A

2D PAGE
Two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The most common technique
for protein separation. Proteins are separated in one dimension according to their
size, and in the second dimension, according to their charge (that is, their
isolectric point). After separation, the gel is stained so that protein spots can be
seen.

22q deletion syndrome

A syndrome associated with a small deletion (missing section of DNA) on
chromosome 22.

Act
A law made by Parliament or a provincial legislature. The process of making an
Act of Parliament begins with the introduction of a proposed Act, or bill, in one of
the two houses of Parliament (the Senate or the House of Commons). A bill
becomes an Act if it is passed (approved) by both houses and receives royal
assent.

Allele
A form of a gene. We inherit one allele of a gene from our mother and the other
allele from our father. These two alleles can be the same (homozygous) or they
can be different (heterozygous).

Allele-specific oligonucleotide hybridization

The use of an oligonucleotide probe to determine which of the two alternative
nucleotide sequences is contained in a DNA molecule.

Amino acid
The building block of proteins. The messenger RNA tells the cell what amino acids
are needed and what order they must be arranged in to build a particular protein.
There are 20 different amino acids used in the human body.

Amniocentesis
A procedure used in prenatal diagnosis to look at the chromosomes of the
developing fetus. A flexible needle is inserted into the mother's uterus through the
abdomen to remove a sample of the fluid surrounding the fetus (amniotic fluid).
This sample can then be analysed by karyotype to look for changes in the
chromosomes. The procedure can be done after 15 weeks of pregnancy. There is
a 0.5% risk of miscarriage associated with this procedure, which means one in
200 women will miscarry following this procedure.

Aneuploid
A cell where the total number of chromosomes is not an exact multiple of 23. The
haploid number of chromosomes is 23, which is found in the egg and sperm cells.
The diploid number is 46, which results from the joining of the egg and sperm.
The triploid state of 69 chromosomes rarely occurs and is not compatible with life.
The most common aneuploid numbers are 45 (one chromosome is missing) and
47 (one chromosome is added).

Antibiotic
A natural or synthetic chemical that is used to kill bacteria in order to treat
diseases in humans and animals.

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Antibiotic resistance
The ability of bacteria to tolerate an antibiotic and survive being exposed to it.
Bacteria may develop this resistance naturally after being exposed to it over
many years.
7
Antibody
A protein made by the immune system that is specific to an antigen. When an
antibody detects this antigen in the body, it will start an immune response to rid
the body of the antigen.

Antigen
A foreign substance that binds to an antibody and starts an immune response in
the body.

Assay
A method for determining the presence or quantity of a component.

Assisted human reproduction (AHR)

Any activity undertaken for the purpose of facilitating human reproduction.
Examples include in vitro fertilization, donor insemination and intra-cytoplasmic
sperm injection (ICSI).

Autosomal dominant
Describes a type of inheritance where an individual with a mutation in only one
copy of a gene will develop the associated trait or disorder.

Autosomal recessive
Describes a type of inheritance where an individual must inherit a mutation in
both copies of a gene in order to develop the associated trait or disorder.

Autosome
A chromosome that is not a sex chromosome (X or Y); chromosomes 1 through
22.

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Bacillus thuringensis (bt)

A naturally occurring soil bacterium that makes an endotoxin that is toxic to
larvae of the European corn borer (Lepidoptera). The gene for this endotoxin has
been incorporated into corn to produce a genetically modified corn plant that can
defend itself against the European corn borer. The endotoxin is very specific in
that it only affects the corn borer larvae. It is not toxic to people, domestic
animals, fish or wildlife.

Bioassay
A method of determining the effect of a compound by quantifying its effect on
living organisms or their component parts.

Bioenergy
Energy choices using a wide range of biomass sources (for example, agriculture,
forestry, industry and municipal waste) and conversion technologies such as
fermentation (alcohol production) and co-firing (co-combustion of biomass and
coal). Also identifies linkages to wider sustainable development outcomes, critical

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 economic, environmental and security benefits (such as adding value to farm,
forestry and other industries) and reducing fossil fuel use (product displacement),
waste streams, emission of greenhouse gases and other pollutants.

Bioengineering
Engineering applied to biological and medical systems, such as biomechanics,
biomaterials and biosensors. Bioengineering also includes biomedical engineering,
as in the development of aids or replacements for defective or missing body
organs.

Bioethics (and biomedical ethics)

A discipline that studies the ethical implications of biological applications.

Biohazard
A biological agent, such as an infectious microorganism, or a condition that
constitutes a threat to humans, especially in biological research or
experimentation. The potential danger, risk, or harm from exposure to such an
agent or condition.

Bioinformatics
The generation/creation, collection, storage (in databases), and efficient use of
data/information from genomics from biological research to accomplish an
objective (for example, to discover a new pharmaceutical or a new herbicide).

