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Nominal Compounds and Nominal Phrases A Look from English into SCBM
Vesna Bulatovi -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 35
Anksioznost u tekstu
Emir Muhi, Dalibor Kesi ------------------------------------------------------------------ 109
Biljana Dojinovi, Susreti u tami. Uvod u itanje Virdinije Vulf. Slubeni Glasnik,
Beograd, 2011.
Nina Sirkovi----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 255
The Current Status of the Trio of Virtues: Truth, Beauty and Goodness Reframed:
Educating for the Virtues in the Twenty-first century. By Howard Gardner (New
York: Basic books. A Member of the Perseus Books Group, 2011)
Slaana ivkovi, Nadeda Stojkovi --------------------------------------------------- 261
PREVODI / TRANSLATIONS
UDK: 81'271
CONVENTIONALITY IN ILLOCUTIONARY ACTS AND RELEVANCE
THEORY
Bledar Toska
University of Vlora Ismail Qemali
Key Words: conventionality, Speech Act Theory, illocutionary acts, Relevance Theory.
rules and procedures at work, to please ourselves with a drink in our free time
or to end our day by going to bed.
Conventions as well as the notion of conventionality apply also to
language, in much the way as they do to our social life. This can be a very
interesting area of study for linguists, for, as Marmor states in the preface of his
work (xii), language is central and conventional aspects (and non-conventional
ones) of language provide a useful insight into its nature and study. Although
linguistic conventions are sometimes issues of controversial discussions, there is
hardly any doubt that a few aspects of language are conventional, as for
instance the sound-sense relations of words such as tree or house or the basic
syntactic sentence structure (Subject + Object).
One of the pragmatic theories of language use which embraces the
notion of conventionality in communication is the Speech Act Theory (SAT),
developed and elaborated by J. L. Austin almost half a century ago as a reaction
to the claim about the descriptive nature of language. He claimed that the use
of language goes far beyond the language users purpose to describe or report
something. In using language people perform certain linguistic acts because the
uttering of the sentence is, or is a part of, the doing of an action (Austin 5).
Kearns states that a linguistic act, or speech act, is an intentional, meaningful
act performed with an expression or expressions (50). Thus, language use is
regarded as an intentional act expressed through speech (Searle 16), just as an
ordinary everyday act is performed through the appropriate means, such as the
act of greeting someone by waving at him or her. This analogy suggests that
people linguistically communicate by performing certain speech acts under
certain conditions and with particular intentions. For instance, sentence (1) is
intended to perform the act of promising to show someone the most amazing
thing (s)he has ever seen.
(1) I promise you that I can show you the most amazing thing you have ever
seen. (2012 FIC Analog)
expressing that p, S predicates a future act A of S), the second is the preparatory
condition (S believes that doing A would be in Hs best interest and that S can do
A), the third is the sincerity condition (S intends to do A) and the fourth is the
essential condition (S undertakes the obligation to perform A). Based on these
conditions, rules, which serve to indicate the appropriate illocutionary force, are
formulated as follows: proposition content rule, preparatory rule, sincerity rule
and essential rule (for details, see Searle 54-65). Searle maintains that
illocutionary acts are generally made possible and performed by these rules.
After all, for Searle, speaking a language is engaging in a rule-governed form of
behaviour (16).
This short discussion raises the question of the presence of conventional
aspects (or certain rules) in performing illocutionary acts, a claim vehemently
defended by Austin and Searle, but which remains even today a controversial
issue among linguists and language philosophers. Austin himself warns that we
must notice that the illocutionary act is a conventional act: in act done as
conforming to a convention (105) and Searle asserts that the illocutionary
effect that the speaker intends to produce is achieved by getting the hearer to
recognize his intention to produce that effect [] in virtue of the fact that the
meaning of the item he utters conventionally associates it with producing that
effect (60-61). Presumably, Searle refers here to the perlocutionary act,
although I am not quite certain. But if this is the case, then we should consider
Austins claim that perlocutionary acts are not conventional, though
conventional acts may be made use of in order to bring off the perlocutionary
act (122), which testifies to certain unclear outlines in the SAT itself.
The issue of conventionality in SAT and illocutionary acts has been
criticized in many works, which either partially or totally reject the assertion
that most nontechnical concepts in ordinary language lack absolutely strict
rules (Searle 55) and the need for these rules in communication which Searle
highlights. For instance, Strawson states that there are many cases in which it
is not as conforming to an accepted convention of any kind that an
illocutionary act is performed (153) but as recognizing the speakers intention.
Similarly, Stampe argues against AustinSearle conventionalism in illocutionary
acts on the grounds that it is not by virtue of rules that promises are promises,
but because of the speaker's intending an utterance as a promise, reminder,
suggestion, or request that makes it one; whether it will be so understood
depends on the addressee's ability to infer that it was so intended (qtd. in
Green 113). While Marmor (106-130) takes somehow a more moderate position
on these views, by claiming that only certain institutional or conventional
illocutionary acts are based on fixed conventions (for instance, Guilty!, The
meeting is adjourned., Hi! or Thanks!), but who, nevertheless, excludes the
overgeneralization to attribute conventional aspects to illocutionary acts, as
pretended in SAT.
12 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
In simple terms, it appears that illocutionary acts (as well as their force)
are not totally decontextualized, in which case their production and interpretation
would rely on conventional (meta)linguistic rules, but are frequently
contextualized acts, whose fulfillment highly depends on the speakers intentions
and hearers inferential ability to utter and understand utterances.
Relevance Theory (RT) (Wilson and Sperber) takes a somehow different
perspective on utterance interpretation and it is based on this cognitive and
psychological theory and on two principles of relevance: a Cognitive Principle
(that human cognition tends to be geared to the maximisation of relevance),
and a Communicative Principle (that every utterance creates expectations of
optimal relevance). According to RT, utterance interpretation is a psychological
phenomenon affected by cognitive factors in addition to social and linguistic
ones. Every utterance could be interpreted in various ways, but not all of them
are equally accessible to the hearer, who is equipped with a general criterion for
evaluating them and accepting only the most relevant and eliminating
alternative ones.
All utterances occur in a certain determined context, which consists of
mentally represented assumptions that help the hearer process the new
received input. During the interaction between context and the new input the
hearers mind is involved in a processing effort to evaluate the utterance and to
recover cognitive effects, namely to strengthen a contextual assumption, to
eliminate another one or others and to construct a contextual implication, a
conclusion deducible from input and context together, but from neither input
nor context alone (Wilson and Sperber 608). Thus, the cognitive principle of
relevance is that human cognition tends to be geared to the maximisation of
relevance (610) when interpreting utterances and completely rejects the
notion of conventionality in this respect.
Not only the cognitive principle but also the communicative one
excludes conventional aspects of language use. Wilson and Sperber assert that
the cognitive system is relevance-oriented, which makes it possible to predict
and manipulate the mental states of others (610). In this regard, it is likely for
the communicator to predict which contextual assumptions others retrieve,
based on the ostensive-inferential communication process, in which the speaker
transmits his or her intentions and the hearer constructs contextual implications.
The minimal unit of communication, the utterance, creates presumptions or
expectations of relevance which are expected to be worth processing and to assist
the hearer to identify the speakers meaning. Moreover, optimal relevance is
needed at this stage since the utterance should produce sufficient cognitive
effects and with a low level of processing efforts. Thus, optimal relevance
presumes that (612) a) the ostensive stimulus is relevant enough to be worth the
audiences processing effort and b) it is the most relevant one compatible with
communicators abilities and preferences.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 13
This was a brief account of the RT, its principles and the way language is
processed in communication. Obviously, it appears to be a much promising model
relying on the abilities of the human cognition system and its evolution over time.
RT concisely describes in plausible terms how communication is enabled,
produced and interpreted, and takes a different view from other pragmatic
theories, such as Grices Co-operative Principle or Austin and Searles STA, by
rejecting conventional aspects of communication, much supported in them.
Comparative Analyses
In this second part of the article I will attempt to compare the way SAT
and RT interpret aspects of communication between the speaker and the hearer
in promises, requests, assertions, questions, thanks, advice, warnings, greetings
and congratulations, all of which have been listed in Searles discussion of
illocutionary acts (71-72). General comparisons between SAT and RT prove to be
very difficult for two main reasons concerned in this paper. Dominicy and
Franken (263) claim that illocutionary acts do not exist in RT and that in SAT
speakers are assumed to be cooperative while in RT, speakers are assumed
to aim at being optimally relevant.
In example (2) below S predicates a future A of himself or herself,
namely that S will offer special blessings to H on the basis of his or her ability to
perform A and because of A being in the best interest of H. Furthermore, S
intends to do act A and explicitly undertakes the obligation to perform act A.
Based on these conditions, the utterance in example (2) is classified as an
illocutionary act, and because some rules apply (propositional content,
preparatory, sincerity and essential ones) it is believed to be a conventional act.
(2) I can also promise you that if it is Heavenly Father's will, you will receive
special blessings, and that I will do all I'm allowed to do to support you
from the other side. (2011 SPOK ABC 20_20)
believed to have the capability to perform act A. S also wants H to do act A and
at the same time makes an attempt to get H do it. SAT claims that illocutionary
act (3) is an intentional act, performed under certain conditions and according
to certain rules. As in the case of example (2) above, it is to be considered to be
conventional.
(3) And then, lastly, Chris, we've got to be smart. Bring some detection
equipment aerial-to-man vehicles, lasers, new technology. (2005 SPOK
Fox_Sunday)
Such an utterance is an act of telling (RT), new input interacting with the
context and yielding cognitive effects in the hearers cognitive system. H
constructs the proper contextual implication that is interprets utterance (3) as
a request because such utterance is the most compatible with the speakers
preferences and it is worth processing. In a word, S is able to gear Hs mind to a
maximization of relevance and consequently assists H to identify Ss meaning.
Utterance (4) asserts a state of affairs included in the proposition p. SAT
claims that in such assertions, S has evidence or reasons to support p (the
estimation in question) and that it is not clear to S if H knows p. Under such
conditions, S believes in the truth and accuracy of p, which represents a state of
affairs. According to SAT, the interaction among the four conditions
(propositional, preparatory, sincerity and essential ones) support the hypothesis
that the illocutionary act of assertion is performed by dint of conventional rules
of interaction between the communicators.
(4) It is estimated that the largest ships can release up to 5,000 tons of
sulphur annually as well as a billion tons of carbon dioxide (CO2). (2012
ACAD TechEngineerTeacher)
(5) I wonder if I could ask you some questions that we might arrive at a
clearer understanding together of these important matters. (2011 ACAD
Education)
(6) I thank you for what you're saying, and I take it in and I'm listening to
every word of it and feeling it. (2011 SPOK ABC_This Week)
(8) And be careful, really be careful what you post on your Facebook page.
We have the story of how Facebook almost led to jail time for one man.
(2011 SPOK CBC_ThisMorning)
(9) Greetings, good people. And a most radiant greeting to you, Doctor.
(2011 FIC Analog)
Summary
References:
Austin, L. John. How to Do Things with Words. Eds. J. O. Urmson and Marina
Sbisa Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1975.
Corpus of Contemporary American English. 06.02.2013
http://corpus.byu.edu/coca/.
Dominicy, Marc, and Nathalie Franken. Speech Acts and Relevance Theory.
Essays in Speech Act Theory. Eds. Daniel Vanderveken and Susumu Kubo.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2001. 263-283.
Green, M. Georgia. Pragmatics and Natural Language Understanding. Mahwah,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1996.
Kearns, T. John. Meaning, Structure and Speech Acts. Foundations of Speech
Act Theory: Philosophical and Linguistic Perspectives. Ed. Savas L.
Tsohatzidis. New York: Routledge, 1994. 50-79.
Marmor, Andrei. Social Conventions. From language to Law. New Jersey:
Princeton UP, 2009.
Searle, R. John. Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language.
Cambridge: CUP, 1969.
18 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
UDK: 81'271.1(047.31)
RHETORICAL CONVENTIONS IN WRITTEN DISCOURSE:
FOCUSING ON COHERENCE
Emilija Sarzhoska-Georgievska
Ss. Cyril & Methodius University, Skopje
Abstract: The paper will present the results of a study which consisted of three text-
based analyses of Groups student argumentative essays written on the same topic. The
aim was to identify text-based features of coherence in L1 and L2. The analyses were
carried out on essays written by first and third year undergraduates at the Department of
English Language and Literature, Faculty of Philology Blazhe Koneski at the Ss. Cyril
and Methodius University in Skopje, Republic of Macedonia who wrote in their first
language Macedonian, L1, and in English as a foreign language, L2. The goal was to
recognise the importance of discourse organization in academic writing in L1, and to
examine factors which may affect second language learners competence in the
organisation of written discourse in English as a foreign language, L2. The paper points
out the differences in the rhetorical models in Macedonian and English written discourse
and how these differences may have an impact on writing assessment and the teaching of
writing at university level.
1. Introduction
Writing is embedded in culture and since there are differences from one
culture to another, there are differences as to the accepted or preferred
rhetorical norms and conventions from one culture to another, from one
written discourse to another (Connor 1996).
Successful writing does not just mean adhering to the rules of grammar
and vocabulary. It means following a whole range of other written discourse
norms or conventions. Students should be taught strategies to improve their
writing in line with the English speaking academic discourse conventions.
Students need to be sensitized to the differing organizational patterns and
discourse styles and how they affect communication. Writing instruction should
prepare students to take internationally recognized language tests, and to
enable students to develop competence in argumentation, persuasion and
critical thinking.
20 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
2. Defining Coherence
Connectivity of the surface text with cohesive devices (Halliday & Hasan,
1976)
An information structure which guides the reader through the text and
contributes to the topical development of the text (Connor,
Farmer,1990; Firbas, 1986; Lautamatti, 1987); In other words how
information is distributed (e.g. old before new) to contribute to topical
development.
Connectivity of the underlying content evidenced by relations between
propositions. A proposition is an assertion. It is through the
relationships between propositions that global coherence is established
(Kintsch & van Dijk ,1978).
Macrostructure with a characteristic pattern and shape appropriate to
its communicative purpose and context (Hoey, 1983, 1991);
Metadiscourse features as signalizers of coherence relations (Cheng &
Steffensen, 1996; Crismore et al., 1993); This includes, logical
connectors, sequencers, hedges (Lee, 2002).
The purpose of the essay, that is, the thesis statement and elaboration
should be elicited from the topic of the essay which is already conceived
to enable such processing. The writers purpose is indicated at the very
beginning of the essay in the introduction. In contrast, the Macedonian
model of organizing the flow of ideas the topic allows the writer more
freedom, it is regarded as a stimulus for free expression.
relevance is considered to be a key component of good, acceptable
writing and is the most important virtue (Clyne, 1987:74) in English
written discourse;
each paragraph begins with a topic sentence and ends with a transition
leading on to the next paragraph, so that linear progression is achieved.
If facts, or new ideas are introduced which are not relevant, and do not
contribute to the overall unity of the text, then these digressions are not
tolerated and are unacceptable. Conversely, the Macedonian style of
writing is characterized by unclear division of paragraphs and free
compositional structure;
Coherence is explicit and the text is audience friendly, audience
oriented. The writer/author has a high level of awareness of reader
expectations regarding the discourse. Contrary to this, the Macedonian
model relies on the intelligent reader demanding wide knowledge from
the reader since s/he has to decode the underlying messages
encoded by the author of the text. Coherence is implicit and
associative;
According to the English written discourse conventions, the
argumentative essay belongs to the genre of academic discourse,
Folia linguistica et litteraria 23
4. The Study
In relation to the criteria for coding the topics in the essays, Bardovi-
Harligs notions of topic and focus was used. The topic was identified, which
may or may not be the same as the grammatical subject of the sentence.
Namely,
Focus: Rest of the sentence that provides new information, part of the
sentence which most advances communication, context-independent
and may be indefinite (Bardovi-Harlig 1990).
(1) Chocolates are a national craving. (2) Records show that they are sold in
huge quantities. (3) Designer chocolates often sell for nearly $30/lb. (4) It is
obvious that these candies are Americas number one choice.
1. Chocolates
2. they
3. Designer chocolates
4. these candies
Sequential progression
Body language varies from culture to culture. (2) To say yes, Americans nod
their heads up and down. (3) Japanese and Italians use the same nod to say no.
(4) Body language is an important skill for international managers.
Finally, the third analysis focused on investigating the important role that
discourse markers have in pointing towards coherence of the text. The aim of
the last analysis was to determine the frequency of usage of certain discourse
markers, as well as to attempt to define and classify these DMs based on their
functions in the corpus of written compositions.
5. Results
used the inductive organizational pattern (33% of the essays written in English,
and 16% in the essays written in Macedonian), which could mean that leaving
the main idea at the end of the essay, in the conclusion is valued in Macedonian
writing and is allotted a greater number of points. Of course , the results clearly
demonstrated that the choice of organizational pattern is not the only factor
that contributes to the overall quality of the written product. Coherence on the
level of whole discourse plays an important role, connectivity between
paragraphs, relevance of ideas and the appropriate use of discourse markers.
The majority of students (50% of the essays written in Macedonian, and 46,67%
of the English essays) used the deductive organization. More precisely, they
treated the essay topic as if it were a question that had to be answered. They
stated their opinion and main idea at the beginning of the essay. The discourse
features of the compositions consisted of general, neutral declarations that simply
gave a response to the for or against question. There was no attempt at
taking up a stance, defending ones position and persuading the reader. The
compositions written in L1 had greater variety regarding the use of organizational
patterns, most certainly due to the spontaneity of writing in L1. Also, the level of
literacy in L1 had exerted influence. The students had not yet developed a
sufficient level of competence in L1 regarding the discourse organization of their
compositions in order to surpass their level of organizational competence in L2.
Regarding the results of the second analysis, the use of progression types
revealed that sequential progressions abound in the first year L2 compositions,
resulting in low-quality essays without much topical depth. Mann-Whitney
(Wilcoxon) test confirmed differences between the first year L2 compositions,
where only 21,43% used over 5 parallel progression, whereas 53% of the third
year group used 5 or more parallel progressions resulting in better quality essays
without frequent diversions from the main topic. The better quality essays by the
third year group were to be expected, since the students had already had five
semesters of systematic writing instruction (see Appendix).
The results of the third analysis which focused on calculating the frequency
of discourse markers as signals of coherence relations, clearly demonstrated that
discourse markers were not used as often as they should have been. Thus, the
analyzed corpus of compositions revealed insufficiently signalized relations both
between sentences, and on the level of the whole discourse which resulted in a
high level of implicitness. This in turn, rendered the written composition less
comprehensible to the reader. In addition, the low frequency of causal discourse
markers denoted that the quality of argumentation was not up to level. 1
1
- , . (2010) . , .
36, (115-131). . .
Even though text-based analyses have their limitations, the present study
attempted to describe student writing by going beyond the sentence to the
discourse level.
7. Conclusion
References:
Hoey, M. On the Surface of Discourse. London. George Allen and Unwin. 1983.
Hunt, K. Grammatical structures written at three grade levels. NCTE Research
report no. 3. Champaign, IL, USA: NCTE, 1965.
Kintsch, W., & van Dijk, T. A. Toward a model of text comprehension and
production. Psychological review, 85, 1978. 363-394.
Knott, A., and Dale, R. Using linguistic phenomena to motivate a set of
coherence relations. Discourse Processes 18 (1), 1994. 36-62.
Kroll, B. (ed.) Second Language Writing: Research insights for the classroom.
Cambridge, England: CUP, 1990.
Lautamatti, L. Observations on the development of the topic in simplified
discourse. In Connor, U, & Kaplan, R.B. eds. Writing Across Languages:
Analysis of L2 Text. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley,1987. 87-114.
Lee, I. Enhancing ESL students awareness of coherence creating mechanisms in
writing. TESL Canada Journal, 15 (2), 1998. 36-49.
Lee, I. Teaching coherence to ESL students: a classroom inquiry. Journal of
Second Language Writing 11, Pergamon, 2002. 135-159.
Quirk, R. Greenbaum, S. Leech, G. & Svartvik, J. A Grammar of Contemporary
English. London: Longman. 1972.
Raimes, A. Techniques in Teaching Writing Oxford Iniversity Press: Oxford.1983.
Sasaki, M., & Hirose, K. Explanatory variables for EFL students expository
writing. Language Learning, 46, 1996. 137-174.
Wikborg, E. Types of coherent breaks in university student writing. In N. E.
Enkvist (Ed.). Coherence and composition: A symposium. Abo. Finland:
Research Institute of the Abo Akademi Foundation, 1985. 98-133.
Wikborg, E. Coherence breaks in Swedish student writing: Misleading paragraph
division. Unpublished manuscript, 1987. In Connor, U. & Schneider, M.
Analyzing Topical Structure in ESL Essays. SSLA, 12. CUP, 1990. 411-427.
Witte, S. Topical structure and revision: An exploratory study. College
Composition and Communication. 34, 1983a. 313-341.
Witte, S. Topical structure and writing quality: Some possible text-based
explanations of readers judgments of students writing. Visible Language,
17, 1983b. 177-205.
, . .
. . ,
. . 2005.
- , . .
, . 36, (115-131).
. . . 2010.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 31
-, . 1 2. .
, . 37.
. . . 2011.
-, .
. . 1997.
-, .
.. . 2000.
-, . .
, 2003.
, . : . .
. . 2004.
. -
,
(1), (2).
1 -
2.
.
: , , -
, , .
Appendix :
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
The diagram shows that the T-units T1-T5, T 10-T11 and T 15-T17 represent
sequential progressions. However the subtopics are related to the previous
topics and the overall topic of the essay, thereby coherence is maintained.
1. Crime
2. measures
3. Juvenile crime
4. Both cases
5. authorities(getting richer)
6. They
7. criminals
8. this
9. the government
10. poverty
11. poor people
Folia linguistica et litteraria 33
The sample diagram shows that the sequential progressions develop the
relevant topics by adding more information and details. The author of the essay
returns to the topic which was introduced in the beginning of the essay (T-20; T-
21: T-22; T-23;) contributing to its coherence
Percentages in
relation to the English language first English language acedonian
total number of year third year language first year
progressions
Parallel
25,52% 36,34% 31,46%
progressions
Sequential 38,91% 36,13% 35,29%
progressions
Table 2.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 35
UDK: 811.111'367.4
NOMINAL COMPOUNDS AND NOMINAL PHRASES A LOOK
FROM ENGLISH INTO SCMB2
Vesna Bulatovi
University of Montenegro
Abstract: This paper discusses nominal compounds and nominal phrases in English on
the one hand and in SCBM on the other on the basis of recent linguistic literature and
research. Comparison is relevant since these nominal structures originate from analytic
languages, of which English is a representative. It is a significant contributor, particularly
in more recent history of the two languages. On this basis, implications are drawn with
respect to word formation rules that apply to relatively new loan nominal phrases in
SCBM.
1. Introduction
2
SCBM is used in this paper to collectively refer to languages now spoken on the territories of the
states that now exist as independent states and were part of former Yugoslavia, when they were
covered by the term Serbo-Croatian. Today, these languages are recognized by the constitutions
of respective states as Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin. The author uses mainly
literature by authors from Serbia and Croatia and makes comments based on her own linguistic
competence. The author has no knowledge of any recent research that focuses on potential
differences among these languages at this level of linguistic analysis. There is some research,
however, on the orthographic rules, see Drai, J., Vojnovi, J. (2008). Future research is invited
into the current state of play of the subject in the respective languages listed above.
3
In this paper, the focus is strictly on nominal compounds and nominal phrases whose both
elements are nouns.
36 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
4
hair net and steel bridge are examples from Giegerich (2004: pages 8 and 2 respectively).
5
duckfoot, giraffe-cow, and pumpkin bus are examples from Downing (in Finin, 1980:35).
6
sunrise is taken from Querk and Greenbaum (1973:444-447).
7
tooth decay is an example of nominal phrase used by Giegerich (2006:2).
8
windmill is taken from Querk and Greenbaum (1973:444-447).
9
Downing (in Finin, 1980:35) classifies stone furniture as a nominal compound.
10
Giengrich (2004:2) classifies steel bridge as a noun phrase.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 37
11
It must be noted here that Finin deals with the semantic interpretation of nominal compounds
for the purpose of programming computers to understand nominal compounds.
38 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
[S]ometimes it is assumed that there are two distinct classes, which can
be neatly distinguished. [...] it is argued that the criteria which are
usually assumed to distinguish between these two construction types
do not draw a clear and consistent distinction between a syntactic and a
morphological construction.
Giengrich (2004, 2006) tests the long established criteria for noun plus
noun constructions, lists many examples that prove that the distinction is not
absolute and eventually takes the view that the existence of borderline cases
does not provide a reason for abandoning a distinction that can be recognised in
a great range of clear cases. (2004:5).
A conclusion may be drawn that although some compounds are
transparent, are not fore-stressed, and may behave syntactically like nominal
phrases (for discussion and examples, see Giengrich (2004, 2006)), the majority
of examples still fit nicely into one of the two categories. However, the question
is whether this disctinction is relevant at all. They may best be seen as a
continuum, very similar to the one suggested directly by Levi and more
indirectly by modern English grammarians mentioned above.
12
Beli (1933, 1950), Stevanovi (1954), Nikoli (1995), Klajn (2002) among others.
13
See, for example, Kapetanovi (2007).
Folia linguistica et litteraria 39
(2002: 46) presents a long list of semi-compounds that have come from English
(e.g. boks-me box match, ofsajd-pozicija offside position, top-lista top list,
dez pjeva jazz singer, with some originating from French or Italian, but
imported through German (e.g. ele-bombone jelly toffee, iro-raun giro
account) as well as from Latin or Greek. Technical vocabulary is mentioned as a
source for many nominal expressions (e.g. rezus-faktor rhesus factor, metil-
alkohol methyl alcohol, etc).
Nominal compounds and nominal phrases from foreign languages have
served as models for the creation of similar structures in these languages in which
both elements are domestic. Some are classified as nominal compounds
(uvarkua houseleek, trnboba gooseberry, babadjevojka spinster,
babaroga bogey(wo)man) and some as semi-compounds: div-junak giant-
hero, uzor-majka model-mother, biser-zubi pearl-teeth, izvor-voda spring-
water. Klajn (2002:48) mentions that these semi-compounds are seen as
stylistically marked and somewhat archaic today. The following are mentioned as
regularly used today and not stylisticaly marked: rak-rana sore place, poklon-
paket gift package, leptir-mana bow tie, lutka-film puppet movie, muva-
kategorija fly (weight) category, griz-knedle semolina dumplings, kristal-eer
granulated sugar, kakao-mlijeko cocoa milk). It is questionable, however,
whether rak-rana sore place belongs to the class of semi-compounds. It fails the
transparency criterion and should rather be classified under compounds.
