Running head: STUDENT SUCCESS AND CULTURAL CENTERS 1

Student Success and Cultural Centers

Eva Long

Seattle University
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We continue to see the term student success across literature and what higher

education has committed to providing. In order to advance student success, the most critical,

and important step is for universities to examine what that means for them. Students who

have committed themselves to pursue higher education are bringing with themselves history,

identity, lived experiences, culture and values that will shape their own definition of student

success. Student success is the alignment between individuals definition of success and the

institutions commitment to fostering personal, professional and academic growth.

Understanding the key principles for promoting student success is important to

consider as we prepare for the changing student demographics and expectations of higher

education. In order to positively impact student success, an agenda must exist in the college,

embedded within the curriculum and reinforced by student affairs professionals. The

interconnectedness of the institution, curriculum and student engagement will provide a

holistic approach in promoting student success. First, a living mission is when a college

delivers the curriculum, organizes human talent, and allocates resources in a manner that

enables it to realize its aspirations (Kuh, Kinzie, Schuh, & Whitt, 2010, p.267). Students and

members at the college believe in their schools mission. And today, we see and hear students

demanding more accountability for realigning to the mission. Institutions cannot neglect their

mission.

In order to promote an outcome for inclusive excellence, institutions must hold

themselves accountable to understand, critique and innovate in ways that support students in

their success through assessment. Assessment should be intentional and purposive,[that]

requires interpretation, integration, and reflection in the search for holistic understanding and

implications for action (Kuh, Ikenberry, Kankowski, Cain, Ewell, Hutchings, &Kinzie, 2015,
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p. 3). To provide resources, support and the infrastructure to support a diverse population of

students, the utilization of assessment is instrumental in identifying the gaps and room for

improvement. The Assessment Cycle asks of professionals to plan and identify outcomes,

collect data, analyze data, share results, identify and implement changes, and assess the impact

of change (Kuh et al., 2015). The hardest part about the cycle is closing the assessment

loop [that] involves taking action on results and then going back to assess whether or not

this action was effective (Kuh et al., 2015, p.58). Students are engaged and active in different

capacities and spaces on campus which is why embedding assessment throughout the

institution is critical. Structurally, assessment needs to [exist in] institutional processes, such

as cyclical reviews of departments and programs, strategic planning, general education

curriculum reform and other student learning initiatives (Kuh et al., 2015, p. 76). Most

importantly, assessment tools surfaces evidence that identify areas in which changes in

policies and practices may lead to improvement by informing institutional decision making,

problem identification, planning, goal setting, faculty development, course revision, and

program review (Kuh et al., 2015, p. 217). In order to align with the students definition of

student success, assessment needs to be utilized to ensure an outcome for inclusive excellence.

This paper will explore the history, literature and best practices of cultural centers. As

students hold their history, identity, and lived experiences coming to college, we will explore

how students of color rely on cultural centers to support their journey towards success and

how important assessment is in creating an institutional culture of inclusion.

Historical Context of Cultural Centers in Higher Education

Without understanding the historical roots and context of cultural centers, it is easy to

pinpoint these institutional structures as a place that simply promotes segregation of specific
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communities from the larger student body. As we understand the timeline of how cultural centers

have been institutionalized as a physical structure on campus, they can be described as a home

away from home and safe spaces designed to help marginalized students thrive at

predominately White institutions (PWIs) (McDowell & Higbee, 2014). Currently, there is a lack

of research on cultural centers. Much of the literature has been focused on the historical student

protests that came about in the 1960s and 1970s that thematically have kept cultural centers alive

in higher education. There continue to be debates on the importance, value and the role of

cultural centers because historically, most PWIs, in wake of the school desecration era,

reluctantly permitted the establishment of cultural centers for ethnic minority student populations

(Jones, Castellanos, & Cole, 2002, p. 21). Moreover, cultural centers address the gaps, inequities

and abandonment of student services that provides culturally relevant support for marginalized

students.