Biological products / Biologicals / Biologics

Any virus, therapeutic serum, toxin, antitoxin, or analogous product used in the
prevention, treatment or cure of diseases or injuries in humans.

Biomass
Any organic matter, particularly available on a renewable or recurring basis such
as trees and plants (residues and fibers containing cellulose or lingo-cellulose),
but also poultry litter and animal residues and waste, and industrial and municipal
solid waste (for example, sawdust, wood chips, paper, grass and leaf compost).

Biomedical ethics
See Bioethics.

Biosensing
Technology for the detection of a wide range of chemical and biological agents,
including bacteria, viruses and toxins, in the environment and humans.

Biopesticides
A product made from natural sources such as bacteria, animals or plants that is
used for pest control. They tend to have less of an impact on the environment and
human health because they are less toxic than conventional pesticides and usually
affect only one specific pest instead of being broad-range. They can also work in
low amounts, they break down quickly and when used properly, they can reduce
the use of conventional pesticides while maintaining crop yields.

Biopharmaceuticals
This term is sometimes used for biologic drugs produced through rDNA
technology, but essentially they also fall under the regulatory definition of a
biologic.

Bioremediation

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 The use of organisms, usually microorganisms, to break down pollutants in soil,
air or groundwater.

Biosensor
An electronic device that uses biological molecules to detect low levels of
substances like proteins in the body or pollutants in water.

Biotechnology
A general term used to describe the use of biological processes to make products,
in contrast to purely chemical processes. Biotechnology has been in practice for
centuries and includes such traditional applications as the use of yeast in making
beer, as well as modern applications like recombinant DNA techniques to improve
crops.

Biotherapeutic strategy
A plan or program to contribute to the cure of disease or to general, especially
mental, well-being.

Bioterrorism
The use of bacteria, viruses or toxins with the intent of causing harm to people,
animals or food to achieve certain political, religious or ideological goals through
intimidation.

Blastocyst stage
Four to five days after the union of the sperm and the egg, before the embryo
implants in the uterus.

Blood
The fluid that circulates in the heart, arteries, capillaries and veins of a vertebrate
animal carrying nourishment and oxygen to and taking away waste products from
all parts of the body.

Blood components
At its subcomponent level, blood is comprised of such components as: blood cells,
platelets, plasma

Blood products
Products derived from blood. These products are made from plasma like
coagulation factors, plasma proteins and albumin.

BRCA1/BRCA2
Two genes that are associated with an increased risk of breast cancer when they
have mutations. Every human being has these two genes, which make proteins
that are responsible for preventing cancer from forming. When mutations happen
in these genes, the protective proteins do not work as well and the individual is
then at increased risk of developing cancer. A mutation in the BRCA1/2 genes can
be inherited or it can be acquired during our lifetime.

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Cancer

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 A disease where cells grow out of control, often developing a tumour. Cancer cells
can spread to other areas of the body and interrupt normal processes.

Carrier
An individual who has a gene mutation for a recessive disease on one allele while
the other allele is normally functioning. This individual most often does not
develop symptoms of the disease, but is at risk of having a child with the disease
if their partner is also a carrier.

Cell
The smallest structural unit of living organisms that is able to grow and reproduce
independently. The cell consists of a membrane that encloses the DNA-containing
nucleus and the mitochondria, the cell's energy source.

Cellomics
A study that combines information from genomics and proteomics with the
complex chemical and molecular relationships of cell components. Research about
what goes on within a cell can give us valuable information about drug targets
and drug development. Microarray technology is an important part of cellomics
research.

Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)

A procedure used in prenatal diagnosis to look at the chromosomes of the
developing fetus. A sample is removed from the chorion, which is part of the
placenta and contains cells from the fetus. This sample can then be analyzed by
karyotype to look for changes in the chromosomes. The procedure can be done at
10 to 12 weeks into the pregnancy. There is a 1% risk of miscarriage associated
with this procedure, which means one in 100 women will miscarry following this
procedure.

Chromosome
A structure found in the cell nucleus that carries the genetic information in
humans and animals. It is composed of a long strand of DNA that is greatly
condensed for storage. Humans have 46 chromosomes in every cell of their body
except the sperm and egg cells. We inherit 23 chromosomes from our mother and
23 from our father.

Clinical trial
Medical research undertaken with informed and consenting human subjects in a
controlled environment. The intent of a clinical trial is for the sponsoring company
or research institution to gather information on the safety and effectiveness of
new drugs or therapies before seeking approval of a procedure or product for use
by the Canadian public.

Clone
A genetically identical copy of an organism or of a specific piece of DNA for use in
research. See also Human clone.

Cloning
The process of creating a genetically identical copy (clone) of an animal or plant.
Cloning is the process of making copies of a specific piece of DNA, usually a gene.
There are two recognized forms of cloning related to humans -- reproductive
cloning and therapeutic cloning. When geneticists speak of cloning, they do not
usually mean the process of making genetically identical copies of an entire
organism.

