
answer is no. For the notions size and shape a r e more complex
than congruence. In order to measure (or d e f i n e ) size (area or
volume) we try to ffnd out how many congruent replicas of a basic
f lgure ( f o r example, square or cube) "fill out" a given f i g u r e .
So actually it would be more natural and s i m p l e to base the theory
of aize (and shape) on the Idea of congruence rather than t h e
reverse.
 ---
1-2. Congruence in t e r m of rigid motion. But there are
other " d e f i n l t i o n s " of congruence which we m u s t discuss - c o n s i d e r
t h e famous, "TWO figures are congruent if they can be made to
coincide by a r i g i d motion". Let us analyze t h i s . Conceived
c o n c r e t e l y , say in t e r n of two paper heart-shaped valentines, it
a f f o r d s an excellent i l l u s t r a t i o n of the intuitive idea of con-
gruence and emphasizes again t h a t one 1s a "replica" of the other.
But t h i s i l l u s t r a t i o n , like most physical situations, does n o t
have the precision required f o r an abstract mathematical concept.
Surely we would have to pick up t h e f i r s t valentine and move it
w i t h almost Z n f l n i t e gentleness to prevent bending it slightly
when gettfng I t to c o l n c i d e with the second one. And how could
we be certaln of p e r f e c t coincidence of the two valentines?
Wouldn't t h i a require p e r f e c t eyesight? It 1s c l e a r t h a t this
" d e f i n i t i o n " interpreted c o n c r e t e l y gives us a physical approxi-
mation t o t h e abstract idea of congruence but doesn't define it.
Moreover it I s not even a p p l i c a b l e in many physical aituatfons:
you hardly could get two "congruent" b i l l i a r d b a l l s t o coincfde
by a rigid motion.
Should we then conclude t h a t t h e idea of r i g i d motion 1s
essentially physical and can n o t be mathematicized as an abatract
geometrical concept? Definitely not. Mathematicians are
ingenious and c l e v e r people and it might be a mistake t o decide
beforehand that they could n o t c o n s t r u c t a precise a b s t r a c t i o n
from a given phyaical i d e a . M o s t famlliar mathematical
abs trac t i o n a had their origin in concrete physical 5i t u a t i o n s -
c e r t a i n l y geometry had I t s o r i g i n In p r a c t i c a l problems of
surveying t h e heavens and the e a r t h .
L e t us table for the present the question of whether we can
form an abstract geometrical theory of r l g l d motions, It would
seem that a treatment of congruence cased on a l o g i c a l l y satla-
f a c t o r y theory of rigid motion could n o t be elementary and would
hardly be suitable f o r a f i r s t course. In any caee, without
deeper analysis, the second "definition" is not a definition a t
a l l and rnlght more properly be considered a statement of a proper-
ty which rigid motions should have: namely, t h a t any rigid motion
t r a n s f o m a f i g u r e i n t o a congruent one.
1-3. Another S e f i n i t i o n . Consider a n d ' c r i t i c i z e a t h i r d
suggested " d e f i n i t i o n " : Two ( p l a n e ) figures are congruent if a
copy of the f i r s t made on t r a c i n g paper can be made to coincide
with the second.
1-4. Congruence of segments . Since our three "definitions"
do n o t define congruence we must probe more deeply. Here, as s o
o f t e n in solving problems, the i m p e r i a l i s t m a x i m , " ~ i v i d eand
conquer", is very h e l p f u l . Instead of t a c k l i n g t h e concept o f
congruence In its most complex form, that is, f o r arbitrary
figures, l e t us begin by considering a simple special case. A
line segment -- o r as we s h a l l c a l l i t , a segment --I s one of the
simplest and most important geometric figures. We n a t u r a l l y begin
by considering congruence of segnents.
L e t us r e c a l l how this is treated in Euclid o r in the conven-
t i o n a l high school geometry course. Congruent segments, usually
called equal segments, are conceived as "replicas" of each other,
in general w i t h different locations i n space. Congruent segmenta
may coincide or be identical b u t they d o n ' t have t o . If segments

aB
and are congruent we may A
i n t e r p r e t t h i s concretely t o mean
and are " c a l i p e r equivalent"
- that is, if a p a i r of calipers ig
7

s e t so that t h e ends coincide wlth

A and B, then, without changing the
setting, the ends of the c a l i p e r s
can be made to coincide w l t h C and
D.
-
1-5. Basic p r o p e r t i e s of congruence - of sements. What is
the l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of congruence o f segments in Euclid?
Actually it is taken to be an undefined term. More precisely,
- -
using the n o t a t i o n AB = CD, congruence I s a basic r e l a t i o n =
between the segnents AB and which we do n o t attempt to
d e f i n e . We study it (as always in mathematics) in terns of its
basic p r o p e r t i e s which are formally s t a t e d as postulates. Some
of these postulates, which are n o t explicit in Euclid or in most
geometry t e x t s are:
- -
(1) ( ~ e f l e x i v eIan) AB E AB;
( 2) (~ymmetryLaw) If != CD then CD = z;
(3) (~ransitive~ a w )If ~ E C and D CD = E F then AB ==.
That Is, congruence of segnents s a t i s f i e s the t h r e e basic proper-
ties of equallty or identity and so is an example of an equivalence
relation. We must n o t assume that congruence mean8 Identity, since
dlstlnct segments can be congruent.
+ ( 4 ) (~ocationPoa tulate) L e t
AB be a ray and l e t CD be a
A
segment. Then there e x i ~ t sa
-
unique p o i n t P in
- 8 such that
cD
-
AP P CD.
A,
( 5) (~dditlvityPostulate)
- - - - B *C
Suppose AB A I B 1 , BC BIC1, A'
1
B is between A and C and B' C' B-
'
is between A ' and C i . Then

We i n s e r t a f e w words on the Important mathematfcal idea of

equivalence r e l a t i o n . The most basic example of an equivalence
r e l a t l o n and the one which suggests the concept is t h e r e l a t i o n
equality or i d e n t i t y . Equivalence r e l a t i o n s abound in geometry,
for example, congruence of figures or similarity or equivalence
of figures. o or a discussion of equivalence r e l a t i o n s see the
Talk on Equality, Congruence, and ~quivalence.)
1-6. Theory -
of linear measure. Segments are geometric
figures, not numbers. B u t they can be measured by numbers --
they do have lengths. In the conventional high school treatment
it is assumed with l i t t l e discussion t h a t lengths of segments can
be defined as real numbers. We indicate how to do t h i s . Although
t h e r e s u l t is familiar, the process is complex and subtle and
requires f o r i t s complete j u s t i f i c a t i o n additional postulates.
However, Postulates (1), .. .
, ( 5 ) above are sufficient f o r an
understanding of the process.
 -
We begin by choosing a segment W which will be unchanged
throughout the discussion ( a s o - c a l l e d "unitt' segment)
- Now given .
any segment we want to measure AB in terms of W. Thia
+
involves a "laying-off" process. W e take the ray AB and l a y - o f f

uv-

-
W on it repeatedly, s t a r t i n g a t A . Speaking p r e c i s e l y , there
is a point PI in such that
show t h a t t h e r e is a p o i n t P2 in 3 such t h a t ( a ) W 1 PIP2
-
S M l a r l y , we can

and (b) P1 is between A and Pg. For convenience we write

that
-
condition ib) as ( A P ~ P ~ )contin;ing,
Ed P2P3
.
.
there is a point P3 such
and ( P ~ P ~ P ~By) t h i s process we develop a
sequence of p o i n t s PI, Pg, . ..
, Pn, ...
on 3 such t h a t

(2) ( A P ~ P ~ ) ,(p1p2p3 , -- P n - lP n1 -
( ' n - ~
Intuitively (1) and ( 2 ) say t h a t W I s laid-off on AB n times
-
in a glven direction but n o t e how very precisely and objectively
( I ) , ( 2 ) say this, avoiding the somewhat vague terns "laying-off"
and "directiun". From another viewpoint we are laying the basis
f o r a coordinate system on the line by l o c a t i n g p r e c i s e l y the
p o i n t s PI, P2, ..., P , ... which are to correspond t o the
integers 1, 2, ..., n, ... .
Now what has this to do w i t h the measure of AB? Clearly we
must learn how B is r e l a t e d to the points PI, P2, P3, .. . .
In the simplest case one of these might coincide with 8, for
example, Pa = B. Then of course we deflne the measure of
to be 3 .
 1-7. Refinement of the approximation process. You may ask,
i id we have to go through t h i s elaborate process to explain that
-
if the "unit" segment W exactly covepa AB t h r e e times, then
t h e measure of is 3?" Disregarding the importance of making
the idea "exactly coverat' mathematically precise, observe that t h e
-
process helps us t o define a meaaure f o r AB in the more general
and d i f f i c u l t case when no one of the p o i n t s PI, P2, ...
coincides w i t h B . For suppose B P a l l s between two c o n s e c u t i v e
points of our - sequence, say ( P ~ B P ~ ) Clearly
. then we wlll have
to a s s i a to AB a measure x such t h a t 4 < x < 5 . In other
words we have s e t up a general process which enables us at least
-
to determine an approximation to the measure of AB, t h a t I s t o
find lower and upper bounds for it.

We do not complete the discussion but indicate how it proceeds.

To f i x our Ideas, suppose ( P ~ B P ~ ) To . get a b e t t e r idea of what
the measure of should be we subdivide P P into t e n con-
4 5
gruent subsegnents and proceed as above. Precisely, we s e t up a
.....
s u b s i d i a ~sequence of p o i n t s Q1, $ which d i v i d e P P
4 5
i n t o ten congruent subsegments . That is, we require

If B were to coincide with one of Ql, Q2,

- ..., 89, say
13 = Q6, we asslgn t o AB the measure 4.6. If B f a l l s between
t w o of the Q1 s, say (Q6B+), we require t h a t x, t h e measure of
-
AB, s a t i s f y
4.6 < x < 4.7.
In the latter case we repeat the process by subdividing Q
6%
i n t o ten congruent subaegmenta and proceed as b e f o r e .
 1-8. -
The d e f i n i t i o n oP
linear measure. Clearly we have a
complex process (though a refinement of a simple idea) which will
assign to segment & a d e f i n i t e declmal, terminating or endless.
-
This decimal we define to be the measure or length of A3.
1-9, Basic p~opertiea- of linear measure. We write the
measure of (W still being- fixed) as m(=). Obaerve that
we really have here a function AB d m ( = ) which associates to
each s e p e n t a unique positive real number. What are the basic
properties of t h i s "measure function? They are eas lly grasped

(I) m(E) - -
r n ( ~ )~ 3f~
f and only if that is,
K A'B' -
congruent aewents and only congruent segments have equal meaaures;
(2) If (ABC) then m ( E ) + m ( E ) = m(E) - that is,
measure 1s additive in a natural sense;
(3) m(W) = 1 - that i a , the measure of the unit eegment
l a unity.

Notice that ( 2 ) is a clear and useful form of the vague

statement, ttthe whole is the sum of i t 8 partsR.
We summarize In a theorem which c a n be deduced from a suitable
Bet of postulatea for Euclidean Geometry:

-
Theorem. Let the segment W be given. Then there exists
a function which assign8 to each segment AB a unique positive
real number m ( s ) aatisfying (1), ( 2 ) , (3) above.
-
1-10. Uniqueness of meaaure function. We naturally ask if
there 1s just one measure function? Clearly not. For the function
must depend on the choice of the
unit aegnent W . To be s p e c i f i c , U M V
rn

-
suppose we take as a new unit a e p e n t ,
UM, where M l a the mid-point of W
(that is and ((uMv)) .
Then according to o u r theorem
there wlll be a measure f~nc610n;let w call it m1 (since we
have no right to assume it is the same as the o r i g i n a l measure
function) such that m 1 (K)= 1. We see quickly that m f m)
= 2;
 -
f u r t h e r it can be shown m 1( E ) = 2m(E) for any segment AB.
T h i s i s a f o r m a l statement of the t r i v i a l seeming fact that
" h a l v i n g the u n i t of measurement doubles t h e measurett. A c o r r e s -
ponding result holds In general :
Theorem. If rn, ml a r e two measure f u n c t i o n s on the s e t
of all segments, then

where k is a fixed p o s i t f v e real number.

In the preceding example we had k = 2. Of course k need n o t
be an integer - it can be any p o s i t i v e r e a l number, r a t i o n a l o r
irrational. As a r e l a t e d example consider the corresponding
s i t u a t i o n i n t h e measure of angles: The radian measure of an
angle is times the degree measure af the a n g l e .
Summary: Any two measure f u n c t i o n s on the s e t of all segments
are proportional.
What does t h i s mean f o r the development of the theory o f
measurement of segments? It says in effect that it doesn't matter
which measure function we choose, since making a d i f f e r e n t chofce
would only m u l t i p l y a l l measures by a constant, Thus, i n conven-
t i o n a l geometrical theory, w e f i x a unit W a t t h e beginning,
determine a corresponding measure function, and t h e r e a f t e r use
t h i s measure f u n c t i o n as i f it were t h e only possible one. And
-
i n s t e a d of saying precisely the measure of AB ---- i n terms of u n i t
- - -
W , we say simply the measure o f AB, and forget about W .
The s i t u a t i o n I n everyday life is q u i t e d i f f e r e n t - we employ
measure functions based on a v a r i e t y of units: inches, l i g h t
years, m i l l i m e t e r s , miles.
W e close t h i s p a r t of our discussion by obseming t h a t the
distance between A and 3 is merely defined t o be t h e measure
of z. Sometimes we want t o r e f e r t o the distance between A
and A i t s e l f . This we take to be zero. A separate definition
is required f o r this case since we may not r e f e r t o the segment
A 3 unless we know A # B.
 Query. Was it necessary t o use the integer ten in t h e sub-
dlvlsion process? Would others work? Could the process be
simplified by maklng a d i f f e r e n t choice?

11. --
Congruence Based on Distance
In t h i s part we discuss t h e treatment of congruence adopted
in the t e x t , contrasting it with the conventional one. The point
of departure is to "reverse1'the conventional treatment and
define congruence in terms of distance. This enables us to use
our knowledge of the real number system early In the discussion -
I t leads to a new treatment o f the Important geometric relation,
betweenness, and a new way of conceiving segments and rays.
-
11-1. The student1$ viewpoint. The conventional treatment,
in b r i e f , begins w i t h an undefined notion of congruence of
segments and deduces the existence of a distance functlon from a
s u f t a b l e s e t of postulates. The h i g h school student - In studying
t h i s treatment - somehow absorbs the idea that segmenta (and
angles) c a n be measured by numbers, and is permitted to apply h i s
knowledge of algebra whenever it is convenient.
11-2. - The Distance Postulate. Since the student thinks of
segments and angles as measurable by numbera and it is hopeless
to prove t h i s a t h i s l e v e l from non-numerical postulates, it
seems most reasonable to make the existence of a measure function
or distance a basic postulate which is used consistently through-
o u t the course. So we adopt
Postulate 2 . h he Distance ~ o s t u l a t e . ) To everyp a i r of
d i f f e r e n t points there corresponds a unique p o s i t i v e number,
If the p o i n t s are P and Q , then the distance between P
and Q La defined to be the positive number of Postulate 2,
denoted by PQ.