As seen in the examples above, most semi-compounds are written with
a hyphen, just like the name of the category itself. Klajn explains (2002:29) that
the hypen in semi-compounds serves to show that both elements maintain their
meaning and their accent but also warns (ibid) that elements with a hyphen
need not necessarily be semi-compounds. He also claims that semi-compounds
may not appear in writing as two consecutive words without a hyphen, which
has probably already changed in contemporary usage (e.g. top lista top list,
me lopta match ball and many others are probably as frequent as top-lista or
me-lopta. The reason for this could be that the longer the semi-compound has
been part of our active vocabulary the more flexible we are with the writing
rules. With more recent imports, it seems to be safer to use a hyphen, which
then serves as a unifying element, or a marker to show these structures are
formed according to foreign word formation rules. Among such more recent
imports are blog-klijent blog client, veb-dizajner web designer, spem-filter
spam filter and many others, mainly related to information technology.
Like in English, the distinction into compounds and semi-compounds is
not always clear in SCBM languages either. One indication of this is the fact that
Klajn, for example, often speaks of (semi)compounds instead of semi-compounds.
Further, Klajn classifies paradajz-orba tomato soup as a compound (Klajn 2002:
25) and paradajz-sos tomato sauce as a semi-compound (2002: 48), which is
40 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
unusual not because of the same ingredient but because of their identical
semantic structure.
The argument that a compound creates a new meaning and that in a
semi-compound constituent elements maintain individual meanings is not
strong either. For example, ribo- fish- in the compound ribolov fishing
modifies the noun lov catching in much the same way as the noun boks box
modifies the noun me match, which is a semi-compound. Their internal
syntactic relations are different, but it is true to say that ribolov is a kind of lov,
and that boks-me is a kind of me. Their endocentricity leads to a transparency
of their meanings. Another difference is the fact that the first element in ribolov
is a bound morpheme, and that the entire compound is well established and has
long since been lexicalised.
It is worth noting that in the past there was much resistance to
compounds and semi-compounds as unnatural and even barbaric14 structures.
Beli (1936: 163-164) protested against such imports and suggested that
drvored tree line was formed wrongly and that its meaning was not line of
trees but a place with trees in a line, which from this point in time only
reminds us of the fact that languages change and that it takes a while before
new lexical items become established and accepted by the majority of their
speakers. Even today, some of the contemporary authors (Turk 2001:269)
express fears that these imported word formation processes pose as a threat to
domestic word formation rules.
14
See Kapetanovi (2007:238). The dicitionary Renik Matice Srpske also refers to them as
barbarizmi barbaric words.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 41
15
For analysis of some of the latest calques and their translation see Bulatovic (2012)
42 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
the head nominal, in the genitive case, e.g. menader programa manager of
the programme.
Another reason why foreign structures such as program menader for
programme manager are rejected is that it is difficult if not impossible to
establish clear criteria on which N+N should be allowed and which rejected.
Some potential semi-compounds sound better and less intrusive than others.
For example, there would probably be absolute resistance, for a good reason, to
zemlja-direktor (=country director). In the absence of clear rules, it is obviously
easier to reject them all. The solutions mentioned above are acceptable and
safe. However, there is a need to do more research on new N+N structures. If
defining clear rules is too ambitious, research could at least suggest guidelines
on when it is acceptable to keep some N+N structures in SCBM. Speakers of
these languages would feel safer and eventually use these structures more.
5. Conclusion
References:
Sharoff, S., Babych, B., Hartley, A. Using collocations from comparable corpora
to find translation equivalents. In Proc. of LREC2006, Genoa, May, 2006.
465-470.
Stevanovi, M. (1954) O sloenicama tipa narodnorepublikanac i povodom
njih. Na jezik VI: 153-159.
Swan, M. (2005) Practical English Usage. Oxford: OUP.
Turk, M. (1993) Tvorbene znaajke kalkova. FLUMINENSIA, god. 14, br. 1: 47-66.
Turk, M. (2001) Tvorbene znaajke kalkiranih imenica. Rasprave Instituta za
hrvatski jezik i jezikoslovlje, 27, Zagreb: 267-280.
Sources:
16
Srpskom, hrvatskom, bosanskom i crnogorskom
Folia linguistica et litteraria 45
UDK: 811.111'242
WHAT STANDARD WRITTEN NORMS OF ENGLISH DO IN THE
CURRENT U.S. COMPOSITION CLASSROOM?
Duka Vladimira
Singidunum University, Belgrade
Abstract: This paper presents the ways in which our conception of Standard Written
English can be challenged due to the increasing influx of non-native English speakers,
and the effects of globalization on Composition studies. My main line of inquiry will be
how the field of Rhetoric and Composition has responded, or eventually can respond to
the following research problem: How should participants in college Composition classes
handle the tension between the narrow and stable conception of Standard Written
English, and the increasing global diversification of the English language? Cameron
argues that the global spread of English has had a two-fold impact: It promoted English
language teaching globally, and influenced what is perceived as the ideal way of
communicating in ones native language (67). Consequently, my research problem arises
as a response to the increasing trend of the presence of the writers who speak English as a
second language (ESL) in the Composition classroom.
The Origin of the Academic Division between the Two Interrelated Fields
People from all strata of the world are living under exponential pressure
to use English, and use it only with the kind of demeanors accent,
lexicon, grammar, rhythm, pitch that appeal to the few with the
cultural, political, and economic capital to dispense job and
educational opportunities. (607)
Students want to learn proper English hoping to become part of English socio-
political and cultural environment that actually imposes standard norms. By the
same token, Lu says that we need to resituate the position and status of English
related to linguistic background of our students: We frequently examine the
individual students languages for whether it hinders or helps their mastery of
academic English (608). We look whether other nonEnglish languages
students know could help them to acquire English more easily. The language
emphasis has been shifted in accordance to the broad world picture to
produce the pure and ideal version of the language.
50 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
The line between the native and non-native English becomes blurred, so
too does the line between second-language writing, and Composition
pedagogies. Additionally, Kachru reminds us that most users of English are in
fact non-native speakers of English (242). Lines and labels that separate the
speakers evaporate in the current environment. However, Chiad and Schmida
conclude that categories like ESL, bilingual, and linguistic minority do indeed
serve to delineate some students, but these categories are inadequate when it
comes to capturing the literacy journey of students whose lived realities often
waver between cultural and linguistic borderlands (94). We cannot use the
labels to assess students individual language performance. The labels align
students with complex cultural and linguistic realities they belong to, or they are
supposed to belong to. In that way, labels stigmatize students. Students can be
presented as being superior or subordinate to other students present in the
classroom. Spack has noted that the terms like foreign, international, and Other,
used to identify ESL students, assume specific socio-cultural identities for the
students and their languages and posit English, and English speakers, as the
norm against which the other, the different is measured (766). The categories
that have long separated the students have dominated the ways non-English
students are represented. Also, the categories influenced how the programs
were institutionalized in both ESL and mainstream Composition classes.
The labels that tended to separate the students cannot be divorced
from power relations in the classroom. Since the structure of the classroom has
been changing almost on a daily basis while constantly adapting to the emerging
needs of students, we can say that power relations played out are dynamic.
Cameron further argues that power relations are influenced by politics and
international relations of power, which construct discourses about which
language should be the model to emulate for effective communication (199).
We see that the question of the norms is a political issue. A teachers open and
tolerant attitude can largely influence how to negotiate the underlying power
relations in the classroom. The ways in which we treat differences in writing can
speak as well how we address the underlying power relations. Similarly, Purves
tries to explain the reasons why ESL students have different rhetorical patterns
from their native English counterparts, and how ESL students view what
Standard Written English is. His results show that the fact that the
compositions come from good students suggests that these students have
learned and are applying the norms of their rhetorical community (12). The
students tend to relate to the norms of their native communities.
If we require the students to comply with the standard norms of the
language, Composition may turn into colonization. At a certain point, instruction
in Composition becomes colonization:
52 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
Power relations are at played out in the classroom among the participants
because we require our students to share and reproduce in their writing
Western world view. Also, power relations call us to shift our pedagogy
emphasis in order to de-territorialize the institutional practices.
We want to use the classroom territory to de-territorialize ourselves
and our students. In this context, the resolution we want to adopt encompasses
a whole range of the social background the students bring into the classroom.
By the same token, Purves says that in demanding that ESL students write
Standard Written English, and use a deductive, linear argument, we are asking
them to situate themselves within a particular sociopolitical context (10).
Moreover, we respond to their writing according to how accurately they are
able to do so. As we see, the U.S. Composition classroom does reflect the
ongoing political implications of the English diffusion globally.
The current classroom does make us reconsider what we want to think
about the standard norms. Bourdieu observes that linguistic competency is a
political judgment about legitimacy (28). However, speakers lacking legitimate
competence are excluded from the social domains in which this competence is
required, or are condemned to silence. It is incumbent upon the teachers to be
aware of the ways in which position the students in the classroom. It means that
we want to evade positioning the social in monolithic terms, but always through
pluralistic and heterogeneous perspectives. We need the classroom in which, as
Pratt observes, cultures meet, clash, and grapple with each other, often in
contexts of highly asymmetrical relations of power (34). It is the classroom that
actively engages in the clash of cultures. Significant as cultural perception is, we
cannot align a-historical, fixed and simplistic definitions with it.
The model of the division of labor discussed above that clearly
classified the native and the non-native students has been changing the ways in
which we view ESL students. Matsuda further explains that during the 1990s,
Composition teachers considered themselves as first language composition
teachers by default regardless of the fact that international students were
constantly finding their way into mainstream Composition classrooms (15).
Teachers assumed the reality is homogeneous. Matsuda calls the labels
inaccurate. I would call them vague or even imprecise due to the fact that the
structure of the current American Composition classroom can serve me as the
foundation to test the validity of divisions and labels. The CCCC Statement on
Second Language Writing and Writers from January 2001, revised November
Folia linguistica et litteraria 53
2009, officially confirms the fact that ESL students are part and parcel of the
mainstream Composition classrooms at the English Departments: Second-
language writers have become an integral part of higher education, including
writing programs (10). This is the official recognition of the presence of ESL
speakers in Composition classrooms (including instruction, assessment, and
class size, teacher preparation, and support for writing instructors who have
second language writers among their students). CCCC document is the call for
the teachers to apply appropriate methods that correspond to the new reality.
Both the teacher and the student change in terms of the ways in which
they view each others differences. For example, native English students can
view their non-native English peers and teachers in a static and deterministic
light, which can be unacceptable in a changing environment. The new approach
affirms a multiplicity of languages within the framework of cultural pluralism.
The shifting and pluralistic nature of the language and rhetoric is particularly
significant in an age of globalization. Otherwise, globalization can create global
homogenization of language and culture. We need to take all these factors into
account while evaluating students papers. More importantly, while responding
to homogenization trends, Lu pinpoints that we need to refocus the goal of the
English language teaching: Students need to become adept at learning to use a
plurality of target languages, rather than attempting to imitate a target
(512). All the participants, including the native English ones need to start getting
used to the varieties of English. Even more importantly, native English students
learn to expect that their teacher may speak some variety of English.
Future Directions
Many disciplinary shifts have been made, and many are still being made.
The integration of ESL students has arisen as a reaction to pedagogical concerns of
the time. Matsuda explains that second language writing issues are much better
suited in broader programs or departments, such as Composition studies, or
applied linguistics (15). Instead of placing second-language issues in specially
designed programs per se, the field can benefit more if seen as a symbiotic field.
We need to position the issues in various institutional contexts to negotiate the
differences in theoretical, ideological, and methodological perspectives. We
cannot compartmentalize second-language writers and their issues in a separate
field. My understanding of the word symbiotic that pertains to my research
question encompasses different levels of integration: To integrate second-
language students and their linguistic issues with second-language teachers
teaching Composition classes within the English departments. And yet, the very
integration of the second-language students into the mainstream Composition
classes itself does not resolve the underlying issues still present in the classroom.
54 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
The model of division cannot be divorced from the tendencies to standardize and
homogenize English. The model of division of labor does a disservice to teachers
and students because it disregards a true picture of the Composition classroom
that is multicultural and multi-linguistic. It is the classroom that is the mosaic of
differences.
Composition teachers do not want to cure ESL, but to tackle the issue by
meeting the needs of the diverse group of students. The Statement does not
imply that Composition teachers are not trained enough to tackle the language
issues ESL students may face. The emphasis is on the teachers openness
towards diverse students issues, and the teachers readiness to accept the fact
that learning is a mutual process. Namely, ESL students help teachers by
pointing to the issues they may have. Learning to write in a second language is a
complex process. Matsuda explains that this is not to say that writing in second
language is essentially the same as in the first language (19). After all, even
native speakers and writers come from diverse cultural, educational, and
sociolinguistic backgrounds. I would not call the treatment towards ESL students
special in any way, but rather integrated because we try to build the new using
the old. Some conscientious teachers felt unprepared to teach the ESL students
because of the historic, all-inclusive disconnection of Composition from second-
language teaching. A gradual reversal of this disconnect is reflected through the
slow influx of the international students into Composition classrooms.
Moreover, we understand that there is no one-size-fits-all model. Lu
says that what constitutes acceptable language is neither fixed nor determined
but negotiated instead (150). A proficient user of English is someone who, as
Widdowson says, treats English as an adaptable resource for making meaning,
possesses it, makes its own, bends it to ones will, asserts oneself through it
rather than simply submitting to the dictates of its form (384). On the other
hand, if we disregard the current social picture of the classroom that invites
variety and the inevitable clash of the differences, we can implicitly have
assumption of the superiority of the native English rhetoric. This superiority can
lead us to be embedded in cultural essentialism, which leads to language and
cultural colonialism. Colonialism draws binary oppositions between the superior
and the subordinate underlying unequal power relations. Finally, the definition
of Standard Written English is sensitive to the changing environment. Moreover,
it is ready to integrate vibrant participants in the dynamic social process. The
ideal or proficient user is someone who has been living via English.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 55
References:
Lu, Min-Zhan. Living-English Work. College English 68. 6. (Jul., 2006): 605-618.
Web. 10 Aug. 2010.
Lu, Min-Zhan. An Essay on the Work of Composition: Composing English
against the Order of Fast Capitalism. CCC 56.1 (Sept 2004): 16-50. Web. 2
Jun. 2010.
Lu, Min-Zhan. From Silence to Words: Writing as a Struggle. College English
49.4 (Apr., 1987): 437-448. Web. 5 June. 2010.
Matsuda, Paul K. Composition Studies and ESL Writing: A Disciplinary Division
of Labor. College Composition and Communication 50.4 (Jun., 1999):
699-721. Web. 1 Jun. 2010.
Matsuda, Paul K. Second Language Writing in the Twentieth Century: A Situated
Historical Perspective. Exploring the Dynamics of Second Language
Writing. Ed. Barbara Kroll, New York: Cambridge UP. 2003: 15-34.
Pennycook, Alastair. Rethinking Origins and Localization in Global
Englishes.Contending with Globalization in World Englishes. Ed. Mukul
Saxena and Tope Omoniyi. Bristol: Multi-lingual Matters, 2010. 196-206.
Print.
Pratt, Louise M. Arts of the Contact Zone. Profession. 1991:33-40. Web. 15
June.2010.
Purves, Alan C. Writing Across Languages and Cultures: Issues in Contrastive
Rhetoric. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988. Print.
Schneider, Edgar. The Dynamics of New Englishes: From Identity Construction
to Dialect Birth.Language 79.2 (June 2003): 233-281. Web. 2 Jun. 2010.
Silva, Tony. Differences in ESL and Native-English-speaker Writing: The
Research and its Implications. Writing in Multicultural Settings. Ed. J.
Butler, J. Guerra & C. Severino, New York: Modern Language Association,
1997. 209-219.
Singh, Parlo and Doherty, Catherine. Global Cultural Flows and Pedagogic
Dilemmas: Teaching in the Global University Contact Zone. TESOL
Quarterly 38.1. (2004): 9-42. Web. 9 Aug. 2010.
Spack, Ruth. The Rhetorical Construction of Multilingual Students. TESOL
Quarterly. 31.4 (1997): 765-774. Web. 10 June. 2010.
Widdowson, Henry H. The Ownership of English. TESOL Quarterly 28.2 (1994):
377-389. Web. 2 Jun. 2010.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 57
UDK: 821.163.4(497.16):338.48
THE DISCOURSE OF PROMOTIONAL TOURIST LITERATURE IN
MONTENEGRO
Marina Rmu
University of Montenegro
Abstract: Sociolinguistics and discourse analysis have recently recognized the domain of
tourism as an important context for investigation. This study examines the development
of language and discourse in tourism literature, with special emphasis on the insights
gained into the promotional practice in Montenegro. The current thesis studies language
as a driving force in the field of tourism and points out its pragmatic power which comes
to the fore in promotional literature. The research procedure is based on the contrastive /
comparative analysis of tourist guidebooks and magazines issued by the National
Tourism Organisation, MAPA of Montenegro and Montenegro Airlines. The analysis of
lexical, syntactic and textual features of the material was carried out within the
framework of contemporary discourse analysis theory with the aim of showing to what
extent the language of tourism is specialized. Tourist promotional literature must fulfill
three basic functions - to inform, to promote and to persuade. Consequently, the main
characteristics of the discourse in such material is the use of poetic language, with
prevailing figures of speech and exaggerated language, along with other stylistic devices
and structured grammatical units. It is the purpose of this thesis to establish to what
extent these are also the characteristics of the promotional texts published in Montenegro.
Further, the schematic and thematic organization of the texts used for promotional
purposes in tourism will be discussed within the framework of macro-level analysis.
Key words: promotion, discourse, tourism discourse, genre, the language of tourism,
microstructure, macrostructure
1. Introduction
mirrors the current situation of a country and sent the message accordingly. The
media image of the very country as politically unstable was hard to replace since
the prejudices about the place had been created. The process of tourism
development started with aggressive promotion showing that Montenegro as a
destination has a lot to offer and is still active. The foreign market soon began to
respond.
The end of the union of Serbia and Montenegro on 21st May 2006 was a
turning point for the Montenegrin tourism industry. Not only has it had an
impact on the economic growth and led to infrastructure improvements, but
international investors have since shown considerable interest especially in the
coastal part of Montenegro.
its function and text analysis). The descriptive method is then applicable to data
analysis and is tightly connected with an empirical investigation of lexical,
syntactic and textual features of tourist texts.
The comparative / contrastive analysis focuses on both the micro- and
macro-level, and highlights the heterogeneous nature of tourism products
employed in the promotional materials. and textual features of tourist texts.
Van Dijk (1988a) believes that microstructure and macrostructure play an
important part in text understanding.
The analysis of microstructure in this paper is based on the linguistic
aspect including lexical and syntactic features, whereas the analysis of
macrostructure deals with the thematic and schematic organization of a text.
2.Theoretical Issues
2.1. Defining Discourse and the Study of Tourism Discourse
to talk and write about specialized fields of knowledge with certain grammatical
rules and specialized vocabulary. It is language-like in its properties, conveys
messages and operates through a conventional system of symbols and codes
and it adopts a special register (Dann 1996: 28).
For the purpose of this study, we have examined Danns sociological
perspectives on tourism and Roman Jakobsons functions of verbal
communication in tourism. The perspectives of authenticity, strangerhood (a term
coined by Dann (1996), play and conflict through certain words and linguistic
structures aim at creating a rhetoric effect. The words of authenticity and new
experience reflect the first two perspectives and are the most frequently
encountered in tourist texts. Based on Jakobsons linguistic framework, Febas
Borra arrived at the pattern of communication which is the same for all
promotional material. The expressive function in print material includes usage of
the personal pronouns we and you, suggestions, epithets and superlatives. Vague
imperatives for people in general to see and do things are employed in materials
and fulfill a cognitive function. Since the objective of tourism language is in the
first place to inform, the referential or informational function is the most
important in this type of communication. The poetic function in tourism language
is evident in the message transmitted through figures of speech. In addition, there
are words and expressions frequently encountered in tourism language which aim
to fulfill poetic functions but are considered as redundant (e.g. incomparable
beauty, enormous variety), hackneyed (e.g. Segovia is like a beautiful symphony of
form and light) and clich (e.g. marvelous, magnificent).
3. Data Analysis
(1) you might want to drop by the authentic fishing village of Prno (ME,
2011, p. 45);
(2) Literary works of Njegos, with the original manuscript of The
Mountain Wreath. (IFM, winter 2008/09)
A still undiscovered country, its wild beauty frightens and invites at the
same time, appealing to all those in search of exciting discovery and adventure
Newly discovered sights in Montenegro, mostly found in the north and known
66 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
for their inaccessibility, are depicted with various adjectives which emphasize
the harshness of its landscape, and sometimes even its cruelty.
(1) cruel and inaccessible nature, harsh mountain, with sharp peaks
(ME, winter 07/08, 15)
Words of magic are often presented in tourist text types. The concept of
the magical world is created in the minds of tourists through language
associated with fantasy, mystery, fairy tales and legends. The word magic
encompasses mystical, unreal and extraordinary powerful perception of things
and spark the readers vivid imagination about the tourist product luring them
to experience the magical world. Apart from the most commonly used
adjective charming and the noun magic, here are some other examples of
magical words:
The choice of words and phrases in tourist texts demonstrate that the
discourse of tourism is a form of extreme language (Febas Borra, 1978, cited in
Dann 1996: 65). The absolute adjectives reflect the exaggeration through
inherently superlative connotation, fulfilling an expressive function. Examples of
absolute adjectives are: magnificent, marvelous, inexhaustible, exquisite and
exceptional.
(1) nature has played rare tricks in pushing out the ground some forty
steep mountain tops (ME, 2007/08, 14)
(2) The pirate queen as beautiful as a fairy, wiser than a snake and
braver than a lion (ME, 2010, 78)
68 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
3.2.1. Mode
Imperatives and directives are an inevitable tool for making the tourist
destination an absolute must for visiting. The positive and negative imperatives
have the same function, i.e. that of urging would-be tourists to do something in
the promoted country. Frequently encountered positive imperatives in
Montenegrin promotional materials are: beware, buy, choose, climb, come,
discover, enjoy, go, look, shop and taste, whereas negative imperatives are:
miss, pass and worry. The latter ones are fewer but their urge is stronger
especially if it is followed with an exclamation mark.
3.2.2. Suggestion
The act of suggestion implies the change of someones beliefs, ideas and
opinions under the influence of someone elses attitude. Applied to the
discourse of tourism, the suggestion followed with positive evaluation tries to
Folia linguistica et litteraria 69
invite readers to choose and experience the place, or even overcome some
possible prejudice about it. The suggestion is manifested through advisability
and issuing commands achieved by different push factors, such as negated
interrogative, the word should and conditional sentences, which in a subtle
way persuade the potential clients and make them feel immersed in the very
process.
(1) There are many reasons why you should visit Kolasin (ME, 2007/08,
67)
(2) Isnt a modern tourist, accustomed to looking at the out-side world
ready to stop, relax and enjoy the last oasis of intact beauty? (70)
(3) If your appetite was stirred by the fresh mountain air, you should
proceed directly to Cetinje. (ME, 2009, 73)
3.2.3. Tense
3.2.4. Depersonalization
(1) One can go down the Tara by wooden rafts (ME, 2010, 107)
(2) a great comfort that will bewitch you completely (IFM, spring,
45)
Concerning the structure of a text, Van Dijk (1985: 69) argues that there
are thematic and schematic organizations for each type of discourse. The
thematic structure characterizes the meaning of the text as it represents the
content of a text or a discourse. Schemata, on the other hand, are used to
describe the overall form of a discourse and have a conventionalized nature for
each type of text. The theoretical term used to describe schemata is
superstructure, whereas thematic analysis is known as macrostructure. The
schematic superstructures very often influence the thematic macrostructure,
which indicates the close relation between these two phenomena.
In Tourist Guide headlines are simple and precise, consisting of a single key word
or more key words which carry the main theme. Even though such headlines may
seem monotonous, they avoid ambiguity and lead to transparency. Montenegro
Explorer boasts a wide range of poetic headlines, whose theme cannot be fully
predicted. This method arouses the readers curiosity and invites them to read
through the text, very often letting pictures speak for themselves. In In-flight
magazines word play is skillfully used by authors who pay close attention to
sentences sounding truly English. The most interesting headlines with word play
are The Stones are Rolling into Montenegro and The Best of the Best.
There are five typically used topics in Montenegro promotional
material: natural beauty, cultural-historical heritage, gastronomy, sports and
entertainment and accommodation.
The theme of natural beauty takes up a lot of space in promotional
materials. Pure sea, clean beaches, natural parks, and beautiful canyons with
speedy rivers, mountain and hill springs amazing lakes, wild forests and
spectacular countryside are the framework of Montenegros ecological life.
Proud of its rich cultural-historical heritage, Montenegro tends to cherish
and preserve the traces of both western and eastern civilization. The history of
Montenegro and the Montenegrin people is left out in promotional materials,
whose function is primary persuasive. The informative promotional materials, on
the other hand, include basic historical facts dating back to prehistoric times. The
common feature of the texts concerning the cultural-historical heritage is the
foundation of monuments and archaeological findings during the reign of
different conquerors the Illyrians, Romans, Venetian Republic, Turks and
Austrians. Even though the history of Montenegro is characterized as turbulent,
the author of promotional material does not give the real picture of the country
and its people at the time. The Montenegrins are portrayed as brave and loyal
people ready to fight for their freedom and existence, neglecting the sufferings
they endured under various conquerors. In the analyzed materials the situation in
Montenegro during the First and the Second World War and its involvement
during the recent wars is deliberately left out, as it is not relevant to the
promotional policy. In addition, the monasteries, churches, cathedrals and
mosques are the trademark of Montenegro as a multi-religious country. The
dominant religion is Orthodox Christianity and in terms of architecture the
heritage of Orthodoxy is most commonly presented. In this regard, the authors of
promotional material tend to show that the Montenegrins respect sacred places
for their true religious value, not for a commercial purpose.
Gastronomy has emerged as a tourist attraction and is recognized as a
powerful tool to promote and identify particular regions or the entire country.
Food and beverage are markers of authenticity, often creating a brand of the
place due to domestic (usually local) products. Consumers are motivated to travel
to a destination which offers healthy and delicious homemade food. Such
72 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
experience might subtly force tourists to return to the same destination to enjoy
its unique gastronomy. Taking the essence of culinary tourism as a starting point,
promotional materials include gastronomy as an indispensible topic in every
edition. The Montenegrin authors of tourist texts boast the cuisine which is
specific for its traditional way of preparing food. Montenegros gastronomy is rich
and varies in its different regions south, central and north.