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Complementary DNA (cDNA)
DNA synthesized from a messenger RNA rather than from a DNA template. This
type of DNA is used for cloning or as a DNA probe for finding specific genes.

Cystic fibrosis
A hereditary disease whose symptoms usually appear shortly after birth. They
include faulty digestion, breathing difficulties and respiratory infections due to
mucus accumulation, and excessive loss of salt in sweat. In the past, cystic
fibrosis was almost always fatal in childhood, but treatment is now so improved
that patients commonly live into their 20s and beyond.

Cytogenetics
The study of the structure, function and abnormalities of human chromosomes.

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Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

The molecule that carries the genetic information in most living organisms. It is a
double-stranded helix held together by hydrogen bonds between pairs of
nucleotides. The nucleotides in DNA (adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine) are
arranged in different combinations to represent each gene. The genes act like
recipes in that they contain the information necessary for the cell to make the
corresponding proteins.

Diagnostics / Diagnostic products

A test, drug, medical device or kit used to diagnose a disease or medical
condition.

Diploid
A cell with two full sets of chromosomes. In humans, the total number of
chromosomes in a diploid cell is 46.

Dominant inheritance
See Autosomal dominant.

Drug Identification Number (DIN)

A number issued to a drug indicating that it is authorized for sale in Canada.

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E. coli (Escherichia coli)

A bacterium found in the intestinal tracts of most vertebrates. It is used
extensively in recombinant DNA research because it has been genetically well
characterized.

Electrophoresis
A technique used to separate molecules such as DNA or proteins using an electric
current. The mixture of molecules is added to one end of a gel-like medium. When
a current is applied to it, the molecules will travel through the medium to the
other end at different speeds depending on the charge and size of the molecule.

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 Once the molecules are separated, the gel can be used in a blot (Southern,
Northern and Western).

Embryo
Defined in the Assisted Human Reproduction Act as a human organism during the
first 56 days of its development following fertilization or creation, excluding any
time during which its development has been suspended. It includes any cell
derived from such an organism that is used for the purpose of creating a human
being.

Embryonic stem cells

Cells that are removed from the early embryo and are able to become any of the
210 cell types found in the human body. Researchers are looking at the great
potential stem cells have in developing new treatments for disease and injury.

Enzymatic
Activity of an enzyme which is a substance produced by a living organism and
acting as a catalyst to promote a specific biochemical reaction.

Enzyme
A protein that facilitates a biochemical reaction. Many essential reactions in the
body require the help of enzymes and would not proceed on their own.

Enzyme-Linked Immuno Assays (EIA)

Enzyme-Linked Immuno Assays (EIA) are use to measure the amount of a
particular substance by virtue of its binding to a specific antibody. Examples of
EIA include ELISA and Western blotting.

Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay

The ELISA is a fundamental tool of clinical immunology, and is used as an initial
screen for HIV detection. Based on the principle of antibody-antibody interaction,
this test allows for easy visualization of results and can be completed without the
additional concern of radioactive materials use.

Ex vivo (testing)
The testing of a substance by exposing it to (excised) living cells (but not to the
whole, multicelled organism) in order to ascertain the effect of the substance (for
example, pharmaceutical) on the biochemistry of the cell.

Expression
The process of converting genetic information into RNA and protein for use in the
cell. Every gene is not expressed at the same level and at the same time.
Expression patterns, easily analyzed using microarray technology, can give a lot
of information about the roles genes play in different situations, such as disease
and health.

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Fermentation
A process of growing microorganisms to produce various chemical or
pharmaceutical compounds. Microbes are usually incubated under specific

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 conditions in large tanks called fermenters. Fermentation is a specific type of
bioprocessing.

Fetal tissue
The tissue from the unborn offspring of a human in the post-embryonic period
(from eight weeks after fertilization to birth), after major structures have been
outlined. Fetal tissue research is conducted using fetal tissue from cadavers to
study birth anomalies, carcinogenesis, infectious disease, genetic anomalies, etc.
Human fetal tissue in culture is used by pharmaceutical and biotechnology
companies to develop vaccines, to test the efficacy and developmental
malformations caused by new pharmaceutical products, and to conduct research
into viruses. Emerging medical practices use fetal tissue to treat neurological
conditions such as Parkinson's disease. There are also other potential medical
uses for fetal tissue.

Fetus
Defined in the Assisted Human Reproduction Act as a human organism during the
period of its development beginning on the 57th day following fertilization or
creation, excluding any time during which its development has been suspended,
and ending at birth.

Food
Any substance, whether processed, semi-processed or raw, which is intended for
human consumption. It includes drinks, chewing gum and any substance which
has been used to manufacture, prepare or treat "food". It excludes cosmetics,
tobacco and substances used only as drugs.