Don1t read i n t o this more than it says -it is a very weak

statement. Notice that it doesn't s t a t e a e i n g l e property of
d i s t a n c e - merely that there 1s such a t h i n g . In p a r t i c u l a r it
doesnl t say anything about length8 of segmenta -
in fact we donrt
even have segments at t h i s stage of o u r theory.
 11-3. - The Distance P o s t u l a t e causes -
a change in viewpoint.
This may seem strange, but it i s n l t . Most t e x t s begin with a
discussion of points and l i n e s An a plane, including such basic
ideas as sepnent and m. As in Euclid these i d e a s essentially
a r e taken as undefined. But having adopted the D i s t a n c e Postulate
we can d e f i n e them. This is an Important - and unforeseen -
consequence of t h e Distance P o s t u l a t e : We don't get j u s t Euclid
with the theorems rearranged, but new i n s l g h t s i n t o the basic
geometric ideas and a new way of Inter-relating them.
- as
11-4. "~etween"and "~ep;ment" defined terms. How then
can we define segment i n terms o f the basic terms p o i n t , l i n e ,
plane? It is easy to do t h i s using t h e a d d i t i o n a l n o t i o n o f a
p o i n t being between t w o points. Havlng adopted P o s t u l a t e 2, the
idea of distance is at our d i s p o s a l and we can define betweenness

Definition. L e t A , B, C be three c o l l i n e a r p o i n t s . If
AB a BC = AC we say B is between A and C, and we w r i t e
( A m .
We now define segment in terns of betweenness.
D e f i n i t i o n . Let A , B be two p o i n t s . Then sewent A 3
I s the s e t consisting of A and B t o g e t h e r with a l l points
that are between A and B. A and B a r e called endpoints -
of E. F u r t h e r re define in(=), the measure or length of AB,
merely to be the number AB.
That is, the length of a segment is merely the number which
i s the distance between its endpoints. The contrast with con-
ventional theory is s t r i k i n g : There congruence of' segments is
basic and a difficult argument is needed to prove the existence
of a measure function - here distance 1s basic and the proof of
the existence of a measure f u n c t i o n is t r i v i a l .
11-5. Congrmence or s,egrnents & D e f i n i t i o n . Now it is
absurdly easy to d e f i n e congruence of segments.
 - -
D e f i n i t i o n . AB 2 CD means t h a t the lengths of AB and CD
are equal, t h a t is AB = CD.
Formally what we have done is just t h i s . We took the basic
property relating congruence and measure ((1) of S e c t i o n
m(E) = m(z) If and only if a s m,
which 1s a theorem in the conventional treatment, and adopted it
a s a d e f i n i t i o n In o u r treatment. There, segments which were
congruent were proved to have the same measure - h e r e , segments
which happen to have t h e same measure are c a l l e d congruent.
11-6. Properties of congruent sements. Does congruence of
segments, as we have defined it, have the properties we expect?
We s e e quickly that i s an equivalence r e l a t i o n , that is

(2) If = CD then 5 Z E;
(3) If and CDsEF then
-
ABEEF.
-
These merely say

(1') AB = AB;
(2') If AB = CD then CD = AB;

( 3 t ) If AB = CD and
CD = El? then AB = EF,
whlch are the b a s i c properties of equality of numbers.
F u r t h e r we have
- - - -
( 5 ) Suppose AB A'Bt, BC = BICt, (ABC) and (A'B~c').
Then A C E A'C'.
To prove t h l s we have
A 3 = A'B' ,
BC = BICt ,
so t h a t

The betweenness relations y i e l d

AB + BC = AC, A'B' + BlC' = A ' C ' ,

and we get
AC = A ' G ' or A C S A'C'.
Thus several of Euclldts (or ~ilbert's) P o s t u l a t e s for congruence
reduce, in our treatment, t o elementary properties of real numbers.
11-7, The Ruler Postulate. You may wonder if we can also
derive from Postulates 1 and 2 , the Location Property: ((41,
Section 1 - 5 2
Let 3 be a ray and let be a segment. Then there
exists a unique p o i n t P in 3 such t h a t B. "
The answer is - with a vengeance - no. On the basis of Postulates
1 and 2, we can't even prove that a line contains a points.
Clearly Postulatea 1 and 2 are too weak to support the kind of
t h e o r e t i c a l structure we are t r y i n g to b u i l d . The t e x t supplements
them by adopting the powerful Ruler Postulate:
Postulate 3 . h he Ruler P o s t u l a t e . ) The points of a l i n e
can be placed i n correspondence with the r e a l numbera in such a
way t h a t
(1) To every p o i n t of the line there corresponds exactly
one real number,
(2) To every real number t h e r e corresponds exactly one
p o i n t of t h e line, and
( 3 ) The distance between two points is the absolute value
of t h e difference of the corresponding numbers.
This guarantees at one swoop t h a t a line has the i n t r i n s i c
properties we expect of it. Now the lines in every model of our
t h e o r y will be well-behaved and r i c h l y endowed w i t h points. It
-
implies the congruence and o r d e r properties of a line in the
conventional theory. Specifically it yields: (1) a form of t h e
Location Property heor or em 2-4) ; (2) that a segment can be t'divldedt'
-
into a given number of congruent "parts1' in particular it can be
bisected (Theorem 2-5). It implies important order properties:
Theorem 2-1 which says in e f f e c t t h a t the order of points on a
line in terms of geometric betweenness corresponds exactly to the
order of their c o o r d i n a t e s in terms of algebraic betweenness;
and the Line Separation Property which is n o t explicitly dealt
with in the t e x t (see Commentary f o r Teachers, Chapter 2; also
Problem 12 of Problem Set 3 - 3 ) .
Observe the attractive inter-dependence of the weak Distance
P o s t u l a t e and the powerful Ruler Postulate. The f i r s t asserts
the exfstence of a distance function but permits it to be cornplete-
ly trivial - the second t a i l o r s the line to o u r expectations but
is impossible of statement without the n o t i o n of d i s t a n c e
postulated in t h e first. Note t h a t if we weaken the Ruler
Postulate by dropping condition (3) and require merely the
existence of a 1-1 correspondence between the p o i n t s of a line
and t h e s e t of real numbers, w e may have pathological situations
of the type indicated in the diagram.
Here B is between A and C s i n c e - 7 -
AB + BC = AC, but -1,000, the co-
ordinate of B, definitely is not A 3 ,B 4 C
I
between the coordinates of A and C . 0 - 1,000 3.2
Our discussion suggests an important point in mathematical
or deductive thinking. The Distance P o s t u l a t e enables us t o
deffne betweenness but not to prove the existence of a single
point between two given p o i n t s . This i a A l l u s trated by the finite
model above. The Ruler Postulate, however, Impliea the existence
of i n f i n i t e l y many poMt8 between any t w o . This illustrates t h e
p o l n t that a mathematical definition does not assert t h e existence
of the e n t i t y defined. You may characterize the pot of gold at
the end of the ralnbow with great precision but you may experience
equally great disappointment if you s t a r t to search f o r it before
provlng an existence theorem.
A final word. We may have oversold the deductive power of
the Ruler P o s t u l a t e and given y o u the impression that Postulates
1, 2 and 3 are sufficient for a complete theory of congruence.
This is n o t s o . Our theory so far is sufficient for the "lfnear"
theorg of congruence, specifically f o r congruence of segments -
but not f o r congruence of more general figures l i k e angles,
triangles, circular arcs or triangular pyramids. For this we
must i n t r o d u c e f u r t h e r postulates concerning congruence of angles
and triangles. We discuss this in the next part since o u r main
o b j e c t here has been to indicate the f l a v o r of the treatment in
the text in c o n t r a s t with the conventional one.
-
Iff. Congruence f o r Arbitrary Figures
-
and R i g i d Motions .
In t h i s part we continue the discussion of congruence by
indicating how it is successively defined f o r familiar elementary
figures: angles, triangles, e t c . Then uslng the simple and
pawerful modem idea of t ~ a n s f o m a t l o nwe formulate t h e congruence
concept f o r arbitrary figures - t h i s surpasses in elegance and
generality anything obtained in the field by the classical
geometers. As a by-product we o b t a i n - after t w o millenia - a
precise mathematical concept OF r i g i d motion. This is a great
cultural achievement of our time. Rescuing from the jungles of
physical i n t u i t i o n Euclidfs cmde superposition argument, we
r e f i n e and p e r f e c t it to yield an objectively formulated concept
which will be of use to human beings as long as they are impelled
to think precisely about space.
111-1. Con~ruenceof angles. The conventional treatment of
angle congruence is similar to that sketched in Part I f o r con-
gruence of segments - but naturally it is a bit more complicated
s i n c e angles are more complex figures than segments. It begins
w f t h an undefined relation L ABC L PQR between two angles
whfch a s usual Indicates that they
are replicas of each other. This
may be i n t e r p r e t e d c o n c r e t e l y to
mean t h a t if a frame composed of
two j o i n t e d rods is s e t so that
the rods coincide with the rays
+ __*
BA and BC, then wlthout changing
the aetting the rods can be made t o
3
c o l n c l d e with
+
and &R. We
assume a s f o r segments t h a t congruence of angles is an equivalence
relation:
 (1) ( ~ e f l e x i v eLaw) I ABC
L ABC; 3

(2) (Symmetry ~ a w )If L ABC a L PQR then L PQR GS L ABC;

(3) (~ransitive~ a w ) If L ABC 3 L PQR and 1 P&R = L XYZ
then L ABC a L XYZ.
The Location Postulate f a r segnents (()0, S e c t i o n 1-5) has
t h e analogue
( 4)
(Angle h c a t i o n Postulate)
Let L XYZ be any angle and 3 be
a ray on the edge of half-plane H. Y

<
Then there is exactly one ray 3,
with P in H, such t h a t
PAB L XYZ.
c5), And the Additivity Postulate

c;
Section 1-5 appears in the
form
(5) (~ngle-~dditivity Po8 tulate)
Suppose L 3AD = L B 1A I D t ,
L DAC D r A t C i , D is in the
i n t e r i o r of L BAC and Dt is
in the i n t e r i o r of L B ' A ' C! . A
Then L BAC P L B t A f C 1 . ; :<tA
Essentially on the baais of
theae postulates a measure process
can be s e t up which assigns to each C c'
angle a unique p o s i t i v e real number
called i t s measure In such a way t h a t a f i x e d preassigned angle
("unitn angle) haa measure 1 (aompare Sections 1-6 to 1-9).
Denoting the measure of L XYZ by 4 XKZ, we have as you
would expect from our discussion of measure of segments:

(1) 4 ABC = AiBtCt If and only if L ABC a L A I B I C f ;

(2) If C Zs i n t e r i o r to L ABD then
4 ABC + m L CBD = 4 ABD.

(~ornpare (I), (2) Section 1-9

 But there are two properties which are unique t o angular
measure. First there is a real number b which I s a l e a s t upper
bound for the measure S of all angles (b is 180 in the
familiar "degree measure") . Second t h e measure S of "supple-
mentary adjacentt' angles (I .e., a l i n e a r pair) always have a
constant sum and t h i s sum is the
.

lD
l e a s t upper bound b Stated
precisely: If L ABC and
CBD a r e a linear p a i r , then
m L ABC + m L CBD = b. A B

- --
111-2. Congruence of angles based on angular measure. We
saw in (1) above that the conventional theory of angle congruence
y i e l d s (as for segments) t h a t two angles are congruent i f and
only if they have equal measures. This suggests (as f o r segments)
that we assume the existence of angular measure and define
congruence of angles in terms of i t . Thus the treatment i n the
t e x t assumes
Postulate 11. h he Angle Measurement P o s t u l a t e . ) To every
angle 1ABC there corresponds a real number between 0 and 180,
called the measure of the angle, and w r i t t e n as mL ABC, (compare
.
the Distance POS t u l a t e )
Clearly our postulate has been s e t up so t h a t the u n i t angle
is the degree. In o t h e r words the angle characterized by
mL ABC = 1 is what is usually defined to be a degree and will
have the property that ninety such angles laid " s i d e by side"
will form a r i g h t angle. P r e c i s e l y speaking the measure of a
right angle w i l l turn out t o be 9 0 . Notice t h a t the measure
of no angle can be 0 or 180 since o u r definition of angle
r e s t r i c t s t h e s i d e S to be non-collinear. o or a discussion
of t h f s restriction see Commentary for Teachers, Chapter 4.)
Now f o l l o w i n g a familiar path ( s e c t i o n 11-51 we adopt the
 Def i n l t ion. L ABC L PQR meana t h a t 4 ABC = PQR.
Then properties (11, (2), (3) of 111-1 above reduce to familiar
equality p r o p e r t i e s of real numbers. m e Angle M c a t i o n Property
((4) above) must be postulated and is Introduced in the form:
P o s t u l a t e 12. (The Angle Construction Postulate .) L e t
be a ray on the edge of half-plane H. For every number r
between 0 and 180 there is exactly one ray Siif, w i t h P in
H, such that m L P A B = r .
It might be thought now t h a t the additivity property f o r
angles ((5) above)) could be derived as a theorem as was the corres-
ponding property for segmente @ee ( 5 ) , S e c t i o n 11-6). This i s n ' t
80. B u t it is a simple and 5mportant property of angles, and it
Is perfectly natural t o postulate it:
Postulate 13. h he Angle-Addition postulate .) If D I s a
p o i n t in the interior of LBAC, then 4 BAC = 4 BAD + rnL DAC.
F l n a l l y we need a postulate to express the peculiarly
II angular" property of supplementation:
4 4
Postulate 14. h he Supplement Postulate.) If AB and AC
+
are opposite rays and AD is another ray, then 4 DAC + m L DAB
= 180.
-
111-3. Con~ruenceof t r i a n ~ l e s . We are now ready to consider
congruence of triangles. Our definition of' congruent triangles
(Chapter 5 of t e x t ) is essentially the conventional one: One
triangle is a "copy" of the other in the senae that its parts are
II
copies" of t h e corresponding parts of the other. But obaeme
the precision with which it is formulated. The correspondence
doesn't depend on individual i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e vague term
"corresponding" but is based objectively on a p a f r i n g of the
vertices

~ ~ A ' B
-
which induces a pairing of sides and of angles
' BC-B'Cf
, ,
-
CAt--,CtA'
Notice how spelling out the notion r'corresponding" in this way
h e l p s to point up the importance of the notion of a congruence
which is not mentioned i n t h e conventional treatment. Thus o u r
treatment brings t o t h e f o r e the idea of a 1-1 correspondence
between t h e vertices of A ABC and A A I B I C 1 which ensures that
they are congruent because it requires corrbesponding s i d e s and
corresponding angles t o be congruent, t h a t is to have equal
measures. This simple idea is capable of broad genera1:zation.
Do we need postulates on congruence of triangles? We have a
l o t of Information on congruence of segments and congruence o f
angles, separately - b u t nothing t o i n t e r - r e l a t e these ideas.
For example, we can't y e t prove t h e base angles of an isosceles
triangle a r e congruent. Thus we introduce t h e S .A,S , Postulate
t o bind t o g e t h e r our h o w l e d g e of segment congruence and angle
congruence.
Now l e t us exarnfne more closely the notion of congruence of
triangles. Is i t really necessary t o require equality of measure
of six pairs of corresponding parts? If we t h i n k of the s i d e s of
a triangle as its basic determining p a r t s i t seem very n a t u r a l
to define congruent t r i a n g l e s as having corresponding s i d e s which
are congruent. Naturally if we were to adopt t h i s d e f i n i t i o n w e
would postulate that if t h e corresponding s i d e s of t w o t r i a n g l e s
are congruent their corresponding angles also are congruent, in
o r d e r t o ensure t h a t thls d e f i n i t i o n o f congruent triangles is
equivalent t o the familiar one. Notice how much simpler the
d e f i n i t i o n of a congruence between triangles becomes if we adopt
the suggested definition. It i s merely a 1-1 correspondence
between the v e r t i c e s of the triangles,
A U A t , BWBr, C-Cl
which "preserves" distances in the sense t h a t the distance between
any two vertices of one t r i a n g l e equals the d i s t a n c e between t h e i r
corresponding v e r t i c e s in the second t r i a n g l e , t h a t is
AB = A ' B ' , BC = B I C ' , AC = A ' C ' .
 1 Congruence pf quadrilaterals. The main objection t o
t h e suggested d e f i n i t i o n is t h a t it doesnlt generalize in the
obvious way f o r polygons - n o t even for quadrilaterals.
T h l s is attested by t h e f a c t t h a t a
square and a rhombus can have s i d e s
o f t h e sane length and n o t be con-
gruent. So to guarantee congruence
of q u a d r i l a t e r a l s i t is not s u f f i c i e n t
to r e q u i r e j u s t that corresponding
s i d e s be congruent, and it Is customary to supplement t h i s by
requiring the congruence o f corresponding a n g l e s . Thus the
conventional d e f i n i t i o n r e q u i r i n g congruence both of sides and
o f angles a p p l i e s equally well t o triangles and quadrilaterals.
However angles, though v e r y important, are r a t h e r strange
creatures compared to segments and it seems d e s i r a b l e , if p o s s l b l e ,
to characterize congruent quadrilaterals in terms o f congruent
segments, or e q u i v a l e n t l y , equal distances. This is not so hard.
Golng back to a t r i a n g l e we observe t h a t its t h r e e v e r t i c e s
taken two at a time y i e l d three segments or three distances and
that t h e f i g u r e is in a sense determined by these t h r e e d i s t a n c e s .
S i m i l a r l y the f o u r vertices of' a q u a d r i l a t e r a l yield n o t four,
but s i x segments ( t h e s i d e s a n d the d i a g o n a l s ) and s i x c o r r e s p o n d -
i n g distances, which s e r v e t o determine the q u a d r i l a t e r a l . This
suggests: If we have a 1-1 correspondence
A-At, B-Bl, C-C4, D-Dl
between t h e v e r t i c e s of t h e quadrilaterals ABCD, A t B t C I D 1 s u c h
t h a t corresponding distances a r e preserved, that is
AB,AC,AD,BC,BD,CD 1 A t B i , A 1 C ' , A ' D 1 , B I C ' ,BID+, C I D f
we call t h e correspondence a congruence and we write
ABCD = A t B I C t D i . It is n o t hard to show t h i s d e f i n i t i o n equivalent
to the more familiar one.
 -
111-5. Congruence o f a r b i t r a r y f i g u r e s . We now must face
the problem of formulating a g e n e r a l def'initlon of congruence.
The piecemeai process we have employed, defining congruence
separately f o r segments, angles, t r i a n g l e s , quadrilaterals is
unavoidable in an elementary t r e a t m e n t but is n e i t h e r s a t i s f y i n g
nor complete. For it s t i l l remains t o d e f i n e congruent c i r c l e s
and congruent circular a r c s and congruent e l l i p s e s and congruent
rectangular s o l i d s , e t c , In each case we construct an a p p r o p r i a t e
d e f i n i t i o n , we are s u r e it is c o r r e c t , and are equally sure the
general concept has eluded us.
So let's make a f r e s h start. Suppose F and F' are two
congruent figures. Our basic i n t u i t i o n is t h a t F r is an exact
copy of F . Somehow this entails t h a t each "part" of F' coplea
a corresponding "partt'of F - t h a t each point of F t behaves
llke some corresponding p o i n t of F. If F has a sharp p o i n t
at A then F t must have a s h a r p p o i n t at a corresponding p o i n t
A'; if F has maximum flatness at B then F f haa maxlmwn
flatness a t a corresponding p o i n t B 1; f f F has a largest
chord P& of length 12.3 then F 1 has a corresponding largest
c h o d PI&' of the same length, 12.3; and so on. How can we
t i e together these i l l u a t r a t l o n s in a simple and precise way?
-
111-6. A congruence machlne. Suppose i n s t e a d of conceiving
F1 aa a given copy o f F, we take F and try t o make a copy Fl
of it. As an illustration l e t P be a house key. Then F i can
be produced by a key duplicating machine. The machine has the
secret of the congruence concept - how does it work?
The machine has two moving p a r t s :
a scanning b a r which traces the given
key and a cutting bar which c u t s a
blank I n t o a d u p l i c a t e . As t h e scan-
ning bar traces F s t a r t i n g at I t s
t i p A, the c u t t i n g bar traces t h e
q
P