In the 1960s and 1970s, student protests were forms of resistance that demanded the

dismantling of discrimination and isolation students of color felt at PWIs. Students formed

coalitions and occupied spaces where they could continue that resistance. Today, resistance

exists in cultural centers. The mission of cultural centers have been dedicated to bringing voice,

support and celebration to college students, particularly those from racially underrepresented

populations (Patton, 2010, p. xv). When both the physical space and institutionalized support of

cultural centers are working simultaneously together, it could provide a powerful space where

attitudes, values, knowledge, and skills could be compared, debated, and shared to create an

inclusive campus environment and world (McDowell et al., 2014, p. 228). Thematically, cultural

centers continue to honor the history of resistance.

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Theoretical Framework and Foundations

Campus Racial/ Ethnic Climate

In order to conceptualize student involvement as a lens for institutional climate, we need

to recognize the importance of hearing student voices and the impact of their college encounters.

Conceptual underpinnings rely significantly on student experiences and their perceptions of

the campus racial/ ethnic climate (Jones et al., 2002, p. 22). Hurtado, Milem, Clayton-

Pederson, and Allen (1998) defined institutional campus racial climate according to a four

dimensional model: (a) an institutions historical legacy of inclusion or exclusion of various

racial/ ethnic groups, (b) its structural diversity, (c) the psychological climate of perceptions

between and among groups, and (d) the behavioral climate. Coupled with the need to enhance

educational policy, there are overlaps in this research that support the importance of the

existence of cultural centers.

The first and third dimensions are of particular relevance in order to understand

successful practices in cultural centers. As we understand the historical context of cultural

centers, the first dimension is significant that has kept cultural centers thriving. Although not

directly defined within the parameters of the historical legacy of inclusion of exclusion, cultural

centers have served to ameliorate the past exclusionary practices endorsed in PWIs (Jones et al.,

2002, p. 22). While ethnic minorities navigate spaces in a predominately White collegiate

system that was not built for them in mind, they seek cultural centers as institutional support

systems in which they develop academic and social networks, opportunities for campus

involvement, and ultimately a haven that improves campus climate (Jones et al., 2002, p. 23).

While being actively present in these spaces, they are able to develop a critical lens of
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themselves, the institution and the world to instill change and create spaces for inclusivity and

acceptance.

The third component that focuses on the psychological dimension of climate and its

impact on students helps us understand why minority students seek cultural centers as a safe

haven. According the Hurtado e al. (1998), the psychological dimension of the campus racial

climate involves individuals views of group relations, institutional responses to diversity,

perceptions of discrimination or racial conflict, and attitudes toward those from other racial/

ethnic backgrounds than ones own (The Psychological Dimension of Climate and Its Impact on

Students section, para. 1). Students of color experience less satisfaction, more social alienation

and discrimination on campus than their White peers (Hurtado et al., 1998; Patton, 2010).

Introducing ways for students to report and seek redress for negative experiences are important,

but campuses but also be aware that many psychological aspects of college climate go

unreported. Cultural centers have supported institutional efforts of diversity and inclusion by

helping members of the campus community identify and confront stereotypes and myths that

people have about those who are different from them.

Cultural Centers as Institutional Commitment to Diversity

The existence of cultural centers continues to be one of the ways an institution has

committed itself to diversity. But, lack of institutionalized support from administration would

dismiss the need for continued growth (Patton, 2010). Cultural centers must continue to grow in

both scope and scale to accommodate students ever-changing interests and needs. A center is a

venue through which dynamic cultural learning and engagement takes place. With adequate

vision and support, such a center can be the place where the most meaningful cultural interaction

and growth happens at an institution (Jenkins, 2008, p. 25). Pennsylvania State Universitys
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Paul Robeson Cultural Center (PRCC) uses a model of cultural education and engagement to

design and deliver all of its programs and services. The PRCC has adopted a five-pronged

programming and delivery strategy that shapes the work of the center that provides an example

of a model that other institutions can adopt.