Food biotechnology
The application of biotechnology to the production of food.

Functional food
Ordinary food that has components or ingredients added to give it a specific
medical or physiological benefit, other than a purely nutritional effect. Also known
as nutraceutical.

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Gamete
A mature reproductive cell (sperm or egg cell) that contributes to fertilization.

Gene
The basic unit of heredity, located on a chromosome. It is made up of DNA that
acts as a blueprint to make a particular protein. The Human Genome Project
estimates that humans have over 30,000 genes in their genome. Each one is
responsible for a different part of our biology. Every human being (except
identical twins) has a unique set of genes, half of which came from their mother
and the other half from their father.

Gene expression
See Expression.

Gene therapy

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 An evolving technique used to treat genetic diseases. The medical procedure
involves replacing, manipulating or supplementing non-functional genes with
healthy genes so that they can function normally.

Genetic disease
A disease or condition caused by a change or mutation in a gene, or a change in
the chromosomes.

Genetic engineering
The technique of removing, modifying or adding genes to a DNA molecule to
change the information it contains. By changing this information, genetic
engineering changes the type or amount of proteins an organism is capable of
producing. Genetic engineering allows scientists to isolate a specific gene for a
particular trait - such as resistance to insect attack - in a plant or animal, and
transfer it into another plant.

Genetic mapping
A research method that collects genetic information to determine the relative
position of a gene or a phenotype in the genome.

Genetic marker
A DNA sequence at a unique physical location in the genome, which varies
sufficiently between individuals that its pattern of inheritance can be tracked
through families and/or it can be used to distinguish among cell types. A marker
may or may not be part of a gene. Markers are essential for use in linkage studies
and genetic maps to help scientists to narrow down the possible location of new
genes, and to discover the associations between genetic mutations and disease.

Genetic modification
A general term which refers to any intentional change to the heritable traits of an
organism. This includes both traditional breeding and recombinant DNA
techniques.

Genetic privacy
The freedom from unauthorized intrusion. Often referred to as the right to be let
alone, it protects territorial, bodily, psychological and informational integrity and
decision making. Many of these interests are directly implicated by genetic
testing. Informational privacy protects the access, control and spread of personal
information. Privacy is essential to maintaining relations of trust. The Supreme
Court of Canada has indicated that confidential therapeutic relations enjoy some
Charter protection but they are not absolute. Recognized exceptions include those
authorized in law, an individual's consent or waiver of privacy, and overriding
duties to third parties.

Genetic testing
A laboratory test, done most often on a blood sample, but also on cheek cells,
skin cells, bone marrow, amniotic fluid or a placenta sample. It looks at a
particular gene for changes, or mutations, that might confirm the diagnosis of a
genetic disease or that show a predisposition to a genetic disease.

Genetic toxicology
A research field in which genetic samples from a living organism (including
humans) are placed on a DNA microarray (gene chip) and tested in a
computerized device for the presence of toxic substances from the environment.
It is done to determine if the organism providing the sample has been exposed to

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 specific chemicals which have caused problems such as mutations, cancer and
birth defects. The study of the pattern of occurrence of such biomarkers in a
sample of individuals or a community is called genetic epidemiology.

Genetically modified organism (GMO)

An organism produced from genetic engineering techniques that allow the transfer
of functional genes from one organism to another, including from one species to
another. Bacteria, fungi, viruses, plants, insects, fish and mammals are some
examples of organisms whose genetic material has been artificially modified to
change some physical property or capability. Living modified organisms (LMOs)
and transgenic organisms are other terms often used instead of GMOs.

Genetics
The study of how traits are passed on in families and how genes are involved in
health and disease.

Genome
All of an organism's genetic information, including all of the DNA that makes up
the genes that are carried on the chromosomes.

Genomics
The study of the entire genome (chromosomes, genes and DNA) and how
different genes interact with each other.
Genomics and molecular biology form the basis for modern biotechnology and,
more specifically, pharmacogenomics, or the application of genetic analysis to
identify potential targets for therapeutic products (drugs, vaccines).

Genotype
The genetic make-up of an individual, usually referring to a particular pair of
alleles for a gene that can be related to a particular phenotype of interest.

Germ cell
A reproductive cell (sperm or egg cell), which has 23 chromosomes in humans
(haploid).
See also Gamete.

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Half-life
The time required for the decay of half of a sample of particles of a
radionucleotide or elementary particle.

Haploid
A cell with one set of chromosomes. In humans, the egg and sperm cells are
haploid cells and have only 23 chromosomes. Once they join during fertilization,
the resulting cell will be diploid with 46 chromosomes.

Haplotype characterization
The characterization of SNPs by coherent packages (SNPs that are usually
transmitted together).

Health care

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 Canada's health care system provides access to universal, comprehensive
coverage for medically necessary hospital, inpatient and outpatient physician
services. Provincial and territorial governments are responsible for the delivery of
Canada's health care and hospital services; the federal government shares in the
cost of these services.