blank s t a r t i n g at its corresponding n'

tfp A ' . As the scanner moves t o
p o s i t i o n B, t h e c u t t e r c u t s away the metal and comes to rest at
a corresponding position B t . When B rises t o a "peak" so does
B1 - when B falls to a trough so does B 1 - when B traverses
a l i n e segment, B 1 traverses a l i n e segment of equal length.
What guarantees that this process yields a true copy? Simply
this: When the scanner is fixed in a p o s i t i o n B, the c u t t e r
comes to rest i n a p o s i t i o n B 1 such that distances AB and
------
A ' B 1 are equal. And t h i s is true f o r each p o s i t i o n - B --
of the
scanner. Clearly what the machine does I s to a s s o c i a t e to each
chord AB from A of F an "equal1'chord A I B 1 from A ' o f
F t . And it associates t h e chords by a s s o c i a t i n g t h e i r endpoints
B and B t . Precisely speaking, the machine e f f e c t s a 1-1
correspondence X s X f between F and F 1 such that the
d i s t a n c e AX always equals the distance A I X t .
Does this p r o p e r t y hold j u s t f o r A , the t i p of F, and
A' i t s correspondent in F1? C l e a r l y not. The machine doesnlt
know where we s t a r t . What we have asserted a b o u t the chords of
F from A will hold just as well for the chords from any p o i n t
of F, So the 1-1 correspondence X-XI between F and F 1
has t h e s t r o n g e r p r o p e r t y that f o r every c h o i c e of P ~ n dQ if
P u p 1 , Q Q then PQ = P t Q f , or as we say t h e c o r r e s -
pondence preserves distance. Here we have the essence of the
concept of congruence,
The legend has it t h a t when Pythagoras succeeded in p r o v i n g
t h e theorem ascribed to h i m , he was so e l a t e d that he sacrlflced
a hecatomb of oxen to the gods. Surely in the light of t h i s
tradition the formal d e f i n i t i o n o f congruence deserves a section
all t o itself.
111-7. -The d e f i n i t i o n , L e t X s X 1 be a 1-1 c o r r e s -
pondence between two s e t s of p o i n t s F, F 1 such that
P-PI, Q-Q'
always implies PQ = P I Q 1 . Then we say F is congruent to F 1
and we write F Z F 1 , Moreover we call the 1-1 correspondence
a congruence between F and F a .
 This d e f i n i t i o n is the culmination of two thousand years of
thinking about congruence. Although it may seem quite a b s t r a c t
I t unifies and unites the pLecemeal d i s c u s s i o n of congruence we
have given. Every instance of congruent figures discussed above
from segments to quadrilaterals can be proved t o be a case of our
general definition. This i a discussed in detafl in Appendix VIII
of t h e text on Rigid Motion.
As a simple i3lustratlon of the d e f i n i t i o n l e t F and F t
each be a t r i p l e o f non-collinear p o i n t s , say F is [ A , B, C]
and Fl is ( A ' , B 1, C l 1. Let the 1-1 correspondence between
F and P i which preserves distance be
(1) A c - , A f , B o B 1 , Cc-*C1. Then 8 8'

.,
0
'
we have AB = A t B 1 , BC = B f C t , ,0 4\
.
AC = A I C f We see IntuitIveTy A
' \
A
'
0 -
\
\
t h a t F 1 1s a copy o f F. NOW A C A' C'
s h i f t from t h e p o i n t t r i p l e s to the triangles they determine. The
S.S .S. Theorem t e l l s t h a t A ABC is congruent to A A t B ' C l in
the conventtonal sense.

It follows (see Appendix VXII) t h a t A ABC A A I B r C 1 in the

sense of o u r definition. Actually t h e r e Is a 1-1 correspondence
between the i n f l n i t e p o i n t sets A ABC, A AIB1 C 1 which makes the
v e r t i c e s correspond as In (1) and which has the property that
P-PI, Q U Q 1 always i m p l f e s PQ = P I Q t .
Observe how the correspondence between the triangle is en-
gendered by the trivial seeming correspondence between t h e i r v e r -
t i c e s . For example, if P l a on
- its correspondent P t is
determined as the unique point P i on A 4 B 1 such that
A ' P t = AP. L e t us think of the f i n i t e s e t of its vertices,
[ A , B, c ] , as a "skeleton" of A ABC. Then if the skeletons
[ A , B, c ] , [ A 1 , B t , C'] of two triangles are congruent the
triangles as a whole are congruent - using "congruent" in its
present sense. This idea was t o o complex to introduce In
Chapter 5 of the t e x t . But it was fore-shadowed there in the
insistence that congruence of triangles was the consequence of
the existence of a " ~ o n ~ n a e n c between
e" them - that is, a 1-1
correspondence between t h e i r sets of vertices which preserves
lengths o f aides and measures of angles.
There is an essential element of complexity i n the d e f l n l t i o n
of congruence: It requires ( ln general) the pairing o f f of the
p o i n t s of two i n f i n i t e sets so as to preserve distance . This is
unavoidable - i t even seems t o be present in the comparatively
slmple problem of duplicating keys. There I s however an important
element of simplicity: We don't have to mention angles and the
preaemation of their measures - the distance concept covers the
situation. It followa easily t h a t angle measures are preserved:

for i f Pc--,Pt , Q-Q1 , R w R i correspond under a congruence

between F and F 1 , and P, Q, R are non-colllnear, we see
by the S . 3 . S . Theorem that m L PQR = rnL P ' Q I R v .
You may find it interesting to give for quadrilaterals a
discusalon l i k e the above f o r triangles - consider the v e r t e x
s e t s [A, B, C, Dl, [ A ' , B 1 , C t , D i ] of quadrilaterals ABCD,
AIBlC ' D t as their l'skeletons". In t h i s connection r e c a l l the
discussion o f congruence o f quadrilaterals a t the end of Section
111-4.
 -
111-8. Motlon i n fieometry. We can s t a t e t h e definition of
rigid motion now, b u t it probably w i l l be more meaningful if we
say a few words f i r s t about the sense in which "motion" is used
in contemporary geometry.
L e t a body B move phyaically from an initial p o s i t i o n F
in space t o a f i n a l p o s i t i o n F 1. It I s not necessary f o r our
purposes in geometry (as compared say with kinematics o r f l u i d
dynamics) to bother about the intermediate stages of the motlon.
So we can d e s c r i b e the motion merely by specifying the initial
p o s i t i o n X In F of an arbitrary p o i n t P of body B and
i t s correspond1ng final position XI in F 1 . In its most general
form, then, a motion is conceived as a 1-1 correspondence or
transformation between two figures F and F 1 . The technical
term "trans f armation" is often preferable to "mokion" since I t
doesnft suggest v a r i o u s irrelevant attributes of physical motion.
111-9. Rigid Motion. A motion or transformation between
two point s e t s F and F f is a r i g i d motion If it preserves
distances - that is If it 1s a congruence between F and F' as
deflned Ln S e c t i o n 111-7. A d e t a i l e d discussion of the concept
of rigfd motion appears i n Appendix VIII of the t e x t .
To introduce y o u t o the i o d e r n theory of congruent figures
and r i g i d motion we have put the maim emphasis on t h e f i r s t , since
Lt is more familiar and seems e a s i e r to apprehend. However,
glancing back a t the definition of congruent figures, you see it
implicitly Involves the n o t i o n of r i g l d motion. In fact now we
can reword i t : F i s congruent t o F' provided there exists a
r i g i d motion between them, or as we say more graphically, a rigid
motion which "transforms F i n t o F . T h i s is t h e h i g h l y
r e f i n e d culmination of the vague and famous c l a s s i c a l statement
which served t o Introduce our d i s c u s s i o n o f congruence: "Two
figures are congruent if they can be made to coincide by a rigid
rno t i o n . "
 Sometimes the clarification of the basic concepts of a branch
of mathematics firms up the foundations, p u t s the capstone on t h e
s u p e r s t r u c t u r e and s e t s it to rest. This is not so here. The
concept of r i g i d motion has stimulated the study of c l a s s i c a l
geometry, has yielded new i n s i g h t s and helped t o unfold new unities.
It has suggested the study of more general geometric t r a n s f o m -
t i o n s ("non-rigid motions") and has presented problems t o the
f i e l d of Modern Algebra, s i n c e motions tend to o c c u r In c e r t a i n
It
.
natural a l g e b r a i c fo m t i o n s " called groups
In the f i r s t place congruence and r i g i d motion have an impact
on geometry since they apply to all f f gures . W e can talk precise-
ly n o t merely about congruence of (or rigid motion between) tri-
angular pyramids or spherical zones or hyperbolic paraboloids but
also of lines, planes, space, half-planes, rays, e t c . A t f i r s t
it may sound s i l l y to say a line is congruent to a line - but
try to f i n d a better replica of a line than a l i n e ! It must be
j u s t because the r e l a t i o n congruence applied to l i n e s is so funda-
mental and u n i v e r s a l that we are n o t conscious of it - as a f i s h
must be unconaclous of the notion humidity. I n a f i r s t approach,
congruence takes on importance as applied to segments (or angles
or triangles) precisely because n o t all segments (or angles or
t r i a n g l e s ) are congruent to each o t h e r .
So it may seem trivial to say a l i n e is congruent to a line
or a plane t o a plane or space t o itself. B u t suppose we shift
the focus from the s t a t i c idea of congruent figures t o the dynamic
- and l o g i c a l l y prior - idea of r i g i d motion. Is it trivial t o
say there e x i s t r i g i d motions between l i n e s o r between planes or
between space and i t a e l f ? Just to ask this question discloses a
broad vista: One of t h e p r i n c i p a l concerns of contemporary
geometry (or contemporary mathematics) is the a tudy o f transform-
ations ( r i g i d and non-rigid) of n-dimensional spaces.
 Conslder t h e simplest case:
Rigid motions which transform a
line L I n t o a line L 1 . If
L )I L 1 we have slides o r trans-
l a t i o n s which ''move" the p o i n t s
I
o f L along p a r a l l e l transversals
to g e t t h e i r corresponding p o i n t s
of Lr . If L and L t meet in
just one p o i n t C we have a
rotation about C. If L and
L 1 c o i n c i d e , t h a t is L = L 1,
we have two types of r i g i d motions
operating on L:
(1) t r a n s l a t i o n s a l o n g L;
( 2 ) r e f l e c t i o n s o f L in a point C ,
L 8

where p o i n t C o f L is
"fixed" ( t h a t is it corresponds t o itself) and every o t h e r p o l n t
of L IImoves1' on L from one s i d e of C to t h e o t h e r .

S i m i l a r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s apply to planes. The t h e o r y culminates

in the study of rigid motions of space - t h a t is between space and
i t s e l f . Here t h e basic types a r e translations, I n which no p o i n t
is fixed, rotations in which each p o i n t of a l i n e ( t h e axis o f t h e
rotation) is f i x e d , and r e f l e c t i o n s in a plane E in which each
point o f plane E i s fixed and t h e half-spaces separated by E
a r e "interchanged". More p r e c i s e l y a r e f l e c t i o n in E is a
transformation X w X 1 such t h a t if X is in E then X T = X
and if X is n o t in E then E is t h e p e r p e n d i c u l a r b i s e c t o r
of XX1 . A l l rigid motions o f space are " c o r n b i n a t ~ o n so~f~ t h e s e
three b a s i c t y p e s , j u s t as a l l p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r s other than 1
are combinations o f primes.
 You may say that the theory of rigid motions of lines, planes
and space is a t t r a c t i v e and relatively simple, but haven't we left
out t h e annoying complexities involved in the study of s p e c l f i c
congruent f i g u r e s lFke segments, truncated triangular pyramids
and cones with oval bases? Not at a l l ! They a r e elegantly
covered in the theory of rigid motions of the basic "linear
manifolds It: line, plane, space.
As a very simple illustration
P' Q'
suppose segment is congruent
-
t o segment A'B' .
rigid motion between them which,
let us say, makes A correspond 1
t o A' and B to B'. Now we P Q A B R
have the remarkable result that
this rigid motion,- which is a c e r t a i n kind of 1-1 correspondence
-
between segments AB and AtB1 can be extended to form a rigid
w
motion between the whole line AB and the whole line A t B 1 -
*
and t h i s extension can be made in j u- s t one way. Thus we don't
disturb t h e correspondence between AB and A'Bf but

motion between
-
it by suitably defining a unique correspondent f o r each p o i n t of
AB n o t in E, so that the final correspondence l a a r i g i d
.
and A 1 Bl So in the study of rigid motions
between lines as wholes, we are automatically covering all possible
rigid motions (and hence all possible relations of congruence)
between "linear" figures; (that is, subsets of lines which contain
.
more than one ~ o i n t ) Similarly any r i g i d motion between "planar"
figures (that is, subsets o f a plane which are not contained in
any line) is uniquely extendable to a rigid motion of t h e i r
containing planes. Finally we observe that any conceivable rigid
motion is encompassed by a rigid motion of space.
 111-10. -
Non-rigid motions. As we have indicated, modern
geometry is concerned with t r a n a f o m t i o n s that do n o t preserve
distance, as well as w i t h those which do. In Euclidean Geometry
the most important example is a similarity, which bears the same
relation to s i m i l a r f:gures that a congruence or r i g i d motion
does t o figures which are congruent. Formally suppose X - X 1
is a 1-1 correspondence between figures F and F t such t h a t
P- P' , Q- Q'
always implies P t & I = k.PQ where k is a f i x e d p o s i t i v e number.
Then we c a l l the correspondence a similarity transformation o r a
similarity and we say F is similar t o F'. It easily follows
-
that a similarity transformation although it is n o t in general
a rigid motion - always presemrea angle measures. T h i s definition
of similar figures, when restricted to triangles, can be proved
equivalent t o t h e familiar one. The slmplest general type of
similarity is the dilatation (in a plane or in space) - t h i s 1s a
similarity which leaves a given p o i n t C fixed and radially
"stretches" the distance of any p o i n t f r o m C by a positive
f a c t o r k.
 Other important types of transformations are c e n t r a l in
various geometric theories . For example, "parallel p r o j e c t ion"
between planes I n af f ine geometry; ''central projection" between
planes In projective geometry; and topological t r a n s f o m t i o n s ,
which are a t y p e of continuous 1-1 correspondence, in topology.
The theory of map-making is concerned with various "projections"
or other kinds of transformatLons between a sphere and a cone,
cylinder o r plane.
And so we have ended our talk by touching upon a modern
generalization of rigid motion which well m i g h t merit a t a l k f o r
itself.
 INTRODUCTION TO NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY

About one hundred and f i f t y years ago, a revolution in mathe-

matical thoughtbegan w i t h the discovery of a geometrical theory
which d i f f e r e d from the classical theory of space formulated by
Euclid about 300 B,C. Euclidts Geometry Text, the Elements, was
the f i n e s t example of deductive t h i n k i n g the human race had known,
and had been so considered f o r t w o thousand years. It was b e l i e v e d
t o be a p e r f e c t l y a c c u r a t e description of physical s p a c e , and a t
the same time, the only way in which the human mind could conceive
space. It is no small wonder then t h a t the development of t h e o r i e s
o f non-Euclidean geometry had an impact on mathematical thought
comparable to that of Darwin in biology, Copernicus in astronomy
or E i n s t e l n in p h y s i c s .
How d i d t h i s revolutionary change come about? Strangely
enough it may be considered to have had i t s origin in Euclldls
t e x t . Although he lists h i s postulates at the beginning, he re-
f r a i n s from employing one of them until he can go no f a r t h e r
without it. This is t h e famous fifth p o s t u l a t e which we may s t a t e
in e q u i v a l e n t form as
Euclidls Parallel Postulate, If p o i n t P is not on l i n e L,
there e x i s t s only one line through P which is parallel to L.
It seems probable t h a t Euclid deferred the introduction of
the f i f t h p o s t u l a t e because he considered it more complex and
harder t o grasp than h i s other postulates .
The consequences of introducing Euclidls Parallel P o s t u l a t e
are almost phenomenal. Using it we g e t In sequence:
1. The Alternate I n t e r i o r Angle Theorem f o r parallel l i n e s ;
2. The sum of the measures of the angles of a triangle
is 180;
 3. Parallel lines are e v e w h e r e e q u i d i s t a n t ;
4. The existence o f rectangles of preassigned dimensions.
As remote but recognizable consequences of E u c l i d t s P a r a l l e l
P o s t u l a t e , we have :
5.The familiar theory o f area in terms o f square u n l t s
which in e f f e c t reduces any plane figure to an e q u i v a l e n t r e c t -
angle ;
6. The f a m i l f a r t h e o r y of s f r n i l a r i t y ;
7. The Pythagorean Theorem.
It is hard t o see how any of these i m p o r t a n t r e s u l t s could be
proved wfthout recourse to Euclid's Parallel P o s t u l a t e or an
equivalent assumption.
There is no e x p l i c i t evidence that E u c l i d considered t h e
f l f t h p o s t u l a t e an improper assumption in his b a s i s f o r geqmetry.
B u t generations of mathematicians f o r over 2000 years were
dissatisfied with it, and worked h a r d and long in attempts t o
deduce it as a theorem from t h e o t h e r seemingly simpler p o s t u l a t e s .
Right up t o the beginning of the 19th century a b l e mathematiclans
convinced themselves that they had s e t t l e d t h e problem only to
have flaws discovered in t h e i r work. Sometimes they employed t h e
principle of the indirect method and developed elaborate and
s u b t l e arguments to prove that the d e n i a l o f Euclidls P a r a l l e l
P o s t u l a t e would f o r c e one i n t o a c o n t r a d i c t i o n . None of these
arguments s t o o d up under a n a l y s i s . Finally e a r l y in the 19th
century, J. Bolyal (1802-1860) a Hungarian army officer, and
N . I . Lobachevsky (1793-1856) a Russian p r o f e s s o r of mathematics
a t t h e University o f Kazan, independently introduced theories of
gecrnetry based on a c o n t r a d i c t i o n o f E u c l i d ' s Parallel Postulate.
The purpose of' t h i s talk is t o give an e l e m e n t a r y i n t r o -
ductlon to the non-Euclidean theory of geometry which Bolyat
and Lobachevsky c r e a t e d .
 I. Two Non-Euclidean Theorems
-C-

In t h i s part we try to give you - without a long preliminary

discussion - the f l a v o r of non-Euclidean geometry. Our viewpoint
is t h i s : Suppose we consider the hypothesis that t h e r e are two
llnes p a r a l l e l t o a particular line t h r o u g h a particular p o i n t .
What will follow? As a basis f o r o u r deductions we assume the
postulates of Euclidean geometry except the Parallel P o s t u l a t e ,
specifically Postulates 1, ..., 15 of the t e x t .
Theorem 1. Let P be a point and L a line such t h a t there
a r e two lines through P each of which is p a r a l l e l t o L. Then
L is wholly contained In t h e i n t e r i o r o r some angle.

Proof: Let l i n e s M and N contain P and be p a r a l l e l to

L. Then M and N separate t h e plane i n t o f o u r " p a r t s " each of
which is the i n t e r i o r o f an angle. Specifically these p a r t s o r
regions may be l a b e l l e d as the I n t e r i o r s o f t h e angles L APB,
1 A t P B f , L AIPB, A APBt where P is between A and A T on M
and P is between B and B' on N. L e t Q be any p o i n t of L.
Since L does n o t meet M o r N, Q is n o t on M or N. So Q 1s
in one of t h e f o u r angle I n t e r i o r s say t h e i n t e r i o r of L A t PB.
Now where can L l i e ? Note that one of its p o i n t s Q is in the
interior of L A I P B and that L + d o e s n o t meet the sides o f t h e
angle L A t P B . Clearly L is trapped i n s i d e L A'PB and the
theorem is proved.
 Observe how strange t h i s is when compared w i t h the Euclidean
situation where only a p a r t of a line can be contained in t h e
i n t e r i o r of an a n g l e , as indicated i n t h e f i g u r e . But n c t e - as
always in mathematics - the inevitability o f the r e s u l t once t h e
hypothesis is granted. You may say the argument is valid abstract-
ly - but it doesn't correspond to physical r e a l i t y .
A s you make a statement like t h i s you begin to tread the path
of t h e non-Euclidean geometers. A l l t h a t one needs to think mathe-
matlcally is a s e t of precisely stated assumptions ( p o s t u l a t e s )
from whf ch conclusions (theorems) can be derived by l o g i c a l reason-
ing. Are these assumptions absolutely t r u e when a p p l i e d to the
physical world? We d o n ' t really know, It is not our professional
concern as mathematicians t o answer t h e question. It lies in t h e
domain o f physicists, astronomers and s u r v e y o r s . As human beings
who work in mathematics we m y l i k e t o feel that o u r t h e o r i e s a r e
applicable to p h y s i c a l reality. But t h i s doesn't r e q u i r e the
a b s o l u t e t r u t h of our p o s t u l a t e s o r o u r theorems. When Euclidean
geometry is applted by an a r c h i t e c t o r engineer o r surveyor he
doesnt t r e q u i r e r e s u l t s which a r e a b s o l u t e l y correct - he m i g h t
consider t h i s a mirage, R a t h e r he demands r e s u l t s c o r r e c t to the
degree of p r e c i s i o n required by h i s problem - accuracy of one p a r t
in a hundred m i g h t be excellent in a pocket magnifying g l a s s b u t
one p a r t in a million m i g h t be too rough for a far-ranging
astronomical t e l e s c o p e .
Our f i r s t theorem indicated how positional o r non-metrical
p r o p e r t i e s in a non-Euclidean geometry might differ from o u r
Euclidean expectattons. Now we show how m e t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s -
s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e angle sm of a t r i a n g l e - are a l t e r e d when we
change the P a r a l l e l P o s t u l a t e .
Theorem 2 . L e t P be a p o l n t and L a line such t h a t t h e r e
are two l i n e s through P each o f which is p a r a l l e l t o L. Then
t h e r e e x i s t s a t l e a s t one triangle the sun of whose angle measures
Is less than 180,
 We f i r s t prove a lemma.
Lemma. If the sum of the angle measures of a t r i a n g l e I s
greater than o r equal to 180 then t h e measure of an exterior
angle is less than or equal to the sum of the measures of the two
remote i n t e r i o r angles .

Proof: Wehave a + b + c >-1 8 0 . Hence

Proof of Theorem 2: Suppose the theorem false. Then the

sum of the angle measures of every triangle is greater than or .
equal t o 180. P

-
L e t L be a line and P a point such t h a t there are two
lines through P p a r a l l e l t o L. L e t line PQ be perpendicular

-
to L at Q. Since there are two lines through P parallel to
w
L one of these must make an a c u t e angle with line PQ. Suppose
- - -

then line %? is parallel to L and makes an a c u t e angle,

M
L WX, with line PQ. L e t line PY be perpendicular t o line
wlth Y on the same s i d e of line %$ as X. L e t mL YPX = a;

-
then a < 90. ( ~ h l n kof a as a small p o s i t i v e number, say .I.)

-
Now l o c a t e RI on L so t h a t QR1 = PQ and R1 is on the same
s i d e of PQ as X and Y. Draw segment PR1. Then d P a 1 1s
i s o s c e l e s so that rnL QPRl = m L QRIP = al. Since the e x t e r i o r
angle of b PQRI at Q is a right angle, the Lemma implles
 al + a1 = 2al 2 90
and

Let 4 YPRl = bl. Then

al , 45.

b
1 + al = 90,
so that bl = 90 - al
and b1 <4 5
Moreover bl > a.

Now we repeat the argument by constructing a new triangle.

Extend sement &R1to Rg making R1R2 = PRl. Draw E2.
Then A PR1R2 is isosceles, so that mL RLPR2 = mL R1R2P =
By the Lemma
a2 + a2 = 2a2 2 al,
So that 2a2 2 a1 2 45
and a2 2 45T O

Let m L YPR2 = bg. Then

b2 + a2 = bl,

b2 = b l - a*'

since bl ( 45 and ag 2 9 we have

Mopeover b2 > a. b

Continuing Fn this way we obtain a sequence of real numbers

which are leas than or equal to respectively

but a l l of which are greater than the fixed p o s i t i v e number a.

This I s impossible since repeated halving of 45 must eventually
produce a number less than a . So o u r supposition is false and
the theorem holda.
 A proof of this type, though n o t d i f f i c u l t , may be unfamiliar
and you may have to mull it over a b l t to appreciate it better.

--
In i n t u i t i v e terms I t is n c t very hard. There are two main points.
+
F i r s t , the ray PX which doesntt meet L acts as a s o r t of
boundary f o r t h e rays PRI,
angles L YFR1, L YPRp, .. .
PR2, ...
which do meet L. Thus the
have measures bl, b2, ...
which
are greater than a. On the other hand (if the sum of the angle
measures of every triangle is a t l e a s t 180) we can pile up
successive angles L QPR1, L R1PR2, ..., starting at ray x,
- 45, 9, ... so
of measures at least a, that the angles
L YPR1, L YPR2, . .. have measures at mast 45, , ,45 .. . .
So we have a c o n t r a d i c t i o n in that the angles L YPR1, L YPR2,
... have measures which approach zero but are a l l greater than a
f b e d p o s i t i v e number a ,
A f i n a l remark. You may o b j e c t that we have n o t r e a l l y
L C C
j u s t i f l e d that PX is a "boundary" f o r PR;, PR;, .. . . To
+ +
t a k e care of t h i s observe that PR1 and PX are on t h e same s i d e

- C,
of lfne PQ. Consequently one of them must

-
+
formed by PQ and the o t h e r

PR1 m u t l l e i n s i d e L QPX
w

.
.
Suppose PX
Then PX would meet lLne &Rl. Since this
+

S i m i l a r l y for
fall i n s i d e the angle

-
fell lnside L QPR1.
is impossible,
PR2, .. . .
 11. Neutral Geometry
We are using the term "neutral geometry" in g h l s p a r t t o
indicate t h a t we are assuming neither Euclidls Parallel P o s t u l a t e
nor i t s contradictory. We shall merely deduce consequences of
Euclidta Postulates o t h e r than the Parallel P o s t u l a t e , ( a p e c i f i c a l -
ly our dLscusaions are based on Postulates 1, ...,15 of the text).
O u r r e s u l t s then will hold in Euclidean Geometry and in the non-
Euclidean geometry of Bolyai and Lobachevsky sfnce they a r e
deducible f r o m postulates which are common t o b o t h theories. Our
study is n e u t r a l also in the sense of avoiding controversy over
t h e Parallel Postulate. Actually its study helps us to accept
the idea of non-Euclidean geometry since it points up the f a c t
that mathematically we have a more basic geometrical theory which
can be definitized in either of two w a y s .
We proceed to derive some results in neutral geometsy. Since
you are Familiar with so many s t r i k i n g and Important theorems
-
which do depend on Euclid's Parallel Pbstulate you might t h i n k
that there are no i n t e r e s t i n g theorems in n e u t r a l geometry. How-
ever, t h i s is n o t s o . F i r s t we sketch the proof of a familiar
and important theorem of Euclidean geometry whose proof does n o t
depend on a parallel Postulate (see t e x t , Theorem 7-1).
Theorem 3. A n exterior angle of a t r i a n g l e is larger than
either remote i n t e r i o r angle.

Proof: Given A ABC with exterior angle L BCD. We show

rnL BCD is greater
- than m L B and m L A . L e t E be the mid-point
of segment BC and let F be the point such that AE = EF and
E is between A and F. It follows that A BEA h CEF ao
that B = mL ECF,
But 4 BCD = m L ECF + mL FCD.
Substituting rnL B for rnL ECF we have
r n l BCD = mL B + nL FCD,
so that
4 BCD > rnL B.
The proof is completed as usual by applying the above argument to
show that the vertical angle of L BCD is larger than L A .

C o r o l l a r y 1. The sum of the measures of two angles of a

triangle is less than 180.
Proof: Given A ABC we show rnL A + m L B < 180. By the
theorem m L A is less than the measure of an exterior angle at
B. T ~ U S m L A < 180 - 4 B
so that

This c o r o l l a r y is important since, without assuming a parallel

postulate, It gives us information about the angles of a t r i a n g l e .
It tells us f o r example, t h a t a triangle can have at most one obtuse
angle o r at most one r i g h t angle.
Corollary 2. In a plane two lines are parallel if they are
both perpendicular to the same line (compare text, Theorem 9-2) .
Proof: The basic properties of perpendicular lines In
Euclidean geometry are studied p r i o r to the introduction of the
Parallel Postulate, and so are part of (or are valid in) n e u t r a l
geometry. Thus the familiar proof of t h e c o r o l l a r y is applicable:
If t h e two lines met we would have, in a plane, two lines per-
pendicular to the same line at the same point. Thia is impossible
and the l i n e s can't meet.
Corollary 3 . Let L be a line, and let P be a point n o t
on L. Then there is at least one l i n e through P, parallel to
L.
 Proof: This follows from C o r o l l a r y 2 by t h e f a m l l i a r theorem
on the e x i s t e n c e of perpendiculars: Let L1 1
L through P, and
1
Lp L1 through P . Then Lp 11 L1.
Observe that t h i s familiar - almost hackneyed - dlscusslon
has yielded a very important principle: That parallel l i n e s
e x i s t . More p r e c i s e l y , t h e r e e x i s t s at l e a s t one line parallel
t o a g i v e n line through an external p o i n t . And we got t h t s r e s u l t
w i t h o u t assumlng any parallel postulate! So t h e crucial polnt in
our s t u d y of t h e theory of parallelism will be whether there is
one, o r more than one, l i n e p a r a l l e l to a given line through an
external p o i n t .
To prove an i m p ~ r t a n t ,and n o t s u f t i c i e n t l y well known,
theorem of Legendre (1752-1833) we Fntroduce t h e following:
Lemma. Given A ABC and L A . Then t h e r e e x l s t s a t r i a n g l e
bAIBIC1 such t h a t : ( a ) It has t h e same angle measure sum as
AABC; (b) ~ L A ~ < ~ L A .