The Montenegrin tourism industry invests a lot in sports and
entertainment projects, as they significantly improve tourism in general. Today
more and more resorts begin to construct sports facilities, such as golf courses,
tennis courts and water sports grounds, as well as ski slopes for the winter
season. Furthermore, many cultural events, which involve tourists as observers or
direct participants, intentionally shape their image of a destination as lively,
exciting and youthful.
The accommodation options play an important part in tourists decision-
making when visiting a destination. The Montenegrin tourism industry pays close
attention to providing information about appropriate board and lodging, which is
suitable for tourists individual budgets and boasts five-star hotels with European
standards on the one hand, and typical Montenegrin ethno villages, on the other.
separate section of the Montenegrin tourist magazines and the tourist guides.
Regulations are included in the texts on sports and entertainment as a single
sentence only.
The story of the icon Our Lady of Filerimos, believed by many Christians all
over the world to be one of the most important miraculous relics, shows that it
has been constantly on the move Evaluative claim
Since 2002, it has been publicly exhibited at the Blue Chapel of the National
Museum of Montenegro. Whether the magical icon has lost its miraculous
powers or not, nobody knows. Guided tour
It is exhibited in the Blue Chapel, a specially designed area of the Art Museum
of Montenegro. During the summer season of 2010, it will be possible to see it
every day from 9 am to 5 pm. During the off season, the museums are closed
on weekends, except for special, previously arranged visits that cost over 100.
Guides are available in Montenegrin, French, German, Italian and Russian.
Practical details
4. Conclusion
References:
Internet Resources:
Anon, Tourism as Specialized Discourse, Available from:
http://www.docstoc.com/docs/3812574/TOURISM-AS-SPECIALIZED-
DISCOURSE . Web. 21st September 2010.
About Montenegro. Available from: http://www.visit-montenegro.com/. Web.
21st March 2011.
The Official Website for tourism in Montenegro. Available from:
http://www.montenegro.travel/. Web. 4th April 2011.
Corpus Sources:
MAPA Crne Gore. Tourist Guide: Montenegro, Lazi Beograd. 2009.
National Tourist Organization and Ministry of Tourism of Montenegro
Montenegro Explorer Magazine, AMC Communications, Beograd. 2006,
2007/08, 2009, 2010, 2011.
Montenegro Airlines, Marketing & Corporative Communications Department:
In-flight Magazine, 15 editions from summer 2006 to winter 2010/11
National Tourist Organization: Annual Reports 2006 2010
UDK: 373.54:371.279.6
WASHBACK OF STATE MATURA EXAMINATION ON ENGLISH
LEARNING IN PERCEPTION OF ALBANIAN STUDENTS OF HIGH
SCHOOLS
Jaup Zenuni, Shqiponja Dautaj
The Academy of the Albanian Armed Forces, Tirana
Abstract: The fact that public exams have a great influence on teaching, learning,
curriculum, feelings and attitudes of teachers and learners is strongly supported by a rich
scientific contribution of many prominent scholars of the field. This influence, otherwise
known as washback or backwash is examined from different viewpoints. Literature
strongly indicates that the washback of public examinations is a complex concept that
becomes even more intricate under a great number of interpretations on language
teaching and learning.
It is nowadays accepted that washback effect on learning and learners is less examined if
compared to teaching and teachers. This paper tries to add in this area by focusing on
public Albanian high schools referring to the washback effect of State Matura Exam
(SME) on learning. This examination, introduced in 2006 with the goal of reforming
English education in the Albanian high schools, has had implications for English
learning. Through some empirical data collected from 401 students of different high
schools by a questionnaire prepared and administered for this purpose and through
interviews with 75 students, the paper attempts to examine how and to what extent SME
influences learning and learners.
Key Words: Washback, State Matura Exam, learning, students, teaching materials.
Introduction
State Matura Exam is a final test that young adults take in the end of
their high school education in Albania. It was created by the Albanian Ministry
of Education and Science (MES) in 2006 as part of new curriculum which is
based on Common European Framework of Reference for languages (CEFR). The
intention was: to improve the quality of English education in high schools and;
avoid corruption, lack of control and favoritism during the process of students
university entrance. Through this new examination system policy makers
wanted to achieve: 1. Certification issuing a maturity diploma, which certifies
that the student has finished high school education; 2. Selection-selecting top
students to enter university based on the scores; 3. Monitoring-monitor the
implementation of education standards and ensuring the quality of education;
78 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
4. Informing-inform the policy makers and stakeholders for the quality of high
school education and for students performance. State Matura as a testing
system, consists of two compulsory exams (written Mathematics and written
Literature) and two other exams. These two last exams are chosen by the
student from a pool of subjects (Chemistry, Biology, Physics, English, History-
Geography and Sociology-Economy-Philosophy). From this pool of subjects
students can choose two in order to express their university preference. Every
student can choose university faculty based on his own preferred profile
(scientific or social) and his own preferred subjects.
Since the very first steps in the implementation of this new system
English has been one of the preferred subjects by students who take SME. For
instance, for 35% of the students that took SME in 2011, English was their
preferred subject while for 2012 this figure goes to around 50% or 12500
students of the 12th grade. According to the policy of Ministry of Education and
Science, from 2013 English is foreseen to be a compulsory examination.
Therefore, English is rising into prominence. For the first time in the
history of education in the country it is considered as one of the most important
subjects with repercussions in the future of thousands of young people. Hence,
some questions arise: Has SME in English had any influence on learning? If so,
how much has it influenced? How has the students attitude towards English
changed under the influence of SME? How is the examination reflected in the
classroom activities and work? This paper will try to give a modest contribution
in examining these concerns through some empirical findings.
Learning process is very complex. It involves educational, psychological
and social components. All reforms in educational systems have improving
learning process as a final goal. Anyway, new systems have their own advantages
and disadvantages. To approach to the washback effect of SME on learning first it
is necessary to consult the literature on it.
Literature Review
Participants: Students who were the target population of this study are
all from the high schools of four districts in Albania (Shkodr, Fier, Tirana,
Elbasan). In order to create a clearer picture on the washback effect of SME on
learning a rather big number of students became the target population. Thus,
through a questionnaire prepared only for students 401 participants from 17
high schools of the country expressed their opinion on washback effect of SME.
35 3 32 _ 1 34
Table 2: Participating students in the first interview.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 81
40 10 30 _ _ 40
Table 3: Participating students in the second interview.
Instruments The instruments used for this study were a questionnaire for
students designed according to close-ended types of questions (multiple-choice,
categorical, Likert-scale, ordinal and numerical) and two interviews conducted
with 75 students from six high schools in Tirana. The answers to the questions of
the questionnaire offered a great amount of information on the overall
influence of SME on teachers, students, teaching and learning. Anyway, only the
information related to learning and learners is used in this paper.
The design of the questionnaire was a process which required a careful
work. I was aware that my long teaching career was not sufficient so I studied
the related literature on the methodology of research, especially that related to
the techniques and principles of proper question development. The first draft of
the questionnaire was carefully examined by a group of experienced teachers in
my workplace. Based on their remarks several modifications were made to the
original version: five items were dropped out on the grounds of being of little
relevance, the wording of seven items was modified, and around four items
were reordered to enhance the validity of responses.
Another helpful instrument was the interviews with students and
teachers. Two sets of standardized open-ended interview questions were
designed for students. These interviews were conducted in schools, so the
conditions could not allow me to record them. Hence, they were conducted in
paper and pencil.
Procedures In compliance with the Albanian law I required the support of
MES to collect data from high school students throughout the country. They
authorized me to collect empirical data through questionnaires and interviews
in all high schools of the country. After this step I designed and delivered the
questionnaire. MES authorities supported me to send questionnaire to different
high schools and collect the answers from them. In November 2011 all the filled
up questionnaires were sent to MES so I had most of the empirical material in
my hands. During December 2011, January and February 2012 I processed all
the data from the questionnaire and prepared the final summative table.
Having the permission of MES to enter into different high schools of the
country, in May 2012, I conducted the interviews with students in 6 high schools
82 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
Empirical Analysis
The data from the above table (table 4) express that the most
influenced variable from 'washback' of SME is students' motivation. Regarding
value this kind of 'washback' is positive because it expresses a significant
increase in students' motivation to learn English. The fact that according to
students' perception this variable is associated with significant changes in the
way English classes are organized, in teachers teaching method, in the ways
of knowledge assessment and textbooks and other teaching materials, once
again proves the thesis that the greatest amount of 'washback, is produced in
teaching-learning-assessment triangle. Figure 1 that follows expresses in
graphical form the sides of this triangle where the learning side appears to be
the largest one.
During the second interview with students, question b in section II, they
were asked to express their views on the extent of SME influence on learning.
Responses indicate that out of 40 interviewed students 32 think that the
introduction of SME in English has affected their learning whereas 8 students do
not feel the influence of SME in their learning strategies.
84 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
through high school years. Nevertheless, there are components that indicate a
negative washback of SME on learning such as: the attention paid to tasks and
exercises that are similar to those of SME test variants; the pressure exerted on
students for the score; prioritization of subjects according to their being part of
SME or not. Focusing students learning on tasks and exercises that are similar
to those of SME test variants in the past is an expression of curriculum
narrowing which results in learning for the test. The increase of the pressure for
the score forces students to concentrate their learning only on those language
skills and activities that are part of SME.
In students perception SME is an examination that tests their English
knowledge in an objective way. It has avoided some unfair and corruptive ways
of assessment that existed prior to the introduction of SME. The administration
rules and scoring criteria are welcomed by students and are considered as good
stimuli for English learning. In the second interview, first section, students were
asked to express their opinion if they liked or disliked SME scoring criteria. Their
responses indicate that out of 40 students 38 like the administration rules and
scoring criteria applied in SME.
Parents'
pressure
1% As a helpful
A good means in life
score in 67%
SME
21%
Question: Do you think that your English teacher pays much more
attention during the lesson to language skills, tasks and exercises that
prepare you for SME?
88 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
Figure 6: Students perception on the attention paid by teachers to language skills, tasks
and exercises that prepare students for SME in English.
In case the answer to the above question was YES the students were
asked to explain what language skills were dominant. Students who responded
YES, (309 in total), could tick more than one skill in the list of language skills.
The picture gained in this case shows that out of 736 responses 248 consider
writing as dominant, 238 reading, 85 listening and 165 speaking. These
responses indicate that writing and reading comprehension, the skills that are
tested in SME, have the lions share. Washback effect of SME in this case is
negative in two aspects: first, it narrows the curriculum and; secondly, it drives
students learning only on those language skills that are tested by SME.
Figure 7: Students perception on the balance among language skills in English classes .
Conclusions
learn English is not so strong nowadays but in the future it might become very
strong as MES foresees to make SME a compulsory test. Thus, future research is
necessary to investigate students reaction after this examination has become
part of the compulsory test package.
In general students think that the introduction of SME has influenced
their English learning. Responses in the interview with students indicate that out
of 40 interviewed students 80% of them think that the introduction of SME in
English has affected their learning components. The learning components
mostly influenced by the introduction of SME are: time allocated for English
learning; the system of work with English; the elements of the learning content;
priorities students establish for subjects; the pressure exerted on students.
Approaching the problem from the perspective of 'washback created by SME
on the above mentioned components in terms of the dimension of value,
'washback' is positive on such components like: intensity of work with English;
the system of work with English and; revision of the knowledge acquired
through high school years. Nevertheless, there are components that indicate a
negative washback of SME on learning such as: the attention paid to tasks and
exercises that are similar to those of SME test variants; the pressure exerted on
students for the score; prioritization of subjects according to their being part of
SME or not. Focusing students learning on tasks and exercises that are similar
to those of SME test variants in the past is an expression of curriculum
narrowing which results in learning to the test. The increase of the pressure for
the score forces students to concentrate their learning only on those language
skills and activities that are part of SME.
The fact that according to students' perception their learning motivation
and learning components as the most affected variables are associated with
significant changes in the way English classes are organized, in teachers
teaching method, in the ways of knowledge assessment and textbooks and
other teaching materials, once again proves the thesis that the greatest amount
of 'washback, is produced in teaching-learning-assessment triangle. An original
finding in this case is that the learning side in this triangle is the most affected.
In students perception SME has produced positive washback in
assessment. It has avoided some unfair and corruptive ways of assessment that
existed prior to it. The administration rules and scoring criteria are welcomed by
students and are considered as good stimuli for English learning. Students
responses in the second interview indicate that out of 40 students 38 like the
administration rules and scoring criteria applied in SME. This is an intentional
and general washback of SME in English which also shows that this is a reliable
examination.
According to students perception since the introduction of SME in
English in 2006 teachers focus more during English lessons on language skills,
tasks and exercises that are supposed to be part of the final examination. This is
92 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
expressed by 85% of the responding students. Responses show that SME has
produced negative washback which results in curriculum narrowing through
discrimination of skills and teaching activities that are not part of SME. On the
other hand this kind of washback affects students learning because it drives it
only towards those language skills, tasks and exercises that are supposed to be
tested in SME.
Students perceive SME in English as a dynamic examination which
requires improvements in some aspects like: the amount of tasks and exercises;
assessment criteria; kinds of tasks and exercises and; language skills it tests.
Students have also remarked that in SME writing has prominence in the overall
score; scoring in writing sometimes is not balanced and objective; that SME
zeroes teachers assessment during high school years; there are cases when
administrators exert pressure on test takers; the answer key in some cases is
not accurate and; SME contains many multiple choice tasks.
References:
Alderson, J. Charles., & Wall, Dianne. Does washback exist? Oxford: Applied
Linguistics, 14, 1993. 115-129. Print.
Andrews, J. Stephen. In Ying, Zhan. Washback and possible selves: Chinese non-
English- major undergraduates English learning experiences. The HKU
Scholars Hub, the University of Hong Kong. 2010. Print.
Bachman, F. Lyle & Palmer, S. Adrian. Language testing in practice. Oxford: OUP.
1996. Print.
Bailey, Kathleen. Washback in Language Testing. New Jersey, Princeton:
Educational Testing Service. 1999. Print.
Biggs, B. John Assumptions underlying new approaches to educational
assessment. Hong Kong: Curriculum Forum, 4(2), 1995. 1-22. Print.
Buck, Gary. Testing listening comprehension in Japanese university entrance
exams. JALT Journal 10: 1988. 15-42. Print.
Cheng, Liying. How does washback influence teaching? Implications for Hong
Kong. Routledge: Language and Education 11(1). 1997. Print.
---. Impact of a public English examination change on students perceptions
and attitudes toward their English learning. Elsevier Ltd: Studies Educational
Evaluation, 24 (3). 1998. Print.
---. Changing language teaching through language testing: a washabck study.
New York; Cambridge University Press. 2005. Print.
Green, Anthony. Washback to learning outcomes: a comparative study of IELTS
preparation and university pre-sessional language courses. Assessment in
Education, 14 (1). 2007. Print.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 93
Il fatto che gli esami pubblici hanno una grande influenza sull
insegnamento, lapprendimento, il curriculum, I sentimenti e gli atteggiamenti
degli insegnanti e studenti fortemente sostenuto da un contributo scientifico
ricco di molti studiosi di spicco del settore. Questa influenza, altrimenti
conosciuto come 'washback' o 'backwash' viene esaminato da diversi punti di
vista. La letteratura indica fortemente che la washback di esami pubblici un
concetto complesso che diventa ancora pi intricato sotto un gran numero di
interpretazioni su insegnamento e apprendimento.
Esso oggi accettato che leffetto washback sull'apprendimento e
discenti meno esaminata rispetto alla didattica e insegnanti. Questo
documento cerca di aggiungere in questo settore, concentrandosi su pubbliche
94 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
scuole albanesi alti riferiti all'effetto washback di Stato Esame maturit (SEM)
sull'apprendimento. Questo esame, introdotto nel 2006 con l'obiettivo di
riformare l'istruzione inglese nelle scuole superiori albanesi, ha avuto
implicazioni per imparare l'inglese. Attraverso alcuni dati empirici raccolti da
401 studenti di diverse scuole superiori da un questionario preparato e
somministrato per questo scopo e attraverso interviste con 75 studenti, il lavoro
cerca di esaminare in che modo e in che misura influisce SEM apprendimento e
discenti.
UDK: 811.111'367.634
811.133.1'367.634
THE RELEVANCE OF DISCOURSE CONNECTIVES IN ENGLISH
AND FRENCH ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DISCOURSE
Abstract: This paper reconsiders the question of English and French discourse
connectives in electrical engineering discourse, taking into account the relevance-
theoretic distinctions and unitary accounts explaining these distinctions. The paper is
built around four parts. The first one is theoretical in orientation. The second one describe
some unitary accounts. The third part is empirical in nature, while the fourth one outlines
certain concluding remarks.
By way of illustration, our paper examines discourse connectives behaviour in English
and French electrical engineering discourse. We are concerned with establishing how
these linguistic items contribute to utterance interpretation of electrical engineers. We
hope that implications of our investigation might also be significant for a plausible
account of discourse connectives in General French and General English.
17
In no way does our investigation rule out the possibility of English and French discourse
connectives occurrence in other discourse types. Nor does it claim that the analysed discourse
connectives display the described behaviour patterns only in English and French electrical
100 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
First of all, these are not loosely used utterances. Strictly speaking, in
conceptual analysis (1X,Y) and (2X,Y) would be interpreted as
engineering discourse. Nevertheless, this discourse is at our disposal, given the fact that the
authors come across these linguistic items as English and French teachers, respectively.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 101
communicating the information that (1Y) and (2Y) are an explanation of the
state of affairs represented in (1X) and (2X), respectively. On the other hand,
the provider is instructing the beneficiary to interpret (1Y) and (2Y) as a
conclusion (at least when it comes to procedural analysis). These
expressions seem to be the likely candidates for a certain type of discourse
connectives.
In this sketchy analysis, mais and but have been regarded as
semantic synonyms. However, certain discursive differences ought not to be
ignored, and these differences merit further examination. Our impression is
that the core instruction is, on the whole, weaker without these discourse
connectives. Briefly, the gap between the encoded and communicated
concept seems to be bigger without these connectives.
Now, let us see how these linguistic items are treated in some
dictionaries. Mais is glossed as conjunction in Clifton and McLaughlin (1904:
401) equivalent to English but and why. But is glossed as conjunction and
adverb in Clifton and McLaughlin (1904: 84) equivalent to French mais,
neque, seulement and except18. According to Halliday and Hasan (1976:
237) [t]he word but expresses the relation which is not additive but
adversative.
It seems to us that in our examples (1Y) and (2Y) connectives mais
and but directly encode the respective three ways in which new information
Z in a context Q enhances the addressees representation of the world. It may
either lead to a contextual implication19, or strengthen an existing
assumption20.
Now let us consider some examples taken from our electronic
corpus:
(3X) X: Ils sont bass sur la mme puce que la version UV-EPROM, se
programment avec le mme matriel.
(3Y) Y: Mais, le botier nest pas quip de la fentre qui permet
leffacement.
(4X) X: Il suffit alors d'un simple programmateur dEPROM pour
raliser la programmation.
(4Y) Y: Mais, des broches du microcontrleur sont requises pour la
communication avec la mmoire externe, et ne peuvent donc pas
tre utilises pour les entres-sorties.
18
It seems to us also that the analysis pertaining to the diachronic development might be
interesting in the context of discourse connectives mais and but. Unfortunately, the diachronic
development of mais and but, the topic no less interesting, might not be accounted for in this
paper due to spatial limitations. Nevertheless, the reader may wish to refer to the proposed
literature and the bibliographies found within the literature.
19
It may lead to an assumption that results from a deduction which involves the synthesis of Z and Q.
20
Namely, an assumption in Q is independently derived from a new set of premises that include Z.
102 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
(5X) X: The gain medium will amplify any photons passing through
it, regardless of direction.
(5Y) Y: But only the photons aligned with the cavity manage to pass
more than once through the medium and so have significant
amplification.
21
Distributional and sociopragmatic properties lie outside of our joint investigation. Nonetheless,
it would be stimulating and amusing to see what further analytical results these properties would
give.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 103
certain (though not all) types of rhetorical relations and the elementary
units and discourse segments connected by such relations, at least when it
comes to the discourse of electrical engineering which was under our
investigation. Also, we concluded that certain discourse connectives signal a
topic shift, sometimes even unambiguously.
Additionally, adding the discourse connective to an utterance does
not make a crucial difference to its interpretation. In other words, an
utterance simply conveys additional pieces of information if we use a
discourse connective. Simply put, in our examples, analysed so far, the
utterance hosting the connective is added as a premise which is used
together with the previous proposition to provide further evidence for the
same conclusion.
Discourse connectives simply constrain the interpretation of the
utterance they preface by limiting inferential calculations into which the
propositions may enter. It seems to us that discourse connectives indicate to
the hearer what contextual assumptions the speaker intends the hearer to
recover in order to process an utterance in an optimally relevant way.
We are aware of the fact that we have to check whether an item has
conceptual or procedural meaning. In order to see what kind of meaning
discourse connectives excerpted from our corpus of electrical engineering
encode we have had to recourse to two most widely used tests: 1.
metalinguistic negation and 2. semantic compositionality. We are fairly
familiar with the empirical evidence according to which the connective will
display conceptual properties, if it can be negated metalinguistically. Of
course, due to spatial limitation imposed upon papers in this collection of
papers, we certainly cannot be expected to report on our empirical results.
However, we might freely say that we have concluded so far that
discourse connectives mais and but do have pertinent position in a discourse
hierarchy at least in the discourse of electrical engineering22. Following the
observation found in the linguistic literature that utterance computation is a
two-phase process, consisting of a modular decoding phase and a central
inferential phase, we should like to metaphorically depict this two-phase
process as the profit and loss account, at least when one deals with
discourse connectives in the discourse of electrical engineering, which is not
to say that these connectives behave in a different way in general discourses.
It seems to us, however, that discourse connectives sometimes
function within our corpus as negative polarity items. This is mainly so
because of the finding that connectives are not epistemically neutral in the
22
By no means do we claim that these discourse connectives behaviour and/or characteristics are
typical of electrical engineering discourse only. Nevertheless, since we use this discourse type
material, our observations pertain to electrical engineering discourse. The behaviour of discourse
connectives mais and but in General French and General English discourses could not be taken in
our paper, given the nature of our corpus.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 105
4. Concluding Remarks
References:
Brown, Gillian, and George Yule. Discourse Analysis. Cambridge: CUP. 1984.
Clifton, Ebenezer, et J. McLaughlin. Nouveau dictionnaire anglais-franais et
franais-anglais. Paris: Librairie Garnier Frres. 1904.
uri, Milo D. The Relevance of Discourse Markers in the Discourse of
Electrical Engineering. In Interkatedarska konferencija anglistikih
katedri, ed. Vladimir . Jovanovi, Ni: Filozofski fakultet, Univerzitet
u Niu, 2007. 175-190.
uri, Milo D. Relevance and Possession in the Discourse of Electrical
Engineering. In Primenjena lingvistika 9 Linguistique applique 9,
ed. Duanka Toanac and Milena Jovanovi, Beograd & Novi Sad:
Drutvo za primenjenu lingvistiku Srbije, Filoloki fakultet u
Beogradu i Filozofski fakultet u Novom Sadu, 2008a. 55-67.
uri, Milo D. Discourse Connectives as Transitional Markers in the
Discourse of Electrical Engineering. In Challenging Theory and
Improving Practice: Cultural Issues in English Language and Literature,
ed. Aleksandra Nikevi Batrievi and Marija Kneevi, Niki:
Faculty of Philosophy, University of Montenegro, 2008b. 49-64.
uri, Milo D. The Distribution of Discourse Connectives in the Discourse of
Electrical Engineering. In: Jezik struke teorija i praksa, ed. Julijana
Vuo, Anelka Injaevi and Milica Miri, Belgrade: University of
Belgrade, 2009. 191-201.
uri, Milo D., and Marija Pani. Identitet diskursnih konektiva u engleskom
i francuskom diskursu elektrotehnike. In: Jezik, knjievnost, identitet,
ed. Biljana Mii Ili and Vesna Lopii, Ni: Faculty of Philosophy,
University of Ni, 2009. 344-358.
Halliday, Michael Alexander K. and Ruqaiya Hasan. Cohesion in English.
London: Longman. 1976.
Maschler, Yael. vekeilu haraglyim shxa nitkaot bifnm kaze (and like your
feet get stuck inside like): Hebrew kaze (like), keilu (like), and the
Decline of the Israeli dugri (direct) Speech. Discourse Studies 3 (3),
2001. 295-326.
Polovina, Vesna. Leksiko-semantika kohezija u razgovornom jeziku.
Beograd: Filoloki fakultet. [Lexical-Spoken Cohesion in Spoken
Discourse. Belgrade: Faculty of Philology], 1987.
Polovina, Vesna. Ogledi iz opte lingvistike. Beograd: Nauna knjiga. [Essays
in General Linguistics]. 1992.
Polovina, Vesna. Prilozi za kognitivnu lingvistiku. Beograd: Filoloki fakultet. 1996.
Polovina, Vesna. Semantika i tekstlingvistika. Beograd: igoja. 1999.
Prieto, Louis J. Pertinence et pratique Essai de smiologie. Paris: Les
ditions de Minuit. 1975.
Rouchota, Villy. Discourse Connectives: What Do they Link?. UCL Working
Papers in Linguistics 8. ed. John Harris and Philip Black, London:
University College London, 1996. 199-214.
108 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
UDK: 308:159.96
ANKSIOZNOST U TEKSTU
Emir Muhi, Dalibor Kesi
Univerzitet u Banjoj Luci
pitanje. ta je interperetativna mo? Da li ona kao takva ima ikakvog uticaja van
dijapazona akademske rasprave i preciznog tumaenja svih slojeva datog
diskursa? Ovakav negativistiki i nihilistiki stav samo je jedan eho promiljanja
unutar krugova i teorijskih rasprava o tumaenju svijeta u kojem ivimo, bilo da
se radi o istoj lingvistici ili komplementarno-interdiciplinarnim matricama. Slje-
dea prepona koju analitiar mora da preskoi jeste definisanje predmeta istra-
ivanja, odnosno da li je ono to istrauje zaista kategorizacijski klasa eljenog
korpusa. Primjer je istraivanje u domenu kulturolokih studija. ta je kultura?
Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Balzac, Mozart, Iggy Pop ili najnoviji MTV-jev projekat
The New Paris Hiltons Best Friend Forever?
