STRUCTURD QUESTIONS

Answer allquestions.

Diagram 1 shows the structures of the human skin.

(a) On Diagram 1, label the structures P, R and S using the following words

Pressure receptors Touch receptor Pain receptors [3 marks]

(b) State one function of the skin._____________________________________ [1

mark]

(c) What are the two factors that influence the sensitivity of the skin?[i]
__________________________________ [ii] __________________________________ [2
marks]

DIAGRAM 1
Diagram 3 shows a human digestive system.

DIAGRAM 3

(a) Name two of the parts labelled P, Q, R, S, T, U and V.[2 marks]

(b) What is produced by part V?. [1 mark]

( c) Which part does digestion ends?[1 mark]

(d) State the function of parts labeled

R.

S.

U.[3 marks]
Straight Ahead Action & Pose to Pose
Straight ahead action refers to the technique of drawing each pose, one right after
another, which can yield a fluid animation style. Pose to pose refers to the
animation technique in which key frames are planned ahead of each other and then
connected to afterward. Pose to pose usually leads to a more proportional animation
that is convincing to the eye.

While not a true animation, the title sequence for the movie Juno uses a form of cut
paper and a rotoscoping-like technique to provide a dynamic style with straight
ahead action. The creative team used a process of capturing each step of the actor
Straight
walking and then visually translated all the actions to individual images.

ahead is better for creating fluid, realistic actions while pose to

pose is more effective for dramatic or emotional scenes where
its more about conveying an idea than a sense of realness

Timing
In a true animation, timing is an essential aspect of the way frames are drawn.
Timing also helps in establishing personality of characters and the emotions they
express.

The title sequence for Otto Premingers Anatomy of a Murder was created long before
advance computer motion technology existed. Iconic graphic designer Saul Bass used
timing as the main tool to communicate the personality and emotion through flat
shapes that represented body parts.

. Timing Timing helps create the illusion that an action is

abiding by the laws of physics. By adjusting the timing of a
scene, animators can make that scene look either slower and
smoother (with more frames) or faster and crisper (with less
frames).

Secondary Action
In the physical world, we can observe primary movement in the motion of a person
walking or a bird flying. Secondary actions, such as a person swinging their arms as
they walk or a birds feathers rippling in the wind, help support primary movements.
Even smaller actions, such as blinking, are also considered secondary actions. In any
secondary animation, it is important that it doesnt detract from or dominate the
main animation movement.
In the Penguin Drop Caps Animation above, the letterforms are beautifully drawn
onto the composition, and once the main animation is done, the visual rest is
supported by a subtle secondary action. In particular, take a look at the flames
around the B (00:07-00:10) and the little bugs on the C (00:14-00:17).

Staging Staging is the principle that every pose or action that a

character makes should convey a clear intention. Take these
images of Tinker Bell for instance. If you were to isolate Tink and
make a silhouette of each of her poses, you would still be able to
get the idea that Tink is overjoyed in the first pic, annoyed in the
second pic, and feeling the zzzs in the final.

Follow Through and Overlapping Action

The follow through principle argues that when a character is in action and
stops, nothing stops all at once. So when a character is running and stops,
their main body will stop, but the other parts of their body will keep moving
for a bit after. For instance, in this scene, Mulans he ad stops first and then

her hair. Tied to this idea is the overlapping action principle, which
expresses the idea that if a character is in motion, some parts of
the character move faster than others. In this Tangled scene,
notice how Rapunzels hair moves faster than her body.

1. SQUASH AND STRETCH

This action gives the illusion of weight and volume to a character as it

moves. Also squash and stretch is useful in animating dialogue and
doing facial expressions. How extreme the use of squash and stretch is,
depends on what is required in animating the scene. Usually it's broader
in a short style of picture and subtler in a feature. It is used in all forms
of character animation from a bouncing ball to the body weight of a
person walking. This is the most important element you will be required
to master and will be used often.

2. ANTICIPATION

This movement prepares the audience for a major action the character
is about to perform, such as, starting to run, jump or change expression.
A dancer does not just leap off the floor. A backwards motion occurs
before the forward action is executed. The backward motion is the
anticipation. A comic effect can be done by not using anticipation after a
series of gags that used anticipation. Almost all real action has major or
minor anticipation such as a pitcher's wind-up or a golfers' back swing.
Feature animation is often less broad than short animation unless a
scene requires it to develop a characters personality.