Proof: We use the same construction as in Theorem 3 , Let

-
E be the mid-point of BC and l e t F s a t i s f y AE = EF and E
is between A and F. Then A BEA A CEF and corresponding
angles have equal measures. A APC is the A AIBIC1 we a r e
s e e k i n g . We have
LA -t m L B + mL c m L l + mL 2 + rnL 3 + 4 mL
=dl+rnLZ'+rnL3I +mL4
= mL CAF + mL AFC + rnL FCA.
To complete t h e p r o o f n o t e t h a t
mLA = r n L l + m ~ 2 = m L I + r n L 2 ~
so t h a t
mL A = rnL CAF + m L AFC.
Hence one of' t h e terms on the r i g h t is l e s s t h a n o r e q u a l t o 1
1
t h e term on t h e l e f t , t h a t is $ r n ~A . Consequently A AFC can
b e relabeled A AIBICl S O as t o make t h e theorem v a l l d .
 Note that since we have not aasumed Euclidls P a r a l l e l Postu-
l a t e we don't know that the angle measure sum I s constant f o r a l l
t r i a n g l e s . So the lenrma is a simificant result in that we can
c o n s t r u c t from a given t r i a n g l e a new one with the same angle
measure sum. In i n t u i t i v e terms we can replace a triangle by a
"slenderer" one without altering i t s angle measure sum. In effect
the ppoof shows t h i s by c u t t i n g off A ABE from A ABC and past-
ing it back on as A FCE.
Now we can prove the following remarkable theorem.
Theorem 4. (Legendre.) The angle measure sum of any triangle
is less than or equal to 180.
Proof: Suppoae the contrary. Then there must e x i s t a tri-
angle, A ABC, whose angle measure sum is 180 + p, where p is
a p o s l t i v e number. Now we apply the Lemma. It tella us t h a t there
exists a slenderer t r i a n g l e , A AIBIC1, whose angle measure sum
also I s 180 + p such t h a t 4 Al -
< & A.
To f i x our ideas l e t ua say p = 1 and rnL A = 25. Then
A1 + 4 B1 + 4 C1 = 181 and 4 A1 g.
Pressing our advantage we reapply the lemma. So there is a
still slenderer triangle, let us call I t A A p 2 C 2 , whose angle
measure is 180 + p and 4 A2 < & Al. That is
4 A2 + B2 + C2 = 181 and mL A n 9.
Continuing in t h i s m y , we g e t a sequence of triangles each w i t h
angle measure am 181 and w i t h successive angles of measures
no greater than
25, , 9, , * * *
 To see t h i s is impossible, consider A A B C for which
55 5
mLA5 < P.
We have
m L As + r n l B5 + 4 C5 = 181 and rnL A s 4 -.25
Certainly
mL A s < 1,
but
m L Bs + 4 C5 < 180
by Corollary 1 to Theorem 3 . Adding the inequalities,

This contradiction implies o u r supposition false, and t h e theorem

is establf shed.
Note t h e point of the proof i e to g e t a t r i a n g l e so "slender",
t h a t is with one angle so small, t h a t the triangle can't e x i s t by
Corollary 1 above. It may now be i n s t r u c t i v e to write out the
proof in general terms wlthout assigning s p e c i f i c values t o p
and mL A .
Corollary 4. The angle measure sum of any quadrilateral is
less than or equal to 360.
 111. -
Do Rectangles -
Exist?
We continue to study neutral geometry, and are interested in
whether a rectangle can e x i s t In such a geometry, and what happens
if it doea. So most of o u r theorems will have the hypothesis that
a rectangle e x i s t s . We use freely the results of Part I1 on
neutral geometry.
The existence of a rectangle i n a geometry is n o t a trivial
thing - irnagine what Euclidean geometry would be like if you didn't
have or couldntt use rectangles. If you try to construct a rect-
angle you w2ll flnd you are assuming Euclidls Parallel Postulate
or one o f i t s consequences, such as, the angle measure sum of a
triangle fs 180,
F i r s t , to avoid ambiguity, we formally define rectangle as
we shall use the term:

Definition. A (plane) quadrilateral is called a rectangle

if each of its angles is a right angle.
Notice that s i n c e we are operating In neutral geometry and
have not assumed Euclidrs Parallel Postulate, we can't automatical-
ly apply familiar Euclidean propositions, auch aa (1) the opposite
sides of a rectangle are parallel, or (2) that they are equal in
length, or (3) that a diagonal divides a rectangle into two con-
gruent triangles, If we want t o assert any of these results we
will have to prove them from o u r definition without assuming a
parallel postulate . For example, (1) is Immediate by Corollary 2.
Theorem 5. If one p a r t i c u l a r rectangle exists then a r e c t -
angle exists with an arbitrarily large s i d e .
Restatement: Suppose a rectangle ABCD e x i s t s and x is a
given positive real number. Then there exists a rectangle with
one side of length greater than x .
 Proof: We use ABCD as a "building block" t o construct the
d e s i r e d rectangle. Construct a quadrilateral DCEF congruent to
ABCD, so t h a t and are on . o p p o s i t e sides of line w.
Then DCER Is a rectangle. Moreover, B, C, E l i e on a l i n e by
+

a familtar perpendicularity property. Similarly, A , D, F are

c o l l i n e a r . So ABCEF'D is a quadrilateral ABEF and consequently
a rectangle. Note ABEF has the p r o p e r t y that

Similarly we c o n s t r u c t FEGH a congruent replica o f ABCD

C,
so that % and are on opposite s i d e s of line EP, And we
see that ABGH is a rectangle such t h a t

Continuing Fn this way we can c o n s t r u c t a rectangle ABYZ such

that AZ = rn
f o r each p o s i t i v e Integer n. Now choose n s o b i g that nAD > x.
Then A3YZ satisfies the conditions o l our theorem.
C o r o l l a r y 5. If one p a r t i c u l a r rectangle exists, then a
rectangle e x i s t s wlth two a r b i t r a r i l y large adjacent aides.
Res tatemenl: Suppose a rectangle ABCD e x l s ts and x, y
are given positive real numbem .
T h e n there exista a rectangle
PQRS such t h a t PQ > x and PS > y.

Proof: By the theorem we have a rectangle ABYZ with

AZ > x. By placing successive congruent replicas of ABY!Z t lon
top" of each other starting with ABYZ, we eventually get a
rectangle A A I Z ' Z with AA1 > y and AZ > x .
 Theorem 6. If one particular rectangle exists then a r e c t -
angle exists with two adjacent sides of p r e a a s l p e d lengths x , y.
Proof: Our method i~ that of a tailor: By the l a e t corollary
we get a rectangle PQRS such that PQ > x and PS y; then we >

Ell
cut it dorm to fit.

s'
YP x

Q' 0
There is a pqint Qt in such t h a t POr = x . Drop a
perpendicular f r o m Q l to line Ciif with foot R 1 + Ye show
PQ' R' S is a rectangle. ft certainly ha8 rfg h t angles at P, S ,
R' . We show 1 P Q I R f alao is a pight angle. Suppose mL PQf R r
> 90. Then the sum of t h e angle measures of quadrilatergl
PQ'R'S is greater t h a n 360 contrary to the corollary of
Legendre' s Theorem (part 11) . Suppose m L P e t R t < 9 0 . Then
mL QQt R + > 90 and quadrilateral QQ1R' R has an angle measure

-
sum greater than 360. Thus the only posslbllity is m L PQIFtl = 90,
and PQrR 1S is a rectangle.
-
In the same way there is a p o i n t S t in PS such that
PS = y . Drop a perpendicular f r o m S to line Q f R t with foot
R . Than as above PQ' R v IS1 I s a rectangle, and it has s l d e a
-
PQt and PS o f lengths x and y .
Theorem 7. If one particular rectangle exists then e v e r y
r i g h t triangle haa an angle measure sum of 180.
 Proof: Our procedure Is to show: (1) any r i g h t triangle Is
congruent to a triangle formed by the splitting of a rectangle by
a diagonal, and ( 2 ) the latter type of triangle must have an
angle measure o f 180. Let A ABC be a right t r i a n g l e w i t h
r i g h t angle a t B. By Theorem 6 there exists a rectangle A l B ' C t D '
-
w i t h A ' B 1 = AB and B I C T = BC. Draw A I C T . Then
A ABC S A A ' B I C 1 and they have the same angle measure sum.
L e t p be t h e angle measure sum of A A t B t C t and q be t h a t
of P A t C ' D 1 . W e have

We want to show p = 180. By Legendrets Theorem p < 180 o r

p = 180. Suppose p < 180. Then by (1) q > 180, contrary t o
Legendreis Theorem. So p = 180 must hold and the proof Is
complete,
Theorem 8, If one particular rectangle exists then every
triangle has an angle measure am of 180.
8

Proof: Any t r i a n g l e A ABC can be s p l i t Into two r i g h t

triangles. Each of these has angle measure sum 180 by Theorem 7.
It e a s i l y follows that the same holds f o r A ABC.
T h i s is a r a t h e r s t r i k i n g result: The existence of one puny
rectangle w l t h microscopic sides inhabiting a remote p o r t i o n of
space guarantees t h a t every conceivable triangle has an angle
measure sum of 180. S l n c e this is a typically Euclidean Property
we are tempted to say t h a t if in a n e u t r a l geometry a rectangle
exists , the geometry mu8 t be Euclidean. The s taternent is c o r r e c t
but n o t fully justified, slnce to characterize a neutral geometry
as Euclidean we must know t h a t it s a t i s f i e s Euclidls Parallel
Postulate. This can now be pmved without trouble.
 Theorem 9. If one particular rectangle exists then Euclidl s
P a r a l l e l P o s t u l a t e holds.
Proof: Suppose a rectangle exists but Euclidts P a r a l l e l .
P o s t u l a t e f a i l s . Then there m u s t exist a line L and a p o i n t P
such t h a t there are two lines through P parallel t o L, since
by Corollary 3 there is at least one line p a r a l l e l to a given
l i n e through an external p o i n t . Then by Theorem 2 there exists
one triangle, a t least, whose angle measure sum is less t h a n 180.
This c o n t r a d i c t s Theorem 8. Consequently Euclidis Parallel
Postulate mwt hold.
What we have j u s t i f i e d is a remarkable equivalence theorem,
namely: Euclidts P a r a l l e l Postulate is logically e q u i v a l e n t t o
the existence of a rectangle. T h a t is, takfng e i t h e r of these
statements as a p o s t u l a t e we can deduce the o t h e r as a theorem,
provided o f c o u r s e we assume the postulates f o r a n e u t r a l geometry.
An i n t e r e s t i n g conditfan equivalent t o t h e existence of a
rectangle is the existence of a triangle whose angle measure is
180:
Theorem 10. Tf there e x i s t s one particular triangle with
angle measure sum of 180, then t h e r e exists a r e c t a n g l e .
8

Proof : Suppos e A ABC has angle measure swn 180. F i r s t

we show there is a r i a t triangle with angle measure sum 180.
S p l i t A ABC Into two r i g h t t r i a n g l e s , whose angle measure sums
are say p and q. Then
We show p = 180. By Legendre's Theorem, p 5 180. If p < 180
then q > 180 contrary t o Legendrefs Theorem. Thus there is a
r f m t triangle, aay A ABD, which has angle measure sum 180.
E B

-
A 0
Now we put two isuch right triangles together to form a rect-
angle. Construct A AEB A BDA with E on the opposite side
of lLne AB from D. Show ADBE is a rectangle.
Corollary 6. If one particular triangle has angle measure
sum 180 then evew triangle has angle measure sum 180.
Proof: By Theorems 10 and 8.
Corollary 7. If one particular triangle has angle measure
awn 180 then Euclldts Parallel Postulate holds.

Proof: By Theorem 10 and 9.

Corollary 8. If one p a r t i c u l a r triangle has an angle measure
sum which is less than 180 then every triangle has an angle
measure sum leas than 180.
Proof: Suppose A ABC has angle measure sum lesa than 180,
Conaider any t r i a n g l e A PQR. By Legendreis Theorem I t s angle
measure sum p must s a t i s f y p = 180 or p < 180. Suppose
p - 180. Then by Corollary 6, A ABC has angle measure am 180,
contrary t o hypothesis. Thus p < 180.
Comparing Corollaries 6 and 8 we observe an important fact.
A neutral geometry La "homageneoua" In the sense that a l l o f its
triangle8 have an angle measure sum of 180 or they a l l have
angle measure sums lesa than 180. The f i r s t type of neutral
geometry is merely Euclidean geometry -the aecond type corresponds
to the non-Euclidean geometry developed by Bolyai and Lobachevsky.
This w i l l be discussed in the next part.
 Ekercise 1. Suppose there is only one l i n e parallel to a
p a r t i c u l a r line L through a particular point P. Prove that
Euclidf s Parallel P o s t u l a t e holds.
Exercise 2. Suppose there are two lines parallel to a
p a r t i c u l a r line L through a particular p o i n t P.Prove there
are two lines p a r a l l e l to each line through each external p o i n t .
 IV .
Lobachevskian Geometry
Now we introduce the non-Euclidean geometry of B o l y a i and
Lobachevsm as a formal theory based on its own poetulatea . We
c a l l t h e theory Lobachevskian geometry t o signalize the l i f e t i m e
of work which Lobachevsky devoted to the theory. To study
Lobachevskian geometry we merely assume the postulates of Euclid-
ean geometry but replace Euclidfs Parallel Postulate by hbachev-
skyts Parallel Postulate: If p o i n t P is not on line L there
are a t least two lines through P which are parallel to L. In
other words we asswne the p o s t u l a t e s of n e u t r a l geometry ( ~ o s t u -
lates 1, ..., 15 of the t e x t ) and adjoln Lobachevskyfs Parallel
Postulake. Conscqvently the theorems which we have already de-
rived are valid in Lobachevskian geometry. In f a c t , by putting
together two e a r l i e r r e s u l t s we g e t the following important
theorem.
Theorem 11. The angle measure sum o f any triangle i s less
than 180.
P r o o f : By Theorem 2 there exists a triangle whose angle
measure sum is less than 180. Hence t h e same is true of every
triangle by Corollary 8.
C o r o l l a r y 9, The angle measure sum of any quadrilateral is
less than 360.
Proof: By the c o r o l l a r y t o Legendreis Thearem ( P a r t 11,
Theorem 2) the o n l y o t h e r possibility for the value Is 360 - and
t h i s is ruled out by Theorem 11.
Corollary 10. There e x i s t no rectangles.
Now we show t h a t s i m i l a r triangles can*t e x i s t in Ubachev-
skfen geometry, except of course for the trivial case of congruent
triangles.
 Theorem 12. Two t r i a n g l e s are congruent if t h e i r correspond-
i n g angles have e q u a l measured.
A A'

Proof: Suppose t h e theorem f a l s e . Then there exist A ABC

and A A'BIC' which are not congruent such that rnL A = rnL A 1 ,
mL B = rnL B t , mL C = rnL C f . Since the triangles are n o t congruent
AB # A'Bt (otherwise they would be congruent by A . S . A . ) . Similar-
l y A C f A I C I and B C # B ' C t . Consider the t r i p l e s AB, A C , BC
and A t B t , A I C i , B ' C ' . One of these t r i p l e s must contain two
numbers which are greater than t h e corresponding numbers of the
o t h e r triple. Consequently it is not r e s t r i c t i v e to suppose
AB > A'Btand AC > A t C t .
Then we can find B 1 $ on such that A I B 1 = AB" and
-
Ci on AC such that A I C 1 = ACu . I t f o l l o w s that
AAB1lCrlrAAiB'C' sothat
mL A B I t C f 1 = m L B 1 = m L B .
Hence BBt C 1 i s supplementary to L B. Similarly L C C 1 B"
is supplementary to L C . Therefore quadrilateral B B t l C t l C
has an angle measure sum of 360. This contradicts C o r o l l a r y 9
and o u r proof is complete.
We have here a s t r i k i n g c o n t r a s t with Euclidean geometry. In
view of Theorem 12, in Lobachevskian geometry t h e r e cannot be a
theory of similar f i g u r e s based on the usual d e f i n i t i o n . For if
two triangles were similar, the measures of t h e i r corresponding
angles would be equal and they would have to be congruent. In
general two similar figures would be congruent and so have t h e
same size. In a Lobachevskian world, pictures and statues would
have to be l i f e - s i z e to avoid distortion.
 Now l e t us consider the question of measurement of area. For
the sake of simplicity we restrict ourselves to triangles. Clearly
the Euclidean procedure of measurLng area in terms of square units
will n o t apply since squares don't exist in Lobachevskian geometry.
To c l a r i o the problem we ask what are the essential characteris-
tics of area. As a minimum we require:
(I) The area of a triangle s h a l l be a uniquely determined
p o s i t i v e real number;
2 ) Congruent triangles shall have equal areas;
(3) If a triangle T is split i n t o two triangles T1 and
T2 then the area of T shall be the sum of the areas of T1 and

