Flotation and Buoyancy

1
FLOTATION AND
BUOYANCY
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
At the end of this section, you should be able to:
Explain why a ship oats

Understand and complete calculations based on the relationship between
displacement and draught for a box shaped vessel
Understand the relationship between underwater volume, uid density and
displacement or mass
Understand the dierence between displacement and tonnage
Understand and use block coecients, waterplane area coecients and amidship
area coecients
Calculate underwater volume, waterplane area and amidships areas
Determine the displacement of a ship from the hydrostatics
Determine the draught of a ship from the hydrostatics
Determine the displacement of a ship from the hydrostatics at intermediate draughts
Determine the draught of a ship from the hydrostatics at intermediate displacements
Determine the displacement of a ship from the displacement and deadweight (DW)
scales
Draw, label and dimension a Load Line mark
Understand the Load Line zones
Use the TPC to calculate the mass to add to cause a sinkage or the mass to remove to
cause a rise
Flotation and Buoyancy 3
Use the TPC to calculate the sinkage or rise caused by adding or removing a mass
Understand and use the relationship between and calculate the TPC from the
dimensions of the ship and the form coecients
Understand the relationship between density and TPC, and correct the sea water TPC
value to a dock water value
Correct the dock water TPC value to a sea water value
Understand the relationship between draught and water density
Calculate the fresh water allowance (FWA) of a ship, and apply it to the draught
Calculate the dock water allowance (DWA) of a ship, and apply it to the draught
Calculate the mass to add or remove to a ship so that the vessel oats in accordance
with the Load Line regulations
Understand the limitations of the TPC with respect to changes in draught
Understand the dierence between normal Load Lines and Lumber Load Lines
Understand the process by which the position of the Load Line on a ship is
determined (assignment of Load Line)
Archimedes Principle
(OOW, MCM, ENG)
Any object which oats will, when placed in water, have a certain proportion of its body
immersed, or underwater. Archimedes principle states that:
When an object is immersed or partially immersed in a uid, it experiences an upwards

thrust equal to the weight of water that it pushes aside, or displaces.
Therefore, if an object, such as a ship, is placed in water it will experience an upwards

force, known as buoyancy, as a result of displacing the water.
Archimedes Principle tells us that the buoyancy force is equal to the weight of water
displaced. The weight of water displaced can be found from the volume of water
displaced (given the symbol ), the density of the water (given the symbol ) and the
acceleration due to gravity (g):
= g
For a vessel to oat, she must be in equilibrium. That means that the total forces acting
on the object must be equal and opposite to each other, and eectively cancel each
other out. As well as the buoyancy force acting on the vessel upwards, there is gravity
4 Ship Stability, Powering and Resistance
acting downwards. The force of gravity on an object, in units of Newtons, is equal to

the mass of the object in kilograms, multiplied by the acceleration due to gravity, or
standard gravity:
Force due to grav

r vitty Mass g
Mass
Therefore, the gravitational force acting downward can be given by:
Force due to grav

r vitttyy ip mass g
SShip
hip
The mass of a ship is given the symbol . Substituting this notation gives:
Force due to grav

r vitty g
As previously stated, for the ship to be in equilibrium, the buoyancy forces acting up
must equal the gravity forces acting down:
Force due to grav

r vitttyy Buoyanc
o cy forces
Substituting the expressions for the forces gives:
g= g
The gravitational acceleration, g, is constant on both sides, and so to simplify the

equation it can be cancelled. This gives:
=r
Formula 1.1 Archimedes' principle
X For a detailed proof of this for box shaped vessels, please see Appendix 2:
Derivation of Archimedes Principle for Box Shaped Vessels.
This means that the mass of the ship is the same as the water displaced. For this reason,
the term used to describe the mass of a ship is her displacement.
If we were to use normal SI units, the mass should be in units of kilograms, and the
density in units of kilograms per metres cubed (kg/m3). However, given the large mass
values used in the shipping industry, the common practice is to quote mass in units of
tonnes, and density in units of tonnes per metres cubed (1.025 t/m3 for sea water, and
1.000 t/m3 for fresh water).
Formula 1.1 allows us to directly calculate the mass and underwater volume of a ship.
This is an important relationship which governs the otation of ships. As the density
of water in a xed location can be considered constant, any increase in the mass of
the vessel, as a result of loading cargo, will result in an increase in volume that is, the
draught increases.
The pressure still acts at right angles to the hull, but can be resolved into horizontal and
vertical components of force. The horizontal components act inwards on the hull, while
the vertical components create the buoyancy force.
X For a mathematical proof of this for vessels with a rounded section, please
see Appendix 3: Derivation of Archimedes Principle for Semi-Circular
Section Vessels.
QUESTIONS
Q1.1 (OOW, MCM, ENG)

A box shaped barge has a length of 30 m, a beam of 5 m and oats at a draught of 2 m in
salt water, as shown below. Calculate the displacement of the barge. (Hint the volume
of a box is given by the length multiplied by the beam multiplied by the depth.)
2m
30 m
5m

A box shaped barge has a length of 50 m and a beam of 7 m. The displacement of
the barge is 1,076.25 tonnes. Calculate the draught of the barge if it is oating in salt
water.

A box shaped barge has a length of 60 m, a beam of 8 m and oats in an unloaded
condition at a draught of 3 m in salt water. 524 tonnes of cargo is added to the barge.
Determine the draught after loading.