Odgovor na ovo pitanje je nemogue dati, jer kulturu ine ljudi koji su
istovremeno njeni konzumenti, a uveni latinitet de gustibus non est dipu-
tandum24 razoruava nas od prijekora i kritike afiniteta drugih. Sistemi vrijednosti
u 21. vijeku neuporedivi su sa onim sa poetka 20. vijeka ili, dijahronijski dalje gle-
dajui, 19. vijeka. Sinhronijska slika, ipak, pokazuje da je taj odmak evolucionarno
prirodan i da razvoj ne mora uvijek znaiti korak naprijed. To je oksimoron, jer
semantiki gledano razvoj implicira progresiju ka boljem, no praksa esto pokazuje
suprotno odnosno da je progres bolje posmatrati kao kretanje iz jednog u drugo,
ne nuno bolje, stanje. Dakle, kultura je varijabilna kategorija kao i identitet koji je
diskurzivno konstruisan i samim tim se mogu relativno lako mijenjati.
Geneza sentence Beauty is in the eye of the beholder25 ostaje kripti-
na i provokativno neuhvatljiva, poput iskre ljudskog uma. Prema nekim izvori-
ma, prvi aproksimat njene upotrebe zabiljeen je u 3. vijeku prije nove ere i to
na grkom jeziku, no tek u 19. vijeku nove ere pojavila se prva tampana verzija.
Sline sinonime ovog diktuma upotrebljavali su engleski dramatiari John Lyly,
William Shakespeare, a pojavljivala se i u djelima Benjamina Franklina i Davida
Humea.26 Upravo je on ovaj uveni poslovini konstrukt kontekstualizovao pod
kupolu kognitivne lingvistike napisavi: Beauty in things exists merely in the
mind which contemplates them.27 Time je nesvjesno potvrdio postulate kogni-
tivno-lingvistike teorije ije je sjeme, 1976. godine 20. vijeka, posadio Ronald
W. Langacker.
To je bio zaetak neponovljivo prirodne teorijske matricu po kojoj lingvi-
stika analiza ne predstavlja izvjetaenu monstruoznost lapurlartistike28 pro-
venijencije odsjeene od bitka jezike svrsishodnosti, ve prenos informativne
24
Latinski O ukusima ne vrijedi raspravljati.
25
Ljepota je u oku posmatraa; vp.
26
Sampson, George (1970) The Concise History of English Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
27
Ljepota stvari postoji samo u umu koji o njima sniva. vp.
28
Sampson, George (1970) Estetski smjer koji je baziran na premisi da su stil i umjetnika djela
samosvrsishodna i da su pravila ili dodati ekspilati viak u leksikom smislu interpretacije. vp.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 111
29
Keller F. i Wolfersdorf M., 1993: 173-177. Beck Scale of Hopelessness, Beck Scale for Suicidal
Ideation, Beck Anxiety Inventory, Beck Depression Inventory.
112 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
vijeka. Opseg uticaja materijalnog svijeta na diskurs i vice versa predstavlja pre-
preku pri odreivanju preciznih parametara po kojima bi bilo mogue neupitno
prihvatiti bilo koji eksplikat kao istinit i logiki neoboriv. Vodei se ovim pristupom,
namee se zakljuak da ni Laclau i Mouffe, kao ni Foucault, nisu postavili vrste
teorijske temelje, ve siluete hipoteza ija se istinitost, zavisno od kontekstualnog
specifikuma, moe dovesti u pitanje i oboriti cjelokupnu premisu na kojoj poiva
vjerovanje u jednu ili drugu misaonu tradiciju. Kontekst je sutinska determinanta
diskursa. Zavisno od kontekstualnih stega, vri se preciziranje odreenog diskurzi-
vnog fenomena, a uz pomo hipoteza koje su postavili neki od navedenih teore-
tiara.
Ovim se ne negiraju vjerodostojnost i logika argumentativnost premise
da je sve diskurs ili pak da je diskurs eho realije, ve se pristupa diskursu iz multi-
spektralne dimenzije koja doputa odstupanja od iskljuivosti jednog hipoteti-
zovanog pravca. Istinitost neke tvrdnje nije mogue uspostaviti bez procedure,
ali je usmjeravanje proceduralnog hodograma prvi i najtei korak koji predsta-
vlja inicijaciju misaonih, analitikih i teorijskih mainerija koje nee dati rele-
vantne rezultate, ukoliko prvobitni parametri nisu adekvatno postavljeni. Upitna
je i sama tvrdnja da je neka skupina znanja koja produkuju hipoteze, teorije i
eksplikate nauka. Naime, znanje nije nauka. Nauka se izgrauje na oblasti zna-
nja, a put do naunosti nije zagarantovan kvantumom prikupljenih informa-
cijskih jedinica. Aristotel navodi tri principa miljenja koja smo kratko pomenuli
u prethodnom dijelu rada, a koja su, po njemu, inherenta naoj spoznaji realno-
sti, ali ne da i nuno autentino oslikavaju realnost per se. To su mehanizmi ko-
jima ovjeanstvo pribjegava u procesu suoavanja sa spoljanjim stimulansima
tim principima napada pojavnost oko sebe. Radi se o sljedeim principima:
1. Identifikacija
2. Kontradikcija
3. Ekskluzija ili iskljuivanje
Znanje kao spiritus movens30 civilizacije i temelj nauke nije lako filtrirati i
pretoiti u jasno formulisan sistem koji je primjenjiv za ciljanu segmentalizaciju
nekog domena cjelokupnog znanja i saznanja. Diskurs stvara znanja, a meha-
nizmi diskursa i znanja su istovjetni sa razlikom da diskurs ulazi u govor i postaje
eksternalizacija sveobuhvatnijeg sistema. Ovakav pristup evidentan je i Halli-
dayovoj sistemsko-funkcionalnoj gramatici koji govori o sistemu kao sveobuhva-
tnoj kategoriji i tekstu koji je shvaen na hallidayanski nain u drugom svjetlu, za
razliku od uobiajne definicije te lekseme, kao fizike manifestacije navedenog
sistema. Chomsky ili preciznije autori koji su prihvatili njegove smjernice i suti-
nski razradili sistem transformaciono-generativne gramatike, poput Radforda i
30
Latinski: pokretaka sila, generator, duh ivosti.
114 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
31
Yule, 1996: 87.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 115
32
Izvor zla
33
Publius Ovidius Naso, pjesnik drevnog rima i autor Metamorfoza.
116 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
34
Cohen, 1973: 9
Folia linguistica et litteraria 117
boli. To je primjer lova na vjetice koji je obuhvatio period izmeu 1940. i 1950.
godine prolog vijeka poznat kao drugi talas crvenog straha (eng. Second Red
Scare). Pored senatora McCarthyja, znaajnu ulogu u lovu na potencijalne
komuniste odigrao je i direktor Federalnog biroa za istrage (eng. FBI35) u tom
periodu J. Edgar Hoover. Termin McCarthyizam je metonimijski preao u optiju
upotrebu, oznaavajui demagoke i lane optube kao i politika proganjanja,
te, naposljetku, cjelokupan diskurs prisile i nepravde.36
U novijoj istoriji prisutni su diskursi moralne panike tematizovane kroz
prizmu Sjeverne Koreje i anitizapadno orijentisanog reima koji na raspolaganju
ima arsenal nuklearnog oruja. Diskurs prijetnje teroristikim napadima na tlu
Sjedinjenih Drava i zapadne Evrope (eng. Post-9/11 Discourse, Terrorist Threat
Discourse), posebno prominentan u periodu mandata 43. predsjednika Sjedi-
njenih Drava, George W. Busha koji postao poznat i po svom diskursu tzv. Bu-
shova doktrina, a koja se vezuje za teroristike napade 09. septembra, 2001. Go-
dine koji su se desili u New Yorku, Washingtonu, DC. Tokom tog dana, avion pre-
voznika United Airlines na letu 93 takoe se sruio na teritoriji savezne drave
Pennsylvania. Sa filozofskog stanovita, moglo bi se postaviti pitanje da li su,
dijahronijski gledano, navedeni sluajevi concursus Dei37 ili su produkt djelovanja
ljudskog, svjesnog faktora koji ima iskristalisanu intenciju svog djelovanja.
Ono to pak jeste jedinstveno kada je u pitanju bilo koji diskurs vezan za
ekonomsku dobrobit jeste shvatanje ekonomske sigurnosti kao osnovne poluge
stabilnosti drutva, te da se radi o najranjivijem i najizloenijiem aspektu bilo ko-
je drutvene zajednice koji se prvi nalazi na udaru antagonistikih sila.38 Pove-
znica navedenih primjera iz distantnije i recentnije istorije jeste svakako navede-
na moralna panika, strah i masovna histerija koja se vremenom transformie u
reakcionistiki bijes koji mora biti kanalisan ka nekom pseudokonkretnom enti-
tetu. U populistikoj praksi, kako navodi iek, vri se konstruisanje objekta ani-
moziteta ka kojem su usmjerena sva nasilna i neprijateljska osjeanja. Diskurzi-
vnim djelovanjem neka pojava postaje neprijatelj, a njegova fizika manifestacija
se pokuava na svaki nain zaustaviti ili se sa zebnjom iekuje.
Na taj nain odreeni diskursi postaju kategorija izgnanika, nepoeljnog,
jednom rijeju, drugog. Drugost, meutim, nije samo kategorija odbojnosti, ve i
privlanosti. S jedne strane, postoji iskonski strah od nepoznatog, prijeteeg a s
druge doticaj i bliski susret sa mortalnom prijetnjom privlai ovjeka da se upusti
u adrenalinsku igru sa potencijalnim neprijateljem, bio on diskurzivna tvorevina
ili fizika, realna manifestacija. Strah od kontaminacije je ujedno i izvor privla-
35
Federal Bureau of Investigation. www.fbi.org
36
Zinn, 1994.
37
in Boiji
38
iek, 2006.
118 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
39
EcKert i McConnell-Ginet, 2003.
40
American Association of Behavioral and Social Sciences. www.aabss.org. Pristup stranici izvren
20.12.2009.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 119
41
Evans, 2007: 4.
42
Langacker, 1991: 282-283.
43
Langacker, 1991: 285.
120 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
THEME RHEME47
THEMATIC CHAIN ACTION48
44
Bloor i Bloor, 2004: 71.
45
Bloor i Bloor, 2004: 228-229.
46
Vidi Fairclough, 1989.
47
Sistemsko-funkcionalna terminologija.
48
Kognitivno-lingvistiki koncept tematske strukture.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 121
49
Vie u Marjanovi, 2009.
122 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
50
Grice, 1975: 5 u Verschueren, 1999: 32.
51
Yule, 1996: 9-16.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 123
Literatura:
52
Rain Boiangles: If they cant swallow facts, let them eat fiction.
124 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
ANXIETY IN TEXT
UDK: 811.163.4'366.54:162.6
DIJALEKATSKE ODLIKE PROZNOG DISKURSA STEFANA
MITROVA LJUBIE
Miodarka Tepavevi
Univerzitet Crne Gore
Apstrakt: U ovom radu e biti rijei o dijalekatskim odlikama koje nam pruaju djela
Stefana Mitrova Ljubie u padenom sistemu. Pokuaemo da ukaemo u emu se njegov
jezik razlikuje od standardnog knjievnojezikog uzusa, a u emu se ogleda podudarnost
sa govorom njegovog zaviaja odnosno dijalekatskim idiomom kada je rije o padenoj
problematici, i koliko je taj dijalekatski sloj zastupljen u njegovom jezikom izrazu.
Stefan Mitrov Ljubia, kao vrsni poznavalac jezika, ivota, obiaja, crno-
gorskog narodnog duha, tradicije i istorije ljudi Crnogorskog primorja svoga vre-
mena, ostavio nam je dosta jezikog materijala u svom knjievnom djelu koji je
interesantan za lingvistika istraivanja, za prouavanje ondanjeg jezikog
standarda, kao i za prouavanje dijalekatskih osobina. Ljubiine rijei iz ivotopisa
53
Podaci o svim Ljubiinim autografima nalaze se u naoj knjizi: Jezik Stefana Mitrova Ljubie,
CANU, 70, Podgorica, 2010, str. 1632. Za ovaj rad pored autografa koristili smo i tampana djela:
PCP Pripovijesti crnogorske i primorske. Skupio, sloio i pregledao Sepan Mitrov Ljubia. U
Dubrovniku, nakladom tiskarne Dragutina Pretnera, 1875; PVDPrianja Vuka Dojevia. Skupio i
sloio S. M. LJ. Prvo izdanje pojavilo se u Srpskoj zori 1877, 1878. i 1879. Drugi put su publikovana
u posebnim sveskama, koje je Urednitvo Srpske zore izdavalo 1877. i 1878. godine u Beu:
Prianja Vuka Dojevia. Skupio i sloio Stjepan Mitrov Ljubia. Izdaje Urednitvo Srpske zore. U
Beu (tamparija Janka S. Kovaeva), 1877; BPoemu Boj na Visu, Spjevao St. Lj, U Zagrebu 1866.
Brzotiskom Ante Jakia; Pprevode; lanke; Ggovore; kao i tampana pisma P.
54
Isp. ovakve i sline primjere u Crmnici o sveeva, o posta, o Cvijeta, o poklada (Mileti 1940:
496).
Folia linguistica et litteraria 127
55
Detaljnije o ovome isp. rad prof. Ostojia, Distribucija padenih formi s uzronim znaenjem u
jeziku crnogorske pripovjedake proze od Njegoa do 1918, 169185.
56
Stevanovi smatra da je predlog iza nastao najvjerovatnije od veznika i i predloga za (Stevanovi
1974: 269270).
57
Isp. Stevanovi 19331934: 100. Ovaj predlog se danas smatra dijalektizmom (Stevanovi 1974:
324).
128 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
58
Predlog prema i pored sve nekadanje irine upotrebe s oblikom genitiva, danas sa smatra
zastarjelim (Stevanovi 1974: 353356).
59
Isp. za vojvoanske pisce: Heriti 1983: 280, napomena 1151. Za Vuka vidi: P. Ivi 1964: 147;
Stevanovi 1987: 138.
60
Za govore isp.: Vujovi 1969: 298; Mileti 1940: 522; Peikan 1965: 188; Piurica 1981: 192;
Piurica 1967: 155. Za crnogorske pisce vidi: Mladenovi 1973: 170; Vuovi 1930: 5152; Stevano-
vi 1983: 303; Gluica 1997: 273; Piurica 1969: 197; Ostoji 1989: 158159; Ostoji 1989a: 9596;
Nenezi 2010: 301. Prof. Ostoji za jezik Petra I ne nalazi posesivni dativ (Ostoji 1976: 217).
Folia linguistica et litteraria 129
61
Stevanovi 1974: 376. Isp. u Vuka udau se k jeseni (Vuk Stef. Karadi 1964: uz rije oaf, 537).
Zabiljeen je u jeziku A. Zmajevia (Piurica 1981a: 345). Vidi Piurica 1967: 157.
130 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
62
Isp. za jezik V. Popovia (Piurica, 1969: 204). U crmnikom govoru uz ime nekog trgovca pored
predloga kod, u upotrebljava se i predlog na (Mileti, 1940: 525).
63
Isp. On prodao kravu na mlijeku u govoru sjeverozapadne Boke (Pavlovi 2000: 132).
64
Miljanov upotrebljava oblike mjesto, na mjesto, u ime (Bigovi-Gluica 1997: 266), V. Popovi
mjesto, namjesto, na mjesto, na ime (Piurica 1969: 187). Za govore isp. upi 1977: 153.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 131
65
Predlog o upotrebljava uz lokativ Petar I (Ostoji 1976: 218), Miljanov (Bigovi-Gluica 1997:
226), Popovi (Piurica 1969: 208), Tomanovi (J. Suboti 1981: 227228). Za govore isp.: Vujovi
1969: 324; Peikan 1965: 92; Stevanovi 19331934: 110.
66
Isp. Zamlati njim o zemlju (Pavlovi 2000: 24).
132 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
67
Isp. mrakom, neeljom u crmnikom govoru (Mileti 1940: 534).
68
Isp. M. Ivi 1954: 99. Ovaj oblik se ne nalazi u dobrom narodnom govoru, a u knjievnom se
javlja katkad (Mareti 1963: 595596).
Folia linguistica et litteraria 133
69
Zastupljen je u izvjesnom broju primjera u crmnikom govoru (Mileti 1940: 531), u
istonocrnogorskim obuhvata zetskopodgorike i kukobratonoike govore (Stevanovi 1933
1934: 109), u starocrnogorskim govorima obuhvata Zetu i Ljekopolje (Peikan 1965: 190). U
ostalim crnogorskim govorima kategorija socijativa u obliku instrumentala bez predloga skoro da i
ne postoji (upi 1977: 115; Piurica 1981a: 187; Vuovi 1927: 67). Vujovi za govor Mrkovia
konstatuje da je oblik instrumentala bez predloga s preovladao u svim kategorijama socijativu,
oruniku, prosekutivu, instrumentalu naina. Jedino se predlog s upotrebljava uz oblik zamjenice i
to uglavnom pokazne (Vujovi 1969: 300). Ova pojava rijetka je u jeziku Petra I, Petra II, V.
Popovia, L. Tomanovia (Ostoji 1976: 222; Vuovi 1930: 59; Piurica 1969: 220; J. Suboti 1981:
221), dok je sasvim uobiajena u jeziku M. Miljanova, A. Dakovia i Nikole I (Bigovi-Gluica 1997:
258; Ostoji 1989b: 164; Nenezi 2010: 314).
70
Crnogorski pripovjedai u veoj ili manjoj mjeri upotrebljavaju i instrumental bez predloga i sa
predlogom s isp.: Ostoji 1976: 222223; Bigovi-Gluica 1997: 257; Ostoji 1989b: 164; Nenezi
2005: 96; Piurica 1969: 235; Suboti za jezik Tomanovia biljei samo jedan primjer prodora
socijativne konstrukcije sa predlogom sa (J. Suboti 1981: 215). Za vojvoanske pisce isp.: Kuna
1970: 198; LJ. Suboti: 1989, 179; Jerkovi 1972: 245.
134 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
71
M. Ivi 1954: 231. Isp. isto i u jeziku Tomanovia (J. Suboti 1981: 220).
Folia linguistica et litteraria 135
tomu polagahu veliko ime S7, tamo ga zatvori u mranoj kuli M5,
Poetkom XI. ljegla u primorju 11,5,
na da pogje ivjeti na Cetinju M26.
Ova dva predloga javljaju se i u konstrukcijama sa lokativom. esto se
javljaju sa znaenjima kao u savremenom jeziku, mada biljeimo i primjere ovih
predloga sa akuzativom u lokativnom znaenju.
u Istina da u ovu knigu ne pie P1, Ovamo u nae Carstvo P2, jadikuje u
pjesme na svoj poloaj P8, da ga traimo u vodu egom GO20, Etika i
estetika vladaju u Ljubiina pisma 11,35, da se postave kotarski sudovi
u Biograd i Tiesno G23,
na Na njega stoji to P40, ostala bi na nas sumnja i grdilo GO4, uje... na
guvna M4, a na prsi okruglo obiljee kao sunce M14, opet Tanovi
prihvati, rukom na prsi M22, srela se ba na granicu PVD24,131, da se s
Lepetana kokot uje na Kamenare 7,4.
Ovako donekle poremeena upotreba predloga u, na sa akuzativom i
lokativom vjerovatno je posledica uticaja narodnih govora u kojima je ograni-
ena upotreba lokativnih oblika, a i pisaca sa ovih prostora kod kojih je evi-
dentno nerazlikovanje padea mjesta i padea cilja.
Ponekad Ljubia umjesto konstrukcije kod + genitiv ili konstrukcije sa
dativom upotrebljava akuzativnu sintagmu sa predlogom na: Tetka odredi Ruu
da ljegne u Budvu na mastioca PCP79, ime se slae sa jezikom svojih savre-
menika Marka Miljanova i Vuka Popovia (Bigovi-Gluica 1997: 229; Piurica
1969: 204). Zabiljeili smo i jedan primjer upotrebe predloga na sa lokativom u
znaenju upravljenosti, u kojem bismo oekivali ka + dativ: prekrsti ruke i
pogleda vrh sebe na nebu PVD13,72.
28. Predlozi meu, nad, pod, pred u jeziku Stefana Ljubie upotre-
bljavaju se uz akuzativ i instrumental. Meutim, njihova upotreba ne odgovara u
potpunosti stanju u savremenom knjievnom jeziku, jer je izgubljeno osjeanje
razlike u vezi sa glagolskom rekcijom. Takva situacija zabiljeena je i u crnogor-
skim govorima (Mileti 1940: 486; Peikan 1965: 192; Stevanovi 19331934,
105106; upi 1977: 137), kao i u jeziku starijih pisaca s crnogorskog govornog
podruja (Mladenovi 1973: 175; Ostoji 1976: 227; Vuovi 1930: 61; Piurica
1969: 224225; Bigovi-Gluica 1997: 229232; Nenezi 2010: 335).
Konstrukcija meu sa instrumentalom pojavljuje se i u funkciji odreiva-
nja mjesta zavretka kretanja, gdje bi se u knjievnom jeziku upotrebio oblik
akuzativa: Debelja zagrli enpfluga i poljubi meu plavijem oima GO9, sjedne za
sto, barem meu kumovima GO12, pozovnu ga da megju njima dogje M19,
peraka strana zasagjena megju njima kao klin PCP3, Dogje megju nama hri-
Folia linguistica et litteraria 137
anska svetinja PCP150, da se megju nama stani PCP135. Ovakvo stanje za-
biljeeno je u crnogorskim govorima73.
Zabiljeili smo i neke malobrojne primjere u kojima bi se umjesto akuza-
tivnih sintagmi sa predlogom pod upotrebio instrumental, ime se Ljubia slae
sa jezikom starijih crnogorskih pripovijedaa (Ostoji 1976: 228; Bigovi-Gluica
1997: 230231; Ostoji 1989b: 171; Nenezi 2010: 338): Krilu pod Zadar pue zli
glas P9, Ovaj se rt i dan dananji zove Skoigjevojkom, i ko se gogj prvom podanj
vozi, uje mrnare PCP80, Ostadoe Mleci pod hara PCP12, pui kao orah pod
zube PVD,9, Sutradan opet kolo pod jablan na okup PCP163.
Instrumentalna veza sa predlogom pod zabiljeena je i u primjerima gdje
je u knjievnom jeziku obavezna konstrukcija sa akuzativom, a to odlikuje i jezik
Petra I, Marka Miljanova, Vuka Popovia, Nikole I (Ostoji 1976: 230; Bigovi-
Gluica 1997: 232; Piurica 1969: 225; Nenezi 2010: 338339): Ne emo bogme
nikad ivi pod porezom PVD17,99, kad bili pod atorom Seraskiera M38.
Frekvencija pravilne upotrebe akuzativno-instrumentalnih sintagmi sa
predlogom pod evidentna je u jeziku naeg pisca. Meutim, u rijetkim primjeri-
ma sa istim ili slinim znaenjima primijetili smo njegovu kolebljivost u upotrebi
jednog ili drugog oblika: ja sam isto drao da je V. ve pod zatvor P25, ako su
ve bili pod zatvorom P25. Danas bismo u ovim primjerima upotrebili lokativ sa
predlogom u.
Interesantan je i primjer upotrebe genitiva umjesto akuzativa sa predlo-
gom pod: dok mu je ispoteu do pod ije GO24.
Pored primjera pravilne upotrebe akuzativa sa predlogom pred, koji
oznaava mjesto zavretka kretanja ispred pojma s imenom u akuzativu, bilje-
imo i rijetke primjere sa neknjievnom upotrebom, koja je poznata narodnim
govorima (Vujovi 1969: 312; Mileti 1940: 488489; Peikan 1965: 190;
Stevanovi 19331934: 106; upi 1977: 150; Piurica 1981a: 186): igra konja
pred Budvu PCP50, da se ne vidi prsta pred oko PVD1,9.
I kod ovog predloga registrovali smo akuzativnu i instrumentalnu dopu-
nu sa glagolom koji zahtijeva rekciju u instrumentalu: Ako i nas objesi pred
Kotor M28, oni da ikako mogu objesili bi me pred Kotorom PCP259.
Sasvim rijetko instrumental sa predlogom pred javlja se u slubi akuza-
tiva: Kad Sepan stade pred narodom M20, u emu se ogleda uticaj narodnih
govora (Vujovi 1969: 312; Mileti 1940: 488489; Peikan 1965: 190;
Stevanovi 19331934: 107108; upi 1977: 151; Piurica 1981a: 208).
B Ljubiin jezik karakteriu i neke osobine koje su arhaine ili ih je vri-
jeme potisnulo, ali kojima se ne spori knjievni karakter. One nam svjedoe o
bogatstvu njegovog knjievnojezikog izraza. Mnoge od tih osobina specifine su
i za Vukov knjievnojeziki model. Izdvajamo sledee:
73
Isp.: Mileti 1940: 495; Peikan 1965: 190; Stevanovi 19331934: 106; upi 1977: 145;
Piurica 1981a: 186. U govoru Mrkovia odstupanja su rijetka (Vujovi 1969: 319).
138 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
74
Darinka Gortan-Premk: 1962, 136. U savremenom jeziku obinija je upotreba akuzativa, dok se
slovenski genitiv u veini sluajeva osjea arhainim (Stevanovi 1974: 204206). U crnogorskim
govorima zabiljeena je sledea situacija: U crmnikom govoru osjea se jaka tendencija da se
genitiv uz negaciju zamijeni akuzativom (Mileti 1940: 501). Za SK-LJ govore Peikan konstatuje da
se genitiv koristi jedino uz glagole nemati i ne biti (Peikan 1965: 188). Ni upi za govor
Bjelopavlia ne biljei primjere slovenskog genitiva (upi 1977: 112). Upotreba slovenskog
genitiva zabiljeena je u kolainskom, uskokim i susjednim hercegovakim govorima (Piurica
1981a: 193; Stani 1977: 66; Peco 1964: 167).
75
Vidjeti: Piurica 1981b: 332; Mladenovi 1973: 169; Ostoji 1976: 199; Bigovi-Gluica 1997:
207; Piurica 1969: 179; Ostoji 1989b: 146147; J. Suboti 1981: 194; Nenezi 2005: 99. Za Vuka
isp.: Stevanovi 1987: 146147; M. Ivi 1957: 120.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 139
76
Isp. za Njegoa to ognjeni grom uini od mletake vojske tune; to bi od nas Pejo uinio; ni od
Gaa to se uinilo; to pogani od ljudi inite i sl. (Stevanovi 1983: 458459); Piurica 1969: 190;
Bigovi-Gluica 1997: 208.