It I s easy to verify that the familiar formula for the area of a

triangle In Euclidean geometry satisfies these conditions.
There fa a similar area formula (or area "function") in
Lobachevskian geometry but it is most naturally expressed in terms
of the angles of a triangle. To s t a t e it formally we introduce the
Definition. The defect (or deficiency) of A ABC is
180 - (mL A + m L B + m L C > .
Note t h a t the defect of a triangle literally is the amount by
whlch its angle measure sum falls s h o r t of 180.
The defect of a triangle has the essential properties of
area :
Theorem 13. The d e f e c t of a triangle s a t i s f i e s P roperties
(11, (21, (31, above.
Proof: Clearly (1) is satisfied s i n c e the d e f e c t of a tri-
angle is a d e f i n i t e positive number. Property (2) holds since
congruent triangles have equal angle sums and so equal d e f e c t s .
 To establish (3) let A ABC
be given and let D be a p o i n t of
-
BC, so that A A 3 C is split i n t o
A ABD and A ADC. The sum of
the defects of the latter two B
0
triangles is

which is t h e d e f e c t of A ABC.
Are there o t h e r area f'unctions besides t h e d e f e c t ? It is
easy to verif'y t h a t if we multiply the d e f e c t by any p o s i t i v e
constant k, we obtain an area function which s a t i s f i e s Properties
1 , ( 2 (3) . This is not as remarkable as I t m i g h t seem, since
the specific form of o u r definition of d e f e c t depends on our basic
agreement to measure angles in term of degrees. If we adopt a
different unit f o r the measure of angles and define "defect" in
the natural manner, we obtain a constant multiple of the defect
as we defined it. To be s p e c i f i c , suppose we change the u n i t of
angle measurement from degrees to minutes. This would entail two
simple changes in the above theory: (a) each angle measure would
have to be multfplied by 60; (b) the key number 180 would
have to be replaced by 60 times 180. Thus the appropriate
d e f l n l t l o n of "defect" would be 60 t b e s the defect a s we
defined it.
Finally we note t h a t it can be proved that any area f'tmcticn
s a t i s f y i n g (I), ( 2 ) , ( 3 ) must be k times the defect ( o u r
definition) f o r some p o a l t l v e constant k. In view of t h i s it is
natural to define t h e area of a t r i a n g l e to be I t s defect.
Query. Which o f the Properties (I), (21, ( 3 ) h o l d s for the
defect of a triangle in Euclidean geometry?
 It i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note that in Euclidean spherfcal geometry
the sum of the angle measures of a triangle is greater than 180
and the area of a triangle is given by i t s ttexceas", that is its
angle measure sum minus 180.
Exercise 1.Given A ABC with p o i n t s , D, E, F in
- - -
AB, BC, AC respectively. Prove that the defect of A ABC is
the sum of the defects of the trfangles ADF, BED, CFE, and
DEF.
Exercise 2. If p o i n t s P, Q, R are i n s i d e A ABC prove
that A ABC has a larger defect than A PQR.
We conclude t h i s part by observing that the familiar Euclld-
ean p r o p e r t y - parallel lines are everywhere equidistant - faila
in Lobachevskian geometry. In fact t h e r e are parallel l i n e s of
two types. If two parallel l i n e s have a common perpendicular
they diverge continuously on both sides of t h i s perpendicular.
If two parallel l h e s don't have a common perpendicular they are
asymptotic - that is If a p o i n t on one recedes endlessly in the
proper directLon, its distance to the other will approach zero.
 Conclusion
In I t s f u r t h e r development Lobachevskian geometry is at least
as complex as Euclidean geometry. There is a Lobachevskian s o l i d
geometry, a trigonometry and an analytic geometry - problems i n
mensuration of curves, surfaces and s o l i d s require the use of the
calculus.
You may object that t h e structure is grounded on sand - that
Lobachevskian geometry is inconsistent and eventually w i l l yield
contradictory theorem. This of course was the implicit belief
that led mathematicians f o r 2,000 years to try to prove Euclid's
Parallel Postulate. Actually we have no absolute test f o r the
consistency of any of the familiar branches of mathematics. But
it can be proved that the Euclidean and Lobachevskian geometries
stand or fall together on the question of consistency. That is,
if either is Inconsistent, so is t h e other.
Once t h e I c e had been broken by Bolyal and Lobachevskyls
successful challenge to Euclidfs Parallel Postulate, mathematicians
were stimulated to s e t up o t h e r non-Euclldean geometries - that is,
geometric theories which c o n t r a d i c t one or more of Euclid's
P o s t u l a t e s , or approach geometry i n an e s s e n t i a l l y different way.
The best known of these was proposed in 1854 by t h e German
mathematician Riemann (1826-1866). Riemann! s theory c o n t r a d i c t s
Euclid's Parallel Postulate by assuming there are no parallel -
lfnes. T h i s required the abandonment of o t h e r postulates of
Euclid s i n c e we have proved the exlstence of parallel l i n e s with-
out assuming any p a r a l l e l postulate (Corollary 3) . In Rlemannts
theory, in c o n t r a s t to those of Euclid and Lobachevsky, a l i n e
has f i n i t e length. Actually there are t w o types of non-Euclidean
geometry associated with Rlemannls name, one c a l l e d sfngle
e l l i p t i c geometry i n whlch any two l i n e s meet in j u s t one p o i n t ,
and a second, double e l l l p t l c geometry, In which any two lines
meet in two points. The second type of geometry can be pictured
in Euclidean space as t h e geometry of points and great c i r c l e s
on a sphere.
 Riemann a l s o introduced a radically d i f f e r e n t kind of
geometric theory whlch bullds up the p r o p e r t i e s of space in the
l a r g e by studying the behavior of distance between p o l n t s which
are c l o s e together. This theory, called Riemannian Geometry,
is useful in applied mathematics and physics and I s the mathematic-
al basis of Efnsteinfs General Theory of Relativity.
Bolyai and Lobachevsky have opened f o r us a door on a new
and apparently limitless domain.
 MINIATURE GEOMETRIES

1. Preamble. In a given s e t of postulates f o r a special

p a r t of mathematlcs, I t is hardly to be expected that t h e laws of
classical logic, the rules of grammar and a definition of a l l the
terms be Included. We recognize their need but assume them when-
ever used. We a l s o assume t h a t t h e reader is familiar w l t h the
usual laws of arithmetic and algebra that may be w e d . Indeed
there may be other needed l o g i c a l assumptions t h a t are overlooked
so t h a t the emphasls may be placed upon the particular t o p i c under
immediate discussion, and t h e postulates wlll be confined to those
that have an immediate geometric use.
2. Characteristics - of-a postulate system. What postulates
should we make? There is no d e f i n i t e answer t o t h i s question.
The answer depends upon the audience and upon the purpose and the
preferences (or prejudices) of t h e individual. However, there
are some desfrable characteristics of a p o s t u l a t e system, which
we proceed to discuss. We may n o t be able to attain all of them,
and may have t o make some compromises.
( 1) Simplicity,* The p o s t u l a t e s should be s imple , t h a t is,
easily understood by the audience f o r which they a r e intended.
But sfrnple is a relative term, and depends upon the experience
of the audience.
(2) Paucity. It may be d e s i r a b l e to have o n l y a few unde-
f i n e d e n t i t i e s and r e l a t i o n s and t o make o n l y a few assumptions
about them. It may be necessary t o sacrifice t h e s e c h a r a c t e r l s -
tics t o gain simplicity of understanding. Most t e x t s on plane
geometry f o r beginning s t u d e n t s do s a c r i f i c e t h e s e characteris-
tics, and some t e x t s over-do It to avoid p r o v i n g converses,
especially If the method of proof by c o n t r a d i c t i o n is needed.
This puts a high premium on f a c t u a l geometry as against logical
geometry. It 13 not my purpose here t o condemn o r commend t h i s

*See Nelson Goodman, co he Test'of Simplicity", Science,

October 31, 1958, Vol. 128.
p o i n t of view. It a l l depends upon the audience and the purpose
of the t e x t , but it may be very difficult to determine (except by
the Rule of ~uthorlty)whether the system s a t i s f i e s the next
.
charac t e r i s t f c
(3) Consistency. The p o s t u l a t e system should be c o n s i s t e n t .
It should not be self-contradictory. This part may be easy to
determine. For example, we would not want to include t w o asswnp-
tions such as ( A ) ; Tko l i n e s in the same plane always have a
p o i n t in common ( ~ r o j e c t i v e~ e o m e t r y ) and (B): There are lines
in the same plane that have no p o i n t in common (Euclidean G e o m e t r y ) .
B u t more is needed. The p u s t u l a t e system should never lead to a
contradiction. This may be difficult to determine or Impossible
t o determine. We seldom know a l l the consequences of the p o s t u l a t e
system, and In that case the proof of absolute consistency may not
be posa lble . We content ourselves with relative cons i a tency . If
we can give at least one interpretation of the undefined terms
based upon our experiences or experiments f o r whlch we grant all
the assumptions are true, we are satisfied. We call such an
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a model. In the case of a simple system such as
that for a miniature geometry, the construction o f such models
may be possible, and indeed in more than one way. In a complex
postulate system, such as that needed f o r a l l of Euclidean Geometry,
l o g l c a l l y developed, this may be extremely difficult. If we have
more than one model f o r t h e same system so that we can find a
correspondence connecting every entity and relation of one model
with an e n t i t y and relation of each of the other models, that is,
put t h e models into one-to-one correspondence, we say the models
are isomorphic. We shall do t h i s f o r some of our miniature
geometries. But for more complex geometric systems, we may not
have more than one model. The r e l a t i v e consistency of Euclidean
Geometry is proved (but it is much too difficult for us to do it)
by using arithmetic as a model, and showing it is p o s s i b l e t o put
Euclidean Geometry i n t o one-to-one correspondence with arithmetic
logically developed. Since we have never found a contradiction in
arithmetic, we are content to say Euclidean geometry is as con-
sistent as arithmetic. If we wish to prove that a non-Euclidean
geometry is r e l a t i v e l y c o n s i s t e n t , we f i n d a model ( i n t e r p r e t a t i o n )
within Euclidean geometry f o r it and a f t e r that is done (it I s n o t
an easy task and is beyond our i n t e n t ) , we h o w non-Euc1idea.n
geometry is c o n s i s t e n t if Euclidean geometry is. This is n o t the
only way it can be done, for arithmetic (algebraic) rnethrLC.sare
also available.
( 4) Independent e , It may be desirable t o have a l l the
p o s t u l a t e s independent, especially if we are seeking m ~ d e l s By .
t h a t we mean t h a t the postulate system i s such that no p o s t u l a t e
can be derived from t h e o t h e r s . The arguments present in (2)
above are again applicable. In a given postulate system, it may
be p o s s i b l e to prove that some of t h e assumptions could be derfved
from o t h e r s , but it may be s o d i f f i c u l t t h a t i t i s a task t o be
avoided. However, it is n o t really difficult to prove: "Two
distinct l i n e s cannot have more than one point in common" from
the assumption: "There i s one and only one l i n e t h a t contains two
d i s t i n c t p o i n t s " . The method of contradiction is used, and thTs
points out the essential importance of t h i s method of proof if we
wish to make good use of o u r assumptions of l o g l c . The indepen-
dence of all the postulates of a system i s most r e a d i l y found i n
terms of models. If we can f i n d a model that s a t i s f i e s all but
one of t h e postulates and denies that one, then that particular
postulate is independent of the others. If we can do this for
each postulate I n turn, then the postulates form an independent
sys tern.

(5) Completeness : A postulate system f o r Euclidean geometry,

or any other s p e c i a l geometry we wish to discuss, should also be
complete. T h a t is, we must include enough postulates t o prove a l l
t h e theorems we wish to prove. T h i s t o p l c wlll n o t be discussed
in detail here; it is enough to Include a warning n o t to o v e r l o o k
t a c i t asswnptfons as Euclid* and h i s i m i t a t o r s d i d .

point; Meserve, -The Foundations -

---
*See Felix Klein, Elementary Mathematics from an Advanced Stand-
of Geometry, p . 230-231; Wilder,
-
-
~ounhationsof ~ a t h a i c s ,Chapter 1, 2.
 We illustrate various ideas mentioned above by coneining our
attention to incidence properties alone and make no attempt to
discuss postulates of measure or separation, but do recognize t h a t
parallelism is essentially an fncfdence property. F i r s t we confine
our attention to three types of miniature geometries which contain
only a f i n i t e number af p o i n t s and lines:
I. A three p o i n t - three line geometry; 11. A four point - slx
l f n e geometry; 111. A seven p o i n t - seven line geometry.
After that we illustrate the incidence properties of Hyper-
b o l i c Geometry by considering t w o models in which the number of
p o i n t s on a l i n e is i n f i n f t e and where we change the Parallel
P o s t u l a t e from ,its usual Euclidean form.
3. --
A three p o i n t
geometry.
Undefined: p o i n t , line, on.
Concerning these undefined terms, we make the following f o u r
postulates :
PI. There e x i s t three and only three d i s t i n c t p o l n t s .
P2. On two d i s t i n c t points there is one and only one line.
P3. Not all p o i n t s are on the same l i n e .
P4. On t w o d i s t i n c t lines there is at least one p o i n t .
As f a r as consistency is concerned, there does n o t aeem to be any
direct contradiction. The r e l a t i v e consistency of the system is
accepted on the basis of any one of the following three isomorphic
models.
(a) The usual model of a triangle, consisting

A
of three non-collinear p o i n t s , but here a l f n e con-
tains only t w o points. The l i n e segments of a more
complete geometry are merely drawn to p o i n t out the
B C
three pairs of p o i n t s . A l i n e is merely a s e t of
t w o p o i n t s . It is easy to observe t h a t Postulates
Pl - P4 are a l l s a t i s f i e d .
 (b) A group of' t h r e e boys f o m i n g committees of two fn a11
p o s s i b l e ways. If the boys are c a l l e d A , B, C, the committees
a r e t h e t h r e e p a i r s ( A,B) , (B,c) , (c,A) . If the p o s t u l a t e s are
read with 'boyt replacing 'pointt, tcomrnitteet replacing 'line1
and 'member o f 1 replacing 'on', with possible changes in language
t o preserve t h e meaning, it is easy to see P1, P2, P3 are
o b v i o u s l y s a t i s f i e d by the way the comrnlttees were formed. A
simple observation of the three committees checks P 4 ,

(c) P o i n t s are interpreted as the s p e c i a l ordered number

triples ( x , ~ , z ) : ~(1,0,0), 8(0,1,0), c ( o , o , ~ ) . Llnes a r e
interpreted as t h e s p e c i a l equations x = 0 , y = 0, z = 0. A
'pointi is 'on1 a l i n e t if its coordinates s a t i s f y the equation
of the line.
P1 f o l l o w s from o u r choice o f coordinates.
P2 must be v e r i f i e d : ~ ( 1 , 0 , 0 ) and ~(0,1,0) are b o t h on
z = 0 but n o t b o t h a r e on x = 0 or y = 0. A similar v e r i -
fication is needed f o r the other palrs of p o i n t s .
P 3 : The p o i n t ~ ( 1 , 0 , 0 ) does n o t s a t i s f y t h e equation of
t h e line %?, x = 0.
~ 4 :There are three d i s t i n c t p a f r s of lfnes (I) x = 0,
y = 0; (ti) y = 0, z = 0; (iii)z = 0 , x = 0. It is easy to
v e r i f y t h a t ~(0,0,1), ~ ( 1 , 0 , 0 ) , 3(0,1,0) l i e on the palrs (i) ,
(ii), ( iii) respectively.
We prove t h r e e theorem directly from t h e postulates without
a model. For h e u r i s t i c purposes any one of the models could be
used .
Theorem 1. On two distinct lines there is not more than one
point,
Proof: If two lines had two d i a t i n c t points in common, then
Postulate P2 would be contradicted. Hence Theorem 1 is t r u e ,
 Theorem 2. There e x l s t three and only three lines.
Proof: Since t h e r e a r e t h r e e and only t h r e e p o i n t s ( ~ l ) ,
there are only three pairs of p o i n t s : A , , (B,c), (C,A) .
Each such pair determines one and only one line ( ~ 2 ) .These
.
lines are a l l d i s t i n c t ( ~ 3 ) Hence there are three and only
three lines.

Theorem 3 . Not a l l lines a r e on the same p o i n t .

Proof: There are t h r e e and only three llnes ( A , , (B,c) ,
(C ,A) , h he or em 2) . The f i r a t and t h i r d are on the p o i n t A , b u t
t h i s point is n o t on the l i n e (B,C) because of P 3 . A similar
argument concerning the p o i n t s B and C completes the p r o o f .
Of course all three of these theorems could have been v e r i f i e d
In any model. That Is, we could have taken them as p o s t u l a t e s too,
b u t then the system would not have been an independent one. To
demonstrate the independence of the o r i g l n a l system P1 - P4 we
use geometric models but either o f the o t h e r models could be used
equally as well. We use the notation P4' to indicate t h a t P4
is denied but PI, P2, P3 are s a t i s f l e d . Slmllar meanings are
given to P3' , P2' , and P I t .
The model P 4 + is constructed by
adding a f o u r t h l i n e (denying Theorem 2) In such a way t h a t there
a r e two lines which have no p o l n t in common. This denies ~ 4 ,

canmit t e *

three
~ 3 '

but the o t h e r postulates are satisfied. I n t h e model P3' , a l l

three p o i n t s are on the same line and the o t h e r p o s t u l a t e s may be
verified . In the model f2' , there are two lines which contain
b o t h A and B . In terms of the committee interpretation you may
t h i n k of A and B both being on two d i s t i n c t committees, say
t h e Finance Committee and the Custodian Committee. The model f o r
P1' I s not shown here. It must c o n t a l n more than three p o i n t s .
The amallea t such model which w f ll a l s o satisfy the o t h e r axioms
is the model f o r a seven point geometry to be discussed in Section
5. After that model is presented t h e proof of t h e independence of
the system PI - ~4 will be complete.
I

4. --
A four peometry. Again polnt, l i n e , and on are
undefhed. To d i s t i n g u i s h the poatulatea from those just used we
use the l e t t e r Q.