A box shaped barge has a length of 50 m, a beam of 7 m and oats in a lightship
condition at a draught of 2 m in salt water. Determine what the draught of the vessel
would be in fresh water.
Displacement or Tonnage?
(OOW, MCM, ENG)
So far we have dealt with the displacement of the ship. There are a number of dierent
denitions of displacement that need to be understood, and also denitions for
tonnage, which is often confused with displacement.
The Light Displacement or lightship is the mass of the vessel with no cargo, crew
stores, fuel, and so on. It does, however, include water in boilers to working levels and
hydraulic uid. The Load Displacement is the mass of the hull and everything aboard
when oating at the summer waterline. The term displacement () is generally used to
indicate any value between lightship and load.
Deadweight (DWT) is the dierence between lightship and the displacement

eectively the amount of cargo, people and stores carried. The total DWT is the
dierence between lightship and the load displacement, and is eectively the
maximum amount of stores, cargo and people that can be carried.
The Gross Tonnage of a ship is a measure of the internal volume of a vessel. Ships were
historically charged operating fees based on how much cargo they could carry, not
necessarily the actual DWT. The cargo carrying capacity of ships is referred to as the
tonnage. This possibly comes from an old measure of how much wine a vessel could
carry measured in units of Tuns. A tun in this case was not a unit of mass but a unit
of volume 2.78 m3. Note that tonnage, as a measure of the total volume of the vessel,
has no direct mathematical link with the mass of the vessel.
Form Coefficients
(OOW, MCM, ENG)
The simplied box shaped vessels allow some basic calculations to be undertaken, but
obviously real ships have curved hull forms for hydrodynamic eciency. For real ships,
determining the underwater volume is more complicated than simply multiplying the
length, beam and draught, as the curvature of the hull means that the underwater
volume is less than simply the waterline length multiplied by the waterline beam
multiplied by the draught. Form coecients can be used to compare a box shaped
vessel to a real ship with the same length, beam and draught.
Block coefficient
For real ships, the underwater volume can be found using a value known as the
block coecient. The block coecient measures the actual underwater volume
compared to a box shaped vessel of the same length, beam and draught, as shown
in Figure 1.1.
BWL
D
LWL
Figure 1.1 Block coecient
The block coecient, or CB, can be used to nd the volume using the formula below:

CB =
LWL BWL D
Formula 1.2 Block coecient

Within this, CB is the block coecient, is the underwater volume of the vessel in units
of metres3, LWL and BWL are the waterline length and beam of the vessel in metres and D
is the draught of the vessel in metres.
The block coecient is calculated by the Naval Architect, and supplied in a table which
gives the block coecient for a particular draught. Therefore, at any draught, the block
coecient can be found, and the underwater volume calculated.
Waterplane area coefficient
Another form coecient that allows us to describe the shape of the hull is the
waterplane area coecient. The waterplane area of a vessel is the two dimensional
area enclosed by the waterline of the vessel, as shown in Figure 1.2.
LWL
Waterplane area
BWL
Figure 1.2 Waterplane area coecient
The waterplane area can be found from:
Waterplane area
CW =
LWL BWL
Formula 1.3 Waterplane area coecient
Within this, CW is the waterplane area coecient, and LWL and BWL are the waterline
length and beam of the vessel in metres. The waterplane area is measured in units of
metres2. Again, the waterplane area coecient is calculated by the Naval Architect,
and supplied in a table which gives the waterplane area coecient for a particular
draught. Therefore, at any draught, the waterplane area coecient can be found and
the waterplane area calculated.
QUESTION

A vessel has a waterline length of 100.00 m and a waterline beam of 20.00 m. Her
waterplane area coecient is 0.65. Determine her waterplane area.
Amidships area coefficient
Another form coecient that allows us to describe the shape of the hull is the
amidships area coecient. The amidships area of a vessel is the shape enclosed by
the hull from the waterline down at amidships, as shown in Figure 1.3. As a general
rule, as the amidships area coecient gets larger, the internal cargo carrying volume
increases for a given ship length.
BWL
Figure 1.3 Amidships area coecient
The amidships area coecient measures can be found from:
Amidships area
CM =
BWL D
Formula 1.4 Amidships area coecient
Within this, CM is the amidships area coecient, BWL is the waterline beam of the vessel
in metres and D is the draught of the vessel in metres. The amidships area is measured
in units of metres2.
QUESTION

A vessel has a beam of 15 m and draught of 8 m. The amidships area coecient is 0.95.
Determine the amidships area.
Hydrostatics
(OOW, MCM, ENG)
Clearly the form coecients, along with the underwater volume and displacement,
will change if the draught of the vessel changes. Calculating the underwater volume
and displacement values from the form coecients can be time-consuming, so they
are pre-calculated by the Naval Architect, and supplied in tables known as hydrostatic
tables. These tables show how the displacement (and other hydrostatic parameters,
which will be covered in more detail later) change with the draught of the vessel.
Samples of these are in Appendix 1: MV Reed Sample Stability Data. To use these
tables, we need to look at the denition of draught. If a vessel is trimmed, that is, not
evenly loaded fore and aft, then the draught of the vessel will vary along the length, as
shown in Figure 1.4, where the vessel is shown with stern trim (i.e. the stern is deeper
in the water than the keel), on an even keel (where the keel is horizontal) and bow trim
(i.e. the bow is deeper in the water than the stern).
The draught used in the tables is always the draught measured at a point along the
ship known as the longitudinal centre of otation, or LCF, and is known as the True
Mean Draught. The LCF is the pivot point of the vessel when trimming, and so at any
LCF
AP Amidships FP
DA DLCF DM DF
Figure 1.4 Variation in draught with trim

displacement the draught at this point is independent of the trim of the ship. The
LCF, and variations between true mean and mean draught will be covered in more
detail later. The hydrostatic values are always calculated assuming the vessel is in
salt water. Calculations using these tables will be covered in more detail later in the
book.
QUESTIONS

Using the MV Reed Sample Stability Data Book (see Appendix 1), determine the
displacement of MV Reed when she has a draught of 5.30 m.