The first approach focuses on developing scholarly and cultural education programs that

integrate interdisciplinary studies into co-curricular programming venues (Jenkins, 2008, p. 26;

Patton 2010). This allows for students to engage in academic scholarship and interactive cultural

learning. The second approach focuses on cultural engagement that provides opportunities for

students, faculty, staff, and community members to be part of the practice, celebration, and

demonstration of culture (Jenkins, 2008, p. 27). By designing dynamic programs and events

that engage the university, it transforms every environment into cultural spaces. The third

approach takes form in cultural student development. Culturally based student development

initiatives seek to creatively integrate students cultural development in college with their social

development as it will apply in the large society (Jenkins, 2008, p. 27). Assisting students in

reflecting on their intersectionality of identities to impact the world is a powerful tool to provide;

one that would transform themselves and the world. The fourth approach focuses on cultural

community building. Community-building initiatives seek to strengthen the relationship and

outreach to various constituents, including undergraduate and graduate students; alumni; parents;

campus departments; and city, state, and national cultural colleagues (Jenkins, 2008, p. 28;

Patton, 2010). And lastly, enhancing a cultural environment that maintains a safe space where

students of color can see themselves embraced and valued is the destination. This five-pronged

approach designed by the PRCC is mapped with intentionality, direction and growth.

Astins (1984) Student Involvement Theory

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Student involvement theory provides viable interpretations of students college

experiences and its probable impact on various student outcomes (Astin, 1984). It is

hypothesized and often validated that students who are more involved in the campus community

and consequently feel a greater sense of belonging typically stay in college longer, with a high

probability for graduation (Jones et al., 2002, p. 23). According to the theory, the greater the

students involvement in college, the greater will be the out of student learning and personal

development. The principle advantage of the student involvement theory over traditional

pedagogical approaches (including the subject-matter, the resource, and the individualized or

eclectic theories) is that it directs attention away from subject matter and technique and toward

the motivation and behavior of the student (Astin, 1984, p. 529).

Understanding the historical context of how cultural centers came about, coupled with

minoritized student experiences on predominately White campuses, there needs to be greater

attention paid to ethnic minority students sense of integration in campus life. The quality of

student involvement opportunities has an impact on ethnic minority students involvement and

their sense of integration (Jones et al., 2002, p. 23). Cultural centers have been established as a

space where students can embrace their identities, piece together their cultural identity, and

celebrate themselves and others. As the student demographics of higher education are shifting,

retention and persistence of historically marginalized students are in the forefront of attention.

The overlap of Astins (1984) student involvement theory and mission of cultural centers can

offer a powerful experience for students and the institution.

Best Practices for Cultural Centers

Reed College: Relationship between Office of Institutional Diversity and Office for
Inclusive Community
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The cohesive and collaborative relationship between the Office of Institutional Diversity

and Office for Inclusive Community has positively impacted the campus climate at Reed

College. The Office of Institutional Diversitys mission is to create institutional vision and

strategy and implement systems and infrastructure to support the colleges commitment to being

a diverse and inclusive learning, teaching and working environment (Mission Statement, n.d.).

The Office for Inclusive Community seeks to create and sustain an inclusive campus

environment that meets the needs of all members. This is accomplished through campus

programming, facilitating constructive dialogues, engaging in community service, and

supporting all students as they explore the intersection of identities (Office of Inclusive

Community, n.d.).