Ql. There exist four and only four d i s t i n c t p o i n t s .

Q2. On two distinct p o i n t s there is one and only one line.
(p2)
Q3. Every l i n e contains two and only two points.
Theorem 1. There exist s i x and only six lines.
Proof: The number of pairs of points is the number of com-
binations of four things taken two at a time, qC2 = 4 * 3 = 6 (a)
and t h i s is t h e number of lines (Q2). These lines are a l l dis-
.
t i n c t , ((23) Hence the theorem is proved.
If we c a l l the points 0, A , B, C, the l l n e s are represented
by the p o i n t pairs ( 0 , ~ ) ;( 0 , ~ ) ; ( 0 , ~ ) ; (A,B); ( A , c ) ; (B,c).
Deffnition. Two l l n e s are parallel if they have no point in
common.
Note that the word p a r a l l e l l a used In a very special sense.
No concept of a plane ha^ y e t been introduced.
Theorem 2. Through a given point n o t on a given l i n e there
is one and only one line parallel to the given line.
lies on three and only three
Proof: A given point, say A ,
l i n e s and these lines are d i s t i n c t
(Q Q2, Q3).
l, If we pick one
of these lines, aay AO, nelther of the rernainlng points, B and
C, can l i e on It (a),and hence the two lines have no point in
common and so are parallel by deflnltion.
 Several models of this geometry are available. The two-member
committee model is quite apparent. Each member is on three commit-
t e e s but there is always a unique second committee that can meet
while t h i s member is engaged in committee business.
In order to p r e s e n t geometric models, we imagine the model t o
be embedded in o r d i n a r y Euclidean geometry and then a b s t r a c t from
the diagram those features t h a t are wanted. One such model is that
or a complete quadrangle (a term borrowed f r o m p r o j e c t i v e geometry)
which consists of f o u r points, no t h r e e collinear, and the six
l i n e s which they determine by pairs. Of course you must recognize
t h a t o u r l i n e is only a p o i n t - p a i r . It is easy t o v e r f f y t h a t
P o s t u l a t e s Q l , Q2, Q3 are all s a t i s f i e d . Models Q 1 8 , Q2', Q3+,
needed to prove the postulates are independent, are more o r less

A
self-explanatory.

.@3

A 0 4 A B C
S
QI, Q2,Q3 QI ' ~ 2 ' 43'
If the model Q2l bothers you, think o f It i n terms of a diagram
drawn on a sphere w i t h N and S being the poles, or if you know
something of chemical bonds, t h i n k of it in terms of a double bond
between N and S , and all t h e r e s t as single bonds.
The flgure f o r Q1, Q2, Q3 could be imagined in ordinary
3-space thus forming a tetrahedron. Indeed we could then add
addi tionax pos tulat e s .
Undefined: plane.

~ 4 . On three points there is one and only one plane,

If we t h i n k e n t i r e l y in terms of plane geometry each of t h e
models already drawn a l s o s a t i s f y Q4.
 Q5. Every plane contains three and only three p o i n t s .

None of t h e models of plane geometry satisfy this axlom,

which, however, l a s a t i s f i e d by the tetrahedron model. That i s ,
t h e t e t r a h e d r o n model satisfies all five postulates Q1 - Q5. It
is p o s s i b l e to present models in 3-space to prove t h e independence
of t h e s e f i v e postulates b u t t h i s will n o t be done here, but the
reader is urged to try h i s hand at it.
Another p r o p e r t y of the tetrahedron model that the reader may
be interested in proving is that it satisfies Incidence Postulates
1, 6, 7 , 8, and Existence Postulate 5 of o u r t e x t .
The committee interpretation of t h f s enlarged system takes
i n t o account three -member committees as we 11 as two -member
committees. Our tetrahedron model is for a f o u r p o i n t - six line
- four plane geometry.
L e t us return to the system Ql, QZ, 83 and i t s two geometric
interpretations and discuss algebraic sys tema isomorphic t o them.
For the complete quadrangle model, we consider points as t h e
s p e c i a l ordered number triples (x,y,z): ~(1,0,0);~(0,1,0);
C(0,0,1); 0 1 , l l ) . As llnes we take the six equations x = 0,
y = 0, z = 0, x = y, y = z, z = x . We say a p o i n t is - on a
line if i t s coordinates s a t i s f y the equation of the line.
Ql is s a t i s f i e d by the way coordinates were introduced. It
is now p o s s i b l e t o verify Q2 and Q3. There are s i x pairs of
p o i n t s and it is p o s s i b l e to show that any pair lies on one and
only one l i n e and this l i n e contains neither of the o t h e r p o i n t s .
For example, ~(0,1,0) and c(o,o,~) s a t i s f y the equation x = 0,
but n e i t h e r ~(1,0,0) nor ( 1 1 1 ) do; ~(0,1,0) and 0(1,1,1)
satisfy the equation x = z, but neither of the p o i n t s ~{1,0,0)
or ~(0,0,1) do. Similarly, f o r the f o u r o t h e r palrs .
For the tetrahedron model, we consider polnta as the special
ordered number t r i p l e s ( x , y , z ) : ~(1,0,0) ; B(O, 1,0); C(O,O, 1)
and 0(0,0,0). ( ~ o t et h e difference between the two models.) As
the lines we consider the s i x pairs of equations whfch can be
formed from the four equations x = 0, y = 0, z = 0, x + y + z = 1.
( ~ h e s eare the equations of the four planes.) Q1 is satisfied by
t h e way c o o r d i n a t e s were introduced, It is now posszble t o v e r i f y
Q2 and Q3. For example, ~(0,1,0) and C(0,0,1) satisfy t h e
two equations x = 0 , x + y + z = I, but both do n o t lie on
elther y = 0 or z = 0 , A similar analysis can be given f o r
every o t h e r pair of p o i n t s . I n t h i s algebraic model, Postulates
&4 and Q5 a l s o m y be v e r i f i e d .

5. - A -
seven p o i n t geometry. As mentioned e a r l i e r t h i s geometry
is one t h a t denies t h e existence of only three p o i n t s b u t s a t i s f i e s
P2, P 3 , P 4 o f the three-point geometry. We pepeat these
p o s t u l a t e s for convenience o f reference. The essential distinction
between t h i s geometry and those already discussed 1s t h a t every
l i n e contains t h r e e and only three p o i n t s . It is necessary to
i n c l u d e a p o s t u l a t e which guarantees there is a t l e a s t one line.
Undefined: point, l i n e , on.
P2. On two d i s t i n c t p o i n t s t h e r e is one and only one line.
P3. Not all p o i n t s a r e on t h e same l l n e ,
P4. On two d i s t i n c t lines there is at least one p o i n t .
P5. There exists at least one l i n e .
~ 6 .Every line is on at least three p o i n t s .
P7. No line is on more than three p o i n t s .
Of course ~6 and P7 could be p u t together t o say: Every
lLne is on three and only t h r e e p o i n t s .
We construct a s p e c i a l model f o r t h i s p o s t u l a t e system by
s e l e c t i n g seven d i s t i n c t p o i n t s , which we c a l l A , B, C, D, E, F,
G. We d e f i n e seven and only seven l i n e s , a, b, c, a, e, f , g,
each beLng a s e t of three p o f n t s , by means of t h e following t a b l e .
A
A B C D E F G

B C E A G D F
F D A G B E C
c a b d e g f
C
 It is n o t o u r purpose to d i s c u s s the many theorems that can
be proved from t h i s p o s t u l a t e system, b u t to p o i n t out several
interpretations of it. It may b o t h e r you a b i t to call (D,E,F)
a l i n e , but it is a line by definition j u s t as much as t h e t r i p l e
(A,B,F) is a line. Of course t h i s geometry is n o t l i k e the
Euclidean geometry o f your experience -- it is a f i n i t e projective
.geometry where we have considered only incidence p r o p e r t i e s . How-
ever, its interpretation as a group of seven persons and seven
committees of t h r e e and only three members is also available.
Since we set up the model by d e f l n i t i o n (committee aspect) and
then drew a diagram t o correspond, we must verify all the Postulates
P2 t o P7. This may be long in detail but it is n o t difficult.
There are 21 p a i r s of p o i n t s ( C 7 ' 6 ) and 21 pairs of
=
7 2 -2-
lines, but an examination of the table shows t h a t each row contains -
each letter once and only once, and each l e t t e r is in three and
only three c o l m s , and t h i s will simplify the d e t a i l s . It is
merely time consuming t o v e r i f y all the postulates; t h e s e p o s t u l a t e s
a r e a11 satisfied in the geometric model. To v e r i f y P 4 , for
example, from the table, it Is necessary t o consider 21 p a i r s of
lines, and indeed it is e a s y t o v e r i f y n o t o n l y t h a t each p a i r has
a p o i n t in common ( t h e r e are no pairs of parallel lines) but only
one p o i n t in common,
The r e s u l t s can be t a b u l a t e d as follows

c a b d e g f
b e f a g c d

d c a g b f e

A B C D E F G
Not only may we v e r i f y P2 - P7 in t h i s way, but a l s o t h e dual o f
each of these statements .
The dual is o b t a i n e d by interchanging
the words p o i n t and l i n e wherever they appear. For example,
the dual statement to ~6 and P 7 comblned would read:
 ~ 6 7, . Every p o i n t is on three and only three l i n e s .
This is easlly verif Led from the defining table.
The algebraic Isomorphism f o r t h i s geometry consists of the
following aas1g;nments of coordinates t o p o i n t s and equations t o
lines :

A l l the postulates could be verified purely algebraically.

For example, D(O,L,I) and ~ 1 , both ) l i e on t h e llne
x I- y + z = 2, but not both are on any o t h e r line. T h e l i n e
x = y contains the three points ~(0,0,1), ( 1 1 F(I,I,O)
but no o t h e r p o i n t . This is enough t o give the general idea.
6. Models -f o-r a hyperbolic geometry. In order t o dFscuss
such a model, it w i l l be embedded in a Euclidean plane. Hence we
assume that the postulates of Euclidean geometry a s s t a t e d in the
text have been made and Euclidean geometry has been developed. We
will use the terms point, line, plane, and c i r c l e as developed in
such a treatment. The corresponding words placed in quotes will
stand Sor entities In a new geometry, and will be defined by means
of Euclidean t e r n . In t h i s way we w i l l obtain models t o i l l u s -
trate some of the incidence p r o p e r t i e s of hyperbolic geometry.
-
The f i r s t model is oft e n called a p r o j e c t i v e model, b u t the
explanation of the term is beyond our present means. Consider a
circle. W e define a "point" o f our new

@
geometry to be a point in t h e i n t e r i o r of'
the c i r c l e ; a "line" is a chord of t h i s
c i r c l e without i t s end-points ; the "plane"
is the i n t e r i o r o f the c i r c l e . It is easy
t o observe that two " l i n e s " may o r may not
i n t e r s e c t . If two chords of the c i r c l e
i n t e r s e c t on the c i r c l e , we say that the corresponding " l i n e s " a r e
"parallel". Note that t h e r e is a d e f i n i t e d i s t i n c t i o n between two
It
lines" being t t p a r a l l e l " and two " l i n e s t t not intersecting, It is
also easy to observe that through a given "point" P, there are
-
exactly two " l i n e s " , PA and
tt
-
z, which are "parallel" to the
l i n e t t AB, and that t h e r e are an i n f i n i t e number of "lines"
-
through P t h a t do not intersect the "line" AB.
In the above model length and angular measure are distorted,
and a study of p r o j e c t i v e geometry is needed t o discuss t h e model.
There is a model, called P o i n c a i r e t s Universe, where length is
distorted but angular measure is n o t (but no proof i s intended).
To understand this model some knowledge of orthogonal c i r c l e s i n
Euclidean ~ e o m e t r yis required, and the corresponding theorems are
n o t usually presented In an introductory c r u r s e In plane geometry.
We state the necessary d e f i n i t i o n s
and theorems ( w i t h o u t proof) ,
Two c i r c l e s are orthogonal If
their angle of intersection is a
right angle. By the angle of i n t e r -
section of two circles we mean the
angle between the tangent lines
drawn at a common p o i n t .
Through two p o i n t s there is one and o n l y one c i r c l e ( o r line)
orthogonal to a given c i r c l e .
In the Poincaire model, a "point" is again a point inside a
gfven circle C, and the "plane1' is the set of all points in the
I n t e r i o r of the circle. A "line" is either a diameter of the
c i r c l e C , without i t s end-points, or that part o f a circle o r t h o -
gonal t o t h e c i r c l e C which lies inslde C. We note, therefore,
that through two "points" there is one and only one "line". Two
It
lines" are said to be "parallel" if their corresponding diameters
o r c i r c l e s i n t e r s e c t on C. It I s again easy to observe that
through a given "point" P, there are t w o " l i n e s " PA and
n
s,
which are "parallel" t o the "line" , and that there are an
infinite number of "lines" through f t h a t do n o t i n t e r s e c t the
"llne" . One more idea may be observed i n t h i s diagram (based
on t h e assumption that angular measure is n o t d i s t o r t e d ) .
 tf
The sum of the measures of the "angles" of a " t r i a n g l e n
such as A PQR o r A APB is less than 180.''
A more detailed study o f the geometry of the circle in t h e
Euclidean plane, including a study of the concept of c r o s s - r a t i o
1s needed to carry the discussion Further. Some further results
and suggestions o r indications of ideas that m i g h t be investigated
-
can be found in Eves and Newson, Introduction to FoundatLons and -
-
Fundamental Concepts of Mathematics.
 It is p o s s i b l e to develop the t h e o r y of area, as f a r as we
need i t , from a very simple set of p o s t u l a t e s , which a r e intuitive-
l y acceptable. In some r e s p e c t they are more intuitive than thk
ones given in the t e x t , being simpler to state and r e q u i r i n g fewer
preliminary d e f i n i t i o n s . For example, it is not necessary to define
polygonal region in order t o s t a t e the p o s t u l a t e s . It is s a t i s f y i n g
that t h i s is one of t h e many cases In mathematics in which i n t u i t i o n
and r i g o r go hand in hand. We shall sketch t h i s development a t
least up t o t h e point where i t is clear t h a t w e could proceed as in
the text, by deriving as theorems the postulates of the t e x t which
are n o t a l r e a d y included i n our s e t . Some of the early theorems
may appear obvious and hardly worth proving; b u t if we recognize
the f a c t t h a t postulate systems a r e constructed by fallible h m n s
and need to be tested by t h e i r consequences, then we should derive
s a t i s f a c t i o n from the p r o v a b i l i t y of some "obvious" statements by
means a f o u r pos tulate sys tern.
We always speak of the area of something, and t h l s something
fs a region or a figure -- which are slmply names for c e r t a i n sets
of points in a plane. Thus, area is a function of s e t s , an assign-
ment of a unique real number to a s e t . Whenever we speak of a
function, it is important to be quite c l e a r as to the domaln of the
f u n c t i o n , t h a t i s , the s e t of objects f o r whfch the functlon pro-
vides us with an answer. In o u r c a s e , we must ask, what s e t s are
to have an area assigned to them? We could limit ourselves, if we
wished, to simple s e t s , like polygonal regions. This has the d i s -
advantage t h a t it elminates regions bounded by circles, e l l i p s e s ,
hyperbolas, and other smooth curves, regions whlch (our i n t u i t i o n
t e l l s us) should have a r e a s . O f course, we do n o t want huge sets
like the whole plane, or half-planes, or the interiors of angles,
t o have area. These all have the property of being unbounded.
Fortunately, it can be proved that it is possible to assign a
reasonable area t o every reasonable s e t in the p l a n e . The f i r s t
II
reasonablet1 means that t h e area f u n c t i o n will not v i o l a t e o u r
I n t u i t i o n . The second "reasonable" we s h a l l i n t e r p r e t in the
widest p o s s i b l e sense, namely, as "bounded". A bounded s e t is one
that can b e enclosed in some square ( o r circle). We shall t h e r e -
f o r e adopt as our f i r s t area postulate the following:
Postulate A 1 .
There is a function A ( c a l l e d area) defined
for all bounded sets In t h e plane; t o each bounded s e t S, A
assigns a unique non-negative number A ( S ) .
L e t us observe immediately t h a t a p o i n t and a segment are
bounded sets, so we have committed ourselves to the unfamiliar
positlon of a t t r i b u t i n g an area t o such s e t s . The area will turn
o u t t o be zero, of course. There a r e excellent precedents: l e t
us recall that we have allowed ourselves t o speak o f the d i s t a n c e
from a p o i n t t o i t s e l f as being zero. Analogously, in the theory
of probability it is u s e f u l t o have events w i t h zero probability,
even though the events a r e p o s s i b l e . Indeed, the t h e o r i e s o f
l i n e a r measure, area, volume, probability, and c o u n t i n g all have
a g r e a t deal in common, since they arc concerned with a s s i g n i n g
measures t o v a r i o u s s e t s . Far from being a disadvantage, t h e
concept of zero area is extremely valuable. It makes explicit
o u r sound intuition of what s e t s are "negligible" as f a r as area
1s concerned. For example, the A r e a Addition P o s t u l a t e I n the
text ( P o s t u l a t e 19) essentially a s s e r t s t h a t the area o f t h e union
of t w o s e t s is equal to the sum of their areas, provided t h a t they
o v e r l a p in a " n e g l i g i b l e " s e t -- a f i n i t e union of p o i n t s a d
segments. It is somewhat e a s i e r t o accept an Area Addition
P o s t u l a t e in which t h e "negligible" s e t is the empty s e t , as in
Postulate A2 t h a t follows, and to prove later that c e r t a i n s e t s
r e a l l y are " n e g l i g i b l e t t .