Using the MV Reed Sample Stability Data Book (see Appendix 1), determine the draught
of MV Reed when she has a displacement of 6,008 tonnes.
It is a requirement of part 6 of the Statutory Instruments 1998 No. 2241 The Merchant
Shipping (Load Line) Regulations 1998, Amended 2000 that this information be provided
to the ship in book form. This is explained in more detail in MSN 1701(M).
Hydrostatics and Linear Interpolation

(OOW, MCM, ENG)
Often the rows in the tables do not match the exact values we need. In this case, linear
interpolation can be used to determine the draught or displacement, or any other
values required. For example, consider the data in Table 1.1.
If we wanted to determine the displacement of the vessel at a draught between these

two values, for example, at 4.12 m, then we would need to use linear interpolation.
Table 1.1 Sample hydrostatic data showing

draught and displacement
Draught (m) Displacement (tonnes)
4.20 3,890
4.10 3,781
The easiest way to understand linear interpolation is to sketch a graph showing the
relationship between the numbers. On the x axis (horizontal axis) we plot the value we
know, in this case the draught, and on the y axis we plot the value we are trying to nd,
in this case, the displacement. This is shown in Figure 1.5.
3,900
3,880
3,860
Displacement (tonnes)
3,840
3,820
3,800
3,780
3,760
4.08 4.10 4.12 4.14 4.16 4.18 4.20 4.22
Draught (m)
Figure 1.5 Draught and displacement
We can read up from the known draught at 4.12 m, and across to the displacement to
nd the displacement at 4.12 m, as shown in Figure 1.6. This gives us a displacement of
3,803 tonnes.
We can, however, speed up this process and interpolate mathematically, so that we

dont need to draw a graph. If we consider the graph, as shown in Figure 1.7, we can
see that the proportion of distance a to distance b is the same as the proportion of
distance A to distance B. Therefore:
a A
=
b B
Formula 1.5 Linear interpolation
This numerical method is much faster and far more accurate than drawing a graph and
reading o the value.
3,900
3,880
3,860
3,840
3,820
3,800
3,780
3,760
4.08 4.10 4.12 4.14 4.16 4.18 4.20 4.22
Draught (m)
Figure 1.6 Interpolating displacement
3,900
3,880
B
3,860
3,840
3,820
3,800
A
3,780
a
3,760
4.08 4.10 4.12 4.14 4.16 4.18 4.20 4.22
b
Draught (m)
Figure 1.7 Linear interpolation
QUESTIONS

Determine the displacement of MV Reed when the vessel has a draught of 3.48 m.

Determine the draught of MV Reed when she has a displacement of 3,365 tonnes.
(Hint the known values go on the x axis, the unknown values go on the y axis.)
X For an explanation of an alternative method of interpolation by using the

equation of a straight line, please see Appendix 4: Linear Interpolation
Using the Equation of a Straight Line.
Displacement and Deadweight Scales

(OOW, MCM, ENG)
Draught (m) Deadweight (tonnes)
8.00
8.000 5.385
TF
F T
S 7.00
W 7.000 4.385
6.000 3.385
6.00
5.000 2.385
5.00
4.000 1.385
4.00
3.000 385
3.00
Figure 1.8 Displacement and deadweight scale

Occasionally the hydrostatic data may also be shown in terms of diagrams showing a
scale of draught against displacement and deadweight, as shown in Figure 1.8.
To use these scales, a horizontal line is drawn across the scale at the known displacement
or draught, and the other values read from the horizontal line.
Hydrostatic Curves
(ENG)
MCTC (tm/cm)
LCB & LCF (m FOAP)

9,000
t
men
100
TPc (t/cm)
lace
8,000
96
Disp
C
MCT
92
48
15
7,000
88
47
14
c
TP
84
46
13
B
6,000
LC
80
45
12
76
44
11
5,000
KM (m)
72
43
10
10
68
42
9
4,000
F
64
41
9
LC
KB (m)
60
40
8
3,000
KM
56
7
5
52
4
KB
2,000
48
3
44
2
1,000
40
1
8
Draught (m)
Figure 1.9 Hydrostatic curves

Occasionally the hydrostatic data shown in the tables may instead be shown in graphical
form. The draught of the vessel is plotted on the y axis, with the other parameters each
plotted on their own scale along the x axis. The hydrostatic curves for MV Reed are
shown in Figure 1.9.
These graphs give the same data as the hydrostatic tables; however, as there is an
element of subjectivity in reading graphs, they are less accurate than the tables. They
MCTC (tm/cm)
LCB & LCF (m FOAP)

9,000
t
men
100
TPc (t/cm)
lace
8,000
96
Disp
C
MCT
48
92
15
7,000
c
47
88
TP
14
46
84
13
6,000
B
LC
45
80
12
44
76
11
5,000
KM (m)
43
72
10
10
42
68
9
4,000
41
F
64
9
LC
KB (m)
40
60
8
3,000
KM
56
7
5
52
KB
6
4
2,000
48
3
44
2
1,000
40
1
2
8
Draught (m)
Figure 1.10 Hydrostatic curves and known draught

do have the advantage of not requiring interpolation to use. As with the tables, to
use the curves, either the draught or displacement must be known. If the draught is
known, then a horizontal line is drawn across all of the curves at the known draught.
The intersection of this line and the curves can be read o the corresponding x axes
to determine the hydrostatic parameters. An example of this for a draught of 5.50 m is
shown in Figure 1.10.
MCTC (tm/cm)
LCB & LCF (m FOAP)

9,000
t
men
100
TPc (t/cm)
lace
8,000
96
Disp
C
MCT
15
48
92
7,000
14
47
88
c
TP
13
46
84
6,000
B
LC
12
45
80
44
76
11
5,000
KM (m)
43
72
10
10
42
68
9
4,000
41
64
F
9
LC
KB (m)
40
60
8
3,000
KM
56
7
5
52
6
4
KB
2,000
48
3
44
2
1,000
40
1
8
Draught (m)
Figure 1.11 Hydrostatic curves and known displacement