3. STAGING

A pose or action should clearly communicate to the audience the

attitude, mood, reaction or idea of the character as it relates to the story
and continuity of the story line. The effective use of long, medium, or
close up shots, as well as camera angles also helps in telling the story.
There is a limited amount of time in a film, so each sequence, scene
and frame of film must relate to the overall story. Do not confuse the
audience with too many actions at once. Use one action clearly stated
to get the idea across, unless you are animating a scene that is to
depict clutter and confusion. Staging directs the audience's attention to
the story or idea being told. Care must be taken in background design
so it isn't obscuring the animation or competing with it due to excess
detail behind the animation. Background and animation should work
together as a pictorial unit in a scene.

4. STRAIGHT AHEAD AND POSE TO POSE ANIMATION

Straight ahead animation starts at the first drawing and works drawing
to drawing to the end of a scene. You can lose size, volume, and
proportions with this method, but it does have spontaneity and
freshness. Fast, wild action scenes are done this way. Pose to Pose is
more planned out and charted with key drawings done at intervals
throughout the scene. Size, volumes, and proportions are controlled
better this way, as is the action. The lead animator will turn charting and
keys over to his assistant. An assistant can be better used with this
method so that the animator doesn't have to draw every drawing in a
scene. An animator can do more scenes this way and concentrate on
the planning of the animation. Many scenes use a bit of both methods of
animation.

5. FOLLOW THROUGH AND OVERLAPPING ACTION

When the main body of the character stops all other parts continue to
catch up to the main mass of the character, such as arms, long hair,
clothing, coat tails or a dress, floppy ears or a long tail (these follow the
path of action). Nothing stops all at once. This is follow through.
Overlapping action is when the character changes direction while his
clothes or hair continues forward. The character is going in a new
direction, to be followed, a number of frames later, by his clothes in the
new direction. "DRAG," in animation, for example, would be when Goofy
starts to run, but his head, ears, upper body, and clothes do not keep up
with his legs. In features, this type of action is done more subtly.
Example: When Snow White starts to dance, her dress does not begin
to move with her immediately but catches up a few frames later. Long
hair and animal tail will also be handled in the same manner. Timing
becomes critical to the effectiveness of drag and the overlapping action.

6. SLOW-OUT AND SLOW-IN

As action starts, we have more drawings near the starting pose, one or
two in the middle, and more drawings near the next pose. Fewer
drawings make the action faster and more drawings make the action
slower. Slow-ins and slow-outs soften the action, making it more life-
like. For a gag action, we may omit some slow-out or slow-ins for shock
appeal or the surprise element. This will give more snap to the scene.

7. ARCS

All actions, with few exceptions (such as the animation of a mechanical

device), follow an arc or slightly circular path. This is especially true of
the human figure and the action of animals. Arcs give animation a more
natural action and better flow. Think of natural movements in the terms
of a pendulum swinging. All arm movement, head turns and even eye
movements are executed on an arcs.

8. SECONDARY ACTION

This action adds to and enriches the main action and adds more
dimension to the character animation, supplementing and/or re-
enforcing the main action. Example: A character is angrily walking
toward another character. The walk is forceful, aggressive, and forward
leaning. The leg action is just short of a stomping walk. The secondary
action is a few strong gestures of the arms working with the walk. Also,
the possibility of dialogue being delivered at the same time with tilts and
turns of the head to accentuate the walk and dialogue, but not so much
as to distract from the walk action. All of these actions should work
together in support of one another. Think of the walk as the primary
action and arm swings, head bounce and all other actions of the body
as secondary or supporting action.
 9. TIMING

Expertise in timing comes best with experience and personal

experimentation, using the trial and error method in refining technique.
The basics are: more drawings between poses slow and smooth the
action. Fewer drawings make the action faster and crisper. A variety of
slow and fast timing within a scene adds texture and interest to the
movement. Most animation is done on twos (one drawing photographed
on two frames of film) or on ones (one drawing photographed on each
frame of film). Twos are used most of the time, and ones are used
during camera moves such as trucks, pans and occasionally for subtle
and quick dialogue animation. Also, there is timing in the acting of a
character to establish mood, emotion, and reaction to another character
or to a situation. Studying movement of actors and performers on stage
and in films is useful when animating human or animal characters. This
frame by frame examination of film footage will aid you in understanding
timing for animation. This is a great way to learn from the others.

10. EXAGGERATION

Exaggeration is not extreme distortion of a drawing or extremely broad,

violent action all the time. Its like a caricature of facial features,
expressions, poses, attitudes and actions. Action traced from live action
film can be accurate, but stiff and mechanical. In feature animation, a
character must move more broadly to look natural. The same is true of
facial expressions, but the action should not be as broad as in a short
cartoon style. Exaggeration in a walk or an eye movement or even a
head turn will give your film more appeal. Use good taste and common
sense to keep from becoming too theatrical and excessively animated.

