ARCHITECTURAL IMPACT ON THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

19

MINING-
MANUFAC/ TRANSP/ MAINT/LIFE
DRILLING- BUILDING DEMOLITION RECYCLE
DISTR. DISTR. CYCLE
EXTRACTING

Figure 1.15 The construction process.

The construction process starts with mining, drilling, and extracting the materials.
Excavating mineral ores for construction requires the stripping of topsoil and rocks.
This separation requires energy primarily from fossil-based resources, an activity that
can cause much greater harm than the benets of excavation (Jackson 1996). The more
complex the process to obtain the product, the greater the amount of energy consumed.
This stage of the construction process is especially harmful for the relevant ecosystem,
as it initiates the destruction of existing settlements, plant and animal habitats, land
erosion, water pollution, and deforestation.
Manufacturing of construction materials requires more energy, produces waste, and
pollutes natural resources. The distribution and transportation of construction materi-
als and technology also impact the environment by using additional energy to trans-
port them from the manufacturing point to the point of assembly and building.
Construction activities necessary to complete a building contribute to air pollution,
including: land clearing, engine operations, demolition, burning, and working with
toxic materials. In fact, all construction sites generate high levels of pollutants, mostly
from concrete, cement, wood, stone, and silica. Construction dust, in particular, is a
serious issue. Although it is invisible to the naked eye, the dust penetrates deeply into
the lungs and causes a wide range of health problems, including respiratory illness,
asthma, bronchitis, and cancer (see Table 1.7).
20 GREEN ARCHITECTURE: OVERVIEW

TABLE 1.7 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF ARCHITECTURAL PROCESS

ACTIVITY ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

Mining/drilling/extracting Deforestation; destruction of plant and animal habitat; existing

Manufacturing/assembly
Transportation/distribution
Building
Maintenance/life cycle
Demolition
Recycle/waste
settlements; land erosion; water pollution
Energy consumption (impacts of producing energy); waste
generation
Energy consumption, CO2 emission; resource use (packaging)
CO2 emission; pollution and radiation from the materials and
technologies (exposed to chemical and climatic activities); pressure
and damage
Energy consumption, CO2 emission; resource use and replacement;
wear and tear; chemical contamination (material lossfrom roofs,
pipes); water pollution
Chemical contamination; toxicity; environmental poisons
Landll decomposition; groundwater contamination; methane gas
production

As for the environmental impact and energy consumption, the most harmful stage of
the construction process is the maintenance and life cycle of the buildings. The life cycle
of a building is a long-lasting process after construction, which includes the performance,
durability and maintenance, energy use and consumption, water and waste management,
environmental human health systems, occupant well-being, renovation, recycle content,
resource limitation, and the life span of the building (see Fig. 1.16).
Because of the complexity and the life span of buildings, there is a consistent ow
of materials and technologies during the life cycle (Vogtlander 2001). The life span of
buildings is an important factor in this cycle and contributes directly on the buildings
environmental impact. Depending on the category and building type, an average build-
ing life is approximately 35 to 50 years (Addington and Schodek 2005) but this num-
ber changes based on the category and purpose of the building (see Table 1.8). The
actual lives of buildings are affected by various external factors outside the control of
the original intentions (Fernandez 2005), and depend on a vast amount of natural
resources, including land, energy, and water. The majority of the environmental impact
and energy consumption takes place during this stage.
Building demolitions are often impacted by environmental concerns, such as exces-
sive CO2 emission, toxic materials, solid waste, nonrenewable landll materials, and
health issues.
Most of the construction and demolition materials (e.g., lead-based paints, asbestos,
mold, wastes containing mercury, uorescent bulbs, batteries) pose serious environ-
mental and health problems (Roodman and Lenssen 1995; Berge 2000). For both reg-
ulatory and economic reasons, recyclables (such as concrete, lumber, and brick) are
 ARCHITECTURAL IMPACT ON THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT 21

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

ENERGY CONSUMPTION

DEMOLITION
LIFE CYCLE
DISTRIBUTION

CONSTRUCTION
MINING/DRILLING

MANUFACTURING

TRANSPORTATION/

RECYCLE/WASTE
Figure 1.16 The majority of the environmental impact and
energy consumption takes place during the life cycle stage.