Alternatively, if the displacement is known, then a vertical line is draw up from the
displacement axis to the displacement curve. At the intersection of the line and the
curve, a horizontal line is draw across the graph. The intersection of this horizontal
line and the other curves can be read to determine the values of the hydrostatic
parameters. An example of this is given in Figure 1.11, for a displacement of 4,600
tonnes.
Load Line
(OOW, MCM, ENG)
Note: Information in this section is based on the Statutory Instruments 1998 No. 2241
The Merchant Shipping (Load Line ) Regulations 1998, Amended 2000 (The Merchant
Shipping (Load Line) Regulations 1998).
The reality of commercial shipping is that ships carry cargo in order to make money.
As a general rule, carrying more cargo results in making more money, so there is
an economic argument to load as much cargo on a ship as is possible. However, as
cargo is added to the ship, she sinks lower into the water, increasing her draught
and reducing her freeboard (the height of the hull above the water). This reduction
in freeboard reduces the ability of the vessel to survive waves, and also reduces the
stability of the vessel (this will be covered in more detail later). All ships (with some
exclusions detailed later) are therefore marked on the side of the hull with Load
Lines, which show the minimum allowable freeboard for the vessel. The minimum
freeboard is measured from the waterline of the vessel to the freeboard deck,
which is the the uppermost complete deck exposed to weather and sea, which has
permanent means of closing all openings open to the weather, and below which
all openings in the sides of the ship are tted with permanent means of watertight
closing. This minimum freeboard is determined from a set of rules, and takes into
account, among other factors, the size, block coecient, hull sheer and construction
of the vessel. A photo of these marks in shown in Figure 1.12, and a drawing of these
marks is shown in Figure 1.13. These are marks on the side of the hull which show
the highest allowable waterline for the vessel. When the ship is loaded so that the
waterline is on these marks, she will be oating at her maximum draught, with her
minimum freeboard.
As these are international symbols, there are strict rules about the size of the marks.
They must conform to the dimensions shown in Figure 1.14. To ensure that the marks
Figure 1.12 Photograph of a Load Line mark
TF
F T
Figure 1.13 Diagram of a Load Line mark

are permanent, they are painted onto strips of metal welded to the hull, so that they
can be found even if painted over.
300
Statutory freeboard
230
TF
230
300
F T
540
S
450
All lines are 25 mm thick. All dimensions shown are in millimetres.
Freeboards are measured from the top of each line.
Figure 1.14 Dimensions of a Load Line mark
The TF, F, T, S, W and WNA markings refer to zones.
Designation Meaning
TF Tropical Freshwater
F Freshwater
1
T Tropical always th of the summer draught above the summer mark
48
S Summer
1
W Winter always th of the summer draught below the summer mark
48
WNA Winter North Atlantic (only used on vessels less than 100 m, and located
50 mm below the winter mark)
All of the worlds seas are broken down into a series of zones, based on the prevailing
weather conditions and water density. These zones are named after the seasons, to
indicate the overall weather conditions the main zones do not change during the
year. Not all zones are always marked on the Load Line. The lowest zone that the ship
is sailing in, or through, controls which line the vessel can load down to. For example,
in a winter zone, she can only load so that the top of the W line is on the waterline, but
in a tropical zone, she could load additional cargo so that the top of the T line is on the
1
waterline. The tropical and winter lines are always equal to th of the summer
48
draught from the summer mark.
The letters by the circular mark (e.g. AB in Figure 1.12) are the signature letters of
what is known as the Assigning Authority. This is the organisation which analyses the
design of the ship, and determines what the minimum safe freeboard is. The black
bar above the circular mark represents the point at which the freeboard is measured
from.
Vessels which are exempt from the Load Line are Ships of war, ships solely engaged
in shing, pleasure vessels and ships which do not go to sea. Also exempt are the
following ships under 80 tonnes register, which do not carry cargo (unless specied
authorised on the Passenger Certicate).
Engaged in coastal trade, such as:

Tugs and salvage ships
Hopper barges or dredgers
Ships used by lighthouse authorities
Fisheries protection
Scientic research
Military ring range control vessels
Passenger vessels with passenger certicates specifying regions where the vessel
may sail
Ships carrying not less than 12 passengers within certain limits from shore
Under certain circumstances, the Secretary of State may allow vessels to sail with
exemptions, detailed in Paragraph 5 of the act.
Some passenger vessels may also be allocated combination Load Lines. These are
used when there may be spaces which are alternatively used as passenger or cargo
spaces. These are marked as C on the Load Line marks and are always below the
summer Load Line.
The TPC
(OOW, MCM, ENG)
To safely load a vessel, we need to know how much cargo can be added to the vessel.
While the hydrostatics give us an idea of the draught for a certain displacement, it is
often useful to be able to ne tune the draught to get the maximum possible cargo
aboard, and therefore make the maximum possible prot.
When loading the vessel, it is vital that the relevant Load Line is not submerged when
the vessel proceeds to sea. To ensure this, calculations are required during loading
to ensure that the maximum cargo is carried, but that the loading is legal. To do this,
before completion of loading, the vertical distance from the waterline to the relevant
Load Line mark is measured. This distance can be used with a hydrostatic value known
as the tonnes per centimetre immersion, or TPC, to calculate the mass to load. This is
shown in the hydrostatic tables.
The TPC tells us how many tonnes of mass need to be added to the vessel to make her
sink down by 1 cm, or how many tonnes of cargo need to be removed from the vessel
to make her rise up by 1 cm. The TPC, sinkage or rise and mass added or removed are
linked by:
Mass added ( or removed )

or rrise ) =
k e (o
Sinkag
TPC
Formula 1.6 Sinkage or rise and the TPC
As the vessel is loaded, the distance from the waterline to the Load Line can be used
to determine the allowable sinkage until the top of the relevant Load Line touches the
water, when loading should stop. If the allowable sinkage is known, then the amount
of cargo that can still be loaded can be found from the TPC.
QUESTIONS

If the mass added or removed has units of tonnes, and the TPC has units of tonnes per
centimetre, what are the units of sinkage or rise?

A ship has a TPC value of 35. An additional 70 tonnes of cargo is added to the vessel.
How much further in the water will the ship sink?

A ship has a TPC value of 25. How much cargo must be removed from the vessel to
make her rise by 0.2 m?