The immediate distinction between the two offices is visibly seen through the

organization chart where the Dean of the Office of Institutional Diversity is situated closely to

the Presidents cabinet whereas the Director of the Office for Inclusive Community is housed

under the Division of Student Services. Both of their missions and charges are distinctive to

affect change that expands across Reed College. The Office of Institutional Diversity has

committed to advancing diversity and equity structurally through the presidents cabinet, senior

staff, critiquing hiring practices through Human Resources, and providing professional

development opportunities for departments to better understand how their own assumptions and

bias play a role in a larger system that maintains the status quo of the dominant narrative in

higher education. On the other hand, the Office for Inclusive Community provides the physical

space and empowerment avenues to help students raise consciousness of their self, community

and the world to be change agents. Through programmatic efforts, they are able to engage the

student body in larger conversations around the intersection of identities and its relationship to
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the world. I understand the Office of Institutional Diversity as affecting vertical change and the

Office for Inclusive Community as horizontal change. Their collaborative nature expands across

all avenues at Reed College. The relationship between both offices institutionalizes their

commitment to diversity and equity where it shouldnt only exist within cultural centers. On the

other hand, I would critique the level of involvement that students have in key decision making

processes. The climate of an institution is narrated by experiences by students. In order to gauge

authentic and honest feedback about the campus environment, engagement with students is

critical.

Portland Community College- Sylvania Campus: 5- Week Social Justice Training

Portland Community College spans across 4 different campuses: Cascade, Rock Creek,

Sylvania and Southeast campus. While understanding institutional context, mission and values

of these distinctive campuses, I was drawn to further understand the differences across cultural

centers at these campuses. Speaking with professionals at two campuses, they have shared that

although rooted in the same mission of supporting marginalized students, their approach, method

and priorities are different. These distinctions are driven by student population, campus climate,

size of the campus and leadership.

The Multicultural Center at the Sylvania Campus mission is grounded in critical theory

of adult learning, popular education, and a social justice framework, to support the

recruitment, retention and holistic (academic, leadership, professional) success of students of

color and to advance diversity, inclusion and equity campus and district wide (About The

Sylvania Multicultural Center, n.d.). For best practices, I would like to highlight the 5-week

Social Justice Training program at Portland Community College- Sylvania Campus. This 5-

week Social Justice Training is a collaboration between the Multicultural Center and the
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Womens Resource Center where approximately 60 engaged students participate in

conversations around identity, intersectionality, systems of oppression, structure as the subject of

justice, ally-ship and self-care. The purpose of this training is to not only engage students in

their own form of resistance and activism but allow students to develop their own definition of

success through the process of self-authorship. The conscious and critical lens that they will

develop from the training will help them navigate a campus or society that was not built for their

ancestors in mind.

Cultural education, cultural engagement and cultural student development is integral in

one of the programmatic opportunities that cultural centers should provide for marginalized

students and student leaders (Patton, 2010; Jenkins, 2008). This 5-Week Social Justice Training

acknowledges that the notion of student success is complex. It is complex in the sense that there

is not a single mold where one size fits all. With that being said, this training provides the tools,

language and critical lens that prepare them for the ways in which they will experience hostile

environments or messages of rejection based on their identities. Rather than a feeling of

hopelessness, they are propelled to challenge those systems and messages to advance in

education and the world. Cultural centers should be the social and academic counter space that

values their multitude of identities so they can safely navigate a predominately White space. On

the other hand, the critique that I would offer is extending diversity and social training

opportunities to the larger community. Cultural engagement with the campus community can

enhance and cultivate a safe environment for students of color (Jenkins, 2008). Engagement in

inclusion efforts through education and allyship could further enhance the ways in which

students interact consciously with one another through differences and acceptance.

Portland State University- Cultural Resource Centers

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Cultural spaces are counter-spaces on campus where marginalized students are able to

coexist in this environment around solidarity, resistance, safety and allyship. It is very powerful

for different cultures and identities in a space to empower themselves and others. Portland State

University can provide that space where all communities can come together but where also

individual identities are celebrated. The mission of the Cultural Resource Centers at Portland

State University is to create a student-centered inclusive environment that enriches the

university experience (Cultural Resource Centers, n.d.). Alongside a common space, there

exists a cultural resource center that centers on the following affinity groups: African

American/ African/ Black, Asian American/ Asian/ Pacific Islander, Latino, and Native

American populations. Each resource center is staffed with a Program Coordinator and student

staff that intentionally crafted a space that engages students, faculty and staff in creating a more

equitable and inclusive space at Portland State University.