Health product
Encompasses products subject to the Food and Drugs Act, and are managed along
the following broad categories:
1. Biologics (both regular and biotechnology-based products)
2. Pharmaceuticals (both regular and biotechnology-based products)
3. Medical devices
4. Natural Health Products

Health surveillance
The ongoing, systematic use of routinely collected health data to guide public
health action in a timely fashion. Health surveillance tracks and forecasts the
occurrence of health events or determinants through ongoing data collection. It
also involves the collation, analysis and interpretation of those data into a product
that is disseminated to those who need to know.

Hepatocyte
Any of the polygonal epithelial parenchymatous cells of the liver that secrete bile
called also hepatic cell, liver cell

Heredity
The transfer of genetic information from parents to children.

Heterozygote
An individual with two different alleles at a particular locus on a pair of
chromosomes.

Homozygote
An individual with two identical alleles at a particular locus on a pair of
chromosomes.

Hormones
A chemical that is made by one type of cell in the body and acts on another.
Hormones act as messengers to tell the target cell to stop or start certain cellular
processes.

Host genomics
The genetic makeup of a person (host or patient).

Human clone
Defined in the Assisted Human Reproduction Act as "an embryo that, as a result
of the manipulation of human reproductive material or an in vitro embryo,
contains a diploid set of chromosomes obtained from a single -- living or deceased
- human being, foetus or embryo". The Act, which received royal assent on March
29, 2004, states that "no person shall knowingly create a human clone by using
any technique, or transplant a human clone into a human being or into any non-
human life form or artificial device".

Human genetics

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 The study of how traits are passed on in families and how genes are involved in
health and disease.

Human Genome Project

An international research effort that aims to identify, map and sequence all
human genes.

Human health
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as a state of complete
physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or
infirmity.

Hybridization
The creation of RNA-DNA hybrids by a heating process, so that the RNA becomes
associated with the complementary DNA.

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Immune system
A network of molecules, cells and organs that work together to protect the body
against infection and disease.

Immuno
Therapies and/or treatments that stimulate the immune system.

Immunodeficiency
An innate, acquired, or induced inability to develop a normal immune response.

Immunosuppression
The prevention or lessening of the immune response, for example, by irradiation
or by administrating certain substances.

Immunotoxicity
The toxicity of a therapeutic agent because it could cause immune reactions or
allergy.

Immunotyping
The process of screening patients specimens to identify the specific viral antigen
on antigen presenting cells or detecting specific viral antibodies.

Insulin
A hormone made by the pancreas that controls the level of sugar in the blood.

Intellectual property
A form of creative endeavour that can be protected through a trademark, patent,
copyright, industrial design or integrated topography. The patent system offers
the only protection available for the intellectual products of research. There is
increasing pressure on the patent system to patent life forms.

Interferon
A protein first recognized in animals for its action in inhibiting viral replication and
inducing resistance in host cells. The interferons (IFNs) are a highly conserved

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 family of multi-functional, species-specific, secreted proteins originally classified
on the basis of cellular origin including: leucocyte IFN (alpha), fibroblastic IFN
(beta) and immune IFN (gamma). Examples from each of these classes have
been cloned and commercialized.

The IFNs have been reclassified based on their recognition of cell-surface

receptors. In humans there are three major classes: Type I consists mainly of the
original types alpha (including various isoforms) and beta; Type II consists of IFN
gamma; Type III consists of IFN lambda.

The IFNs have multiple biological activities demonstrated to greater or lesser

degree by the various types. These include: the induction of intracellular
mechanisms having anti-viral effects (affecting viral protein synthesis) and anti-
proliferative effects (affecting cell replication); the stimulation of cellular immune
responses against viruses, bacteria and tumours; and, the regulation of immune
and inflammatory responses.

In vitro
Describes a biological process that takes place in a laboratory instead of in a living
cell or organism.

In vitro fertilization
A procedure to help infertile couples conceive. Eggs are removed from the woman
and fertilized with the man's sperm in the laboratory. Fertilized eggs can then be
transferred to the woman's uterus to try to establish a pregnancy or they can be
frozen for future use.

In vivo
Describes a biological process that takes place in a living cell or organism.

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Karyotype
A picture of an individual's chromosomes as seen under a microscope. The
chromosomes can be identified by their unique banding patterns and arranged in
order of size (1 is the largest and 22 is the smallest). The 23rd pair of
chromosomes are the sex chromosomes -- a female has two X chromosomes and
a male has one X and one Y chromosome. The karyotype is a test sometimes
requested by a physician to look for major changes in the chromosomes, such as
a change in the number (for example, trisomy or monosomy) or the structure.