A ship is oating with the waterline 50 mm below the bottom of the summer Load Line,
in a summer zone. The TPC is 26. How much additional cargo can be loaded?

A ship is oating with the waterline 90 mm above the bottom of the summer Load Line,
in a summer zone. The TPC is 22. How much cargo must be removed?

A ship is oating with the waterline on the bottom of the summer Load Line, in a
tropical zone. The TPC is 20. How much cargo can be added if the summer draught of
the vessel is 9.80 m?
The TPC can be directly calculated from the waterplane area, water density, and the
length and beam of the vessel:
TPC = CW L B 0 01
Formula 1.7 The TPC
This can also be written as:
(CW L B )
TPC =
100
Formula 1.8 The TPC (alternative)
Within these, the TPC is measured in units of tonnes per centimetre, the CW is the
waterplane area coecient, L and B are the vessel length and beam (on the waterline)
in metres and is the water density in units of tonnes per metre3.
X To see a proof of how the TPC can be directly calculated, please see
Appendix 5: The Derivation of the TPC Formula.
QUESTION
Q1.17 (OOW)
A ship has a waterplane area coecient of 0.80. The waterline length is 110 m, the
waterline beam is 15 m and she is oating in sea water. Determine the TPC.
As seen in Formulae 1.7 and 1.8, the exact value of the TPC depends on the density of
the water that the vessel is oating in. Often when loading in a port, the water around
the ship will not be pure sea water. Depending on the location, the water may be fresh
water (with a density of 1.000 t/m3), or it may be a mix of sea water and fresh water
known as dock water or brackish water. This will have a density somewhere between
sea water and fresh water. Unless you are told otherwise, the values for TPC quoted in
hydrostatic tables are always for salt water.
If the water is not salt water, then corrections are required to obtain the dock water
value or actual value of the TPC:
DDW
TPCDW = TPC
T SW
SW
Formula 1.9 Dock water TPC
Within this formula, the subscript SW refers to the sea water values, and the subscript
DW refers to the dock water values.
QUESTIONS

Your ship has a TPC of 25. The vessel moves into fresh water. What is the dock water TPC
value?

Your ship has a TPC in sea water of 30. The vessel is in dock water with a density of 1.010
t/m3. What is the dock water TPC value?
Fresh Water Allowance

(OOW, MCM, ENG)
In fresh water, the vessel will oat lower in the water than in salt water. This is because
fresh water is less dense, and therefore less buoyant. This means that (assuming
displacement remains constant) as ships move from fresh to salt water, they rise
up slightly. The Load Line rules which govern ship loading require that the vessel
must be on her correct marks when she proceeds to sea, but do not mention what
happens when she is alongside her berth or manoeuvring in a harbour. This allows
us to overload the vessel in a fresh water port, as she will rise up to the correct Load
Line when she proceeds into salt water at sea. The distance between the fresh water
mark and the summer mark is known as the fresh water allowance, or FWA, as it is the
amount that the vessel is allowed to be overloaded by in fresh water. The FWA (in units
of millimetres) can be found from:
in sea w
water
ate at tthe
e relevant mark
r
W =
FWA
4 TPC in
i sea water ata the relevant mark
r
Formula 1.10 Fresh water allowance
Therefore in a tropical zone, the FWA can be found from:
Tropical
W =
FWA
4 TPC SW at the tropica
t l mark
r
Formula 1.11 Tropical fresh water allowance

In a summer zone, the FWA can be found from:
Summer
W =
FWA
4 TPC SW at the su
summe
er mark
r
Formula 1.12 Summer fresh water allowance
In a winter zone, the FWA can be found from:
Winter
W =
FWA
4 TPC SW at the winter mark
Formula 1.13 Winter fresh water allowance
Within these, is the displacement of the vessel when oating at the appropriate mark,
in units of tonnes, the TPC is the sea water value at the appropriate mark, and the FWA
is the fresh water allowance in units of millimetres.
X For a mathematical proof of the FWA, please see Appendix 6: The Derivation
of the Fresh Water Allowance Formula.
QUESTION

A ship with a summer displacement of 10,000 tonnes has a TPC in salt water of 30. What
is the summer draught FWA in units of millimetres and centimetres?
Dock Water Allowance

(OOW, MCM, ENG)
If the vessel is in dock water, then there will still be a change in draught and freeboard
when moving into sea water. When the vessel is in dock water, a dock water allowance
(DWA) is used instead of the FWA. The principle is the same the vessel can be overloaded
by a certain amount so that she oats on her marks when proceeding to sea.
(SW DDW )
W =F
DWA WA
FWA
(SW
S FFW )
Formula 1.14 Dock water allowance
The DWA is measured in units of millimetres, with the sea water and dock water densities
measured in units of tonnes per metre3.
As the densities of salt water and fresh water are constant, the formula is often simply
written as one of:
DWA
W FWA
FWA
( SW DW
D ) with
t in units
t of tonnes / metre 3
( .025)
DWA
W FWA
FWA
( SW DW
D ) with in unitst of kkilograms / metre 3
( )
QUESTION

A ship with a summer displacement of 15,000 tonnes has a TPC in salt water of
35. What is the DWA at the summer draught in water with a density of 1.015 t/m3?
(Hint you will need to calculate the FWA rst.)
Together, the FWA, the DWA and the dock water or actual TPC can be used to determine
how much additional cargo can be loaded onto a vessel to get her to her maximum
possible legal displacement and draught when loading in dock water.
To determine how much additional cargo can be loaded aboard, the FWA (and the
DWA, if in dock water) must be calculated, and therefore the distance from the Load
Line mark to the allowable waterline can be found. The distance from the actual
waterline to the Load Line mark can be measured, and therefore the distance from the
actual waterline to the allowable waterline can be found. This is the allowable sinkage.
The allowable sinkage can be used with the TPC (suitably corrected for fresh or dock
water) to determine how much mass can be loaded aboard to cause the allowable
sinkage.
QUESTIONS

A ship with a summer displacement of 11,000 tonnes with a salt water TPC of 29 t/cm
oats in dock water with a density of 1.005 t/m3. The waterline is 5 cm below the lower
edge of the summer Load Line. Determine the amount of cargo the vessel can load.

