Electromagnetic waves

1. Electromagnetic interaction
Does electromagnetic interaction appear in mechanics?
Yes, in such phenomena as friction, cohesion, elasticity.
It is important also in keeping together electrons in atoms, atoms in molecules, atoms
and molecules in bodies, in biology and indeed in almost all areas of knowledge.
Electromagnetic interaction is the result of existence and movement of charges.

The four fundamental forces (after Hecht, Physics, 1998)

Type of force Particles Strength* Range
Strong Quarks, 104 1 fm
nuclear particles
Electromagnetic Electrically 102 Unlimited
charged particles
Weak Most particles 10-2 10-2 fm
Gravitational All particles 10-34 Unlimited

Strength are the forces in newtons between two protons separated by a distance
equal to their diameter 2 fm .

2. Prerequisite

Physics:
The Lorentz force.
Electrostatics: existence of two types of charges, the Coulomb force, electric field,
electric potential, electric induction, capacities, electric energy.
Electro-kinetics: currents, c.c. and a.c. circuits, magnetic field of electric current,
electric energy and power.
Electromagnetism: magnetic field, magnetic flux and induction, electromagnetic
induction, existence of electromagnetic waves.
Mathematics:
Vectors, fields, integrals in 1, 2, 3, dimensions, Gauss and Stokes relations.

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 3. Electric charges and their electric field

Fundamental facts:
- two types, + and different types attract, alike charges repel each other
- the algebraic sum of charges in an insulated system is constant
- the electric charge is a relativistic invariant.
Electric charges alter in some way the surrounding region hence creates an
electric field. A body small enough (a test charge) charged with charge q is acted
upon by a force given by:

r r
F = q E (EM1)

r
The vector E is the intensity of the electric field in the point where the test body
V N
is situated. So the electric field is the force acting on the unit charge. MU: =
m C
Coulombs law: the field of a point like charge q in vacuum is given by:

r r r
q r q 1 r q 1 r
E= = = ur (EM2)
4 0 r 3
4 0 r r 4 0 r 2
2

1
The constant 0 is the vacuum permittivity, = 9 10 9 m F .
4 0

The superposition principle: the field given by several charged bodies is the
vector sum of the individual fields:

r n r 1 n
q r
E = Ei = r 2i u ri (EM3)
i =1 4 0 i =1 i

If the charge is spread continuously one may define the density of charge, which
could be volume density, surface density or linear density; the volume density is
given by:

2
 dq
= dq = dV (EM4)
dV

Relation (EM3) becomes:

r
r 1 dq r 1 dV r 1 r dV
E=
4 0 r
u =
2 r
4 0
r2
ur =
4 0
r3
(EM3)

The electric field, as any other vector field, may be represented by field lines,
tangent to field in each point.
r r
The elementary flux of the vector E through a small surface dS is defined by the
dot product:
r r
d el = E dS (EM5)

and the flux through an arbitrary surface is:

r r
el = E dS (EM6)

Example: the flux of a point like charge at rest:

r r
1 q r q r r q
el =
4 0 r
u dS =
2 r
4 0 r 3 ndS = 4 0 (EM7)

with the solid angle under which the surface is seen from the position of the
charge.
Solid angle
The definition of the solid angle is a generalization of the usual definition of
angles. On Fig. 1 one sees concentric arcs with the center in O. The ratio between
the length of the arc and the radius of the corresponding circle is a constant and is
the measure of the angle:

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 arcAB arcA' B'
= =
R R'
Fig. 1

For the solid angle take a cone and several spheres with the center in the top of the
cone. The definition is the generalization below:

area area '

= 2
=
R R' 2
Fig. 2

But in general surfaces are not spheres, so we must go through an elementary

solid angle. See Fig. 3:

Fig. 3
r r
d dS cos r n
d = 2 = = 3 dS , (EM8)
r r2 r

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relation used in (EM7). The solid angle under which a surface is seen from a point is
r
r
the flux of the vector 3 over the surface:
r
r r
r n
= 3 dS (EM9)
r
2
For a sphere = d sin d = 4 . For half a sphere it is 2 .
0 0

4. The Gauss theorem

The flux of the electric field through a closed surface is equal to the algebraic
sum of the charges enclosed by the surface divided by 0:

r r qint
E dS = 0
(EM10)

For one charge the result is included in relation (EM7): if the charge is inside the
closed surface, = 4 and we get (EM10). If the charge is located outside the
closed surface as in Fig. 4, the result is zero, because the integrals over the pieces
1 and 2 cancel each other.

Fig. 4

If there are more charges, the superposition principle allows us to generalize the
result and finally we find the Gauss result (EM10).
Examples: sphere, plane, cylinder.

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5. The local form of the Gauss theorem

r
The Gauss-Ostrogradsky relation connects the flux of a vector A across a closed
r r
surface with the integral of the divergence A divA of the vector across the
volume V surrounded by this surface:

r r r
A n d = dV
div A (EM11)
V

r
In Cartesian coordinates the expression of divA is simple. Take a small volume
as in Fig. 5 below.