Karyotyping (traditional)
A laboratory technique that allows scientists to view all of the human
chromosomes at one time in black and white. It is useful for observing the
number, size and shape of the chromosomes. Interpreting these karyotypes
requires an expert, who might need hours to examine a single chromosome.

Spectral karyotyping, on the other hand, "paints" each pair of chromosomes in a

different fluorescent colour. Even non-experts can see instances where a
chromosome, painted in one colour, has a small piece of a different chromosome,
painted in another colour, attached to it.

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L

Legislation
A collection of written and approved laws that "guide" behaviours in society.

Legislative process
See Legislation.

Lipids
Water-insoluble (fat) biomolecules that are highly soluble in organic solvents such
as chloroform. Lipids serve as "fuel" molecules in organisms, highly concentrated
energy stores, "signalling" molecules, and are basic components of cell
membranes.

Living modified organism (LMO)

Any living organism that possesses a novel combination of genetic material
obtained through modern biotechnology. A living organism is a biological entity
that can transfer or replicate genetic material.

Locus
The position of a gene or a marker on a chromosome.

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Marker gene
Genes that identify which plants have been successfully transformed.

Meiosis
The process of cell division in human sperm and egg cells during their
development. One cell gives rise to four new daughter cells, which each has 23
chromosomes (it is haploid).

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

RNA that is complementary to the DNA of a gene and acts as a template to make
the protein.

Metabolome
The quantitative complement of all the low molecular weight molecules present in
cells in a particular physiological or developmental state.

Metabonomics and metabolomics

These very similar terms have arisen at about the same time in different areas of
bioscience research, mainly animal biochemistry and microbial/plant biochemistry,
respectively. Although both involve the multiparametric measurement of
metabolites, they are not identical. Metabonomics deals with integrated,
multicellular and biological systems, including communicating extracellular
environments. Metabolomics deals with simple cell systems and, at least in terms
of published data, mainly intracellular metabolite concentrations.

Microarray
A glass or plastic slide with many DNA spots attached to it, which allows
researchers to study how many genes act and interact in different conditions.

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Microbial genetics
The study of genetics in microorganisms.

Microbiology
The study of microorganisms and how they interact with the environment and
other organisms.

Microorganism
An organism that is visible only under a microscope, such as protozoa, bacteria,
fungi and viruses.

Mitochondria
The cell organelles responsible for energy production.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

The genetic material found in the mitochondria, which is different from the cell's
DNA in the nucleus. Mitochondria are passed on from one generation to the next
in the cytoplasm of the egg, so they are inherited from the mother.

Mitosis
The process of cell division in most cells in the human body. Mitosis results in two
daughter cells that are genetically identical to each other and to the original cell.

Molecular Pharming
The application of biotechnology to produce selected pharmaceutical compounds
or other health or industrial compounds within a living organism (for example,
microbe, agricultural crop, livestock).

Pharming: The manufacture of medical products from genetically modified plants

or animals.

Molecular genetics
The study of the molecular structure and function of genes.

Monitoring
Activities conducted to measure levels, concentrations or quantities of material
and the use of these measurement results to evaluate potential exposures and
doses, and to determine existing environmental conditions, pollutant levels
(rates) and effects on species in the environment.

Monoclonal antibodies
Antibodies derived from a single source (a group of cloned cells) and recognize
only one kind of antigen. They are made in the laboratory from hybridoma cells,
hybrids of antibody-producing cells and immortal cancer cells.

Monosomy
One chromosome of a pair is missing. In humans, this would result in a total of 45
chromosomes. An example of monosomy is 45, X, also known as Turner
syndrome.

Moratorium
A temporary prohibition or suspension of an activity.

Mosaicism

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 The presence of two or more cell populations that have a different genetic or
chromosomal makeup in a single individual or tissue.

Multifactorial
Describes a trait that is determined by the interaction of multiple genetic and
environmental factors.

Mutagenisis
The formation or development of a mutation.

Mutation
A change in the DNA sequence that can interfere with protein production. A
mutation can arise in a germ cell and be passed on to an individual's children,
who will then carry it in every cell of their body. A mutation can also arise in one
cell in the body, such as a skin or heart cell. Mutations like these can lead to
cancer if they interrupt the cell cycle.

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Nanotechnology
A precise molecule-by-molecule control of products and byproducts in the
development of functional structures.

From the Latin nanus = "dwarf", so it literally means "dwarf technology". The
word was originally coined by Norio Taniguchi in 1974, to refer to high precision
machining. However, Richard Feynman and K. Eric Drexler later popularized the
concept of nanotechnology as a new and developing technology in which humans
manipulate objects whose dimensions are approximately 1 to 100 nanometers.
Theoretically, it is possible that in the future a variety of human-made "nano-
assemblers" (that is, tiny [molecular] machines smaller than a grain of sand)
could manufacture those things that are produced in factories today. For example,
enzyme molecules function essentially as jigs and machine tools to shape large
molecules as they are formed in biochemical reactions. The technology also
encompasses biochips, biosensors and manipulating atoms and molecules in order
to form (build) bigger, but still microscopic functional structures and machines.