11. SOLID DRAWING

The basic principles of drawing form, weight, volume solidity and the
illusion of three dimension apply to animation as it does to academic
drawing. The way you draw cartoons, you draw in the classical sense,
using pencil sketches and drawings for reproduction of life. You
transform these into color and movement giving the characters the
illusion of three-and four-dimensional life. Three dimensional is
movement in space. The fourth dimension is movement in time.

12. APPEAL

A live performer has charisma. An animated character has appeal.

Appealing animation does not mean just being cute and cuddly. All
characters have to have appeal whether they are heroic, villainous,
comic or cute. Appeal, as you will use it, includes an easy to read
design, clear drawing, and personality development that will capture and
involve the audience's interest. Early cartoons were basically a series of
gags strung together on a main theme. Over the years, the artists have
learned that to produce a feature there was a need for story continuity,
character development and a higher quality of artwork throughout the
entire production. Like all forms of story telling, the feature has to appeal
to the mind as well as to the eye.

1. Timing and Spacing Timing and spacing in animation is what gives objects and characters
the illusion of moving within the laws of physics. Timing refers to the number of frames between
two poses. For example, if a ball travels from screen left to screen right in 24 frames that would
be the timing. It takes 24 frames or one second (if you're working within the film rate of 24 frames
per second) for the ball to reach the other side of the screen. The spacing refers to how those
individual frames are placed. For instance, in the same example the spacing would be how the
ball is positioned in the other 23 frames. If the spacing is close together, the object moves slower,
if the spacing is further apart the object moves faster. 2. Squash and Stretch Squash

and Stretch is what gives flexibility to objects. There's a lot of squash and stretch happening in
real life that you may not notice; in animation this can be exaggerated. For instance, there's a lot
of squash and stretch that occur in the face when someone speaks, because the face is a very
flexible area. The easiest way to understand how squash and stretch work is to look at a
bouncing ball. As the ball starts to fall and picks up speed, the ball will stretch out just before
impact, and as the ball impacts the ground, it squashes, and as it takes off again it stretches.
Squash and stretch can be implemented in many different areas of animation, like the eyes
during a blink or when someone gets surprised or scared, their face squashes down, and
stretches. Squash and stretch is a great principle to utilize to exaggerate animations and add
more appeal to a movement. 3. Anticipation Anticipation is used in animation to set
the audience up for an action that is about to happen. An easy way to think about this is that if a
person needs to move forward, they first must move back. For example, if a character is about to
walk forward, they might move back slightly, this not only gets their momentum up, but it also lets
the audience know this person is about to move. Or if a character is reaching for a glass on a
table, they might move their hand back, before moving it forward. Not only is anticipation needed
to prepare the audience, but it's also required to sell believable movements. For example, before
a baseball player pitches they first need to move their entire body and arm back to gain enough
energy, and before a parkour enthusiast leaps of a ledge they first must bend their knees to
prepare for the jump. Imagine if these actions had no anticipation - they wouldn't be
believable. 4. Ease in Ease Out As any object or person moves or comes to a stop

there needs to be a time for acceleration and deceleration. Without ease in and ease out (or slow
in slow out), movements become very unnatural and robotic. For example, as a car starts from a
stop, it doesn't just reach full speed in an instant, it first must accelerate and gain speed. As it
comes to a stop it doesn't go from sixty to zero in the blink of an eye, if it did, it would be
extremely uncomfortable. Instead, it slowly decelerates until it reaches a complete stop. The
same must be accomplished in an animation, and the easiest way to accomplish ease in and
ease out is to utilize the principle of spacing. As a character stands up from a sitting position the
spacing will be closer together at the start, so they ease into the movement, and as they stand
up, they will ease out of the movement. Without this acceleration and deceleration of actions
everything would be very abrupt and jerky. 5. Follow Through and Overlapping