The cultural resource centers helps marginalized students critically navigate between

multiple worlds (Patton, 2010). That is a world within a predominately White campus where

their narratives and cultures are hidden and in a space they go to through struggle. Cultural

centers are spaces where members of the institution rely on these spaces to recover and recount

collective history that reminds students of their responsibility to honor those who came before

them and to carry on that legacy (Patton, 2010, p. 96). Preservation of history and culture in

these spaces help increase educational access and equity within and beyond campus because

their success looks different than others. In relationship with multiple cultural centers I would

extend exploration on understanding how campus partners and leadership could interact with the

spaces to assess how to support students of that community.

Gaps in Literature
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There is lack of research and literature in understanding the role of cultural centers and

best practices in order to fulfill their missions of access, diversity and equity in higher education

as they relates to student success. From the limited literature that I have found in outlining the

foundations of an effective cultural center, the research fails to recognize that these counter-

spaces are different across institutional types and geographic area. Although these cultural

centers are spaces rooted in resistance and safety, the approaches and ways to support students

and the institution are different across campuses. When we are fixated on the idealistic vision of

a cultural center, we ignore unique campus climates or populations that are ignored through

biases and assumptions of a cultural center. What is important is understanding the historical

context of the cultural center that exists at one campus or the reasons lack thereof. In some

aspects, the idea of adopting best practices is dangerous without recognizing the historical

context and the relationship between how students navigate the campus and co-exist in the

cultural center.

Connections to SDA Learning Outcomes

In defining student success for inclusive excellence as we understand successful practices

in cultural centers, SDA learning outcomes #2, understanding student issues, #4, understanding

and fostering diversity, justice and a sustainable world and #5, adapting student services to

specific environments and cultures has been salient throughout this course.

#2 is important to be continually mindful of as campus climate, student issues and

changes in demographics will vary from year to year. SDA learning outcome #5 reminds of the

idea of justice that is embedded within the mission of Jesuit education in how we prepare

students to be critical and conscious of themselves to create a just and humane world.

Embracing that value is how I engage in diversity, access and equity in higher education. Lastly,
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to make intentional and meaningful change, it is important to understand how to cater student

services to varying institutional types. This requires innovative change that aligns with the

institutions needs.

Reflection

My first year in the Office of Multicultural Affairs has left me in frustration as I

challenged myself and the staff of what a cultural center was meant to be for students. I was

continuously fed with information that described cultural centers as radical spaces. During my

first year, I fought for our center to uphold that perception of radical, but I was unable to

define what that truly meant for myself. I was stuck on understanding what cultural centers are

and how they are supposed to function between conflicting messages of what it means to be

radical. After visiting three cultural centers in Portland, Oregon, I have concluded that each

are distinguished by their own unique culture, programs, history, mission and method of

providing a community for students. If there was one theme that I found across cultural centers

if that they are all rooted by a history of resistance, activated by students demands to raise

equity and inclusion on their predominately White institution. With that being said, it is not only

important to consider the historical context of cultural centers but cultural centers as it exists

within their own institution as well. Understanding the history of the Office of Multicultural

Affairs as it exists within Seattle University and its Jesuit context will help me understand its

functionality and direction for the future.

Further discernment on professional interests has led me back to a passion for

multicultural advocacy efforts. Before this course, I was convinced that multicultural work

largely exists predominately in cultural centers because it was the most obvious, familiar and

comfortable. Although I chose to focus this paper on understanding the best practices of cultural
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centers, I have always been keen on understanding how multicultural advocacy and social justice

shows up in other functional areas. Hesitant to start my ACUHO-I internship in the Department

of Residence Life at Pacific University, I was able to infuse my passion for multiculturalism

within RA training and assessing the departments commitment to diversity. From that

experience, and interviewing professionals across other functional areas for this course, I was

able to understand how conversations around diversity, equity and inclusion exist. After this

experience, it is the upmost importance to be and my values as a professional in student affairs to

raise conversations around diversity, equity and inclusion in any functional area. It is important

to bring my identities into a space that is challenged by dominant narratives and status quo. I

refuse to accept that multicultural work does not exist in any functional area in higher education.