TABLE 1.8 CATEGORY OF DESIGN SERVICE LIFE FOR BUILDINGS

CATEGORY DESIGN SERVICE LIFE EXAMPLES

Temporary Up to 10 years Nonpermanent construction buildings; sales

ofces,
bunkhouses temporary exhibition buildings
Medium life 2549 years Most industrial buildings; most parking structures
Long life 5099 years Most residential, commercial, and ofce buildings;
health and educational buildings; parking structures
below buildings designed for long life category
Permanent Minimum period, 100 years Monumental buildings (e.g., national museums, art
galleries, archives); heritage buildings

Source: CSA (R2001) Guideline on Durability in Buildings

typically separated from other solid waste. As their processing and disposal proce-
dures are minimal and inexpensive, most of these materials are salvaged and reused.
Other recyclables (such as steel, aluminum, copper, and glass) possess signicant eco-
nomic value to specialty recycling and salvage facilities. Hazardous waste must be dis-
posed of in a separate landll at a very high cost. This includes materials with high
levels of fossil fuel, chromium, or lead-based contaminants (Gockel 1994).
22 GREEN ARCHITECTURE: OVERVIEW

TECHNOLOGIES AND MATERIALS

Materials, technology, and architecture have had a strong relationship from the very
early beginnings of construction. This relationship is almost inseparable and is one of
subordination. The material is merely the means of completing a building, and the act of
building requires a technology. The invention and use of these elements changed our
built environment, but we are only now learning that this connection has had ecological
consequences.
The technologies and materials for construction and then operation of buildings
have a disproportionate impact on the natural environment when compared to its role
in the economy. Although the construction sector represents only about 8 percent of
gross domestic product (GDP) in the United States, it consumes 40 percent of all
extracted materials, produces one-third of the total landll waste stream, and accounts
for 39 percent of national energy consumption for its operation (Roodman and
Lenssen 1995). Raw materials for the building sector are extracted, processed, trans-
ported, fashioned in the construction phase, demolished, and recycled. As stated ear-
lier, all these stages imply a number of environmental impacts. In particular, the build-
ing industry is a heavy consumer of materials with high-embodied energy content,
such as aluminum, cement, and steel, the production of which usually depends on the
use of fossil fuels, resulting in CO2 emissions (UNEP 2006). Lightweight construction
materials, such as timber frames, usually have lower-embodied energy in comparison,
but because of massive harvesting of this material, 20 percent of the earths forests
have disappeared. Around the world, mining of copper, bauxite, and iron ore resources
for building materials continues, pouring large quantities of pollutants into nearby air
and water. All these trends are accelerating, and the damage they have done and may
do is often irreversible (Roodman and Lenssen 1995).
Throughout the entire construction process, fossil fuelbased energy consumption
is high. For example, the high temperatures necessary to produce steel, glass, and
brick require great amounts of fossil fuels. Transporting materials to a building site
burns yet more fossil fuels. It is not surprising then, that the amount of carbon diox-
ide in our atmosphere has risen approximately 30 percent since 1900, one-quarter of
which comes from fossil fuel combustion used to provide energy for buildings
(Roodman and Lenssen 1995).
As mentioned earlier, a completed building does not mean less consumption of
fossil fuel and energy, but rather more. According to the 1992 OECD report,
energy use in buildings from 1971 to 1992 was at an average 2 percent annually.
In 1992, total energy use in buildings had risen to 34 percent. This included
25 percent from fossil fuels, 44 percent from hydropower, and 50 percent from
nuclear power. Adding in the fuels and power used in construction, buildings con-
sume at least 40 percent of the worlds energy. They thus account for about a third
of the emissions of heat-trapping carbon dioxide from fossil fuel burning, and
two-fth of acid-rain-causing sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Buildings also
contribute to other side effects of energy useoil spills, nuclear waste generation,
river damming, toxic runoff from coal mines, and mercury emissions from coal
burning (OECD 1992; Roodman and Lenssen 1995).
 RESPONSIBILITY OF ARCHITECTURE 23