Action Follow through and overlapping action can be considered two different principles, but
they're still closely related. Follow through is the idea that separate parts of the body will continue
moving after the character has come to a stop. For example, as a character comes to a stop
from a walk, every part of the body won't stop at the exact same time, instead, the arms may
continue forward before coming to a settle. This could also be articles of clothing that continue to
move as the character comes to a stop. Overlapping action is very similar in that it means
different parts of the body will move at different times. For example, if a character raises their arm
up to wave, the shoulder will move first, and then the arm, and the elbow and hand may lag
behind a few frames. You may have also heard this referred to as "drag" or "lead and follow" You
can even see an example of overlapping action in something like a blade of grass, the base
moves first, and the rest of the grass follows behind at different rates, giving you that waving
motion. In real life, everything moves at different speeds and at different moments in time, and
that is why follow through and overlapping action is so important for capturing realistic and fluid
movement. 6. Arcs Everything in real-life typically moves in some type of arcing

motion, and in animation you should adhere to this principle of arcs to ensure your animation is
smooth and moves in a realistic way. The only time something would move in a perfectly straight
line is if you're trying to animate a robot, because it's unnatural for people to move in straight
lines. For example, if a character is turning their head, they will dip their head down during the
turn creating an arcing motion. You also want to ensure the more subtle things move in arcs as
well, for example the tips of the toes should move in rounded arcing motions as the character
walks. 7. Exaggeration Exaggeration is used to push movements further to add more

appeal to an action. Exaggeration can be used to create extremely cartoony movements, or

incorporated with a little more restrain to more realistic actions. Whether it's for a stylized
animation or realistic, exaggeration should be implemented to some degree. If you have a
realistic animation you can use exaggeration to make a more readable or fun movement while
staying true to reality. For example, if a character is preparing to jump off a diving board you can
push them down just a little bit further before they leap off. You can also use exaggeration in the
timing as wall to enhance different movements or help to sell the weight of a character.

8. Solid Drawing In 2D Animation, solid drawing is about creating an accurate drawing with
volume and weight, and thinking about balance, and the anatomy in a pose. With 3D animation,
animators are less likely to rely on their drawings, but the idea of solid drawing is just as
important. With solid drawing you need to think about how you pose out your 3D character rig,
ensuring there is correct balance and weight in the pose, as well as a clear silhouette. You also
want to avoid what is called "twinning," which basically means the pose you have created is
mirrored across to the other side. For example, the character may have both arms on their hips
or both hands in their pockets. This creates a rather boring and unappealing pose. Making sure
you implement the principle of solid drawing into your posing will ensure you avoid this
issue. 9. Appeal This principle can really come down to adding more appeal in many

different areas of your animation, such as appeal in posing. However, the most obvious example
is appeal in the character design, you want to have a character that the audience can connect to
or relate to. A complicated or confusing character design can lack appeal. You can find areas on
the character to push and exaggerate to create a more unique character design that will stick out
in the audience's memory. For example, simply exaggerating the jaw of the character or pushing
the youthfulness in the eyes can help create more appeal. 10. Straight Ahead and Pose to
Pose Straight ahead and pose to pose refers to the two different techniques for how you go
about animating. With straight ahead it's a very spontaneous and more of a linear approach.
You'll create each pose or drawing of the animation one after the other. For example, if you're
animating a character jumping in the air you would create the pose where he's standing, the next
where he is beginning to kneel down, the next would be him completely crouched, and so on.
You're really working through the animation as you're going. With pose to pose it's much more
methodical and planned out, with just the most important poses required to properly tell the
action. For example, you could approach the exact same action with four poses, the character
standing, crouched, in the air, and back on the ground. It allows you to work much simpler, and
ensure the posing and timing is correct before adding more detail. 11. Secondary

Action Secondary action refers to creating actions that emphasize or support the main action of
the animation; it can breathe more life into an animation and create a more convincing
performance. It's important to remember that the secondary action should typically be something
subtle that doesn't detract from the main action happening, and can be thought of as almost a
subconscious action. For example, a character talking to another character in a waiting room, the
two of them talking would be the main action, and if that character began tapping their foot
nervously, that would be the secondary action. A character walking down the street while
whistling could be another example of secondary action or a person leaning up against a wall
talking to some people at school, the main action is the character leaning against the wall and
talking, and then putting in an action of them crossing their arms would be the secondary
action. 12. Staging Staging is how you go about setting up your scene, from the

placement of the characters to the background and foreground elements and how the camera
angle is set up. The purpose of staging is to make the purpose of the animation unmistakably
clear to the viewer. This could be ensuring the camera is set up in a way to communicate the
characters expression clearly, or setting up two different characters so that both of them are
easily viewed from the specific angle. You want to keep focus on the purpose of the shot and
what you want to communicate so the audience doesn't become confused. Now that

you know the meaning and purpose behind all of the principles of animation, be sure to
implement these 12 key principles into all of your animations, and you'll be sure to create
stunning work! If want easy access to these 12 principles, be sure to download our free, handy
guide for Mastering the 12 Principles of Animation.