Notice of Compliance
Once a product submission has been reviewed, assessed and deemed by Health
Canada to meet the Food and Drug Regulations it is given a Notice of Compliance.
Health Canada concludes that the benefits of the health product outweigh the
risks and that the risks can be mitigated and/or managed, Health Canada
provides the manufacturer with a market authorization to sell the product in
Canada.

Novel food
a) a substance, including a microorganism, that does not have a history of safe
use as a food;
b) a food that has been manufactured, prepared, preserved or packaged by a
process that has not been applied before to that food, and causes the food to
undergo a major change; or
c) a food that is derived from a plant, animal or microorganism that has been
genetically modified.

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Novel trait in a plant
A plant with characteristics not normally found in that species in which the new
characteristic has been created through specific genetic manipulation,
transformation, mutation, etc.

Nucleotides
The substances that make up the chromosomes and the genes.

Nucleus
The structure in eukaryotic cells (cells with a true nucleus) that contains the
cellular DNA.

Nutraceutical
A product isolated or purified from food that is generally sold in medicinal forms
not usually associated with food. A nutraceutical has been demonstrated to have
a physiological benefit or provide protection against chronic disease.

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Oncogene
A gene that has the potential to make a normal cell become cancerous.

Oncology
The study of tumours.

Organism
A living thing that can function independently.

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Patent
A government grant giving exclusive rights to the inventor to make, use or sell an
invention for a period of 20 years from the date when a patent application is filed.
Patents are granted for products and processes that are considered new, workable
and ingenious - that is, novel, useful and inventive - or for useful improvements
to some existing invention.

Patenting life
See also Patent.

One still unresolved court case involves a claim that a life form that has been
genetically modified (the so-called "oncomouse," which has been modified to
make it more genetically susceptible to cancer) should be able to hold a patent.

The Canadian Patent Office has a policy of not granting patents on "higher life
forms", plants or animals beyond the level of a microorganism. The issue the
courts are considering is whether or not a particular, modified life form may be
considered intellectual property -- the access to and use of which would be
protected through trademark, patent or copyright. A related area is
bioprospecting, a type of research in which investigators look for biological and

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 genetic information about plants, animals or humans that may have the potential
to be sold as scientific, medical, industrial or consumer products.

Pathogen
An agent that causes disease, especially a living microorganism such as a
bacterium or fungus.

Pesticide
A broad term that defines all chemical substances used to control insects,
diseases, weeds, fungi and other "pests" on plants, fruits, vegetables and
animals, and in buildings. Fungicides, herbicides, sanitizers, growth regulators,
rodenticides, soil fumigants and insecticides are all pesticides.

Pharmaceutical
A medical drug.

Pharmacodynamics
The study of how drugs achieve their therapeutic effect.

Pharmacogenetics and Pharmacogenomics

These two terms, which relate to the role of genetics in pharmaceutical research,
are often used interchangeably. Pharmacogenetics is the study of genetic
differences among individuals that relate to drug response. Pharmacogenomics is
the study of variability in the expression of individual genes that relate to disease
susceptibility and drug response at the cellular, tissue, individual and population
level.

A major objective of pharmacogenomics is the development of innovative classes

of targeted drugs and vaccines designed to affect highly specific processes in the
body while minimizing side effects. A related area is biopharmaceuticals, whereby
transgenic techniques are used to insert therapeutic properties, including
vaccines, into foods, potentially replacing pills and syringe injections.

Pharmacokinetics
The study of how drugs are absorbed, distributed and cleared from the body.

Phenotype
A set of observable physical characteristics of an organism.

Plant genetics
The study of genetics in plants.

Plant Molecular Farming (PMF)

This technique involves using genetically modified plants to produce substances
that the plants typically do not produce naturally, such as industrial compounds or
therapeutics

Plasmid
A DNA structure that is separate from the cell's genome and can replicate
independently of the host cell. Plasmids are used in the laboratory to deliver
specific DNA sequences into a cell.

Plasticity

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 The ability of adult-derived stem cells to be capable of developing into cells types
outside of the tissue of origin (for example, human blood stem cells have been
shown to differentiate into liver cells.

Platform technology
Technology that has a common starting point but diverges once it is put into
actual practice.

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

A laboratory method used to make many copies of a DNA fragment in minutes
using an enzyme called polymerase.

Precautionary principle
A principle associated with risk management. It states that where there are
threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of scientific certainty shall not be
used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental
degradation.

Prenatal
Existing or occurring before birth: prenatal medical care

Prion
A protein particle found in brain cell membranes. Changes in its structure appear
to be related to infectious diseases of the nervous system, such as Creutzfeld-
Jakob disease in humans, bovine spongiform encephalopathy in cows, and sheep
scrapie.

