Ch.1/ Geotechnical Engineering —Weight-Mass-Vohume Problems Smet a" 1. Geotechnical Engineering Geovechnical engineering may be subdivided into two broad areas of subject matter, each of which is often a separate undergraduate course. The first, soi! mechanics, deals with the properties, classification, and stress-strain behavior (compressibility and strength) of soil materials and the movement of water through soils. The second, traditionally called foundation engineering, and more recently called geotechnical design, involves the application of the theory of soil _mechanics to problems involving foundations, slopes and retaining structures, ‘The geotechnical “Definitions” cited in the NCEES Reference Handbook are ‘in some cases definitions and in some cases equations, They relate to commonly encountered gcotechnical engineering problems; however, many of the variables used in the definitions are themselves not defined. Furthermore, some are valid only for special cases and cannot always be used for general cases. Hence, this chapter provides a brief review to define all variables and describe limitations of the equations. Definitions and Unit Conversions Weight-volume and mass-volume problems involve determining quantities, satios or proportions of soil components working from other known quantities, tatios or proportions. In an actual volume of soil, the solids, water and (if not. saturated) air are arranged in a complex fashion as shown in Figure 1.1, To sim- plify visualization of the problem, a phase diagram may be drawn. In a phase diae ‘gram, shown in Figure 1.2, the solid particles are shown as a single contiguous ‘muss at the bottom of the diagram. Above the solide is shown the water, and above that, the air. On the left side of the diagram are shown the total volume V, the Volume ¥, of solids the volume Vof water, the volume V,of air, and the vol- ume V, of vaids, which is the combined volume of water and air. On the right side are shown the total weight W, the weight W, of solids, and the weight Wof ‘water. The weight of air is taken as zero Ww al02/24/2009 15:25 FAX 5738824784 oo2z r iy 1 Geotechnical Engineering —Weight-Mass-Volume Problems ‘Figure 1. The Soil-Water Syste Volume Unit Weight Weight 0 Ve w : v w Ww, i Figure 1.2 Phase Diagram i Observe that V. = Vi+V,. and Wa W,+ Wo. : Relationships regarding soil and water volumes include the void ratio ¢, ‘which is the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids, ve v, the porosity 7, which is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume, y, ae 1G and the degree of saturation S, which is the ratio of the volume of water to the vol- sunne of voids and is usually expressed as a percentage, Ve Sa FE x100% I ‘The relationship involving soil and water weights is the water content w or i ‘moisture content, which is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of solids, : = Meio Ratios of weights to volumes are termed unit weights. The total unit aneight vis the total weight of a soil mass (soil, water and air) divided by the total volume occupied, inchuding the pore volume, w 1-9 The saturated unit weight 7a: is the total unit weight obtained if the entire void volume were filled with water (S = 100% and V, = V,)02/24/2009 15:25 FAX 5738824784 oo3 “The dry unit weight 7s the ratio of the weight of solids to the total volume, Ws ny “The dry unit weight isto track the weight of soil solids in en entire occupied ‘volume of solids and voids (eg, the volume of a truck bed). For example, Wim “The specif gravity C is the ratio of the unit weight of the soil solids to the unit weight of water, cate Tw hence, the unit weight of solids 7 can be expressed as For most of the minerals comprising soil solids, G is in the range 2.65 to 2.75; G=2.70is a common assumption when tests results are not available, Problems involving SI units may be phrased in the context of masses and, ‘mass densities rather than weights and unit weights; however, unit weights must ‘ullimately be obtained for stress calculations. Mass density is denoted by p. As weight W equals mass m times the acceleration of gravity g (W = mg), the unit weight values defined above aze in fact the product of mass densities and g, epg urs Jn the St system, mass densities are commonly expressed