A ship with a summer displacement of 14,000 tonnes and a TPC of 35 t/cm oats in
dock water with a density of 1.020 t/m3. The waterline is 15 cm above the upper edge of
the summer Load Line. Determine the amount of cargo the vessel must discharge.

A vessel has a summer draught of 10.6 m. The FWA at the Winter draught is 290 mm. The
vessel has a TPC, adjusted for dock water, of 33 t/cm. The density of the dock water is
1,018 kg/m3. The waterline is 490 mm below the summer Load Line. What is the Winter
displacement of the vessel, and how much more cargo can the vessel load so that she
is on her winter marks at sea?

MV Reed is oating in a summer zone, with the waterline 40 cm below the top of the
summer mark. The density of the water is 1.010 t/m3.
Determine the amount of cargo to load to bring the vessel to her summer displacement
using the mean TPC.
Accuracy of the TPC

(OOW, MCM, ENG)
As seen in Formulae 1.7 and 1.8, the TPC depends on the waterplane area coecient. This
changes as the draught changes, so as we load cargo onto the vessel, the TPC changes.
This is also shown in the hydrostatics, where TPC varies with draught. This change in
TPC with draught introduces a small error into the mass values found in Formula 1.6.
Table 1.2 Errors due to using the TPC
Draught (m) Displacement Actual mass to load TPC based mass to load
(tonnes) (tonnes) (tonnes)
7 7,329 0 0.0
6.9 7,192 137 137.2
6.8 7,056 273 273.3
6.7 6,921 408 408.3
6.6 6,787 542 542.1
6.5 6,654 675 674.6
6.4 6,522 807 806.0
6.3 6,392 937 936.2
6.2 6,263 1,066 1,065.2
6.1 6,135 1,194 1,193.3
6 6,008 1,321 1,320.2
To minimise this error, if the sinkage is large (more than a few centimetres) and the
full hydrostatic data is available, then the TPC value can be interpolated at the initial
draught and the permitted draught, and the average of the two found. This average
TPC can then be used to determine the mass to load. Even this process introduces small
errors into the mass to load, which are shown in Table 1.2, which shows the mass to add
found using the mean TPC against the actual mass to add found from the hydrostatics,
for MV Reed in sea water, in a summer zone.
Lumber or Timber Load Lines

(OOW, MCM, ENG)
Vessels which are designed to carry timber deck cargoes may have special Load Lines,
known as Lumber Load Lines, marked onto the hull. If the vessel has a securely packaged
timber deck cargo, then that cargo is assumed to be part of the vessel, and therefore
contributes to the freeboard. This is because timber is buoyant. Please see the section
on Large Angle Stability for more details. The vessel must have the bow protected by a
forecastle (which must be at least the standard height, which is 1.80 m high for a vessel
of 75 m or less in length, or 2.30 m high for a vessel over 125 m in length, with linear
interpolation used in between) of at least 7% of the Load Line length, and a raised
quarter deck of at least standard height if the vessel is less than 100 m in length. She
must also have ecient railings or bulwarks to help secure the cargo, and have double
bottom tanks along the half-mid length of the vessel, with adequate longitudinal
subdivision.
Lumber Load Lines are very similar to normal Load Lines, except that the freeboard of
the vessel is less because of the reasons outlined in the previous paragraph, and the
winter mark is closer to the summer mark. Each of the zones is prexed with an L.
The zones are as follows:
Designation Meaning
LTF Timber Tropical Freshwater

LF Timber Freshwater
1
LT Timber Tropical always th of the summer draught above the summer mark
48
LS Timber Summer
1
LW Timber Winter always th of the summer draught below the summer mark
36
LWNA Timber Winter North Atlantic (only used on vessels less than 100 m, and located
50 mm below the winter mark)
Assigning a Load Line

(MCM, ENG)
The intentions of the Load Line Act are to ensure that a vessel is strong enough for
a proposed loading condition, to ensure that she has sucient stability for probable
loading conditions, to ensure that the crew are suciently protected when working on
deck in bad weather, and to ensure that the vessel has sucient reserve buoyancy. The
current Load Line Regulations, SI 2241 (1998) as amended by SI 1335 (2000), stem from
the 1966 International convention.
In order to understand the Load Line requirements, some basic denitions are required.
Within the regulations, watertight means capable of preventing the passage of water
in any direction, while weathertight for ttings means water will not penetrate and
enter the hull in the worst sea and weather conditions. In the case of a bulkhead door
weathertight means permanently attached, made of steel or equivalent material
which, together with its frame, is of equivalent strength to the unpierced bulkhead. It
must be closed by permanently attached gaskets and clamping devices. Weathertight
bulkhead doors must be capable of being operated from either side of the bulkhead
and should normally open outwards.
The freeboard deck is the uppermost complete deck exposed to weather and sea which
has permanent means of closing all openings in its weather portions and below which
all side openings have permanent watertight closing appliances. In eect, this is the
deck which forms the top of the watertight compartments.
The superstructure itself is dened as decked structure on the freeboard deck