The part of my identity that I wish to continue to explore is what it means to be an Asian

American/ Chinese American, doing social justice work in higher education. In Spring 2016, I

wanted to explore more about my Asian American identity by having conversations with others

who identify similarly. From there, I continue to reflect and name my own experiences as rooted

in the oppressive nature brought upon the Asian American community. It was until the summer

of Best Practices, I began to question what it means to be an Asian American and doing social

justice work. Reflecting back to my first year in the Office of Multicultural Affairs, I always had

to remind the staff about the inclusion of our Asian American students. Inclusion showed up in

different capacities. We read articles about the Asian American community, their relationship

with activism and their battle with the model minority myth. We spent time understanding this

population because our cultural groups are large in members but lack presence within our space.

I began to question why. Why do we lack a level of engagement and participation with our

students? How do they find themselves represented within our office and the lounge spaces? In
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what ways do they engage and think about their identity as an Asian American? I continue to

learn and seek out answers or meaning in those questions. As I am eager to continue that

journey in understanding Asian Americans and their relationship to a cultural center, I prioritized

ways to do that. One, I will commit to formally joining the Asian Pacific Islander Knowledge

Community through NASPA. Secondly, I want to learn more about different forms of resistance

from the Asian American community (going back to history). And lastly, continue those

conversations with other Asian American professionals in the field and learn best practices.

After Best Practices and connecting with student affairs professionals, Ive been able to

expand my functional area interests. After learning that multicultural work exists in many

capacities across the university, Ive been open to explore other functional areas. For example, it

is important for an advising office to consider competence training in how to create culturally

relevant advising approaches. In student involvement/ activities offices, it is important for

professionals to consider how upholding legacies and traditions may make minoritized students

feel excluded. It is important to consider how privilege and equity plays out with the institution

but in the office and as a professional. By focusing our efforts in having conversations about

inclusion or exclusion, we can then start to rebuild systems that are inclusive of all students,

rather than traditional students who fit the dominant narrative. Additionally, it is easy for

professionals to consider how to make a space more inclusive for transgender students or for

students of color. What I have to continue challenging myself to do is consider intersectionality.

What I appreciate most about the Director of the Office of Multicultural Affairs at Seattle

University is how the idea of intersectionality is always a part of the conversation when we are

inviting guest speakers or planning programs. We talk about the importance and complexity of

saliency and intersectionality of our identities. That narrative is personal and unique. Although
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we cant perfectly design programming and support services that crosses the spectrum of unique,

intersection of every identity but we can start conversations about the relationships of multiple

identities shape our views of ourselves and the world. As an aspiring student affairs

professional, I have to hold myself accountable to remember how important intersectionality is to

educate and empower our students.

And lastly, after meeting with many professionals, Ive learned so much from them. Ive

learned about different variations of what student success looks like, the utilization and

importance of assessment, challenges, governance and etc. They have journeyed through student

affairs and have a wealth of knowledge. I recognize that I am only a graduate student and have

much room to grow. Graduate school has held me accountable to keep up with current student

issues, data and best practices. As a future professional, I have to hold myself to a greater

standard and stay informed about issues in higher education, the community, nation and world

because all four components have a relationship with one another. Additionally, I have to be

conscious of all communities. In the Office of Multicultural Affairs, I have to be an active and

empathic listener while learning and understanding different communities, their experiences,

challenges, hopes, and values. For example, this summer, I have been reading about the ways in

which Asian Americans contribute to anti-Blackness. Similarly, as a professional whos

committed to social justice and equity, I have to learn about different affinity groups. The

understanding and continued learning of these groups with promote intentional programming

around intersectionality. To me, I cant promote my understanding of student success and

outcome for inclusive excellence without challenging and holding myself as student affairs

professional to be their advocate. An advocate means intentionally and purposefully

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understanding their unique challenges, experiences and defining moments of success. From

there, I can transform that into practice.