77
U Crmnici, SK-LJ, Bjelopavliima ovakva upotreba je sasvim rijetka (Mileti 1940: 513; Peikan
1965: 193; upi 1977: 118), dok je obina u istonocrnogorskim govorima, Kolainu i Rovcima
(Stevanovi 19331934: 101; Piurica 1981a: 199; Piurica 1967: 146).
78
Sintagme u + genitiv i kod + genitiv sinonimne su kad oznaavaju da se radnja vri u sferi pojma
oznaenog ovim padeom (Popovi 1964: 85). Isp.: Bigovi-Gluica 1997: 211; Ostoji 1989b: 156.
140 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
79
I u jeziku drugih crnogorskih pripovijedaa ova predloko-padena veza javlja se u uzronom
znaenju isp. Ostoji 1976: 219; Bigovi-Gluica 1997: 246247; Piurica 1969: 201; J. Suboti
1981: 214; Nenezi 2005: 99.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 141
80
Vidi: Stevanovi 1974: 510. Isporedi iroku upotrebu ove konstrukcije u jeziku Petra I (Ostoji
1976: 225); M. Miljanova (Bigovi-Gluica 1997: 238); V. Popovia (Piurica 1969: 227), Nikole I
(Nenezi 2010: 329330). Za narodne govore isp.: Mileti 1940: 498; upi 1977: 136; Stani 1977:
81.
142 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
predloga vjerovatno je nastala kao posledica uticaja narodnih govora, kao i sta-
rijih crnogorskih pisaca. Karakteristina je u Ljubiinom jeziku i upotreba predlo-
ga po sa genitivom plurala u znaenju lokativa, a to je osobina crnogorskih
govora.
Za oznaavanje naporednosti od arhainijih oblika izdvojili smo geniti-
vne konstrukcije sa predlogom za, iza, akuzativne sa predlogom uz, instru-
mentalne sa pod, tipine za jezik starijih pisaca i narodne govore. U sistemu
padenih oblika za oznaavanje posteriornosti i anteriornosti ukazali smo na
primjere genitivne konstrukcije od imenice u pluralu sa predlogom o u funkciji
oznaavanja vremena koji su odlika narodnih govora, kao i na upotrebu dativa
sa predlogom k koji se javlja i u Vukovom jeziku i nekim crnogorskim govorima.
U vezi sa upotrebom instrumentala bitno je istai da su odstupanja od
norme savremenog jezika vezana za pojavu mofrolokog mijeanja socijativa u
uem smislu i orunika. U Ljubiinom jeziku registrovali smo prilian broj
primjera upotrebe slobodnog instrumentala u socijativnoj funkciji umjesto
predloke konstrukcije, kao i instrumentala orunika sa predlogom sa.
Ljubiin izraz karakteriu i osobine koje su arhaine, ali kojima se ne
spori knjievni karakter. Istiemo estu upotrebu slovenskog genitiva, genitivnih
sintagmi sa predlogom od u znaenju pripadanja, genitivne konstukcije s pre-
dlogom sa/s za oznaavanje uzroka, konstrukcija za + akuzativ u funkciji oznaa-
vanja uzrono-ciljnih znaenja, kao i lokativne sa predlogom o i sl. Od genitivnih
sintagmi sa znaenjem prostornih odnosa, tipinih za Vukov jezik i pisce sa
crnogorskog podruja, izdvojili smo upotrebu predloga kod u funkciji odredbe
zavretka kretanja, naporednu upotreba kod i u u slubi prostornih znaenja (uz
glagole kretanja, pri emu ove veze oznaavaju cilj tog kretanja) i znaenja koja
su se razvila iz njih.
Narodnou karaktera jezika kojim je pisano, s jedne strane, i misao-
nou i poetinou s druge strane, Ljubiino djelo, snano je potvrdilo ivotnost
i ivotvornost njegovog knjievnojezikog izraza. Ljubia je donekle sauvao spe-
cifine pojedinosti padenog sistema svojstvene crnogorskim narodnim govori-
ma prije svega patrovskom, koje ne naruavaju cjelishodnost njegovog knjie-
vnog jezika i svakako je tim dijalekatskim oblicima ostavio dragocjen izvor za sva
budua lingvistika istraivanja.
Literatura:
Piurica, Mato. Govor okoline Kolaina, CANU, knj. 12, Odjeljenje umjetnosti,
knj. 2, Titograd, 1981a.
Piurica, Mato. Jezik Andrije Zmajevia, CANU, knj. 22, Odjeljenje umjetnosti,
knj. 2, Titograd, 1981b.
Piurica, Mato. Upotreba padea u govoru Rovaca, Prilozi prouavanju jezika, 3,
Novi Sad, 1967. 143176.
Piurica, Mato. Upotreba padea u jeziku Stefana Mitrova Ljubie i Vuka
Popovia, Prilozi prouavanju jezika, 5, Novi Sad, 1969. 177237.
Popovi, LJubomir. Padena sinonimika u jeziku Vuka Stef. Karadia, Na jezik,
XIV/23, Beograd, 1964. 108110.
Stani, Milija. Uskoki govor I i II, Srpski dijalektoloki zbornik, knj. XX i XXII,
Beograd, 1974, 1977.
Stevanovi, Mihailo. Istonocrnogorski dijalekat, Junoslovenski filolog, XIII,
Beograd, 19331934.
Stevanovi, Mihailo. Jezik u Vukovu delu i savremeni srpskohrvatski jezik, Vuk u
svome i naem vremenu, Matica srpska, Novi Sad, 1987.
Stevanovi, Mihailo. Renik jezika Petra II Petrovia NJegoa, Beograd, 1983.
Stevanovi, Mihailo. Savremeni srpskohrvatski jezik II, Sintaksa, Beograd, 1974.
Suboti, Jelisaveta. Jezik Lazara Tomanovia u njegovim naunim spisima s kraja
XIX vijeka, 1981.
Suboti, LJiljana. Jezik Jovana Hadia, Matica srpska, Novi Sad, 1989.
Vujovi, Luka. Mrkoviki dijalekat, Srpski dijalektoloki zbornik, XVIII, Beograd,
1969.
Vuovi, Danilo. Prilozi prouavanju Njegoeva jezika, JF, IX, Beograd, 1930.
Vuovi, Danulo. Dialekat Istone Hercegovine, Srpski dijalektoloki zbornik, III,
Beograd, 1927.
UDK: 811.163.4'367.625
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150 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
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Folia linguistica et litteraria 151
, -
- , -
, .
. . :
, 2007.
Mrazovi Pavica, Vukadinovi Zora. Gramatika srpskohrvatskog jezika za
strance. Sremski Karlovci: Izdavaka knjiarnica Zorana Stojanovia, Novi
Sad: Dobra vest, 1990.
.
- .
, XXXV/2, 1992. 115132.
. . :
., . .
: , ,
, 2005. 477571.
, . . :
, 2004.
op:
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: , 19671969, IVVI, :
, 19711976.
The paper deals with the verbs whose semantic content condition the
formation of supplementary adverbial units. They can be placed in four major
semantic categories: the verbs with spatial, temporal, qualificative and
quantificative semantics. Particular emphasis is paid to their other possible
semantic types, which exact supplements of simultaneously lexical and grammatical
nature. The syntaxic-semantic analysis of corpora in our language showed that each
semantic type of verbs uses a particular type of adverbial supplement.
UDK: 811.111'367.622
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( 1990: 388) leg of the trousers the trouser leg.
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(News) : The Times, The Guardian, The New
154 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
York Times85.
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2010. .
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594).
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2.
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( 1979: 42).
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( . 1985: 1334).
,
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, . soft drinks manufacturer,
car manufacturer ( . 1985: 1334).
85
, TT The Times, TG
The Guardian, NYT The New York Times.
86
(1996) . (1985).
Folia linguistica et litteraria 155
2.1.
Longman Grammar of Written and Spoken English ( . 1999: 590-591)
, 87:
: /
, . fact sheets, color adjectives
:
, . war fund
:
, ,
. exam papers
1:
, . computer users
2:
, . substitute forms
1 (
, . leaf appearance)
2:
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:
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1:
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attack
87
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.
156 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
2:
, . theme park
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: , . rifle butt
:
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football fans.
-
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3.
(1) [...] seen as essential to prevent weapons smuggling, and said all cargo
bound for Gaza by sea would continue to be [...] (NYT 20.688)
(2) Victims groups said they were still waiting for concrete action more than
words [...] (NYT 11.5)
(3) The drugs shop will mean farmers can buy medicines for their animals
locally. (TG 2.6)
(4) Dr Hasan said the burns unit at the hospital was already overcrowded
with patients before the fire. (TG 4.6)
(5) "Lorry drivers, truck drivers, farmers, woodsmen, events planners: these
men don't usually work together [...] (TG 23.5)
(6) At the activities tent, Mukhlisa Mashirapova, 15, said many children were
upset because their fathers were in Kyrgyzstan and in jeopardy. (NYT 21.6)
(7) [...] and said that Australia did the right thing to have arrested a war
crimes suspect (in order) to extradite him to the state that has indicted
him". (TT 13.5)
(8) Investigators for both the Kimberley Process and human rights groups
have gathered (NYT 21.6)
88
.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 157
(9) The Dui Hua Foundation, a San Francisco-based group that follows human
rights issues in China [...] (NYT 5.7)
(10) [...] when Jobs delivers his keynote address at its developers conference in
San Francisco. (TG 2.6)
-
( . 1985: 1335).
,
. , ,
.
,
( . 1999: 594)
. victims groups,
burns unit, events planners human rights groups.
victims groups, burns unit,
human rights groups -
events planners, -
1 .
, .
,
( . 1985: 1334).
.
, -
. weapons smuggling, drugs shop, activities
tent, human rights issues, war crimes suspect developers conference.
, , :
1 weapons smuggling , -
drugs shop ,
, human rights issues
, 2 activities tent
, war crimes suspect
, -
1 developers conference
,
.
,
, weapon smuggling,
158 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
4.
.
(victims groups, human rights groups)
(burns units),
(events planners), (
. 1999: 594). , ,
,
.
, ,
, (
. 1985: 1334).
, , ,
, . burns units
. -
, -
, . weapons smuggling -
; drugs shop .
. ,
.
.
,
.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 159
Biber, Douglas, et al. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow:
Pearson Education Limited, 1999. Print
Biber, Douglas, Jack Grieve, and Gina Iberri-Shea. Noun phrase modification,
One Language, Two Grammars? Differences between British and American
English. Eds. Gnter Rohdenburg Julia Schlter. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2009. 182-193. Print
Blaganj, Dana and Ivan Konte. Modern English Grammar. Ljubljana: Dravna
zaloba Slovenije. 1979. Print
Greenbaum, Sidney. Oxford English Grammar. New York: Oxford University Press
Inc. 1996. Print
Greenbaum, Sidney and Randolph Quirk, A Students Grammar of the English
Language, Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. 1990. Print
Quirk, Randolph, et al. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language.
Harlow: Longman. 1985. Print
www.thetimes.co.uk [ 2010. ]
www.theguardian. co.uk [ 2010. ]
www.nytimes.com. [ 2010. ]
UDK: 811.133.1'366.582.4
811.163.4'366.582.4
AORIST U SRPSKOM I FRANCUSKOM JEZIKU 89 (SINTAKSIKA
ANALIZA UPOTREBE OVOG VREMENA U ROMANU JEDAN IVOT
G. DE MOPASANA I NJEGOVOG PREVODNOG EKVIVALENTA NA
SRPSKOM JEZIKU)
Aorist ili prosti perfekat (le pass simple) predstavlja prosto prolo gla-
golsko vreme koje se upotrebljava samo u pisanoj naraciji. Praktino je nestalo iz
govorne upotrebe u francuskom jeziku, jer je narativnu funkciju u govoru potpu-
no preuzeo francuski perfekat (le pass compos). Ipak, moe se susresti i po-
malo uti u jeziku starijih lica na jugu Francuske koji neguju tradiciju oksitanskog
govora.
Pass simple je iroko prisutan u pisanom jeziku: knjievnom jeziku, jeziku
tampe, mada ga i u modernom knjievnom jeziku sve vie zamenjuje francuski
perfekat. Iz tog razloga, sasvim je opravdano to ga neke francuske gramatike
(Baylon & Fabre, 1978, Dubois & Lagane, 1973) oznaavaju kao le temps du rcit
des vnements passs (vreme pripovedanja prolih dogaaja).
89
Ovaj rad je deo projekta Dinamika struktura savremenog srpskog jezika 178014 koji finansira
Ministarstvo prosvete, nauke i tehnolokog razvoja republike Srbije.
162 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
90
E je moment dogaaja, a S je oznaka za moment govora, dok znak " < " oznaava vremensko
prethoenje. Dakle, u ovom sluaju E vremenski prethodi taki S.
91
R je momenat na vremenskoj osi iz kojeg se sagledava neka radnja. Znak "= " upuuje na
poklapanje dveju taaka, tj. u ovom sluaju dogaaj u aoristu se smeta u proli momenat, a iz tog
momenta se dati dogaaj posmatra.
92
Rezultativnost podrazumeva aktuelnost stanja u nekom momentu na vremenskoj osi, pri emu
stanje proizilazi iz predikatom uvedenog dogaaja.
93
U svim definicijama koje je Rajhenbah dao za glagolska vremena simultanost izmeu dva
vremenska momenta (u ovom sluaju E i R) belei se zarezom: E,R, dok se anteriornost jedne take
u odnosu na drugu (u ovom sluaju anteriornost E u odnosu na S) belei crticom: E-S.
94
Godine 1903. Petar I Karaorevi postade/je postao kralj.
95
Jelena je itala celo poslepodne/dva sata.
96
Ovo vremensko nizanje dogaaja u aoristu, tj. obeleje vremenske progresije (+OT) govori da je
odnos izmeu dogaaja En i En-1 iskljuivo odnos posteriornosti.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 163
97
Na prevod: Vicegrof se pokloni, ree da ve odavno eli da se upozna sa gospoama, a zatim s
lakoom zapoe razgovor, poput pristojnog oveka.
98
Na prevod: ana i ilijen prooe kroz umarak, potom se popee na padinu, pa oboje utei
poee da posmatraju more.
99
Na prevod: On otvori usta, smeei se, zabacivi glavu i rairivi ruke, pa popi na iskap vodu s
tog ivog izvora od pluti, koji ispuni celo njegovo bie poudom.
164 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
(4) [...] U tom trenutku se i ona pope na koijako sedite pored ia-
Simona, pa se uvi u jedan veliki pokriva koji joj sasvim zakloni glavu [...].
(Mopasan, 1957: 12)
(5) [...] Baron poljubi erku, pa ode u svoju sobu. Onda ana lee sa
aljenjem [...]. (Mopasan, op.cit.: 18)
(6) Jedno poslepodne, dok su se odmarale na klupi na kraju vrata,
odjednom ugledae nekog debelog svetenika koji je iao ka njima [...].
(Mopasan, op.cit.: 30)
(7) [...] On joj ne odgovori, ve joj uze obe ruke, pa ih zadra u svojima. Nisu
izgovorili nijednu re do kue. Ostatak toga popodneva uini im se dug.
(Mopasan, op.cit.: 59)
(8) Pred jutro je ipak zaspala. Probudie je huka i glasovi. Ona prodrma
svoga mua koji je nepomino spavao, pa oboje ustadoe. (Mopasan,
op.cit.: 71)
srpskog perfekta koji je takoe narativno vreme, istie sam dogaaj, a ne nje-
gove posledice. Ovu odliku poseduje i francuski aorist.
Na kraju, pored svojstva doivljenosti, ukazaemo na jo jedno sintaksiko
svojstvo aorista u naraciji. Naime, aorist je markiran obelejem temporalne
progresije i ima funkciju sredstva za pomeranje toka prie. S obzirom da se
radnje sukcesivno niu, italac stie utisak da vreme napreduje pa se time i pria
pomera u vremenu, te iz tog razloga sa srpskim aoristom imamo vremensku i
tekstualnu progresiju. Ovo ukazuje na jo jedno svojstvo srpskog aorista
(svojstvo dinaminosti), kome e posebna panja biti posveena prilikom analize
primera aorista u francuskom i aorista u srpskom jeziku.
(9) Sans quelle et entendu monter lescalier, on frappa trois coups lgers
contre sa porte. Elle tressaillit horriblement et ne rpondit point. On
frappa de nouveau, puis la serrure grina. Elle se cacha la tte sous ses
couvertures comme si un voleur et pntr chez elle. Des bottines
craqurent doucement sur le parquet; et soudain on toucha son lit. Elle
eut un sursaut nerveux et poussa un petit cri; et, DGAGEANT sa tte,
elle vit Julien debout devant elle, [...]. (Maupassant, op.cit.: 75)
Iako nije ula bat koraka na stepenicama, neko zakuca na njena vrata.
Ona strahovito uzdrhta i nita ne odgovori. Kucanje se ponovi, a zatim
kripnu brava. Ona uvue glavu pod pokriva, kao da je neki kradljivac
upao u njenu sobu. Duboke cipele zakripae po podu, a neko se dotae
njene postelje. ivci joj odjednom ustreptae, te ciknu, a kad OTKRI
glavu, vide ilijena kako stoji pred njom, [...]. (Mopasan, op.cit.: 63)
100
Naslov romana u originalu.
101
Radi se o prevodu izalom u izdanju izdavakog preduzea Rad, Beograd, 1957.
166 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
(10) Son mari se pencha vers elle et posa doucement, [...], un petit
portefeuille en cuir. Ce toucher la rveilla; et elle considra l'objet d'un
regard noy, [...]. Le portefeulle tomba, s'ouvrit. De l'or et des billets de
banque s'parpillrent dans la calche. Elle s'veilla tout fait et la
gaiet de sa fille partit en une fuse de rires. Le baron ramassa l'argent
et le lui posa sut les genoux. [...]. Elle compta six mille et quatre cents
francs et les mit tranquillement dans sa poche. (Maupassant, op.cit.: 35)
Njen mu se nae prema njoj i blago spusti mali koni novanik [...]. Ona
se probudi od tog dodira, pa pogleda u tu stvar mutnim oima, [...].
Novanik pade i otvori se. Zlatnici i novanice rasue se po kolima. Onda
se ona sasvim probudi, a veselost njene keri planu kao raketa. Baron
pokupi novac, pa joj ga metnu na krilo. [...]. Ona izbroja est hiljada i
etiri stotine franaka, pa ih mirno metnu u dep. (Mopasan, op.cit.: 14)
(11) Et, les nuages STANT FONDUS, le fond bleu du firmament parut; puis
la dchirure s'agrandit comme un voile qui se dchire; et un beau ciel
pur d'un azur net et profond se dveloppa sur le monde. (Maupassant,
op.cit.: 35)
A kad SE RAZIOE oblaci, pojavi se plavo nebesko dno; zatim se prodor
proiri kao pocepano platno, a lepo i jasno nebo razastre se nad svetom.
(Mopasan, op.cit.: 15)
(12) Un aprs-midi, comme elles se reposaient sur le banc du fond, elles
aperurent tout coup, au bout de l'alle, un gros prtre qui s'en venait
vers elles. Il salua de loin, prit un air souriant, salua de nouveau quand il
fut trois pas et s'cria: [...]. (Maupassant, op.cit.: 49)
Jedno poslepodne, dok su se odmarale na klupi na kraju vrata,
odjednom ugledae nekog debelog svetenika koji je iao ka njima. On ih
pozdravi iz daljine, naini ljubazno lice, pa ih ponovo pozdravi kad im se
priblii na tri koraka i uzvika: [...]. (Maupassant, op.cit.: 30)
(13) Vers le matin, cependant, elle sassoupit. Des bruits, des voix la
rveillrent. Les matelots, en chantant, faisaient la toilette du navire.
Elle secoua son mari, immobile dans le sommeil, et ils se levrent.
(Maupassant, op.cit.: 81)
Pred jutro je ipak zaspala. Probudie je huka i glasovi. Ona prodrma
svoga mua koji je nepomino spavao, pa oboje ustadoe. (Nopasan,
op.cit.: 71)
(14) Mais, lorsqu'on parvint la pente, le canot tout d'un coup partit, dvala
sur les cailloux ronds avec un grand bruit de toile dchire. Il s'arrta
net l'cume des petits vagues, et tout le monde prit place sur les
Folia linguistica et litteraria 167
bancs; puis les deux matelots RESTS terre le mirent flot. [...] La voile
fut hisse, s'arrondit un peu, et la barque s'en alla paisiblement, peine
BERCE par la mer. On s'loigna d'abord. (Maupassant, op.cit.: 54)
A kad dooe do nagiba, amac odjednom pojuri i strmeknu se s velikom
kripom koja je liila na um to se uje kad se cepa platno. Potom se
zaustavi kao ukopan na sitnim penuavim talasima, a onda svi posedae
na klupe, pa amac gurnue dva mornara koji OSTAE na obali. [...]
Razapee jedro, a ono se zaobli, pa amac tiho zaplovi i more ga POE
neprimetno njihati. Udaljie se od obale. (Mopasan, op.cit.: 37)
(15) Cependant, on arrta. [...] Jeanne rveilla subitement et sauta bien vite.
Pre et Rosalie, [...] portrent presque la baronne tout fait extnue,
geigant de dtresse [...]. Elle ne voulut rien boire, rien manger, se
coucha et tout aussitt dormit. (Maupassant, op.cit.: 36)
Ipak se zaustavie. [...] ana se prenu iz sna i veoma brzo skoi. Njen
otac i Rozalija, [...] gotovo odnee sasvim iznurenu baronicu koja je
stenjala od muke [...]. Ona nije htela nita da okusi, ve je legla i odmah
zaspala. (Mopasan, op.cit.: 15,16)
(16) Jeanne et le baron, le bras dessus bras dessous, visitrent tout, sans
omettre un coin; puis ils se promenrent lentement dans les longues
avenues de peupliers, [...]. Un livre partit brusquement, qui fit peur la
jeune fille, puis il sauta le talus et dtala dans les joncs marins vers la
falaise. (Maupassant, op.cit.: 42)
Idui pod ruku, ana i baron zagledali su sve, ne proputajui nijedan
kutak; zatim se proetae polako dugim stazama oivienim topolama,
[...]. Jedan zec jurnu iznenada i uplai mladu devojku, a zatim preskoi
padinu, pa strugnu u trar na morskoj obali. (Mopasan, op.cit.: 23)
(17) Et elle resta longtemps, longtemps, rvasser ainsi tandis que la lune,
achevant son voyage travers le ciel, allait disparatre dans le mer. [...]
Un coq chanta dans la ferme de droite; dautres rpondirent dans la
ferme de gauche. [...] Un petit cri doiseau sveilla quelque part. Des
gazouillements, timides dabord, sortirent des feuilles; puis ils
senhardirent, devinrent vibrants, joyeux, gagnant de branche en
branche, darbre en arbre. (Maupassant, op.cit.: 41)
I dugo, dugo je tako sanjarila dok se mesec primicao kraju svoga
putovanja na nebu i spremao da iezne u moru. [...] Jedan petao
zakukureka na majuru s desne strane; drugi mu se odazvae s majura na
levoj strani. [...] Odnekud dopre kratak cvrkut neke ptice. Cvrkutanje
upoetku bojaljivo zau se u liu, a zatim postade smelije, postade
168 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
Ali je ilijen izigravao nevinog oveka, pa je sve poricao s uzbuenjem,
kleo se, pozivao se na boga. [...] Pretio je parnicom, [...]. (Mopasan,
op.cit.: 122)
(24) Il retira le bras dont il serrait sa taille, et, EN SE TOURNANT tous deux, ils
se trouvrent face face, si prs qu'ils sentirent leurs haleines sur leurs
visages; et ils se regardrent. Ils se regardrent d'un ces regards fixes,
aigus, pntrants, o deux mes se croient se mler. Ils se cherchrent
dans leurs yeux, derrire leurs yeux, dans cet inconnu impntrable de
l'tre; ils se sondrent dans une muette et obstine interrogation. [...] Et
il leur sembla, tous les deux, qu'ils ne s'taient pas encore vus.
(Maupassant, op.cit.: 71)
On odmae ruku kojom joj je stezao stas, a kad SE oboje OKRENUE,
naoe se jedno prema drugom tako blizu da osetie kako jedno drugom
diu u lice, te se pogledae. Pogledae se jednim od onih netreminih,
otrih i prodornih pogleda kakvim se gledaju dve due koje veruju da se
spajaju. Traili su se u svojim oima, iza svojih oiju, u onome to je
nepoznato i nedokuivo u svakome biu; odmeravali su se, ispitujui
jedno drugo utke i uporno. [...] I oboma se uini da se dotle nisu videli.
(Mopasan, op.cit., 59)
(25) [...] Or, une fois, comme elle s'veillait, elle aperut Julien, seul prs
d'elle; et brusquement, tout lui revint, comme si un rideau se ft lev
qui cachait sa vie passe. (Maupassant, op.cit.: 118)
A kad se jednom probudila, videla je da je samo ilijen pored nje, te se
odjednom setila svega, kao da se podigla zavesa koja je zaklanjala ceo
njen raniji ivot. (Mopasan, op.cit.: 119)
Pri analizi primera iz korpusa, u prvi plan emo staviti srpsku prevodnu
verziju, odnosno prevod francuskog aorista na srpski jezik, budui da je origi-
nalno delo na francuskom jeziku, a nas zanimaju njegovi prevodni ekvivalenti.
Vano je odmah napomenuti da primer na srpskom jeziku sadri aoriste koji nisu
rezultat prevoda francuskog aorista (takvi aoristi su naznaeni velikim slovima),
tako da emo analizu najpre usmeriti na prevodne ekvivalente francuskog aori-
sta, a potom na one primere iz srpske verzije u kojima nailazimo na aorist, a u
originalu je upotrebljeno neko drugo vreme.