as Mg/m?, kg/an°, or g/ml, 1 Mg/m’ = 1000 kg/m" = 1 g/mL Recall the mass density and unit weight of water, ‘Mass density of water: p, = 1 Mg/m! = 1000 kg/m’ = 1 g/aiL Unit weight of water: 4, =9807 kN/m’ = 9807 N/m? = 62.4 Ib/f Convert a total mass density of p = 1900 kg/m’ to a total unit weight for use in stress calculations. (A) 19.0KN/m" @) 1863 KN/m? © 190KN/a’ (D) 1.863 N/m? Solution: y= pz = 1900 kg/m (9.807 m/s") = 18 630 kg/ats* 18 630 N/m’ = 18.63 KN/ro°. The answer is B. Dee aaaMoos Ch.1/ Geotechnical Engineering —Weightass-Votume Problems #271. Soil solids have a specific gravity of 4. ing the unit weight of solids in S units (N/m?) @ 56x sant Co ae (By! 27.1 KN/w? oe %, igi II (© 1693 N/m? Ae 27LKN/m* ae Ae if © if Xe 2. Bind the unit welght of solids in English units (b/#?). (A) 26.61b/ 271 ib/te 169.1 b/te ) 624th /fe Solutions: L.A = Oy =2.710.807 N/m) = 26.58 N/m! 2 C 42 Gy = 271624 Ib/ i) = 169.10 Ib /#8 ‘A soil mass has a total unit weight of 7=130 lb/#?. Find the total unit weight in ST units (N/m) @) Boke — X, @) 408KN/m* (C) 2.08 kN /mn* “7 @ynawrer Sean x llalg> Solution: “Although a chain of conversion factors could be used, conversions can be simmpli- fied by taking the ratio of the anit weight of water in ST units to that in English ‘units as an equality. {I's the same water.) Thus, "y= 180 lb/ft’ [(9.807 KN/m’) /(62.41b/#t)] = 20.43 KN/m? ‘The answer is D. Solving Problems with Known Quantities Although weight-volume problems can be worked disectly with equations, exrors are reduced and checks are provided if such problems are worked by drawing a phase diagram and performing the following steps.PUM et Pai allie Ch.1/ Geotechnical Engineering —Weigh-Mass-Volume Problems 21 SL # Fillin the known weights, volumes, and unit weights. ‘+ Multiply known volumes by the corresponding unit weights to obtain | ‘weights. Divide known weights by the corresponding unit weight to obtain ‘volumes, Use at least four significant digits to ensure that the results will bal- | ance when values are summed in the vertical direction and multiplied or di- | vvided in the horizontal direction. ! + Where values of some relationships (1, 2,1 5, ec.) are given, use the defini- i sions to obtain additional weights or volumes. Continue multiplication and division across the diagram and addition and subtraction up and down the | sides until all weights and volumes are known and all quentities balance. | + Calculate the required values from the completed and checked diagram. A mold having a volume of 0.10 was filled with moist soil. The weight of the soil in the mold was found to be 12,00 Ib. The soil was oven dried and the | “weight after drying was 1050 Ib. The spacific gravity of solids was known (or as- sumed) tobe 2.70. 1. ind the water content Vz 0 €? | (A) 125% @ u3% Wee hee te. H (©) 38.6% (D) 24.0% 2. Bind the void ratio. l “a 0.604 0.386 (©) 0183 (©) 0377 3. Be pooity (A) 0.604 B) 0386 030 om 4 Find the dogroe of saturation. i (a) 143% j @)_100% © s% 24.0% jo06 02/24/2009 15:26 FAX 5738824784 22 Ch. 1/ Geotechnical Engineering —Wei 5. Bind the total unit weight. i Ca) 120 1b/tt Y= Wye ®) 105 ye? In (©) 165 b/e8 Ve ©) 624th /e? 6. Find the dry unit weight. (A) 1201b/f? a 105 Tb/f? “be a om ) 165 Ib /ft? 20? ©) 624 tbsit Solutions: ‘A phase diagram is drawn and the known quantities are entered (shown in bold). ‘The remaining quantities are then calculated ae follows: Volume Unit Weight Weight Wy =W-W, = 12.00~10.50 =1.50 Ib Va =We / Yq =1.50/62.4= 0.02404 6 The volume of solids is The volume of airis V,=V-V,-Y, The volume of voids is V.= Ve V_= 0.02402 + 0.01364 = 0.03766 ‘The phase diagram is now complete and all the desired solutions can be ob- tained: LB w=W,/W,=150 / 10.50 = 0.143 = 14.30% 2. A 2=VJV,= 0.03766 / 0.06232 = 0.604 es02/24/2009 15:27 FAX 5738824784 = VAV = 0.03766 / 0.1000 = 0.377 $= (VIV) 100% = (0.00404 / 0.03768) 200%) - 63.8% = W/V = 12.00 / 0.100 = 120 ib/f . %= We/V = 10.50 / 0.100 = 105 Ib/f? The soil in Example 14 becomes saturated by accumulating water. Assuming ¢ it retains the same total volume, oat 3 4 5 6 srog 1. Find the saturated water content oa? ape (a) 9.6% Nee se ide @)_97.6% AIL 60.4% 2. Find the saturated unit weight 7 3 (ay 128.5 tb/ée i BG 108 ib /ft (©) wowst? @) 165 /t0 3. Find the