extending from side to side or such that its side plating is not inboard of the shell
by more than 4% of the ships breadth. An enclosed superstructure is one where
the end bulkheads are of ecient construction and access openings have sills and
weathertight doors. All other openings in the sides and ends (such as ports) must
be tted with weathertight closing arrangements. A superstructure deck is a deck
forming the top of part of the superstructure.
Narrower deck structures which open onto lower decks are known as trunks, which are
dened as a structure having at least 60% of the ships breadth at the position in which
it is situated and which has the same strength as a superstructure which opens directly
into the space below the freeboard deck.
In order for a vessel to operate, she must be assigned a freeboard. What this means
is that the design (and the built ship herself ) are examined, and based on the shape
and ttings, given, or assigned, a minimum freeboard that is considered safe. It is this
freeboard which is marked on the hull as the summer Load Line or Plimsoll mark.
To do this, cargo ships are classed into two main types. Type A vessels are those which
are designed to carry liquid cargo in bulk, while Type B vessels are designed to carry any
other type of cargo vessel. Given the type of cargo carried, normally Type A vessels will
have strong, watertight decks, while Type B vessels will only have weathertight decks.
In addition, due to the free surface eects of liquid cargoes, Type A vessels normally
have greater subdivision than Type B vessels.
Tabular freeboard
Within the Load Line Act, there is a table of data which shows, either for a Type A or Type
B vessel, a minimum freeboard for the length of the vessel. Type A vessels have smaller
minimum freeboards than Type B vessels, as the deck of Type A vessels has an inherent
greater strength and integrity due to watertight decks, stronger deck structure; greater
Table 1.3 Sample tabular freeboards
Type A vessel Type B vessel
Length (m) Freeboard (mm) Length (m) Freeboard (mm)
140 1,803 140 2,109

143 1,853 143 2,171
internal subdivision than dry cargo ships and low permeability of loaded cargo spaces.
The freeboard listed in Table 1.3 is known as the tabular freeboard. An example extract
from the tables is shown in Table 1.3.
If a Type B vessel meets the following requirements, then it is considered to have better
structural integrity of the deck than a normal Type B vessel:
Over 100 m in length.

Adequate protection for crew working on deck and adequate water freeing
arrangements (such as railings rather than bulwarks).
Steel, gasketed and clamped hatch covers in exposed locations with adequate
strength and sealing arrangements.
The ability to remain aoat (when loaded to the summer Load Line ) with one
compartment (other than the machinery space) bilged with a permeability of 95%.
For vessels over 225 m in length, then this also includes the machinery space, but
with a permeability of 85%. Bilging means that the compartment is open to the sea,
this is covered in more detail later.
If the vessel meets the above requirements, it is possible to reduce the tabular freeboard
by 60% of the dierence between a Type B and Type A vessel of the same size, in which
case the vessel is known as a Type B-60 vessel.
If it meets these Type B-60 requirements and also meets the following requirements,
then a further reduction in freeboard is allowed:
Suitable freeing arrangements for trapped water.

Suitable machinery case protection.
Safe and suitable means of access forward for crew working on deck.
The ability to remain aoat (when loaded to the summer Load Line ) with any two
adjacent compartments (other than the machinery space) bilged with a permeability
of 95%. For vessels over 225 m in length, then this also includes the machinery space
bilged in isolation, but with a permeability of 85%.
In this case, the tabular freeboard can be reduced by 100% of the dierence between
a Type B and Type A vessel of the same length. This is known as a Type B-100 vessel. As
the reduction is 100% of the dierence in tabular freeboard between a Type A vessel
and a Type B vessel of the same size, a Type B-100 vessel would have the same tabular
freeboard as a Type A vessel.
If the vessel is under 100 m in length, and the eective length of the superstructure is
less that 35% of the length, then an additional increase is made to the tabular freeboard
to increase it for safety.
In both the B-60 and B-100 requirements, the vessel must be designed so that in the
event of the vessel being bilged as per the requirements, the water must not enter the
vessel through any opening in the hull, the heel angle must not exceed 15 degrees,
the metacentric height must be at least 50 mm (see the chapters on small angle stability
and bilging for an explanation of metacentric height) and there must be adequate
residual stability.
Block coefficient correction
The tabular freeboard values are based on a standard shape of hull, with a block
coecient of 0.68, and a length to depth ratio of 15. If the actual block coecient
is dierent to the standard vessel, then a correction to the freeboard is made. If the
actual block coecient is greater than the standard, then the freeboard is increased by
formula. This is now known as the Basic freeboard.
The reasoning for this is that vessels with a large block coecient are fatter or fuller
than vessels with a small block coecient. They therefore have more buoyancy below
the waterline in proportion to the reserve buoyancy (the watertight volume above
the waterline). This means that if the vessel is damaged and oods there is a greater
resulting sinkage, and therefore a greater freeboard is required to ensure that the ship
has sucient freeboard after damage. The concept of sinkage after damage is explained
in more details in the chapter covering bilging.
Length and depth correction
Once the basic freeboard is found, corrections must be made for the length to depth
ratio. As the depth of the vessel increases for a xed length, the sinkage due to the same
amount of damage along the ship will increase, as more volume will be lost as a result
of damage. Therefore, vessels with large depth values for their length require additional
freeboard, and conversely vessels with small depth values for their length can have
their freeboard reduced. As the standard vessel used in the assignment process has a
length to depth ratio of 15, any vessel with a depth in excess of the length divided by
15 must have the freeboard increased according to formula. If the depth is less than the
length divided by 15, and the vessel meets additional requirements related to the size
of the superstructure, then the freeboard can be reduced according to formula.
If the length to depth ratio of the actual vessel is less than 15, and the vessel has an
enclosed superstructure running at least 60% of the length of the vessel, then the basic
freeboard can be decreased by formula.
Deck line correction
A further correction to the freeboard is made if the deck line (the line which marks the
point at the top of the hull at which the freeboard is measured) is not placed on the hull
at a depth corresponding to the depth for freeboard.
If the depth (measured up from the inside of the keel plates) to the freeboard deck is
more than the depth to the deck line, the dierence is subtracted from the freeboard.
This eectively allows the freeboard to be measured to the deck plates. Conversely, if
the depth (measured up from the inside of the keel plates) to the freeboard deck is less
than the depth to the deck line, the dierence is added to the freeboard.
Superstructure correction
The standard vessel has no superstructure. Enclosed superstructure can have a benecial
eect in increasing reserve buoyancy, and so a reduction in freeboard is applied based
on the extent of the superstructure. This reduction is complicated, and is found from
tables based on vessel length and superstructure length.
Sheer and bow height correction
The standard vessel has a certain sheer prole along the length of the hull. Increasing
sheer will increase bow height, and hence inuence the sea keeping of the vessel.
Increasing the sheer prole above the standard vessel results in an allowable reduction
in freeboard, while reducing the sheer prole below the standard vessel results in an
increase in freeboard. If the nal bow height is less than a specied minimum value,
then an additional correction is required to bring the bow height to a safe value.
This freeboard, resulting from the corrections to the basic freeboard, is known as the
assigned freeboard. It is this assigned freeboard that is then used to mark the summer
Load Line on the vessel. The tropical and winter Load Line marks can then be found
from calculation using the summer draught of the vessel.
In order for the vessel to be assigned or given a freeboard, she must also meet structural
requirements.
FLOTATION AND BUOYANCY LEARNING CHECKLIST
Objective Level Completed
Explain why a ship oats OOW, MCM, ENG