Reflection on Importance of Feedback

As Best Practices is an online course, engagement regularly through email, discussions

and feedback is of the upmost importance for our personal and professional learning. Not only is

feedback crucial for the course but is an everyday practice within the field of student affairs.

There is no difference in respect to the importance of feedback via an online course or in practice

in the field of student affairs. This reflection serves as a reminder of how important feedback is

to me as an individual and professional along with how I responded and integrated feedback for

the course.

As an individual and professional, Ive continued to seek out feedback as much as I

receive them. I believe that every opportunity has a door for learning and growth. Ive held

myself accountable by accepting feedback as a form of growth to critique and challenge myself

as a professional in the field. There are always gaps in our approaches to engage in student

success, and we must not only rely on student testimony but also feedback from colleagues and

others to prepare for growth.

In regards to using feedback for Best Practices, it is timely and important to use the

feedback we get from Erica and peers to challenge our definitions of student success and

outcome for inclusive excellence and adapt our campus visits because we dont get immediate

interaction with one another. The feedback and comments we receive also serves as a tool for us

to challenge ourselves to view our ideas from a different lens. Challenging ourselves to view

ideas from different lens provides us the opportunity to consider the ways in which we may have

a narrow view of how we define and approach student success.

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In relationship to the course assignments, the feedback has been instrumental to

challenging my own view of student success. From what I learned from engaging with my peers,

we all define student success different. Feedback has allowed me to consider the ways in which

student success is multi-layered. The way that I have initially defined student success makes out

inclusive excellence and assessment as completely exclusive of each other. Without the

feedback from my Pre-Visit paper, I would not have been more conscious in understanding the

ways in which diversity and assessment have important intersections to consider. Not only does

feedback help me strength my final paper, reflections or understanding of student success, it

helps shape my view of student success as I approach campus interviews. With that feedback,

Ive intentionally asked questions that considered student success, diversity and assessment of

having a relationship and connection with one another.

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References

Astin, A.W. (1999). Student involvement: A developmental theory for higher education. Journal

of College Student Development, 40(5), 518-529.

Hurtado, S., Milem, J. F., Clayton-Pedersen, A., & Allen, W. (1998). Enhancing campus

climates for racial/ethnic diversity: Educational policy and practice. The Review of

Higher Education, 21(3), 279-302.

Jenkins, T. S. (2008). The Five-Point Plan: A Practical Framework for Campus Cultural Centers.

About Campus, 13(2), 25-28.

Jones, L., Castellanos, J., & Cole, D. (2002). Examining the Ethnic Minority Student Experience

at Predominantly White Institutions: A Case Study. Journal Of Hispanic Higher

Education, 1(1), 19-39.

McDowell, A. M., & Higbee, J. L. (2014). Responding to the Concerns of Student Cultural

Groups: Redesigning Spaces for Cultural Centers. Contemporary Issues In Education

Research, 7(3), 227-236.

Patton, L. D. (2010). Culture Centers in Higher Education: Perspectives on Identity, Theory, and

Practice. Stylus Publishing, LLC.

Portland Community College. (n.d.). Retrieved August 31, 2016, from https://www.pcc.edu/
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resources/culture/sylvania/

Portland State University. (n.d.). Retrieved August 31, 2016, from https://www.pdx.edu/cultural-

resource-centers/

Reed College. (n.d.). Retrieved August 28, 2016, from http://www.reed.edu/

institutional_diversity/

Reed College. (n.d.). Retrieved August 31, 2016, from http://www.reed.edu/inclusive-

community/index.html