dry unit weight Ney (A) 1285 bb/f? TI Oyprsw/e © 1650/8? ©) Lob/it Solutions: ‘After saturation, V,= 0.09768 £2. Taking W, = Vj the new weight of water 4s (0.03768)(62.4) = 2.350 Ib. The phase diagram is modified as shown and solu- tions follow. Volume Unit Weight Weight 0.1009}oos = 0.2239 or 22.4% = W _10.5042.35 2 7 50-+2.35 98.5 Ib/# W, _ 10.50 iag = 208.0 Ib/ 8? Note that the dry unit weight does not change with an addition of water at total constant volume. Solving Problems Involving Only Relationships For problems where only relationships (w, ¢ S, et.) are given, only elation- ships may be calculated. The phase diagram approach may still be used by as- suming a Value for one weight or volume. While any quantity can be assumed, certain assumptions greatly simplify calculations: .00 oF 100.00 (lb or kg); than W, = 1 or 1000. © Ifwis given, assume W, = Ife is given, assume V, = 1.000 f orm’, then V, If yis given, assume V = 1.000 for m’; then W= % = Te mis given, assume V = 1.000 A’ or m then W.= 1 ‘tis recommended that weight-volume problems be solved using phase dia~ ‘grams rather then just formulas; nevertheless, a very useful equation that relates four different relationships is se=wG For saturated soils (5 = 100%) this becomes e=wG ‘The relationships between the void ratio and porosity are Tre ‘The total unit weight can be expreased as: ya #50 Te Tre The dry unit weight can be obtained as: y, : = Ste Ya Tee02/24/2009 15:27 FAX 5738824784 Ch. 1/ Geotechnical Engineering —Weight-Mass-Volume Problems 25 A soil has 2 water content of 20 percent, a void ratio of 0.800, and a specific gravity 0f 265, 1. Find the degree of saturation. @ s0% os (B) 20.0% J Co % fe ao wa, 2, Find the porosity. (ards Zee S= ode il = hs (8) 0.800 Ne a (©) 0330 hs \u5.2 BE (©) 0500 nyge OTT \ a 28) 3. Find the total unt weight Xow? «28 (208 (A) 168.4 1b/t CLA (@) wee/té Wa At iW (Qpm02 w/e wus 4 {D) 919 b/s? Ve 4. Find the dry unit weight, ver eet 165.4 Ib /6? (8) \p1.9 Bye DUN ee ty nl ) 198.4 )b/i & Ge Solutions: follows, Volume Weight 0.00 3072 | a ag 168.3602/24/2009 15:27 FAX 5738824784 oo Ch. 1/ Geotechnical Engineering—Weight-Mass-Volume Problems 26 a Remaining quantities are caleulated as: ¥, = eV, = (0.800)(1.000) = 0.800 £° W,= ViG7, = (1.000)2.65)(62.8) = 165.36 Ib W, Vas = Wed Yo = (83.072) (62.4) ~ 0.530 8 V, = V,—Viy = 0.800 ~ 0.550 = 0.270 ff 1W, = (0.20)(165.36) = 33.072 Tb At this point, the weights and volumes ofall components are known for the as- sumed 1.000 f¥ of solids and the equired solstiona ean be ealculated: y, Ve 5 100% = Le sa Fex 100% Alternatively, ¥, _ 0,800 2 A N= TOR Altamatively, (2.65 +(0.6625%0.800))824 si on, p48 Ta00 48 n=l Sens wit Alternatively,02/24/2009 1 8 FAX 5738824784 Wo 1.2 Relative Densit ‘The density of sands and gravels is often specified and measured in terms of the relative density D, (the notation in the NCEES Handbook note that many texts use D, or Ip). The term is a misnomer, as it deals with void ratio, not density. It scales the actual void ratio as a fraction of the range between the mastimum and smrinimum void ratios: Dy = fmm 100% Cae To determine the relative density using actual, muinimum, and maximum dry ‘unit weight values rather than void ratios, the above equation can be manipu- lated to obtain: Tests are made to determine the maximum and miniswum void ratios for a sand, and it is found that ¢,, = 0500 and e,. = 0.700. A well-compacted sample In he elds found tohave a vol ratio of ¢= 0.550, Whats che relative density? (A) 25% ay | i (B) 55% Oj niet il (C) 100% el aa Solution Y= 070-058 109% 0 75% Laboratory tests on a sand indicate a minimum dry unit weight of 16.0 RN/in* and a maximum dry unit weight of 18.0 KN/m’, It is specified to be com- acted to at least 60% relative density. What is the minimum acceptable unit ‘weight that will pass the specifications? 