Iz navedenih primera moemo ustanoviti da se francuski aorist u najve-
em broju sluajeva na srpski jezik prevodi aoristom. U primerima gde je pre-
veden aoristom, srpski aorist nosi sva ona obeleja koja su mu svojstvena kao
170 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
se malo ega seala zato to je bila van sebe; inilo joj se samo da ju je on
obasuo kao grad kratkotrajnim poljupcima punim zahvalnosti. Zatim joj je
svakako neto rekao, a ona mu je svakako odgovorila. Potom je pokuavao da joj
se priblii i ona ga je s uasom gurala od sebe, a dok se otimala od njega, osetila
je na svojim grudima onakvu istu gustu dlaku koju je ranije oseala na svojoj
nozi, te se odmakla.). Francuski aorist je u ovim primerima srpskog prevoda
preveden perfektom, jer je prevodilac upotrebom perfektivnog perfekta eleo
da postigne nefokalizovano pripovedanje kako bi pokazao da se narator ne unosi
emotivno u fabulu (25): A kad se jednom probudila, videla je da je samo ilijen
pored nje, te se odjednom setila svega, kao da se podigla zavesa koja je
zaklinjala ceo njen raniji ivot. Pored toga, perfektivni perfekat slui i za
navoenje naratorovih komentara (primer (20): Da li je u prstima osetila ivani
trzaj, [...]? Da li je on to razumeo, da li je to naslutio, da li je i njega obuzelo
neto nalik na ljubavnu opijenost?, takoe primer (21)). To znai da u primerima
sa perfektom nema doivljenosti koja je prisutna u primerima koji su prevedeni
aoristom, a dogaaji su predstavljeni faktografski (kao injenice). Iako perfekat
ne izraava radnje koje su obavezno sukcesivne, on moe da utie na tok
naracije samo ako su dogaaji u perfektu povezani odgovarajuim konektorima
(pa, a zatim) to ne utie na smisao koju ima originalna reenica na francuskom
jeziku, a ime je ujedno ostvarena temporalna progresija koja postoji u originalu
(u primeru (22): Otrala je velikom stazom, pa je prola kroz umicu i preskoila
jarak, a zatim je pojurila preko pustare.). Iz tog razloga, prevodilac je bez
problema upotrebio perfektivni perfekat umesto aorista. Perfekat nesvrenih
glagola, koji se nalazi u nekim prevedenim primerima, slui takoe za
nefokalizovano pripovedanje, a poput perfektivnog perfekta, upuuje na
stabilnost i neproticanje naracije, na primer u (24): [...] Traili su se u svojim
oima, iza svojih oiju, u onome to je nepoznato i nedokuivo u svakome biu;
odmeravali su se, ispitujui jedno drugo utke i uporno. [...].
Kao to smo ve rekli u uvodnom delu ovog potpoglavlja, postoje
primeri u prevodnoj verziji koji sadre aorist, a da na tom mestu u originalu ne
figurira aorist. Roman obiluje takvim primerima, a ovde emo ukazati samo na
etiri primera, koji nam mogu biti reprezentativni tj. na etiri sluaja koji su u
srpskom prevodu dali aorist :
(9) [...] Elle eut un sursaut nerveux et poussa un petit cri; et, DGAGEANT sa
tte, elle vit Julien debout devant elle, [...].
[...] ivci joj odjednom ustreptae, te ciknu, a kad OTKRI glavu, vide ilijena
kako stoji pred njom, [...].
(11) Et, les nuages STANT FONDUS, le fond bleu du firmament parut; [...].
A kad SE RAZIOE oblaci, pojavi se plavo nebesko dno; [...].
172 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
(14) [...] Il s'arrta net l'cume des petits vagues, et tout le monde prit place
sur les bancs; puis les deux matelots RESTS terre le mirent flot. [...] La
voile fut hisse, s'arrondit un peu, et la barque s'en alla paisiblement,
peine BERCE par la mer. On s'loigna d'abord.
[...] Potom se zaustavi kao ukopan na sitnim penuavim talasima, a onda svi
posedae na klupe, pa amac gurnue dva mornara koji OSTAE na obali.
[...] Razapee jedro, a ono se zaobli, pa amac tiho zaplovi i more ga POE
neprimetno njihati. Udaljie se od obale.
(24) Il retira le bras dont il serrait sa taille, et, EN SE TOURNANT tous deux, ils se
trouvrent face face, si prs qu'ils sentirent leurs haleines sur leurs
visages; et ils se regardrent. [...].
On odmae ruku kojom joj je stezao stas, a kad SE oboje OKRENUE,
naoe se jedno prema drugom tako blizu da osetie kako jedno drugom
diu u lice, te se pogledae. [...].
102
Ovde neemo panju posvetiti aoristu koji je rezultat prevoda, ve onim francuskim glagolskim
oblicima koji su ga uslovili u prevodu zbog svojih vrednosti koji odgovaraju srpskom aoristu.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 173
koja sadri particip prezenta ispred koga stoji predlog EN. Ova forma gerundiva
u francuskom jeziku moe samo da oznai nain i simultanost. U ovom primeru
gerundiv oznaava simultanost, tj. ima vrednost francuskog '' pendant que''
(''dok''). Poto semantika veznika ''pendant que'' zahteva samo upotrebu
imperfekta kada je u pitanju izraavanje prolosti, u ovoj reenici, umesto aori-
sta mora da figurira francuski imperfekat. Meutim, u ovom sluaju upotrebljen
je narativni (tzv. pitoreskni) imperfekat koji dogaaj predstavlja globalno tj. kao
potpuno zavrenu celinu, a ne u toku odvijanja (to je svojstveno imperfektu), te
ima vrednost francuskog aorista, pa je zbog toga ovaj particip (tj. imperfekat)
dao u prevodu srpski aorist: Il retira le bras dont il serrait sa taille, et, EN SE
TOURNANT [se tournaient] tous deux, ils se trouvrent face face, [...].
Dakle, na osnovu prethodno navedenih primera iz korpusa i uraene
analize moemo ustanoviti da su prevodni ekvivalenti francuskog aorista u
srpskoj verziji aorist i perfekat.
3. Zakljuak
Literatura:
UDK: 811.163.4'373.21(497.16)
MIKROTOPONIMIJA BARJAMOVICE, MARKOVINE I VELESTOVA
Novica Vujovi
Univerzitet Crne Gore
Uvod
103
Saoptio informator Vasilije Miunovi (63 godine).
104
Vidjeti: Mitar Peikan, Starocrnogorski srednjokatunski i ljeanski govori, Srpski
dijalektoloki zbornik, knj. XV, Beograd, 1965. Drago upi i eljko upi, Renik govora
Zagaraa, Srpski dijalektoloki zbornik , knj. XLIV, Srpska akademija nauka i umetnosti i Institut
za srpski jezik, Beograd, 1997. Drago upi, Govor Bjelopavlia, Srpski dijalektoloki zbornik,
knj. XXIII, XI + 226 (sa kartom), Beograd, 1977. Danilo Vuovi, Dijalekti istone Hercegovine,
Srpski dijalektoloki zbornik, knj. 170+karta, Beograd, 1927.
105
Evidentirali smo oko est stotina pedeset naziva. Meutim, zbog prostorne ogranienosti ovdje
ne moemo dati kompletnu grau.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 177
Pusti lisac
Bijele
Poljane
Pjeivci
Ubli evski
Lastva evska
Cuce
Bjelopavlii
Oegovice
Gara
Bjelice Zagara
Velestovo
minnn B Komani
bb B B
Ljeanska nahija
B
Ojkonimi
106
Erdeljanovi daje objanjenje da je na ovim prostorima lino ime Tekla uvijek izgovarano ekla,
dakle postojao je samo ovaj drugi oblik, koji je danas nepravedno potisnut u korist oblika Tekla.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 179
Hidronimi
107
U navoenju primjera iz ispitivanih sela koristili smo skraenice V za Velestovo, M za
Markovinu i B za Barjamovicu.
180 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
Oronimi
Fitotoponimi
Zoonimi u toponimima
108
Potrebama ovoga poglavlja prilagoen je dio sheme koju je ponudio Ljubisav iri radei
onomastiku analizu belopalanakog kraja.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 183
Zakljuak
Literatura:
upi, Drago. Uzlazni akcenti u starijim govorima Crne Gore. Prvi lingvistiki
nauni skup u spomen na Radosava Bokovia. Titograd: Crnogorska
akademija nauka i umjetnosti, 1988. 233237.
iri, Ljubisav. Onomastika belopalanakog kraja. Poseban otisak iz
Onomatolokih priloga XIII. Beograd, 1997.
Enciklopedija Jugoslavije 2, Bosna-Dio. Zagreb: Leksikografski zavod FNRJ,
1956.
Erdeljanovi, Jovan. Stara Crna Gora. Etnika prolost i formiranje crnogorskih
plemena. Beograd : Slovo ljubve, 1978.
Gluica-Bigovi, Rajka. Jezik Marka Miljanova. Podgorica: Kulturno-prosvjetna
zajednica Podgorice, 1997.
Gluica, Rajka. Simbolika toponima u Lelejskoj gori. Zbornik radova br. 85. OU
knj. 27. Podgorica: Crnogorska akademija nauka i umjetnosti, 2008.
Krivokapi, Dr Bajo. Katunski kr. Cetinje : Obod, 1975.
Peco, Asim. Mikrotoponimija Podveleja. Sarajevo: Akademija nauka i umjetno-
sti BiH, 1990.
Peco, Asim. Toponimi i akcenatska norma. Osma jugoslovenska onomastika
konferencija i drugi lingvistiki skup Bokovievi dani. Podgorica: Crno-
gorska akademija nauka i umjetnosti, 1994. 3341.
186 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
UDK: 821.133.1.09
WHAT MAKES PIERRE FRHAS FRENCH SAHIB A NOVEL OF
GLOBALIZATION?: REFLECTIONS OF A TRANSLATOR
Shonu Nangia
Louisiana State University at Alexandria, USA
Abstract: I recently completed a translation project which involved the crafting of the
English version of Pierre Frhas French novel, Sahib, published in 2006. The English
translation of Frhas book was published, in 2011, under the more expanded appellation
of French Sahib. While this novel -- written by a Frenchman, set in India, and revolving
around a French protagonist -- is a text that brings India closer to France, and France
closer to India in surprising ways that are both comical and profound, it is also a work
that defies characterization into a specific type and evades affiliation with a specific
culture or literary tradition. The work especially reveals elements and influences that
situate it as a product of the global age. Not only does the novel depict characters,
situations, events, places, attitudes and values that can only come together, textually or
otherwise, in an era of globalization, the novel is in itself an instance of globalization at
work. The fictional universe that it depicts, the unchartered territory of its storyline, and
the strands that make up its thematic and stylistic fabric make it so. I see this novel as
first and foremost a novel of globalization. Based on my musings and reflections as the
translator of this piece of contemporary French fiction, I discuss Sahib/French Sahib and
what makes this novel a novel of globalization. I focus my attention on aspects that
reveal why this novel is first and foremost a novel of globalization, as opposed to simply
being a French novel about India.
Key Words: Sahib, French Sahib, Novel, French Literature, India, Globalization,
Translation, Literary Translation, Pierre Frha.
The recenly completed project that I allude to involved the crafting of the
English version of French author Pierre Frhas recent novel, Sahib. The English
translation of this book will appear under the more expanded appellation of
French Sahib. While this novel written by a Frenchman, set in India, and
revolving around a French protagonist is a text that brings India closer to France,
and France closer to India in surprising ways that are both comical and profound
as critic Shanti Desjardins has pointed out, it is also a work that defies being
straitjacketed into a specific category and evades affiliation with any specific
national culture or country, a trait which signals its universal relevance. The work
especially exhibits elements and influences that situate it as a product of the
global age. Not only does the novel depict characters, situations, events, places,
attitudes and values that can only come together, textually or otherwise, in an era
of globalization, the novel is in itself an instance of globalization at work. The
fictional universe that it depicts, the unchartered territory of its storyline, and the
strands that make up its thematic and stylistic fabric make it so. I see this novel as
first and foremost a novel of globalization.
As the term novel of globalization in the title of this article suggests,
what Im more interested in then is not the question if this novel is a novel
about globalization although it could be that too but rather how this text
stems from globalization and the manner its content and style mirror the reality
of contemporary globalization. Thus, as I discuss Sahib/French Sahib, my focus
is, in particular, the features and elements that mark the work as a product of
the global age and the reasons why this novel is first and foremost a novel of
globalization, as opposed to merely being a French novel about India, or a novel
about globalization.
Sahib is basically a humorous love story with a complex plot that takes
place mostly in India. While the novel foregrounds an unconventional but
entertaining story of love and marriage, it has, one finds, very little in common
with stories of love and marriage associated with India, as seen in typical
Bollywood films, or as seen even in international films such as the The Mistress
of Spices or Bride and Prejudice, for example. So what is the story about? Here is
a synopsis: We are in Chennai (formerly known as Madras), just a few weeks
before the great tsunami of 2004. Young Dipu wants to marry Philippe. Dipu is
Indian, Philippe is French. The issue of nationality, however, is not their biggest
problem. What about, to begin with, the principle of such a marriage itself?
Complicating the issue is an intrigue relating to Dipus alleged activities as a
computer hacker which brings the plot of the story to a level involving US,
French and Indian authorities. When Philippe, or the Sahib, arrives in Chennai,
there is just enough time for him to realize that Mrs. Rao, Dipus mother, has no
intention of accepting him as her son-in-law, even though he comes from a very
rich and influential Parisian family and even though his father is a famous
politician engaged in issues such as gay marriage. The domineering Mrs. Rao is
Folia linguistica et litteraria 191
unable to even bear to think that her son might be seeing in the older
Frenchman someone more than just a friend, as his Krishna!109 Little by little
though, as the story develops, the question is whether she will learn to cope
with the truth, and whether she will like Philippe or not. And she does not!
French Sahib, although a very masala novel to use a colloquial Bollywood term
avoids the traps of typical stereotypes, Indian or Western, even as it depicts a
very dramatic Indian approach to the issue faced by the Rao family. What
makes the novel remarkable is also the fact that Frha born in Algeria to
French parents, and more European and French in his upbringing than he can
claim to be Indian gives the impression that he is obsessed with coming to
terms with Indian reality and the Indian soul. One may laugh, cry and ponder
reading Sahib. The book is an extraordinary representation of what
confrontation between an Indian and a European frame of mind might be like.
We are treated to two points of views: how life is lived in Chennai where the
story unfolds, and how life is lived in France from where Philippe Sahib hails.
Sahib then is much more than a simple story of coming out, it is also the
confrontation between post-independence but nevertheless traditional Indian
values and modern Western values. Interestingly, Pierre Frha claims I have
not written a book on India, as if he were not interested in according the issue
much importance. I just told a story that is set in India (Desjardins). While the
issue of coming out, in modern India, and gay marriage comprise the main
theme of Frha's novel, the book more importantly also raises questions about
general rights to personal freedom. In particular, it raises a fundamental
question: Is it possible to be free without offending those whom we love?
As mentioned earlier, Pierre Frhas French Sahib is from my
perspective, first and foremost a novel of globalization. The fictional universe
that it depicts, the unchartered territory of its storyline, and the strands that
make up the thematic fabric of this text make it so. It depicts characters,
situations, events, places, attitudes and values that can only come together,
textually or otherwise, in an era of globalization. The novel is an instance of
globalization at work. This is what I wish to discuss now.
First, set in India with a French protagonist, and written by a Frenchman,
French Sahib brings about a new kind of rapprochement between India and
France. The amusing tale of an unconventional friendship between two men,
one French one Indian, one older and one younger French Sahib is much more
than a funny gay story which in itself is something that till very recently would
have been taboo in the Indian context. French Sahib is however much more than
a funny gay story; it is many texts in one. Readers will simultaneously read it as a
109
The family tree in Appendix I indicates the network of relationships in Sahib/French Sahib. The
diagram, missing in the original French text, was specially designed for the English version and
renders the relationship between Philippe and Dipu more explicit.
192 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
have been warned that the story could take place anywhere in the world. What
makes the characters captivating is the way they choose to deal with the family
issues with which they are all confronted. Overall, these situations are
extremely funny. Readers will frequently smile, and even burst out laughing.
Some situations are simply irresistible because of Satish, the buffoon servant
who enlightens us thanks to his strange words and ideas, his incomprehension
and insatiable curiosity. Essential to the novel is the fascinating character of
Dipu's mother, Mrs Rao. She is undoubtedly the most powerful character in the
novel. But many things about her are uncertain too, and the novel, at another
level, is a panoramic portrayal of this ambivalent personage at a special moment
in her life. She is dealing with crisis, living in a time when traditional family
values are, little by little, getting undermined. It is not easy for this Indian
mother to accept that her son has decided to live a life of his own. And that he
has declared a silent war against the ones he loves the most.
Sahib/French Sahib is also a novel of the global age for another reason.
It gives us, in the West, an image of the new India of modernity which is in
transition but also gives us an image of the India of the Aquarian Age, that is,
without abstracting its ancient spirituality. The novel has a spiritual subtext
which offers another rich but hidden layer of meaning. We see this layer of India
through western eyes, but from within. We see Amma, the famous living saint
from Kerala, the hugging mother, as a character in the novel, as well as droves
of spiritual seekers from the West who have arrived not to conquer India, but
themselves. Several episodes are built around ashrams, ayurveda, and
synchronicity.110 The novel dismantles certain boundaries, by assigning to India a
new role with regard to the Western subject, deconstructing the traditional
opposition between the East and West. In this novel, the new and still chaotic
India still the Other for the European is no longer the object of an Orientalist
gaze, but instead a site of quest and discovery, a means for coming to terms
with life and with existence. A place for recasting relations and oneself. It
transports us to an India of paradoxes that is not an object to be known or
understood but a transforming experience of diffrance to be lived and
traversed. This humorously recounted tale is then, at another level, also about
breaking down boundaries. Boundaries between cultures, boundaries between
individuals, but most importantly those conceptual ones that restrict freedom
and separate us from others and from our deeper selves and keep us from being
who we are.
This novel is a novel of globalization for yet another reason. Not only is
it a product of globalization, and not only does it depict events and phenomena
110
Susan Gilberts bestseller novel and its 2010 film adaptation starring Julia Roberts, Eat, Pray,
Love: One Woman's Search for Everything Across Italy, India and Indonesia depict this Indian
setting in particular.
194 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
111
While the French version did not have chapter headings, Appendix II shows the table of
contents page added to the English translation. The chapter titles foretell the color and drama in
the story, the many twists in the plot, and the brisk movement of the narrative.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 195
the literal meaning. There again, I conferred with the author to make sure we
were on the same page.
The various Indian characters in the original French version titled Sahib all
spoke in French, just like regular French people. Understandably so. The novel
was in French! Readers of the English version, titled French Sahib, will however
notice that these characters speak English the way urban Indians do. For example,
Mrs. Raos children all call her Mummy and not Mom or Mama. I have
attempted to be as authentic as possible with linguistic representation. These
characters speak, or use, English the way Indians of their background and age do
today in the real world. It is for this reason that Bira, Mrs. Raos computer-savvy
teenage daughter, exhibits a certain American influence.
Ultimately, as an academic, it is my ardent belief that the story Pierre
Frha tells will enthrall not just the reader reading for pleasure but also serious
scholars of travel literature, cultural studies, globalization, and global
interculturalism. For me, it was very exciting to be involved in the translation of
a work that I see as a trailblazing piece of modern global writing in so many
ways. No translation is, in a sense, ever final, just as no reading ever is. I do
however hope that readers will find French Sahib to be smooth reading and will
appreciate the book not just for its entertainment value and thought-provoking
content but also for its clarity and language.
References:
Bride and Prejudice. Dir. Gurinder Chadha. Perf. Aishwarya Rai, Martin
Henderson. Miramax, 2004.
Clment, Catherine. Pour lamour de lInde. Paris: Flammarion, 1993.
Desjardins, Shanti. Sahib, de Pierre Frha. 30 Oct.2006. Couleur Indienne: Une
Passerelle entre lInde et la France. 7 Nov. 2009 <http://www.couleur-
indienne.net/Sahib,-de-Pierre-FREHA_a191.html>.
Eat, Pray, Love: Screenplay by Elizabeth Gilbert. Dir. Ryan Murphy. Perf. Julia
Roberts, Javier Bardem. Columbia Pictures, 2010.
Frha, Pierre. Sahib. Paris: Harmattan, 2006.
Gilbert, Elizabeth. Eat, Pray, Love: One Woman's Search for Everything Across
Italy, India and Indonesia. New York: Viking, 2006.
Lapierre, Dominique. La Cit de la joie. Paris: Robert Laffont, 1985.
Mehta, Binita. Widows, Pariahs, and Bayadres: India as Spectacle. Lewisburg:
Bucknell UP, 2002.
Mistress of Spices. Screenplay by Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni. Dir. Paul Mayeda
Berges. Perf. Aishwarya Rai, Dylan McDermott. DVD. Rainbow Film, 2005.
196 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
APENDIX I
Family Trees
Radhika Rao (53) + Sushil (deceased)
__________________________________________
Ammu (28) + Suneet (32) Abhi (31) Pradeep (30) Brinda (19)
___________
Santz (2)
+ = marriage
* = affair
= civil union
198 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
APENDIX II
French Sahib: Table of Contents
UDK: 272:316.356.2(415)
(DIS)OBEYING THE INEXORABLE CENSOR: CATHOLICISM IN
THE FICTION OF K ATE OBRIEN AND EDNA OBRIEN
Abstract: This article examines the ways in which two Irish authors, Kate OBrien and
Edna OBrien, articulate and subvert the repressive Catholic dogma which heavily
impacted on the shaping of Irish woman's identity throughout most of the twentieth
century. The chosen novels, The Ante-Room (1934) and Mary Lavelle (1936) by Kate
O'Brien, and The Country Girls Trilogy (1960, 1962, 1964) by Edna O'Brien are read in
the same cultural and ideological context, and are considered to graphically enact what
the philosopher Louis Althusser terms as the ideological state apparatuses at work. The
heroines of both authors are constantly interpellated as individuals subjected to the
controlling force of religion and thus deeply and often painfully steeped in the ideology
and doctrine of the Irish Catholic Church.
112
The two authors are not related.
200 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
forever change the face of Irish womens literary scene in the second half of the
last century.
However, as my readings of their selected novels will attempt to
demonstrate, it is possible to consider the fiction of these two writers in the
same ideological and cultural context. These novels very vividly represent the
huge impact of what the philosopher Louis Althusser terms ideological state
apparatuses on Irish women for most of the twentieth century. In his famous
1969 essay, Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, Althusser examines
the function and influence of social forces such as religion, school, family, the
political system, and censorship, to name a few, which subtly but continually
control the everyday lives of each individual. He points out the religious,
educational and family apparatuses as the major enforces of ideology. Observed
in the light of his thesis, the Irish were deeply steeped in, that is, subjected to
the ideology of the Irish Catholic Church for most of the twentieth century.
Unsurprisingly, as Catholicism in Ireland had enormous impact on virtually every
aspect of life, it completely permeated not only education and family, but also
the political and cultural state apparatuses. In other words, religious ideology
consistently hailed or interpellated the Irish as subjects, and the chosen
novels enact graphically the social force of religion at work.
That is why the complexities which Kate OBriens heroines and
Caithleen Brady, one of Edna OBriens protagonists, come across when facing
many restrictions imposed on them are not as different as they seem at first
sight. Whereas The Ante Room is set in the milieu of the late nineteenth-century
middle-class Irish bourgeoisie, and the plot of Mary Lavelle in Spain in 1922, the
Trilogy conveys a coming of age story of the two girls in contemporary Ireland,
in the fifties and early sixties. This paper argues that Edna OBriens Caithleen
has much more in common with Kate OBriens more or less compliant heroines
than with her subversive and astringent friend Baba. The confines and
oppression of a small, patriarchal and Catholic society determine her behaviour
and her destiny almost as much as they do in the world of Kate OBriens
heroines. Notwithstanding the period in which each of the novels is set, what
the three women (Agnes in The Ante-Room, Mary in Mary Lavelle and Caithleen
in The Trilogy) have in common is the fact that they are very deeply steeped
particularly in religious ideology. The profound and sincere devotion to the
Catholic religion and the awareness of the dire consequences they will have to
suffer if they disobey the doctrine, holds them in check and dominate every
single aspect of their lives. They are all individuals who live in ideology, as
Althusser would have it (113). They recognize too well, as the poet Eithne
Strong says, Voices of Authority which keep warning the mortal soul of many
dangers: Deny flesh: Mortify. Abnegate (34).
Compared to our other two heroines, Agnes Mulqueen in The Ante-
Room remains the staunchest Catholic character and, possibly the most
Folia linguistica et litteraria 201
miserable of heroines in Kate OBriens fiction, as she sternly denies herself even
the slightest prospect of emotional fulfilment with the man she loves. At the
opening of the novel, the tolling of the bells113 announces the gloomy
atmosphere, and also symbolically represents the crucial impact coming from
the outside world, that of the Catholic Church which runs through the novel
strongly and continuously. This is one of the rare aspects of the outside world
sensed within the house and within the otherwise enclosed space of the family
permeated with the odour of illness and approaching death. We soon find out
that apart from tending her mother who is on the death-bed dying of cancer,
Agness true agony revolves around the forbidden love for Vincent, her sisters
husband. The news that her sister, Marie Rose, and her husband, are coming to
the Roseholm household triggers a succession of interior conflicts and feverish
introspection. Agnes examines her conscience with remarkable meticulousness,
showing that she is too well aware of the moral dilemma that weighs heavily on
her, but also displaying the extent to which she is subjected to the controlling
force of Catholicism: For three months ... she has not received communion. ...
At Mass and in her prayers Agnes sought to face her moral problem (The Ante-
Room 33).
Agnes constantly measures out her life with mass goings, regular weekly
confessions and the number of Communions received which give her a much
needed sense of moral purity and sinlessness, but also spiritual comfort. She
lives in such a constrained religion-dominated world that it is no wonder that
she is so harsh on herself. Rigorously participating in, as Althusser would have it,
certain regular practices which are those of the ideological apparatus (113),
she lives in the religious ideology on a day-to-day basis. These practices,
Althusser explains, are governed by the rituals in which these practices are
inscribed, within the material existence of an ideological apparatus, be it only a
small part of that apparatus; a small mass in a small church, a funeral ... (114).
It is obvious early on in the novel that these rituals are an extremely important
part of Agness daily existence. If she happens to miss any of these, she well
knows that in her unforgiving world it would imply only one thing: that she has
recklessly neglected perhaps the major aspects of her identity being a good
and obedient Catholic.
Hopeful that she would finally dispense with her illicit reveries, she goes
to church to confess to be finally loosed from sin (The Ante-Room 85-86).
Louise Fuller states how hugely important confession was to the Irish:
113
The novels atmosphere owes much to the time of year in which Kate OBrien sets the plot. It
takes place at the end of October, over the three Catholic feast days concerned with dead: the Eve
of All Saints, the Feast of All Saints and the Feast of All Souls. The book is also divided into three
parts, each signifying one day. In the Afterword to the 1988 edition, Deirdre Madden suggests
that the structure of The Ante-Room constantly reminds the reader that this is a novel focused on
death (307).