A survey of water use in buildings tells a similar story. An increase in water use is
lowering water tables and necessitating large projects that siphon water supply away
from agriculture. In addition, electric power plants use water as a coolant, which then
drains into rivers, carrying thermal and chemical pollution. These two uses contribute
about equally to buildings one-sixth share of global water withdrawals (Roodman
and Lenssen 1995; Gleick, Cooley, Katz and Lee 2007).
Steel production can be highly polluting; iron mining produces tailings that can leach
heavy metals into nearby streams; and open-hearth steel making can emit lead and
other poisonous heavy metals. According to 1992 U.K. data, the use of materials such
as steel, copper, aluminum, and concrete makes each square meter of oor space in a
large ofce building 2 to 4 times as energy intensiveand therefore approximately 2
to 4 times as pollution intensive as a house (Roodman and Lenssen 1995). Another con-
cern with materials is their potential impact on indoor air quality. Most bonding and
drying agents in carpets, veneers, particle board, plywood, and petroleum-based paints
emit health-threatening volatile organic compounds (Roodman and Lenssen 1995).
Finally, many modern buildings also create dangerous indoor environments for their
inhabitants. For example, sick building syndrome is reported to occur in 30 percent
of new or renovated buildings worldwide (Roodman and Lenssen 1995).

Responsibility of Architecture
Due to its role, volume, and impact, it is evident that architecture has a direct respon-
sibility to the immediate (city) ecosystem. As Graham (Graham 2002) points out,
every architectural artifact, regardless of its sizebig or small (1) connects to the
earth; (2) depends on nature for resources; (3) causes environmental change; and (4)
affects both human and nonhuman life. Since part of the problem is architectural, so
should be the solution, such as designing based on sustainable and ecological princi-
ples; developing and using advanced green technologies and materials; and promoting
and demanding high-performance buildings. Some of these issues, such as ecological
design have been around for decades. Others have been proposed and promoted, but
sporadically rather than consistently.
Architectures main responsibility is not to pick and choose the best solution but
to incorporate all options that might generate workable solutions. There is no single
formula of what and how much to use. Clearly, there is an urgent need of a new way
of thinking and designing. In order to fully address its responsibilities, architecture
should abandon old methods, technologies, and materials and push for a new para-
digm shift. The design objectives should be based on sustainable, ecological, and per-
formance criteria rather than trends and aesthetics; be environmentally conscious
rather than market-driven; and be inherently resourceful rather than globally destruc-
tive. Briey described, the responsibility of green architecture includes:

Smaller buildings. Unlike Mc-Mansions, smaller buildings are economically feasi-

ble, efcient, and require low maintenance. Because of their compact size, smaller
24 GREEN ARCHITECTURE: OVERVIEW

buildings use less material, need less energy, and produce less waste. Architects
should focus on small, yet functional and ecologically sensitive buildings by con-
serving space and preserving the environment.
Sustainable materials and technologies. Architects should focus on using durable,
low-maintenance, recyclable, and economical materials and technologies. Constant
breakdowns, wear-and-tear, and replacement of materials and technologies will
make buildings unsustainable. Using abundant, local elementsif possiblewith
little to no transportation costs is highly preferable. Architects should also consider
elements that are easily dismantled and reused or recycled at the end. They can be
salvaged, refurbished, or remanufactured, including saving materials and technolo-
gies from disposal and renovating, repairing, restoring, or generally improving the
appearance, performance, quality, functionality, or value.
Ecological materials and technologies. Materials and technologies should consist
of low-emission, nonpollutant elements with low manufacturing impacts.
Ecological materials should facilitate a reduction in polluting emissions from
building maintenance and should not be made from toxic chemicals. Architects
should focus on clean burning technologies by excluding the components such as
substances that deplete stratospheric ozone and associated with ecological damage
and health risks, including mercury and halogenated compounds, and HCFCs
(hydrochlorouorocarbons). Additional ecological technologies such as storm-
water and wastewater systems that reduce surface water and groundwater pollution
should be incorporated.
Sustainable resources. Buildings should rely on sustainable resources, such as
energy and water, focusing on supplying their own gray water and power. Such
buildings may operate entirely off the power grid, or they may be able to feed
excess energy back into the grid. Solar, thermal, and windif availablepowers
are the usual alternatives. Buildings should also consider the proximity to and from
water resources, supplies, and existing waste management systems. Architects
should also consider the climatic conditions for their favor and benet from them,
such as sun, wind, and water. Residential and daylight-needing buildings should not
be designed in sun-trapping/blocking areas (i.e., in between buildings, etc.). The
buildings should be accessible to public transportation (and bicycle paths) to reduce
private vehicle use, to save energy, and to reduce air pollution.
Sustainable environments. One of the main responsibilities of any architect is to
create sustainable environments that are protective, healthy, habitable, and promote
social and institutional networks. Buildings should provide protective environments
where the occupants feel safe and secure against the various elements such as natural
causes, built environments, and people. Building should also provide healthy and habi-
table environments for people; designed to maximize productivity by minimizing
operator fatigue and discomfort; and should be free from physical and psychological
effects of buildings such as sick building syndrome.
Resource ecology. By taking ecological issues into account, architects should
design and construct buildings in the right places and in the right way, for the
benet of both the occupants and the ecological resources. The reduction of the
 RESPONSIBILITY OF ARCHITECTURE 25