1B) 1720 EN) (B) 217.14 KN/ mn? © 1080N/m? () 960EN/m?02/24/2009 15:28 FAX 5738824784 oi 28 Ch.1/ Geotechnical Engineering—Relative Density Solution: Substituting in D, = ee 100%, ! IY 0.06250=0.05505 1/ rg = 0.0625 —0.600 x0.00694 = 0.05884 60%: 100% 722 7A KN (mn? Note that four or more significant digits must be retained to preserve accuracy, as the problem involves a ratio of differences of inverses, « very numerically i sensitive problem. The answer is B. 1.3 Grain-Size Characteristics of Soils \ “The grain-size distribution of sands and gravels is detersnined by a sieve analy- | sis (or mechanical analyte. Opening sizes for commonly used standard sieves are i chown in Table 1.1. A soil sample is passed over the steves and the sieves are | Shaken unt] all pasticles have passed down to the sieve that rotains them. The | cumulative weight ofall material larger than each opening size is divided by the total sample weight to obtain the percantage rlainad oF the percent coarser Une cx- | smulative weight ofall material smaller than tha size divided by the total sample | weight is the percentage passing or the percent fner. The results are plotted as the : percent finer inear sale) versus the sieve opening or grain-size (log scale). The : Plots refered to as a gra size curve, examples of which are presented in Figure : 13. “able 11 Opening Sizes of Standard Sieves i Sieve Size 18 in 375 mm 1 25 ozs 19 05 125 No: 4 475 mm 10 2.00 20 0.850 0 0.425 7 0.212 100 0.150 20 0.075 Certain sizes of interest may be read from the grain size curve. The Dy siz2, sometimes called the effective size, is the grain diameter for which 10 percent of the sample (by weight) is finer. The Dy size, called the median grain size, is the grain diameter for which 50 percent of the sample (by weight) is finer. In general, the notation D,., refers to the grain diameter for which 2x percent of the sample is Ener by weight A8 FAX 5738824784 013 02/24/2009 1 pereent fines coSBSsesuess Ot 01 Dmm Figure 13 Grain Size Curves Two parameters are used to describe the shape of the grain-size curve. The corffcient of uniformity 6, i: o, = Pa “" Dio It provides a measure of the slope of the curve. The coefcient of curoature ox coef cient of gradation cis: It provides a measure of the smoothness of the curve. For the grain size curve A in Figure 1.3, 1. Determine the effective grain size, Diy (A) 022mm ®) 041mm © 100mm ©) 0.28 mum 2 ine the coefficient of uniformity. gps Blas © Cyr tee 2 ell 2.6 Os LAN NN a1. D. Start at the 10% passing point on the vertical axis, move horizontally across to Curve A, then down to read Dyy = 0.28 mun D, - y= De = 070 _ 9, 2. A Dyn 070mm, c= FE = 993 “25 Uh = Dat 3. © Dy= O51 mm, 6 =p = ETE) [Refer to the grain size curve B in Figure 13. 1. Detarmine the effective grain size, Dy. (@) 0019 mm ®) 027mm © Imm (O05 mm 2, Determine the coefficient of uniformity. (a) 280 ie 8. Determine the coefficient of curvature. ou ov & © 088 i ©) 538 Solutions: 1. D. Start at the 10% passing point on the vertical axis, move horizontally across to Curve B, then down to read Dyp~ 0.095 ana, Dio 0.27. 2 oe, = Bia 9.27 9, 2D DgZ027 man, 6 = Fi = J gs +28 7 Dye ory? : 7 3A Dy= 027 mm, 6 = ph -= Ga ES ES9 FAX 5738824784 ois 02/24/2009 1 il Ch. 1/ Geotechnical Engineering—Atterterg Limits and Plasticity 31 a tterberg Limits and Plasticit _Atterberg limits are specific water contents at which soil behavior changes, ‘The upper limit of plasticity, above which soll behaves as a liguid, and below which soll behaves as a plastic solid, is the liquid limit, denoted LL (or w), The lower limit of plastic behavior, above which the soil behaves as a plastic solid, aid below which the soil behaves as a brittle solid, is the plastic limit, denoted PL (or w,). The water content below which the soil no longer reduces in volume with reduction in water content is the shrinkage limit SL or wy. Although Atterborg limits are water contents (decimals or percentages), they are by convention ex- pressed as integers values (implying a percentage). The plasticity index, denoted PI (or J.) is the difference of the liquid limit and the plastic limit: Preie-PL ‘The liquidity index, denoted LI. is a measure of the natural water content rela~ tive to the plastic limit and the liquid limit: The shrinkage index, denoted SI, is the difference of the plastic limit and the shrinkage limit: ST=PL~SL A soil has a naturel water content of 40%. Its liquid limit is 50, the plastic lienitig 30 and the shrinkage limit is 20. 1.-Determine the plasticity index, (ay) 29 ’ VB sort ef 30 $0 “5 © w ©) 2 Determine the liquidity index (A) 200 3 @) 075 ne.” ©7050 ee? WF 030 3. Determine the shrinkage index. (a) 20 6) 30 () 80 ©) 10