202 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
Agness urge to have a confession captures well this importance. However, were
she a woman whose faith is not so profoundly and sincerely lived, she would be
perhaps able to deceive herself into believing that this simple and short religious
act could obliterate a months long emotional suffering. As Eamon Maher
notices, Agnes belongs to the line of Kate OBriens women who have an
intellectual appreciation of the theology to which they plead their allegiance
(Irish Catholicism 98). Agnes soon realizes, however, that confession provides
only a temporary relief, and that all she is left to do is gather all her strength on
her own and exorcise her forbidden love for her brother-in-law once and for all.
Unlike our two other heroines, as we shall see, Agnes never flinches
either from her faith or family duty. Not even when faced with Vincents
outpouring of love for her near the end of the novel, does Agnes come close to
overstepping the line of socially and morally acceptable behaviour of her time.
Therefore, I do not completely agree with Anthony Roche when he claims that,
as an Irish woman, she is driven both to draw and subvert on the powerful
tradition of Irish Catholicism, the only language in which she has been schooled
(97-98). When offered an alternative life they could have if they ran away
together, Agnes realizes that some inexorable censor in her knew that it would
never happen and almost feels like cheating on him (The Ante-Room 258-259).
This inexorable censor is the nagging and deeply ingrained awareness that it is
impossible for a woman to ever get out of the enclosed world of religion and
strong family ties. It controls her life to such an extent that, although constantly
carried away by invigorating fantasies, she keeps depriving herself of a life she
envisages in secret. Given Agness striking resolution and morality, I agree, on
the other hand, with Lorna Reynolds who argues that in this novel, Catholicism
is not presented as a characteristic of the class and race of the girl. She goes on
to say that for Agnes Catholic teaching is not just given mouth-service, merely
acknowledged, but is understood and accepted as an inescapable part of life
(56). It is quite significant that her identity of a good Catholic and a loyal sister is
so deeply implanted in her that Agnes does not experience her sacrifice as a
burden.
Despite the fact that the eponymous character of Mary Lavelle is
considerably bolder and that she actually subverts the tenets of Irish
Catholicism, she eventually responds to the repressiveness of religious ideology
in much the same way as Agnes. It has to be said, however, that she is a heroine
of a novel which does not explicitly confront the wretched misery the Church
can inflict on its faithful but rebellious members, as Michelle Roberts correctly
Folia linguistica et litteraria 203
observes (xi). Although Catholic moral doctrine lurks here beneath every action
and decision Mary makes and beneath the consequences she has to suffer, the
repressive force of religion and its influence on the lives of the characters do not
occupy the foreground of the novel. It is quite evident from the outset that here
we are dealing with a somewhat different heroine, one who is not fully at peace
with the role of a dutiful daughter and an obedient future wife and mother. She
is, just like just like Agnes, born and raised in Mellick,114 but has a genuine need
to step out of the stalemate world of the small town bourgeoisie, if only for a
brief period of time. As opposed to Agnes, Mary herself dares to defy social
forces by spending a year as a governess in a rich family in Spain.
However, it is not until she meets Juan Averaga, interestingly placed
only in the second half of the book, that Mary starts to forcefully question her
Catholic background. Their forbidden love awakens Mary to even deeper
interrogation of the whole ideological system of truths she has lived by so far in
Ireland. Our heroine falls in love with a married man in Spain, and suddenly
realizes that the strict order and supervisory eye of her traditionalist home
country are exactly what she needs to prevent her from falling deeper into what
she sees as a moral abyss: In Mellick there were blessed mists and rain, and the
old rules were absolute. ... Ah God, to be back there, back in her own quiet
heart, in coldness and tenderness (Mary Lavelle 208). Although away from
home and seemingly free from the suffocating concerns of life in a small rural
community, Mary is, in Athusserian terms, naggingly interpellated by the
controlling forces of state, religion and family. Once she has freedom to decide
on her own what course her life would and might take, she is quite expectedly
at a loss as to know how to behave. Just like Agnes, who tries hard to exorcise
forbidden emotions for her brother-in-law with the only means available to her -
confession and prayer, so is Mary compelled to pray in order to salvage her up
to that moment enclosed and sheltered world of Catholic prohibitions and her
alleged love for her fianc: God, help me! Oh, help me, please. Teach me how
to pray. Teach me how to love John as I should (Mary Lavelle 161).
Nevertheless, praying and desperately calling upon the old rules,
characteristic of the conservative young state, does not help her stay compliant
with Catholic teaching. The omniscient narrator calls her conduct foolish very
often throughout the novel, as if wanting to stress not only the oddness and
nonconformity to the Catholic authority and any of the social conventions, for
that matter, but also the fact that well-behaved Irish girls do not behave like
this. Her Irish identity strongly defined by the power and influence of strict
authorities is not something she can easily ignore. She remembers how she
114
Although the story of Mary Lavelle is entirely set in Spain, its Irish characters are, just like those
in The Ante-Room, inhabitants of Mellick, a fictional town which largely corresponds to OBriens
native Limerick.
204 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
learnt by hearsay from confessors, from school retreats, from missions, from
the exhortations of the catechism that she was a sinner, a weak thing of the
flesh (Mary Lavelle 157). However, the lure of the forbidden, of the carnal
pleasure she is yet to taste for the first time eventually turns out much more
powerful. Although unable to shut down completely that inexorable censor
which prevents Agnes from acting out and eventually helps her remain a good
Catholic, Mary lets herself go and gets involved in an illicit love affair.
Terry Eagleton lucidly points out that for Kate OBrien, especially in this
novel, sexual love is a kind of delicious insanity, a wayward, unmanageable,
implacable force which disrupts all settlement and involves an ecstatic casting
loose of ones moorings. It is the enemy of communal spirit and social
responsibility (241). Marys conscious decision to give in to sin thus seems to
be as far from social responsibility and the submissiveness to the religious
ideology as can be. The moment the two make love quite simply implies the
transgression of any kind of subjection, and it is interesting that it is Mary who
initiates the intercourse (a detail which must have particularly stuck in the
censors craw): She put her arms round him and pulled his head down for her
kiss (265), But I want you to have me first just for this one time (Mary
Lavelle 266). We thus witness Marys intense emotional coming-of-age as she is
able to examine her loose behaviour and is ready to take the consequences in
an astonishingly down-to-earth and mature manner. This is certainly another
characteristic that brings her close to Agnes in The Ante-Room. Well aware of
the oppressive nature of their Catholic background which neither Mary nor
Juanito is able to escape from (Were Catholics, Mary Lavelle 221)), the
(im)possibility of divorce remains for our heroine nothing but an abstract notion
of fleeing their plight. However, for a girl who was some time ago just a typical,
inexperienced Irish virgin, afraid to even think or talk about, let alone indulge in
sexual desire and adultery, discussing such a taboo matter is another act of
boldness and even subversion. In eventually choosing neither to become the
mistress of the man she is passionately in love with nor to marry her fianc, she
demonstrates both great intelligence and courage. Lorna Reynolds comments
that Kate OBrien makes no moral issue of the behaviour of her heroine.
Nevertheless, behind lies a question: Is it better for Mary Lavelle to learn the
real nature of love, even though she sins against her Catholic training in doing
so, than to sleep-walk amiably into marriage, agreed to but not desired by her?
(102). An intelligent young woman, Mary is well aware that in the stifling world
of the narrow-minded Irish society she will never be forgiven for this
transgression, and goes into self-imposed exile: She was going home with a
lame and hopeless story And afterwards she would take her godmothers
hundred pounds and go away (Mary Lavelle 300).
If we turn to Edna OBriens Caithleen in The Trilogy, we can instantly
notice that what she lacks is the emotional maturity and decisiveness that both
Folia linguistica et litteraria 205
Kate OBriens heroines possess. Mary consciously decides to come clean to her
fianc about the committed sin, and then face an unforeseeable future on her
own. For the sake of her faith and her family, Agnes remains forever subjected
to the repressive social forces and renounces love knowing that she would
never again experience such intense and profound feelings. Caithleen is a
character who could at first sight easily find a place in the world of Kate
OBriens fiction. Her vision of ideal life finish convent school, find a man, get
married and live happily-ever-after as wife and mother fits quite well into the
image promoted by the fledgling Irish state and at the same time denounced by
Kate OBriens novels. However, in her desperate search for love she cannot
help constantly breaking moral laws. Caithleens conduct is quite unacceptable
for the still very conservative Ireland of the fifties and early sixties, let alone for
the time of Kate OBrien.
Caithleen, however, experiences Catholicism in much the same way as
Mary and Agnes and eagerly participates in regular practices, prayers and
confessions, which make an inescapable part of her life. Nevertheless, her
inexorable censor is not as nearly as effective and strict as in Kate OBriens
women. At the outset of the Country Girls, upon getting up, the teenage
Cathleen performs what seems to be her usual morning ritual contentedly
speaking to the picture of the Virgin Mary. Saying out loud that she loves Hickey,
a workman on the farm where she lives with her parents, she addresses the
picture of the Virgin and demonstrates in all her naivety how seriously she takes
the power of prayer: I said so aloud to the Blessed Virgin, who was looking at
me icily from a gilt frame. [...] She said nothing. It surprised me that she didnt
talk more often. Once, she has spoken to me, and what she said was very
private (The Trilogy 4). It is no wonder that Caithleen maintains such an
intimate relationship, as it were, with the Virgin Mary, the supreme Catholic
symbol of purity. Louise Fuller states that in the Ireland of the fifties, when the
plot of The Country Girls takes place, the symbolic forms of Catholicism were
everywhere to be seen, in the home as well as in the public the holy pictures,
particularly the picture of the Sacred Heart with the eternal lamp, the papal
marriage blessing, the crucifix, the statues of the Blessed Virgin, the Infant of
Prague, St Joseph and various other saints (10).
From her early childhood Caithleen is on a symbolical level also heavily
steeped in the ideology and worldview, which would continue to determine
her life all through to her death. Caithleens feeling that the picture of the Virgin
Mary remains callous and insensitive to her prayers, announces early on in the
novel that her often childlike and naive reliance on the Catholic faith will prove
futile and wasted for much of her life. Her tragic death by drowning symbolically
demonstrates that of all three heroines under discussion here, she is the least
able to cope with the unattainable ideal of femininity promulgated by the
Catholic Church. As much as this extremely pious and meek girl tries to adhere
206 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
What will we do, Cait? Baba asked as she lay full length on the single bed.
I dont know. Will we go to confession? It was what we usually did on
Saturday evenings.
Confession. Christ, dont be such a drip, well go downtown. Oh, God,
isnt it heaven? (The Trilogy 128-129).
115
From the vantage point of the twenty-first century the ever growing hysteria over paedophilia,
I cannot help thinking of this romance (which remains strangely unconsummated!) in terms of a
relationship between a potential paedophile and his young victim. It is also somewhat surprising
that no critic so far has addressed this contentious issue in The Trilogy. When they start seeing
each other, Caithleen is a minor, only fourteen, and his age remains unidentified. From the way
OBrien portrays him, he is at least three times her age (he was such a distinguished man with
grey hair (12)). However, according to Shirley Peterson, this odd relationship does not necessarily
bear negative connotations and is in effect contrasted to the much darker one with Eugene
Folia linguistica et litteraria 207
and things (The Trilogy 167) dismissing them, just like Baba, as time-wasting
activities. All of the sudden, Catholic identity is for Caithleen no longer as
important as it used to be. As Rudiger Imhof notices, what is increasingly at work
especially in the first two novels of the Trilogy is a subtle transference from
religion to love [...] Love is felt as a new devotion, a new religion, as a quest for
paradise on earth (72). He suggests that Edna OBrien consistently uses the
religious metaphor, as Caithleen perceives men in her life very much through
the lens of religion.116 She thus refers to Mr Gentlemen as my new God, with a
face carved out of marble (The Trilogy 57). The first time she meets Eugene
Gaillard, her future husband, his face reminds her of a saints face carved out of
gray stone which I saw in the church every Sunday (The Trilogy 185). However, in
Caithleens case, just like in Kate OBriens novels, love can never fully substitute
religion. The more pronounced her neglect of Catholic practices and her
disobedience of the Catholic Church, the guiltier she feels about it and the sense
that she is once again interpellated as the subject gets more intense. A desperate
need to be loved and an equally strong need to be subjected to Catholicism prove
to be mutually exclusive. When in a new troubled relationship, that with Eugene,
she is aware that breaking away from religion brings her nothing but misery: I
could feel the goodness going out of me, as I had not been to Mass for five
weeks (The Trilogy 327). The sharp contrast between the two disparate aspects
of her life love for Eugene and living in sin with him, and her Catholic devoutness
clearly signifies that her need for this subjection is not only symbolical but
genuine and sincere. When Eugene, who is a non-Catholic, mocks sarcastically at
her need to seek consolation in Sunday Mass, he seems to pinpoint the essence of
her increasing anguish: So, when youre in there, you become a convent girl
again. [] I dont know how you can do it, [...] How can you live two lives? In
there [...] youre deep in it with crucifixions and hell and bloody thorns. And here
am I sitting on a wall (The Trilogy 328-329).
Living in sin (with a divorced man, to make things worse) only underlines
Caithleens constant torment as for this young Irish woman anything connected to
sex is quite unsurprisingly the unmentionable subject. The bashful Caitheen has,
for example, an idea that couples had to be married for a long time before a
Gaillard. Peterson suggest that if Mr Gentleman is Kates childish fantasy of the Goody Father,
then Eugene Gaillard is the dark underside of this desire (158).
116
For similar observations, see Byron (463-4). However, neither Imhof nor Byron notices the way
Caithleen connects other seemingly mundane experiences in her life with her devoutness. For
instance, when she tries on a new bra in a fitting room of a shop, it is an act in her mind related to
a forbidden and deeply immoral act: Will you fit on the brassiere, Miss Brady? The shop-girl
asked. Pale, First Communion voice; pale, pure, rosary-bead hands held the flimsy, black, sinful
garment between her fingers, and her fingers were ashamed (142). Quite predictably, unable to
break free from the nagging sense of Catholic guilt and shame, Caithleen resorts to the religious
metaphor when depicting the girls voice and hands. In this way, they stand in sharp contrast to
the sinfulness of the bra she is going to wear.
208 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
woman got a baby (The Trilogy 169). This utter ignorance of the facts of life may
be taken to stand as a perfect paradigm for Irish womanhood for greater part of
the last century. Her fear of sexuality and having sex for the first time almost
recalls the naivety of Mary Lavelle (before coming to Spain!): I knew that I was
about to do something terrible. I believed in hell, in eternal torment by fire (The
Trilogy 228). However, Caithleen and Eugenes subsequent marriage, the only
approved context for the expression of sexuality, does not provide any sort of
bliss either, as Edna OBrien ironically puts in the title of the third book. The hasty
wedding ritual stresses the impossibility of the turbulent relationship ever turning
into a happily-ever-after marriage, but also deepens the rift between her two
identities, so to speak. Caithleen, a convent girl, and Caithleen, a grown up
woman who desperately tries to meet the demands of contemporary society are
juxtaposed, as they keep resisting each other all the time. A Catholic Church
wedding, another ritual inextricably linked with the subjection to the religious
authority, is for Caithleen the obvious choice, or, in other words, the only possible
option. However, as she is heavily pregnant and her husband-to-be a non-Catholic
they make an image of a highly undesirable Irish couple of the sixties, and can be
married only in the back of the church. As their marriage is considered a mixed
marriage, the act per se is scandalous in the eyes of the Catholic Church, although
they do not get married in Ireland but in England. The Catholic Church fostered
strict rules concerning such marriages until the late 1960s. Louise Fuller argues
that the wedding could not take place in any consecrated building, there could
be no religious vestments or rites, the priest must not bless the couple, and
finally the wedding was treated as a second-class affair (17).
The religious metaphor, however, gets even more pronounced as
Caithleen is at a loss to know how to cope with the fact that their relationship has
not lived up to the Catholic ideal of the indissoluble marriage union. In an attempt
to expiate her sinful behaviour a platonic affair with another man which sets off
their separation and later divorce the pious Caithleen resorts to constructing a
new martyr-like image for herself. When Eugene eventually rejects her as a
woman of loose morals and deprive her of the right to nurture their son, she
starts a solitary existence which conjures up this martyr-like conduct. Her new life
of a recluse in a cell, a shabby room in a lodging house, tends to function as an
act of atonement for all the alleged sins she has committed, but also for the
shame she wants to hide from the prying eyes of the others. It turns out that,
from the beginning until the very end her life within marriage it is heavily laden
with a sense of the Catholic guilt and shame. Caithleen fails to fit into the
appropriate image of what a good Catholic woman should behave like and
therefore must bear the consequences: In the mornings she cooked her
breakfast in the kitchen [...] saluting the dog or the landlady if she met either,
appeasing them both with a smile before vanishing into her cell once again (The
Trilogy 442). It is somewhat of a paradox that Caithleen who so desperately
Folia linguistica et litteraria 209
literature, the bad side of Irish womanhood should prevail over the often irksome
kindness of the good girl. In the last book, Girls in Their Married Bliss, it is Baba
who, fed up with Caithleens plaintiveness and servility, simply says: She was so
goddamn servile I could have killed her (The Trilogy 421).
It comes as no surprise then that Babas circumstances challenge the
ground tenets of Catholicism much more unashamedly and openly than Caithleens
more or less inadvertent misbehaviour. Whereas Caithleen, contrary to her life-long
beliefs and principles, manages to gain control over her body and her life at least for
a brief period of time, Baba is near the end of the Trilogy subjected to this same
control. She marries a nouveau riche builder then gets pregnant outside marriage
and finally, completely lacking maternal instincts, tries to induce an abortion in a
hot tub. When this act, probably one of the most infamous moments in the Trilogy,
proves unsuccessful, she is not only forced to tell her flabbergasted husband about
the unwanted pregnancy but is also compelled to undergo a series of highly
unpleasant medical examinations. Baba has to succumb to the control of male
gynaecologists over her body, now more vulnerable than ever:
I was thinking of women and all they have to put up with, not just
washing nappies or not being able to be high-court judges, but all this. All
this poking and probing and hurt. And not just when they go to doctors
but when they go to bed as brides with the men they love. Oh, God, who
does not exist, you hate women, otherwise youd have made them
different. And Jesus, who snubbed your mother, you hate them more.
(The Trilogy 473)
not heed the rules of moral behaviour fostered by the religious ideology. Far from
feeling that she is interpellated by the authority of the Church, she behaves in a
way that Alhusser would simply term wicked (113).
If the images of Agnes, Mary or Caithleen largely correspond to what
many Irish women of the twentieth century were really like limited by the
Church-state conception of womanhood, then Baba might be said to portray what
they would have liked to be but never dared to try. In creating Baba, Edna OBrien
recognizes the need for a totally different, bolder type of woman in the more
secular and global Ireland in the second half and towards the end of the twentieth
century. She might be just as well suggesting that Babas asperity and
subversiveness, although somewhat exaggerated at times, encapsulate the too
long awaited backlash of Irish womanhood to the exigencies of the weakening but
still rigid Catholic Church towards the end of the twentieth century. As Edna
OBrien OBrien herself states in her famous essay, heroines dont have to be
good anymore (Why Irish Heroines).
References:
UDK: 316.7
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Sam Shepard, True West in Plays 2, 32. [SAUL: Its really not a big issue, Austin. I
was simply amazed by your brothers story and / AUSTIN: Amazed? You lost a bet!
You gambled with my material! / SAUL: Thats really beside the point, Austin.]
.
118
, 40. [The pressures on, boy. This is it. You gotta come up with it now. You dont come up
with a winner on your first time out, they just cut your head off. They dont give you a second
chance ya know.]
119
, 27. [Each one separately thinks hat hes the only one thats afraid. And they keep
ridinlike that straight into the night. Not knowing. And the one whos chasin doesnt know where
the other one is taking him. And the one whos being chased doesnt know wheres he going.]
Folia linguistica et litteraria 217
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, 14. [I thought it was Art you were doin.]
121
, 25. [LEE: I could be just like you then, huh? Sittin around dreamin stuff up.
Gettin paid to dream. / AUSTIN: Its not all that easy.[...] / LEE: Whats the toughest
part? Deciding whether to jog or play tennis?]
218 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
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122
, 23-24. [You go down to the LA Police Department there and ask them what kinda
people kill each other the most [...] Family people. Brothers. Brothers-in-law. Cousins. Real
American-type people.]
Folia linguistica et litteraria 219
,
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[Philip Hoffman] . [John C. Reilly]
2000. .
124
, 49. [Theres nothin down here for me. There never was [...] Theres nothin real down
here, Lee! Least of all me! [...] Id cash it all in a second. Thats the truth.]
220 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
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all over the world. A play True West by an American playwright Sam Shepard
will be analyzed in the following paper as a critique of the society where proper
measure is money, and in which true values are only those that bring profit. The
play dwells on the question of commercialization of art and regression of the
American dream but also the demystification of falseness and artificiality of the
world unrelated to proper reality or any moral codes whatsoever.
UDK: 821.163.4.09-2
REKONSTRUKCJA MITU KRLA NIKOLI I PETROVICIA W
125
DRAMACIE HISTORYCZNYM RADMIY VOJVODI PRINCEZA
KSENIJA OD CRNE GORE
Katarzyna Sudnik
Uniwersytet Jagielloski, Krakw
Apstrakt: Literatura, jako wany element kultury i tradycji, bierze udzia w kreowaniu
tosamoci narodowej midzy innymi poprzez aktualizacj i reinterpretacj mitw
narodowych. Zgodnie z teori Jana Assmanna tradycja tworzona jest nieustannie w
kontrolowanym procesie selekcji i interpretacji faktw oraz postaci historycznych.
Znaczenie literatury w tym procesie znakomicie tumaczy zjawisko tosamoci
narracyjnej, ktra konstruowana jest w oparciu o kody kulturowe i teksty kultury. Sztuka
Radmiy Vojvodi Princeza Ksenija od Crne Gore jest przede wszystkim dramatem
historycznym, ktry, poprzez przywoanie jednego z najwaniejszych okresw w historii
Czarnogry i jego kluczowych postaci, dokonuje weryfikacji prawdy historycznej
rekonstruuje i reinterpretuje jeden z gwnych czarnogrskich mitw narodowych.
Historia emigracji rodziny krlewskiej Petroviciw-Njegoszw oraz powstawania
pierwszego wsplnego pastwa Sowian Poudniowych (Krlestwa Serbw, Chorwatw i
Sowecw) z perspektywy crki krla Nikoli I, ksiniczki Kseni, z historycznej
narracji zmienia si w sentymentaln spowied i opowie o samotnoci, izolacji i
wolnoci. Nard czarnogrski zostaje postawiony w centrum uwagi, a jego troski staj si
zmartwieniami wadcy. Przedstawienie krla Nikoli I w innym ni dotychczas wietle
jako ofiary spisku, wadcy kochajcego swj nard, zdeterminowanego i dcego do
niepodlegoci Czarnogry, a take jako kochajcego ojca i ma, staje si elementem
procesu aktualizacji i reinterpretacji kanonu kultury i tradycji czarnogrskiej.
Ksiniczka Ksenia, natomiast, z narratorki i obserwatorki staje si kluczow postaci
czarnogrskiej historii oraz czci mitu krla Nikoli I.
125
Radmila Vojvodi jest czarnogrsk dramatopisark, nalec do grona modszych twrcw
czarnogrskich. Jest take dziekanem Wydziau Dramaturgii Uniwersytetu w Podgoricy,
profesorem i wykadowc uniwersyteckim, czonkiem Duklaskiej Akademii Nauk i krytykiem
teatralnym. Vojvodi jest twrc nagradzanym i czsto zapraszanym na festiwale teatralne nie
tylko w regionie, ale w caej Europie. Pochodzi z Baru nad Adriatykiem, a jako twrca porusza
kwestie zwizane midzy innymi z mitami narodowymi, histori i kultur narodow
czarnogrsk tosamoci (za ktrej ognisko raczej naley uzna centrum kraju oraz dwa gwne
orodki miejskie Podgoric i Cetinje). Dramat Princeza Ksenija od Crne Gore (Ksiniczka Ksenia z
Czarnogry) powsta w 1993 r. i jest jednym z kilku utworw Radmiy Vojvodi powiconych
stricte problematyce czarnogrskiej. Dramat by ju wielokrotnie wystawiany na scenach teatrw
w krajach byej Jugosawii i od lat cieszy si niesabnc popularnoci. Innymi jej dramatami
poruszajcymi podobne kwestie, rwnie wysoko ocenianymi w Czarnogrze, s Montenegrini
(1998) i Montenegro blues (2003).
224 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
126
Autorem przytoczonych wnioskw jest Paul Ricoeur. Poruszana w niniejszym artykule
problematyka tosamoci narracyjnej i jej sposobw jej kreowania zostaa szczegowo omwiona
przez Ricoeura m.in. w jego ksikach Czas i opowie (Ricoeur 2006) oraz Pami, historia,
zapomnienie (Ricoeur 2007). Interpretacja teorii Paula Ricoeura przytoczona w niniejszym artykule
zostaa zaczerpnita z opracowania Katarzyny Rosner Narracja, tosamo i czas (Rosner 2006).
127
Odwoywanie si do honoru, dumy i odwagi jest istotne w tej sytuacji, gdy wspomniane cechy
Czarnogrcy traktuj jako swoje cechy narodowe. Ich brak jest odczytywany jako zdrada i
ponienie. Uznanie Nikoli I Petrovicia za zdrajc, ktry wanie jak tchrz ucieka przed walk,
Folia linguistica et litteraria 225
130
W spisie postaci dramatu, na wstpie utworu, ksiniczka Ksenia wymieniona zostaa
trzykrotnie jako dziewiciolatka, jako kobieta w wieku 36-40 lat oraz jako osiemdziesicioletnia
staruszka. Autorka kreuje w ten sposb trzy odrbne postaci, bdce w rzeczywistoci jedn
osob (Zob. Vojvodi).
Folia linguistica et litteraria 227
Vi kao Vlada nijeste rijeili sutinu pitanja odlaska u Crnu Goru, niti ste ma i
naznaili koji biste pravac odabrali. Dunost vi, ka dunost svakog kabineta,
to dobro znate, nalae da to rijeite kao nau unutranju stvar, bez obzira
oe li se danas-sjutra pasat na taj put. () A ja znam da za taj put ima nai-
na, r, i sad u ti ga kazat: ima da se za put obezbijedi ona jahta koja se
rauna kao svojina moga sina i prestolonaljenika Danila! Zahtijevam ovo
bez obzira na rrk i uprkos svakoj opasnosti! (Vojvodi)
Kralj Nikola: [Zove Bjeloa, unezvijeren je od bijesa.] Ilija! [Ilija utri u sobu.]