Postulate A 2 , If S and T are bounded s e t s in the plane

which have no p o i n t s in common, then t n e area of t h e union of S
and T is equal to the sum of the a r e a s . T h a t is, if V is the
union o f S and T, then A ( V ) = A ( S ) + A(T) .
 We have already remarked that P o s t u l a t e A 2 is weaker in one
respect than the Area Addition P o s t u l a t e in t h e t e x t , for it does
not allow even one p o i n t i n common to the s e t s S and T. Observe
also that Postulate A 2 does not need t o assert the existence of
A ( v ) . This is in f a c t a simple consequence of P o s t u l a t e A l , f o r
the union of two bounded s e t s is a l s o bounded.
Our t h i r d postulate will give the essential connection between
our geometry and area. For thia we need a somewhat mope general
concept of congruence than the usual one. Two s e t s will be called
c o n p e n t if there is a one-to-one correspondence between them
which preserves a l l distances. More precisely, suppose there is a
one-to-one correspondence between S and T such t h a t , A and
B being any p o i n t s of S corresponding to A ' and 3' in T,
the distance .
is equal to the distance A 7 B r Then we shall
aay that S is congruent to T, or S = T. Our d e f i n i t i o n s of
congruence for segments, angles, t r i a n g l e s , and circles are s p e c i a l
cases of t h i s more general d e f i n i t i o n . For a fuller treatment, see
the Appendix on Rigid Motion and t h e Talk on Congruence. If our
area function is to be reasonable, then congruent sets should have
t h e same area:
Postulate A 3 . If S is a bounded s e t and S = T, then
A(S) = ACT).
Again, it is easy to see I n t u i t i v e l y that if
S is bounded
and S T, then T is bounded, and A (T) exists by Postulate
A1 .
Now let us consider the area of a square of a i d e 1 together
with its interior. For all we know from the f i r a t three postulates,
thia area might be 0. This does violence to our Intuition, and
even more, we could then prove t h a t every bounded s e t has area 0.
Therefore we must postulate t h a t t h i s area is p o s i t i v e , say equal
to k. But then the new area function defined by A' (s) = rI ; ~ ( ~ )
would be just as good as the o l d and would have the desirable
property t h a t it assigns the value 1 t o the u n l t square and its
interior. We shall therefore postulate t h i a imediately:
 P o s t u l a t e A 4 . If S is the set consisting o f a s q u a r e of
s l d e 1 t o g e t h e r w i t h its i n t e r i o r , then A ( S ) = 1.

T h i s postulate essentially does no more than (a) rule out

the trlvial case of a constantly zero area function, and ( b ) fix
the unlt by which we measure t h e area of a s e t . We can thlnk of
I t as a normalization postulate, and shall speak of our area
function as being normalized.
Summing up our f o u r p o s t u l a t e s -- these a r e a l l we need -- we
see t h a t we have a non-negative (Postulate ~ l ) , f i n i t e l y - a d d i t i v e
( p o s t u l a t e ~ 2 ,) normalized ( P O S t u l a t e ~ 4 f) u n c t i o n of bounded s e t s
in the plane (postulate A l ) , invariant under r i g i d motlon (or
congruence) (postulate ~ 3 ) . The term "finitely-additive" refers
to the fact that we can easily replace the two s e t s in P o s t u l a t e
A 2 by any finite number of s e t s , no t w o of whlch have a p o i n t in
common.
A t the beginning of t h i s talk, we s t a t e d t h a t !.t is p o s s i b l e t o
asslgn a reasonable area to every reasonable s e t in the plane.
T h i s theorem, a s s e r t i n g t h e existence of such a function, is
rather deep and d i f f i c u l t t o prove. Nevertheless, it provides us
with a sound basis f o r a treatment o f a r e a in the plane, The s e t
of four postulates matches our i n t u i t i o n quite well, e s p e c i a l l y
if we have n o t subjected to close scrutiny the v a s t generality
involved in the phrase "all bounded sets in the planet1. It should
be remarked t h a t t h e theorem does n o t guarantee a unique f u n c t i o n ,
b u t any t w o functions that s a t i s f y the conditions will agree for
decent, non-pathological s e t s such as polygonal regions, c i r c u l a r
regions, and regions bounded by arcs of smooth curves like p a r a b o l a s ,
hyperbolas, e l l i p s e s , e l c .
It would be pleasant if this treatment could be generalized
to volume in three dimensions . Surprisingly, the corresponding
statement in t h r e e dimensions is f a l s e , One form of t h e Banach-
T a r s k i Paradox z s s e r t s that it is p o s s i b l e to s p l i t each of two
spheres of different r a d i i into t h e same f i n i t e number of s e t s ,
corresponding s e t s from each sphere being congruent. If t h e t h r e e -
dimensional statement were t r u e , the corresponding s e t s would have
equal volumes, by t h e invariance under congruence, and t h e r e f o r e
the spheres would have equal volume, by the finite-additivity of
volume. On the o t h e r hand, t h e usual formula for t h e volume of a
sphere would be v a l i d , thus leading to a contradiction. In three-
dimensions, therefore, I t is necessary to limit our volume functlon
t o a more r e s t r i c t e d c l a s s o f sets than the bounded ones, T h i s
res t r l c t i o n i a no cause f o r alarm, since the resulting domain of
the volume function Is still much wider than we need for ordinary
purposes. The s e t s t h a t we exclude a r e a l l really "wild", With
t h i s one modification t h e methods used here a r e s t i l l applicable
in three -dimensions .
Now we shall proceed w i t h the business of developing the con-
sequences of o u r set o f postulates. These consequences we shall
s t a t e as theorems, F i r s t , however, we need a simple r e s u l t which
has nothing directly to do with area, but which is a basic property
of o u r r e a l number system.
Theorem 1. If a is a non-negative number such t h a t f o r
every p o s i t i v e integer number n, na 5 1, then a = 0 .
The statement may seem a l i t t l e s t r a n g e , but I t is s p e c i f i -
c a l l y designed t o y i e l d the type of result needed, namely that a
certain number is 0. For example, suppose t h a t we wish to prove
that a certain formula ylelds t h e c o r r e c t value f o r the area of a
given f i g u r e . Let t h e area be A and the number given by the
formula be B. Denote by a the absolute v a l u e o f t h e i r d i f f e r -
ence, (A-BI. Then we wish to prove that a = 0 . We may be a b l e
to show t h a t no multlple of a exceeds 1. If so, then Theorem 1
assures us that a = 0 and therefore that A = B. Another way of
stating Theorem 1 is: There is no positive number which I s simul-
taneously - < 1, q,1 1
3, ,1 ... . S t i l l another way is: Every
-
p o s i t i v e real number is less than some p o s i t i v e integer. If we
regard t h i s l a s t statement as being a mown property of real
numbers, then t h e proof o f Theorem 1 is q u i t e easy. Suppose,
indeed, t h a t a s a t i s f les t h e hypotheses of t h e theorem, but
that a > 0. Then - 1 is a p o s i t i v e number, and there Is a p o s i t i v e
a
 1
Integer n such that a < n, by what we have j u s t said, For
t h i s n, 1 < na, contradicting the hypothesis na ( 1. Therefore
the assumption a > 0 is f a l s e . Since a > 0 or a = 0 by
hypothesis, and the first is f a l s e , the second must be true.
We can now prove some r a t h e r obvious r e s u l t s which are usually
assumed Implicitly in c u t o r n a r y treatments. They a r e , in fact,
somewhat less obvious than some of the theorems t h a t Euclid took
the trouble to prove ( e . g . , the theorem t h a t v e r t i c a l angles a r e
congruent). It is interesting to contemplate what the situation
m i g h t have been if Euclid had decided t h a t these were worthy of
statement and p r o o f . Perhaps school boys f o r centuries would
have studied and proved:
Theorem 2. The area of a p o i n t I s 0.
Proof: Let S be a unit square plus Its i n t e r i o r . By
P o s t u l a t e A 4 , A($) = 1. L e t n be an arbitrary positive i n t e g e r ,
and choose n points PI, P2, ..
., Pn i n S. I f T I s t h e
.
s e t ( p l J , . , P , then by Postulate A 2 (rather, by the
generalization of Postulate A2 t o n disjoint s e t s ) , we have
. ..
A ( T ) = A ( P ~ ) + A(P*) + + A(P,). Now any two one-pain+. a e t s
are congruent, so by Postulate A 3 , A ( P ~ )= A(P2) = = A(P,). ...
and A(T) = ~ A ( P ~ ) . Let R be a l l of S except f o r the p o i n t s
of T. Then R and T have no p o i n t s in common and their union
i a S . By P o s t u l a t e A 2 ,
A ( T ) + AIR)
= A@].
By Postulate A l , A(R) 2 0. Therefore-
A(T) I A(S) *
Substituting 1 for A(S) and ~ A ( P ~ f) o r A(T), we g e t
4 ~ ~
( 1. 1
In 'Ihearem 1, we may take a = A ( P ~ ) , since A ( P ~ ) Is non-negative
by Postulate A l . Therefore a = 0, t h a t is, A ( P ~ )= 0. Since
every p o i n t is congruent to P, A(P) = 0 for every p o i n t P, by
Po8 tulate A 3 .
Observe that in the proof of Theorem 2, we proved and made
use of a s p e c i a l case of:
 Theorem 3. If T is a subset of t h e bounded s e t S, then
5 A(S)
The proof may be l e f t to the reader.
Now we s t a t e a useful theorem which Is similar to Postulate A2,
but which has a weaker hypothesis.
Theorem 4. If S and T a r e bounded s e t s , V is t h e union
of S and T, and I is the intersection of S and T, then
A(V) = A ( S ) + A(T) A(I). -

Proof: Let S1 be the p a r t of S n o t In T. Then t h e

union of S T and 1 1s S , and S 1 and I a r e d i s j o i n t . By
P o s t u l a t e A2,
~ ( s )= A(s~)+ ~ ( 1 ) .
A l s ~ ,the union of S1 and T is V, and St and T are
disjoint. By P o s t u l a t e A2,
A(V) = A(S) + A(T).
Therefore
A(V) = A ( S ) = A(I) + A(T)
= A(S) -I- A ( T ) - ~(1).
Theorem 5 . If S and T are bounded s e t s and V is t h e i r
union, then
A{V) 5 A ( S ) -F A ( T ) .

The proof f o l l o w s from Theorem 4 on observing t h a t ~ ( 12

) 0,
b y Postulate A1 .
 Theorem 6. If S1, Sg, ..., S, are bounded s e t s and V
is t h e i r union, then
A(V) 5 A(S,) + A(s,) t ... + ~ ( s , ) .
The proof follows from Theorem 5 by induction.
Next, we prove another "obvious'I theorem.
Theorem 7. The area of a segment is 0.
Proof: Let BC be a given segment, of l e n g t h k. There is
-*
a natural number m such that k m. On the ray BC,

let D be the point such t h a t BD = m. To prove t h a t A(BC) = 0

it is sufficient to show that ~[m)
= 0, by Postulate A 1 and
Theorem 3 . Now is the union of rn segments S1, ., S, ..
of length 1. These segments are not d i s j o i n t , but we c a n still
apply Theorem 6 t o get
~(5)
)l A@,) + ... + n(s,)
= MslL
since Sl, ..., are all congruent. Therefore it I s s u f f i c i e n t
S,
Lo show bhat a se-etlt of length 1 has area 0. The proof of t h i s
proceeds as In Theorem 2, by f i t t i n g an arbitrary number n of
disjoint unit segnents w i t h i n a unit square. We omit t h e details.
We are now in a position t o prove that the boundary of a poly-
gonal region (defined in Chapter 11) has no influence on its area.
Theorem 8. L e t R be a polygonal region and let R t be the
a m region with a l l or part of the boundary removed. Then
A(R') = A(R) .
 Proof: L e t Ro be t h e region R w i t h all of the boundary
removed, Then Ro is contained in Rt and Rt is contained in
R. Therefore
(Am' 1(
by Theorem 3. It Is sufficient to show that A(%) = A ( R ) . k t
B be the boundary, consisting of a f i n i t e number of segments. By
an a p p l i c a t i o n of Theorem 6 , Theorem 7 , and Postulate Al, we find
t h a t A(B) = 0. But R I s the union of the d i s j o i n t s e t s Ro
and B, so
A(R) = A(RJ + A(@ = A(R~),
and the proof is complete.
Postulate 19 of the t e x t now follows readily, since the over-
l a p of the two regions RI and R2 consists of a finite number of
p o i n t s and s e p e n t a , and the area of the overlap is 0. We s t a t e
Postulate 19 as a theorem, but omit the p r o o f .
Theorem 9 , Suppose that the polygonal region R 3.3 the union
of t w o polygonal regions R1 and R2, which i n t e r s e c t a t most in
a f i n i t e number of segments and points. Then A(R) = A ( R ~ ) + A ( R ~ ).

Now consider a rectangle R of base b and altitude a . We

are aiming at a proof that A(R) = ab, t h i s being P o s t u l a t e 20 of
the t e x t .
 Choose am arbitrary p o s i t i v e integer n, and determine p
and q , also p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r s , by the conditions

+
KN. Then L I s on the
-
S t a r t i n g a t K, l a y o f f p segments of l e n g t h 1 a l o n g ray KL
and q segments of length 1 along ray -+
+
p - t h segment on KL and N is on the q-th segment on KPI.
The rectangular region R is now enclosed between two rectangular
regions S and T, where S has dimensions and u, n
T has dimensions and2, Therefore

IA(R) 5 A(T)
NOW S c o n ~ i s t sof ( - 1 ) - 1) square regions of side ,;1
and T c o n s i s t s o f pq square regions of side .
1
If the area
of one of these square regions is A,, then
A@) = (P - l)(q - 1)A,,
= PW,,
SO

<
(P - l l ( q - l ) ~ , A(R) ( pqAn*
It remains to compute ,A and then A ( R ) . But a u n l t square,
2 1
whose area is 1, can be s p l i t up i n t o n squares of aide E,
2
1 = n An,
1

Therefore
1 1
(P - l)h - 1) -2 ( ( Pq 3%.
n
Now, f r o m the conditions dete&ing p and q.
The two fixed numbers A I R ) both l i e in the interval
and ab
w i t h end-points , n 2.9,
n n s o the a b s o l u t e v a l u e of
their difference is at most equal t o the length of the i n t e r v a l :

Since
n
b and
is appmxlmately 5 q
n
a
is approximately n,
1
the r i g h t a i d e Is approximately E(a + b ) , which is very small If
n is l a r g e . A n application of Theorem I to the fixed non-negative
number * . would then yield t h a t this number is 0, To
make t h i s argument p r e c i s e , choose n so large that I a and
1 < b.
-
n - Then < b implies that

and < a irnpllea that

Therefore

Combining t h i s with our previous inequality, we g e t

f o r a l l sufficiently large p o s i t i v e integers n, and t h e r e f o r e

for all n. By Theorem 1,

is 0, so A ( R ) = ab. This completes the proof of:

 Theorem 10. The area of a rectangle is the product of i t s
base and altitude.
We have now reached o u r goal of' establishing Postulates 17-20
of t h e t e x t from o m system of Postulates A1-Ah. Thfs may n o t
seem l i k e a great accompli-shment if we are i n t e r e s b e d in polygonal
regions only, but it p e r n i t s t h e e v a l u a t i o n of areas of other re-
glons without the necessity of making ad hoc e x t e n s i o n s of the
domain of the area function at a l a t e r stage. It provides us w i t h
an excellent example o f the power of deductive reasoning. Finally,
the transition from here t o the i n t e g r a l calculus is a smooth and
natural m e , For example, the calculation of t h e area under the
curve y = x n , f o r a l l i n t e g e r s n (including n = -1) can be
carried out on t h e basis of t h i s development, without any reference
to the d i f s e r e n t l a l calculus.