natural resource consumption should be targeted right from the start, at the design
stage. The calculation and control activities should focus on the buildings natural
resource use, such as water, energy, landscape, and waste management. Soil type
and groundwater conditions must be taken into consideration before the building
is designed and constructed. The type and stability of soil should be taken seri-
ously, not only because of the building damage but also potential problems to the
soil ecology such as erosion, pollution, sedimentation, and various forms of soil
degradation.
Environmental ecology. One of the main responsibilities of architects is to respect
the ecology of the environment, and to design the buildings in a way not to pollute
the environment and harm the ecosystem. Faulty and poorly designed and/or installed
building infrastructure systems, such as inadequate gray water and sewage pipes,
stormwater management, and drainage systems, can contribute to drainage, ood-
ing, and soil and groundwater pollution. Architects should make sure to provide
proper drainage systems which collect runoff from impervious surfaces (e.g., roofs
and roads) to ensure that water is efciently conveyed to waterways through pipe
networks. Designs should promote minimizing water usage and providing water-
efcient landscaping. The materials, technologies, and the type of energy used in
the buildings should be selected from nonpollutant elements, such as alternative
energy resources and low-VOC building products.
Architects should also implement global stewardship principles by acting locally
and thinking globally. Use local resources as much as possible by reducing the
embodied energy of the building products, and by considering global ecological
consequences of their actions. Land selection, biodiversication, and building ori-
entation should be integrated into the design before the building is constructed.
Avoid changing the ecosystems for the sake of building landscape and/or orienta-
tion, such as cutting off plants or creating articial ecosystems, which might con-
tribute to erosion and ooding. Instead, buildings should contribute to the environ-
ment by absorbing sun rays and stabilizing the soil.
High-performance materials and technologies. The materials and technologies
used in buildings should be efcient, effective, and productive. The material ef-
ciency can be achieved by using recycled elements with minimal waste or adding
engineered components, such as engineered lumber and I-joists. Technological ef-
ciency should apply to the entire building cycle, including water and energy ef-
ciency. These elements should also be effective by producing desired results and
productive such as changing and storing the energy and water.
Resource performance. A buildings resource performance is determined by the
contribution to the resources of the location. Buildings should perform as eco-
nomic, ecological, and environmental contributors by various different ways. The
location and function of the building should contribute to the economic viability in
the area by creating jobs, enhancing property values, and bringing other businesses
into the area. The material and technological elements of the building should also
be used in a way to reduce the environmental impact of the building such as absorb-
ing sun rays and CO2 emission from the atmosphere.
26 GREEN ARCHITECTURE: OVERVIEW

Environmental performance. Buildings should be physically, functionally, and

socially adaptable to the environment and perform according to environmental
changes. Changes in climate, social patterns, or trends should not end the building
life cycle but give birth for different uses for the building. The functional and envi-
ronmental quality of the building should also be considered as the main design
objective.