Understand and complete calculations based on the OOW, MCM, ENG
relationship between displacement and draught for a
box shaped vessel
Understand the relationship between underwater OOW, MCM, ENG
volume, uid density and displacement or mass
Understand the dierence between displacement OOW, MCM, ENG
and tonnage
Understand and use block coecients, waterplane OOW, MCM, ENG
area coecients and amidship area coecients
Calculate underwater volume, waterplane area and OOW, MCM, ENG
amidships areas
Determine the displacement of a ship from the OOW, MCM, ENG
hydrostatics
Determine the draught of a ship from the hydrostatics OOW, MCM, ENG
Determine the displacement of a ship from the OOW, MCM, ENG
hydrostatics at intermediate draughts
Determine the draught of a ship from the hydrostatics OOW, MCM, ENG
at intermediate displacements
Determine the displacement of a ship from the OOW, MCM ENG
displacement and DW scales
Draw, label and dimension a Load Line mark OOW, MCM, ENG
Objective Level Completed
Understand and use the Load Line zones OOW, MCM, ENG
Use the TPC to calculate the mass to add to cause a OOW, MCM, ENG
sinkage or the mass to remove to cause a rise
Use the TPC to calculate the sinkage or rise caused by OOW, MCM, ENG
adding or removing a mass
Understand and use the relationship between and OOW, MCM, ENG
calculate the TPC from the dimensions of the ship and
the form coecients
Understand the relationship between density and OOW, MCM, ENG
TPC, and correct the sea water TPC value to a dock
water value
Correct the dock water TPC value to a sea water value OOW, MCM, ENG
Understand the relationship between draught and OOW, MCM, ENG
water density
Calculate the FWA of a ship, and apply it to the OOW, MCM, ENG
draught
Calculate the DWA of a ship, and apply it to the OOW, MCM, ENG
draught
Calculate the mass to add or remove to a ship so that OOW, MCM, ENG
the vessel oats in accordance with the Load Line
regulations
Understand the limitations of the TPC with respect to OOW, MCM
changes in draught
Understand the dierence between normal Load OOW, MCM
Lines and Lumber Load Lines
Understand the process by which the position of the MCM
Load Line on a ship is determined (assignment of
Load Line )

Flotation and Buoyancy

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Flotation and Buoyancy

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1

At the end of this section, you should be able to:

Explain why a ship oats

When an object is immersed or partially immersed in a uid, it experiences an upwards

Therefore, if an object, such as a ship, is placed in water it will experience an upwards

acting downwards. The force of gravity on an object, in units of Newtons, is equal to

Force due to grav

Therefore, the gravitational force acting downward can be given by:

Force due to grav

Force due to grav

Force due to grav

Substituting the expressions for the forces gives:

The gravitational acceleration, g, is constant on both sides, and so to simplify the

Formula 1.1 Archimedes' principle

Q1.1 (OOW, MCM, ENG)

Q1.2 (OOW, MCM, ENG)

Q1.3 (OOW, MCM, ENG)

Q1.4 (OOW, MCM, ENG)

Deadweight (DWT) is the dierence between lightship and the displacement

Figure 1.1 Block coecient

Formula 1.2 Block coecient

Waterplane area coefficient

Figure 1.2 Waterplane area coecient

The waterplane area can be found from:

Formula 1.3 Waterplane area coecient

Q1.5 (OOW, MCM, ENG)

Amidships area coefficient

Figure 1.3 Amidships area coecient

The amidships area coecient measures can be found from:

Formula 1.4 Amidships area coecient

Q1.6 (OOW, MCM, ENG)

Figure 1.4 Variation in draught with trim

Q1.7 (OOW, MCM, ENG)

Q1.8 (OOW, MCM, ENG)

Hydrostatics and Linear Interpolation

If we wanted to determine the displacement of the vessel at a draught between these

Table 1.1 Sample hydrostatic data showing

Draught (m) Displacement (tonnes)

Figure 1.5 Draught and displacement

We can, however, speed up this process and interpolate mathematically, so that we

Formula 1.5 Linear interpolation

Figure 1.6 Interpolating displacement

Figure 1.7 Linear interpolation

Q1.9 (OOW, MCM, ENG)

Q1.10 (OOW, MCM, ENG)

X For an explanation of an alternative method of interpolation by using the

Displacement and Deadweight Scales

Figure 1.8 Displacement and deadweight scale

LCB & LCF (m FOAP)

Figure 1.9 Hydrostatic curves

LCB & LCF (m FOAP)

Figure 1.10 Hydrostatic curves and known draught

LCB & LCF (m FOAP)

Figure 1.11 Hydrostatic curves and known displacement

Figure 1.12 Photograph of a Load Line mark

Figure 1.13 Diagram of a Load Line mark

Figure 1.14 Dimensions of a Load Line mark

The TF, F, T, S, W and WNA markings refer to zones.

Engaged in coastal trade, such as:

Mass added ( or removed )

Formula 1.6 Sinkage or rise and the TPC

Q1.11 (OOW, MCM, ENG)

Q1.12 (OOW, MCM, ENG)