Budi pripravan, pa kad reem da moemo u taj as krnut za Crnu Goru!
Mo li, Ili? Ilija Bjelo: [Odgovara po vojniki...] Mogu, kako ne mogu,
uzvieni gospodaru! Kralj Nikola: E budi spreman, sokole. Poteci, pa tako
228 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
prenesi Vuku Vukotiu i perjanicima! Ili Bjelo: Ou, kako neu, moj
gospodaru! Kralj Nikola: Ako mora i glavom kroz zid, pa ija pretekne!
[Prilazi Kseniji.] Naduboga, Velika! Ilija! Naduboga! Pa u Crnogorcima
poeljet Novu devetnaestu godinu, i srean Boi, i Hristos se rodi, nasred
Cetinja. Princeza Ksenija: Naduboga i pravdu, tata! Pobjeda je Crne Gore!
(Vojvodi)
A zato sve ovo, tata? Zato to ele stvoriti od Crne Gore jedan ili dva okruga
srbijanska, kojima e oni [Srbi K.S.] gospodariti, a ne ravnopravnog brata.
Zato to znaju da je elja svakog Crnogorca da stupi u jedinstvo
jugoslovensko na ravnoj nozi sa Srbijom, a nikako drukije, i to bi da im se
dala sloboda odluke izglasali ovakvo ujedinjenje a ne koje poniava ast i
dostojanstvo Crne Gore. (Vojvodi)
131
Wielu historykw uwaa, e faktycznie nie chodzio o zbrojne powstanie, lecz zorganizowany
przez grup rojalistw popierajcych krla Nikol I i rzdy dynastii Petroviciw-Njegoszw (tzw.
Zelenai) bunt wobec decyzji Zgromadzenia Narodowego w Podgoricy o bezwarunkowym
zjednoczeniu z Serbi i wczeniu do tworzonego Krlestwa SCHS nie jako odrbnego narodu na
rwnych prawach, lecz jako jeden z okrgw pastwa serbskiego pod rzdami dynastii
Karadjordjevi oraz o zrzuceniu dynastii Petroviciw-Njegoszw z tronu czarnogrskiego i zakazie
powrotu caej rodziny byego krla Nikoli do kraju. (Por. Istorija Crne Gore. Od najstarijih vremena
do 2003 2006; Istorijski leksikon Crne Gore 2006; Jovanovi 2001; Pajovi 2005).
Folia linguistica et litteraria 229
Kseni trzy lata pniej (w pitym roku emigracji, jak autorka podaje w
didaskaliach):
Je vous remercie. Odiva kue Petrovia! Kako je to lijepo uti. Zvui naki...
Vouz voyez, moi je reflehis, comme ca, dans la solitude... Ovdje u tuinu
nemam priliku da govorim po naki, ali dumam, dumam po naki...
(Vojvodi)
132
O ksiniczce Kseni rzeczywicie mwio si, e czua si prawdziw Czarnogrk, ktra
powicia swoje ycie sprawom ojczyzny.
230 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
133
Mona si domyla, e zostao jej to wpojone przez rodzicw, ktrzy musieli by
reprezentantami tych samych wartoci. Porednio jest to kolejny element reinterpretacji mitu
krla Nikoli I i dynastii Petroviciw-Njegoszw.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 233
Ovako posmatrane drame vie ne mogu biti itane kao politike drame, ako
pod politikom podrazumijevamo vjetinu postizanja politikih ciljeva, ve ih
gledamo kao priu o zaviaju koji se neprestano konstruie i dekonstruie.
(Nelevi, cyt. za: A..)
Bibliografia:
UDK: 791.43
FILMSKE FIGURE U DOKUMENTARNOM FILMU DRIJELO IVKA
NIKOLIA134
Zoran Koprivica
Univerzitet Crne Gore
Kljune rijei: vizuelni plan, auditivni plan, tropi, figure izostavljanja, figure
ponavljanja, figure kontrasta, figure asocijacije, dijegetiki zvuk, nedijegetiki zvuk,
metafora, metonimija, sinegdoha, poreenje, emfaza, ironija, lajtmotiv, anadiploza,
elipsa, antiteza, hiperbola, simbol, alegorija, apostrofa, peristaza, etopeja, amfibolija.
134
U izuavanju ovog aspekta Nikolieve poetike od nemjerljive koristi nam je bila relevantna
studija Roja Kliftona (N.Roy Clifton) The Figure in Film (1983 by N.Roy Clifton)
238 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
135
Teko je u Nikolievom dokumentarnom opusu pronai film sa toliko metafora kao to je to
Marko Perov, snanim alegorijskim kazivanjem kao u Oglavu, ili, pak, film sa prepoznatljivim
simbolima jednog vremena, svojevrsni signum temporis, kakav je sluaj sa Biljegom. Pa ipak, u
drijelu kao Nikolievom prvom znaajnijem dokumentarnom filmu, sve te figure u cjelosti su
prisutne, ali i mnoge druge, i od njega se granaju dalje prema ostalim njegovim filmovima, jednako
igranim i dokumentarnim.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 239
drijelo
FIGURE U DRIJELU
I Vizuelni plan
1 Tropi
1.1 Metafora
1.2. Metonimija
1.3. Sinegdoha
1.4. Poreenje
1.5. Emfaza
1.5.1. Fokus
Polusruena crkva.
136
Rakord koji je poreenje, metafora ili anadiploza, ali ne i elipsa, jer nije logina.
242 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
1.5.6. Svjetlosna
1.5.7. Zvuna
1.6. Ironija
1.6.1. Ironija [paradoks]
2. Figure ponavljanja
2.1. Lajtmotiv
Udaranje tapovima.
Pogrebna povorka.
Smijeh djevojaka i ena.
ene u crnini.
2.2. Anadiploza
3. Figure izostavljanja
3.1. Elipsa
137
To je u ovom Nikolievom filmu najee prelazak sa ruke na ruku, sa tapa na tap, sa lica na lice.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 245
Izmeu dvije prie starca o drijelu i sinu Mrguda Mijova, svi kadrovi i
sekvence koji se niu mogu se u odnosu na priu koja se nastavlja tumaiti
kao parenteza.
246 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
4. Figure kontrasta
4.1. Antiteza
4.3. Hiperbola
5. Figure asocijacije
5.1. Simbol
7. Alegorija
II Zvuni plan
1.Dijegetiki zvuk
1.1. Metonimija
Pria starca o drijelu: Vidi ono drijelo tamo? E, iz ove jame e ivimo
drugog izlaza nema... /oiglednost/ .
Pria stare ene: ekam prosci da mi dou... /unutranje stanje/.
Pria djevojke u dugoj bijeloj haljini: Tu je zakopan manastir sa velikim
zvonima ... /metafizika refleksija/.
1.6. Peristaza
1.8. Etopeja
1.8.1. Subjektivni kadar
2. Nedijegetiki zvuk
2.1. Metonimija / Amfibolija
2.2. Metonimija/Apostrofa
138
Film drijelo traje 12 minuta i 22 sekunde (450 m). Detaljnom analitikim istraivanjem utvrdili
smo da je u njemu prisutno 180 figura, od ega 127 na vizuelnom planu ili 70,55% i 53 na zvunom
ili 29,45%. Na ukupnom nivou filma: tropi su zastupljeni sa 35,5% (metafora 4,5 %, metonimija
11%, sinegdoha 3%, poreenje 3,5%, emfaza 11,5%, ironija 2%), anadiploza 10%, lajtmotiv 2%,
elipsa 14%, antiteza 6,5%, hiperbola 1%, simbol 8%, alegorija 3,5%, apostrofa 4%, peristaza 13%,
etpopeja 1,5% i amfibolija 1%.
139
U pojedinim analizovanim segmentima teko je bilo odluiti se za konkretnu /aktivnu/ figuru,
budui da je dvije ili vie njih esto uestvovalo u formiranju odreenog znaenja. Po pravilu smo
odabirali onu za koju smo procijenili ne samo da je dominantna u izdvojenom narativnom iskazu,
ve da najpotpunije prenosi njegovo dijegetiko znaenje. Ostale, kao supsidiarne, ali ne i manje
bitne za konkretnu znaenjsku strukturu, isticali smo u uglastim zagradama.
140
Tropi se u stilistici odreuju kao rijei koje se uzimaju u prenesenom znaenju /od grke rijei
trop obrt, okret/. Postoje, takoe, definicije koje trope odreuju kao vjeto odstupanje od
uobiajenog ili glavnog znaenja rijei, figure koje mijenjaju, odnosno modifikuju tipino ili opte
znaenje rijei.
252 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
PRIKAZI/BOOK REVIEWS
Folia linguistica et litteraria 255
Biljana Dojinovi, Susreti u tami. Uvod u itanje Virdinije Vulf. Slubeni Glasnik,
Beograd, 2011.
Prvog svjetskog rata i trauma koja je s njim dola. Okretanje modernista ka sebi,
odnosno okretanje od svijeta, vjerojatno je rezultat samog rata. Pojam vreme-
na, odnosno prekid temporalnosti uslijed posljedica rata, dovodi do zamrza-
vanja vremena, prolost je izgubljena, sadanjost traumatina, a budunost
izgleda bezizlazna. Ostaje osjeaj nemoi, paraliza, slike mrtvih koje proganjaju
ive. Izvrstan primjer za ovakve osjeaje je Septimus Warren Smith, alter ego
Clarisse Dalloway, koji je paraliziran u vremenu, te ga i nakon pet godina proga-
njaju iste slike prolosti. ivot se nakon katastrofe nastavlja, ali za neke objekti-
vni protok vremena ne postoji, oni su rtve rata, nesposobni za novu ivotni
borbu.
U eseju Modernizmi s razlikom, razmatrajui slinosti i razlike unutar
samog pravca, autorica dolazi do zakljuka da modernizam u sebi sadri
elemente koji su vani za koncept svjetske knjievnosti, a to su, izmeu ostalih,
zajedniki interesi, meusobni utjecaji i slina trita. Modernizam ima globalizi-
rajui aspekt, koji istovremeno naglaava i postojanje razlika u okviru njegovog
stvaralatva. Geografski udaljene knjievnosti uslijed svojih slinosti dokazuju,
kako neophodnost razmiljanja izvan granica nacionalne knjievnosti, tako i
nejednaki razvoj, odnosno razlike, uvjetovane unutarnjim razlozima.
Kolonije i imperije bave se odnosom izmeu Britanske imperije prema
novim nacijama koje se pojavljuju poetkom dvadesetog stoljea. Rat i gubitak
kolonija, necjelovitost carstva utjeu na svijest likova, to je naroito vidljivo u
romanu Gospoa Dalloway. elja za kolonizacijom prisutna je u liku Lady Bruton,
koja Kanadu vidi kao novi prostor za moguu kolonizaciju, a kroz lik Petera
Walsha tematizira se i Indija, iz koje se on vraa, promijenjen i uzdrman. Anali-
zom odnosa Virginije Woolf prema novim politikim i drutvenim okolnostima
kroz likove u romanu, te posebno u odnosu na intimnu priu izmeu njenog
neaka Juliana Bella i Kineskinje Ling Shuhua, s kojom je Woolf kasnije imala
prepisku, autorica razmatra pitanja kolonijalizma, roda i jezika, te ustanovljava
apsurd samog Bloomsburyja dok je Woolf u svojim romanima ironizirala
imperijalnu i kolonizatorsku svijest, istovremeno je na patronizirajui nain
savjetovala Ling Shuhua pisanje autobiografije na engleskom jeziku, ali tako da
sauva kineski ukus. Na taj nain ona prevoditeljici uskrauje mogunost
koritenja jezika kao maske savrenstva. Dojinovi se s pravom pita moe li
inzistiranje na razlici istovremeno biti oblik kolonizirajueg kulturnog pritiska,
ba kako i inzistiranje na istome. Ona zakljuuje da je nezaobilazno obiljeje
Bloomsburyja bio upravo elitizam, koji je nadilazio esteticizam, a Britanija je,
iako u opadanju kao kolonijalna sila, i dalje bila u svijesti Bloomsburyja kao
polazna toka u uspostavljanju vrijednosti prema drugim stvarima.
Analizom nastanka modernizma u irem drutvenom, povijesnom, kul-
turnom, pa i ekonomskom kontekstu, te razmatranjem specifine situacije u to
doba u kolonijalnoj Britaniji, Biljana Dojinovi nas dovodi do same sri svog dje-
la: teorijskih postulata i poetike Virginije Woolf. Esej Dejmsova ki podcrtava
258 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
razlike i slinosti izmeu Henryja Jamesa i Woolf, kao i njegov utjecaj na stvara-
latvo ove modernistike spisateljice.
Eseji Uhvatiti gospou Braun i Lik u modernoj prozi baziraju se na
esejima Virginije Woolf Moderna proza, Gospodin Bennett i gospoa Brown,
te Lik u prozi u kojima Woolf saima svoje stavove o knjievnosti, umjetnosti i
ivotu uope. Biljana Dojinovi interpretira stavove Virginije Woolf u irem dru-
tvenom kontekstu, naglaavajui modernistiku crtu u njenom stvaralatvu.
Woolf je puno vie bila kreatorica proze novog doba, nego to je bila zago-
vornica. Bila je zaokupljena pitanjem to je ivot uope on ne predstavlja ono
to nam stoji pred oima, ve je u naem umu, omotan finim velom, to je duh,
istina i realnost koju treba dohvatiti. Nema fotografskog opisivanja injenica, to
predbacuje piscima materijalistima, Woolf je svjesna podvojenosti ljudske
svijesti, odatle fragmentarnost, nedoreenost, utnja. Tu se javlja itatelj u no-
voj, aktivnijoj ulozi nego prije, on postaje suradnik u stvaranju teksta. Pisac pred
publiku stavlja neto to je nedoreeno, nedovreno, neto to e itatelj prepo-
znati, to e potaknuti njegovu matu. Publika u modernizmu ne dijeli injenice,
ve osjeaje. Tu se javlja novi problem, kojega su i James i Woolf bili uvelike
svjesni: publika svojim (ne)ukusom namee ogranienja, a tko slui publici,
upropatava umjetnost. Osnovavi vlastitu izdavaku kuu Hogarth Press, Woolf
je vjeto izmakla ovoj zamci i stekla neovisnost u pogledu zahtjeva publike.
U eseju Sopstvena soba Dojinovi usporeuje ovaj kultni esej koji se
ponekad naziva i feministikim manifestom, s esejem Tradicija i individualni ta-
lent T. S. Eliota, te nalazi slinosti u pogledu vanosti i shvaanja tradicije i
impersonalnosti umjetnika. Za Eliota je tradicija iv, dinamian proces u kojem
pjesnik sudjeluje svojim radom i istovremeno je mijenja svojim utjecajem na nju.
S druge strane, Woolf istie vanost tradicije u kreativnom stvaranju i osjea
neravnopravnost ena iza kojih ne stoji tradicija njihovih majki, ve tradicija koju
su stvarali mukarci po svojoj mjeri. Impersonalnost pjesnika je zahtjev za koji se
zalau oba autora: Eliot tvrdi da je pogreno u pjesmi traiti pjesnika, jer ga
tamo ne smije biti, a Woolf govori kako nije dobro ako u djelu nehotice naemo
tragove pisca, to predbacuje Charlotte Bront, istiui Shakespearea kao pri-
mjer idealnog stanja uma. Impersonalnost autora djelu daje jednu novu kvalite-
tu, autora nema, ali djelo ostaje proeto njegovim idejama i stavovima. Biljana
Dojinovi naglaava utjecaj Waltera Patera i Georgea Moora i njihovog esteti-
cizma na stvaralaki rad Virginije Woolf, naroito Moora, ija je ideja estetske
dunosti pomogla Woolf u pomirenju stavova izmeu estetike i politikog anga-
mana. Ideje o materijalnim, formalnim i psiholokim uvjetima nunim za umje-
tniko stvaranje, pojam androginije, problem tjelesnosti i iskustva, vane su te-
me vezane za ovaj esej. Istovremeno, ova potraga za izgubljenim jedinstvom du-
ha i tijela, vremena i prostora oituje se i kroz velianje pjesnike slike, to je
karakteristino za modernizam. Slika predstavlja proivljeni govor. Slika djevojke
i mladia koji ulaze u taksi, ili Orlando koji se iz mukarca pretvara u enu, pred-
Folia linguistica et litteraria 259
Truth, Beauty and Goodness Reframed: educating for the Virtues in the Twenty-
first century. By Howard Gardner (New York: Basic books. A Member of the
Perseus Books Group, 2011), xii + 256 pp.
Any society that hopes to endure must ensure that these concepts and
values are passed on in viable form to succeeding generations. For, if we
give up lives marked by truth, beauty and goodness or at least the
perennial quest for them to all intents and purposes, we resign
ourselves to a world where nothing is of value, where anything goes.
the digital media can we think in a right way about the virtues and their status
today and going forward.
He argues how best to educate the young people (he uses the term
"fragmented generation") in the digital era. They are not mere consumers,
instead, they are active participants in assembling, editing, or even
creating messages. With respect to our concerns, all of these forms of media
present views of the world (truth), in various forms and formats (beauty), and
with different models of human relations (goodness).
On the other hand, Gardner comments about "the third stage of
adulthood" i.e. the person who "has the potential and the time to appreciate
the various truths across several realms; to refine his or her distinctive sense of
beauty; and to tackle sensitively and sensibly the often vexed ethical issues that
arise at the workplace, the ballot box, or the town square."
The book represents a multidisciplinary approach to the investigation of
the status of these virtues. Gardner has drawn
UDK: 791.32
141
IZ LINDA HAION, TEORIJA ADAPTACIJE
Klie br. #1: Samo forma pripovijedanja (posebno u prozi) ima fleksibilnost da
izrazi kako intimnost tako i udaljenost take gledita
Kao to smo mogli vidjeti, nije jednako pripovijedati i prikazati priu, kao
to e nam uostalom potvrditi svaka knjiga o pripovijedanju ili bilo koja savre-
menija knjiga iz oblasti naratologije. No, meusobne veze romana i kinemato-
grafije pokazuju da ova izjava ne moe biti shvaena tako olako. uvena je ree-
nica koju je Dozef Konrad napisao u predgovoru za svoju pripovijest Crnac sa
Narcisa: Moj zadatak... jeste snagom pisane rijei omoguiti vam da ujete,
da osjetite prije svega da vidite. Razliiti su stavovi kritiara kada je rije o
pitanju da li moderan roman duguje filmu ili film duguje romanu u svom korie-
nju viestrukih taaka gledita, elipse, fragmentacije i nepovezanosti. Romano-
pisac Klod Simon trvdio je: Ne mogu da piem svoje romane a da ne definiem
neprestano razne pozicije koje pripovjeda ili pripovjedai zauzimaju u prostoru
(vidno polje, udaljenost, mobilnost u odnosu na opisanu scenu) ili pak drugaijim
rjenikom: ugao kamere, krupni kadar, srednji kadar, panoramski kadar, ukoeni
kadar itd.
Ipak, jedan od prvih teoretiara adaptacije, Dord Bluston (George
Bluestone), smatrao je jo 1957. godine da su filmske adaptacije zapravo zaivje-
le onda kada je roman pretrpio krizu identiteta, poetkom XX stoljea, pretva-
rajui se u dramu jezike neadekvatnosti. Budui da je film mogao predstaviti i
vizuelnu i dramsku priu tako ivopisno, roman se povukao u unutranjost. Ova
teorija ini film osvetnikom prie koju je roman napustio uhvativi se u kotac sa
jezikom. ini se da su filmske verzije odgovor na pokuaj knjievnog predskaza-
nja iz 1927. godine u vidu djela pod naslovom eherezada ili budunost engle-
skog romana. Njegov autor Don Karutes (John Carrutheres) potisnuo je mo-
derniste u futuristiku gomilu ubreta insistirajui na radnji, zapletu reinkarna-
cijom eherezade, istinskog pripovjedaa PRIA (1927:92).
Meutim, postavlja se pitanje kako e ove budue eherezade ispriati
svoje prie na filmu ili pozorinoj sceni? Da li je scenski medij ogranien samo na
pripovjea u treem licu? Ili se pak i na sceni moe postii intimnost pripovije-
danja u prvom licu? Da li u tom sluaju zaista vrijede tehnike solilokvija ili glasa
naratora (filmske naracije)? ta je sa snagom krupnog plana i njegovom mogu-
nou da ponudi mikrodramu ljudskog lika? (Bluestone 1957/1971:27)
141
Linda Hutcheon, A Theory of Adaptation, Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, New York, 2006.
268 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
142
Dejms Dojs, Portret umetnika u mladosti, Mono & Manjana Press, Beograd, 1999. (prevod:
Petar urija)
Folia linguistica et litteraria 271
Klie br. #3: Forme prikazivanja i intereagovanja imaju samo jedno vrijeme:
sadanje; sama forma pripovijedanja moe samo pokazati odnose izmeu
prolosti, sadanjosti i budunosti
Kada se prvi put lati pisanja scenarija, pisac prozne fikcije esto to radi
sa nipodatavanjem. Sigurno to ne moe biti toliko teko, smatra on; sve
to treba jeste osmisliti skelet prie. Tako se baci na posao predviajui
da e sve brzo zavriti i na kraju lako zaraditi novac, a vjerovatno i
trenutak slave. Meutim, ubrzo se uvjerava u suprotno. Postaje mu ja-
sno da na svom raspolaganju ima jedva poreani slijed nekoliko dram-
skih scena. Mora da ih iskoristi na isti onaj nain na koji je cjelokupni
engleski jezik koristio u pisanju svog romana. (2002: R1)
UDK: 165.82:130.2
143
PROTIVURJENOSTI DEBATE REALIZAM MODERNIZAM
Frederik Dejmson144
143
Modern Language Quaterly 73:3, University of Washington, 2012.
144
Frederik Dejmson je profesor knjievnosti na Djuk univerzitetu. Njegova knjiga
Postmodernizam, ili, Kulturna logika kasnog kapitalizma osvojila je Louel nagradu Udruenja za
savremeni jezik 1990. godine, a njegova skorija djela obuhvataju: Arheologije budunosti: elja
zvana utopija i druga nauna fantastika (2005), Modernistike radove (2007), Valencije dijalektike
(2009), Hegelove varijacije: O Fenomenologiji duha (2010) i Predstavljanje Kapitala (2011).
Dobitnik je Holbergove nagrade 2008. godine i nagrade za ivotno djelo Udruenja za savremeni
jezik 2011. godine.
284 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
vremeno kako bi izmjerio nivo subverzije u ovim tekstovima, ili pak potvrdio ste-
pen do kojeg mogu biti kvalifikovani kao manjinski, to je, rekao bih, u supro-
tnosti. italaka javnost samo se rijetko moe pomenuti, budui da ista potee
neprijatna pitanja o Englezima kao kapitalistikoj svjetskoj struji, ili, na drugoj
strani, o politikoj vrijednosti Ngugijeve izuzetne politike lingvistike: pitanja ko-
ja su dabome vrlo povezana sa istorijom i istorijskim promjenama i sa prelaskom
sa nacionalnog momenta dekolonijalizacije na momenat trine globalizacije,
kroz sve vrste pokuaja da se kritikuje korupcija u neokolonijalnoj eri.
Sve ove promjene sa predgovorom Doa Klirija i uvodom Deda Estija i
Kolina Laja, gdje odjednom postajemo svjesni da teoretske klasifikacije tekstova
(kao realistinih ili modernistikih, ili ak njihovim varijantama Polonijeve
opte prefinjenosti kolonijalno-pastoralna, tragino-realistina itd. nikada
nijesu bile daleko od takvih) poinju da ive drugaijim ivotom u odnosu na
sopstvene u nekim drugim prostorima osim samih romana. Kliri se bavi sudbi-
nom ove mnogo puta ponavljane opozicije u periodu izmeu ratova (Luka,
Ojerbah, Bahtin), dok Esti i Laj potvruju njenu zadivljujue kompleksnu funkcio-
nalnu metamorfozu u cjelokupnom poslijeratnom periodu, periodu u kojem je
sama proizvodnja onoga to oni nazivaju perifernim djelima poela da se umno-
ava, pri emu su neka od tih djela zauzela centralno mjesto u neijem kano-
nu. Opet, ini se da se takvo irenje moglo desiti i na normalan knjievno-isto-
rijski nain, kroz nekoliko poglavlja dodatih relevantnoj studiji ili antropologiji.
Ovako se misli ukoliko se ne uzimaju u obzir estoke politike i ideoloke
debate tako karakteristine u borbi teorija realizma i modernizma u oba perio-
da. U onom u kojem dominiraju Rusi, prije II svjetskog rata, ton je postavljen i
ulozi su odreeni vrstom vezom izmeu realizma i progresivne politike, i
pripisivanjem mnogih modernizama Lukaevom stalnom karnevalu fetiizirane
unutranjosti, ako ne i gore. Zapad mijenja ovu monu intrigu (ali je njen uticaj i
dalje vidjiv, ne samo kod Lukaa ve i kod Ojerbaha, a ak i u Bahtinovom
naglaavanju modernosti romana) pridajui joj visoku knjievnu vrijednost i
suprotstavljajui literarnost modernistikog kanona poveanoj povrnosti
socijalistikog realizma.
Klirijeva izuzetna dijalektika sada pokree ovu previe uprotenu situaci-
ju istorizirajui je, inei ono to, pratei uveni izraz Gajatrija Spivaka, moemo
nazvati stratekim esencijaliziranjem. Ovo poslednje, umjesto da odraava
neizbjeno dranje strane dobrom ili loem stavu (esencijalnost kao ljudska pri-
roda, antiesencijalnost kao ljudski proizvod) pravi neoekivani potez iznenadno
ukljuivi samu situaciju u znaenje realizma: sada politika ocjena i politiki sud
ne bivaju nebitni, u nekom polju izvan objekta o kojem se sudi; znaenje reali-
zma je u samim terminima u kojima razmiljamo i definiemo samu stvar, koju
prati istorija koja nas uvjerava u sopstvenu efemernu aktuelnost, pri emu sud
nee biti isti narednog dana ili u narednom avataru. Ono to je napredno moe
290 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
UPUTSTVO AUTORIMA
Potovani autori,
Ureivaki odbor
Folia linguistica et litteraria 295
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