Fig. 5

r
The flux of the vector A through this elementary surface is given by:

d = Ax ( x + dx, y, z )dydz Ax ( x, y, z )dydz + Ay ( x, y + dy, z )dzdx Ay ( x, y, z )dzdx

+ Az ( x, y, z + dz )dxdy Az (x, y, z )dxdy =
Ax Ay A A Ay Az
dxdydz + dxdydz + z dxdydz = x + + dV

x y z x y z

The divergence of a vector has the expression (in Cartesian coordinates)

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 r r A Ay Az
divA = A = x + + (EM12)
x y z

The operator del is apparent:

r r r
= ux + u y + uz (EM13)
x y z

Interpretation: the divergence of a vector field is the flux over a closed surface
divided by the enclosed volume, when this volume goes to zero:

r 1 r r
divA = lim A d when V 0 (EM14)
V

Lets introduce in the global form (EM10) the distribution of charges with density
and find:

r r 1
E dS = 0 dV (MxI) (EM15)
V

Use G-O (EM11):

r r r 1
E dS = dV =
divA
0 V
dV
V

r
divE = (MxI) (EM16)
0

6. Circulation of the vector electric field. Electrostatic potential

The field generated by a stationary distribution of charges is a potential field. The

r
elementary work done by a field E during the displacement of a charge q over

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 r r
dr is dW = qE dr and the total work when the charge moves from point (1) to
2 r r
point (2) is the integral W = qE dr . This integral does not depend on the path,
1
r r
so the integral over a closed path is equal to zero: dr = 0 , or, as the charge
qE

is arbitrary,
r r
E dr = 0 (EM17)

As work does not depend on the path, we introduce a scalar function named the
r
electrostatic potential (r ) defined by (take q=1)

2 r r
(1) (2) = E dr (EM18)
1

The potential is numerically equal to the electrostatic potential energy of a unit

1N
charge at a given point. MU: volt (V); 1V = .
1C
Relations between potential and field:

r r
d = E dr (EM19)
r
E = (EM20)

r r
q r q 1
Example: a point charge has a field E = , so = .
4 0 r 3
4 0 r

Remark: relation (EM17) is incorrect if charges move or if the magnetic flux

varies.

7. Magnetic induction, magnetic flux

s
The magnetic induction is the vector B introduced by the Lorentz force:

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 ( )
r r r r
F = q E+vB (EM21)

The magnetic force appears only upon moving charges. The magnetic flux is the
integral

r r r r
= B d = B nd (EM22)

As there are no magnetic mono-poles

r r
d = 0
B (MxII) (EM23)

With the local form

r r
B = divB = 0 (MxII) (EM24)

8. Electromagnetic induction, Lenz law

It turns out that if a magnetic flux varies across a closed circuit, in this circuit a
certain electromotive force appears. The integral form of this law is well-known:

r r d r r
e = E dr = B d (MxIII) (EM25)

dt S

In the geometry from Fig. 6:

Fig. 6

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 r r r r
Use the Stokes theorem E d r = d to get the local form for stationary
rot E
S

surfaces:
s
s r B
rotE = E = (MxIII) (EM26)
t

9. Ampres law

One knows that an electric current produces a magnetic field. In the stationary
case the relation between the current and the magnetic field is given by:

r r r r 1 r r
B dr = 0 j d = c 2 j d (EM27)
S 0 S

Ehample: infinite straight wire.

Maxwell generalized this equation for time-varying fields as:

r r r r d r r
B dr = 0 j d + 0
dt S
0 d
E (MxIV) (EM28)
S

For stationary surfaces the Stokes theorem gives:

r
r r r E
rotB = B = 0 j + 0 0 (MxIV) (EM29)
t

10. The Maxwell equations in materials

The above yellow highlighted equations are the Maxwell equations in vacuum.
The equations in matter are more complex, because substance reacts to external
electric and magnetic fields. In vacuum fields and inductions are merely
proportional:

r r r r
D = 0E B = 0 H (EM30)

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A material replies to electric field by polarizing itself:

r r r
D = 0E + P , (EM31)

r
where the vector P is the polarization of the material. It may depend on the point,
direction, electric field, magnetic field, mechanical stress, etc.
A material replies to magnetic field by magnetizing itself:

r r r
B = 0 (H + M ) , (EM32)

r
where the vector M is the magnetization of the material. It may depend on the
point, direction, electric field, magnetic field, mechanical stress, temperature etc.
Equations are not very different from the above if the response is linear,
homogeneous, isotropic, without any memory of the previous states of the
substance and without any cross-effect. In this particular situation the influence of
the material is taken into account as follows:

r r r r
P = 0e E M = mH (EM33)

where e is the electric susceptivity and m the magnetic susceptivity. Eqs.

(EM31) and (EM32) become:

r r r
D = 0 (1 + e )E = 0 r E , r = 1+ e (EM34)
r r r
B = 0 (1 + m ) H = 0 r H , r = 1 + m (EM35)

We have introduced the relative dielectric permittivity r and the relative

magnetic susceptivity r , which are a-dimensional quantities.

Examples: dia-, para-, fero-,

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