Prokaryotes
Organisms whose genetic material is not enclosed by a nucleus. The most
common examples are bacteria.

Proteomics
The study of the protein products of genes, protein-protein interactions and
protein sub-cellular localization. Examples could include engineering of new
systems to sequence proteins or study protein interactions with other proteins or
DNA, developing faster and cheaper detectors, such as high-density capillaries or
high throughput mass spectrometers, and developing centres with expertise and
accountability for protein analysis, such as 2D protein databases.

Protein
Required for the structure, function and regulation of body cells, tissues and
organs. A large molecule is made up of one or more chains of amino acids in a
specific order. The order is determined by the base sequence of nucleotides in the
gene coding for the protein. Each protein has unique functions. Examples are
hormones, enzymes and antibodies.

Proto-oncogene
A normal gene that has the potential to become an oncogene.

Public health
The public health system in Canada is responsible for helping to protect Canadians
from injury and disease and for helping them to stay healthy. A good public
system means fewer people become sick or injured, and more people can live
longer, healthier lives.

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 Top of Page

Radiopharmaceuticals
A radioactive compound used in radiotherapy or diagnosis

Recessive inheritance
See Autosomal recessive.

Recombinant DNA
The DNA formed when DNA fragments from more than one organism are spliced
together in vitro.

Regulation
A law made by a person or body that has been granted (delegated) law-making
authority. A regulation is used both to indicate a specific type of delegated
legislation as well as to refer generically to all forms of delegated legislation. The
Department of Justice issues a special number to indicate that it is a regulation.
More broadly, regulation may refer to all government intervention in the lives of
citizens.

Reproductive cloning
The cloning of an embryo for transplantation into a uterus with the intention of
producing offspring genetically identical to the donor.

Reproductive materials
Human male or female reproductive cells (sperm or egg), and human embryos
and their derivatives.

Reproductive technology
See Assisted human reproduction.

Restriction enzyme
An enzyme used to cut DNA at specific sites. The resulting fragments can then be
spliced together to form recombinant DNA, which can be separated out on a gel or
inserted into a plasmid.

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)

A change in the DNA of an organism that changes how a restriction enzyme cuts
the DNA into pieces. Two or more organisms can be compared based on the
pattern of their DNA fragments when they are run on a gel (by electrophoresis). If
the organisms have different spaces between their restriction enzyme sites, they
produce different lengths of fragments when the restriction enzyme is used to cut
up the DNA. When their fragments are run on a gel, they produce different
patterns because the shorter fragments will move further than the longer ones.

Retrovirus
A virus with RNA as its genetic material. When the retrovirus infects a cell, its own
enzyme reverse transcriptase makes viral DNA from the RNA template. This viral
DNA can then be integrated into the host cell's genome to produce more viral
particles.

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Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Like DNA, a type of nucleic acid. There are three major types: messenger RNA,
transfer RNA, and ribosomal RNA. All are involved in the synthesis of proteins
from the information contained in the DNA molecule. Synonyms: gene splicing,
genetic engineering.

Sequencing of DNA Molecules

The process of finding the order of nucleotides (guanine, adenine, cytosine and
thymine) that make up a DNA or RNA fragment.

Sex chromosome
The 23rd pair of chromosomes in humans are the sex chromosomes. Females
have two X chromosomes and males have an X and a Y chromosome.

Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)

Individual differences at a single nucleotide of DNA. This genotypic difference can
cause a phenotypic difference in hair colour, height or response to a drug,
depending on the gene.

Somatic cell
Any cell in the body except the germ cells (egg and sperm).

Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)

A cloning technique where the nucleus from an unfertilized egg is removed and
replaced with the nucleus from a somatic cell. The resulting egg will carry the full
complement of genetic material of the host organism. This is how Dolly the cloned
sheep was produced; she was genetically identical to her "mother". This technique
can be used both for reproductive cloning and therapeutic cloning.

Stem cell
A fundamental cell that has the potential to develop into any of the 210 different
cell types found in the human body. Human life begins with stem cells, which
divide again and again and branch off into special roles, like becoming liver or
heart cells. They are an important resource for disease research and for the
development of new ways to treat disease.

Stem cell differentiation

The process by which a stem cell can become a specific cell type. Stem cell
differentiation begins when they are exposed to certain biochemical cues -
whether physiological or experimental. Biochemical cues in different parts of the
body stimulate stem cells to grow into the specific cells needed in that location.

All stem cells have the capacity to differentiate, but to different degrees.

• Totipotent stem cells can become any cell in the human body.
• Pluripotent stem cells can become almost any cell in the human
body, but they cannot become placental tissue needed for development in
the human uterus.
• Multipotent stem cells can become only a certain type of cell, such
as blood cells.

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Stewardship
The preservation of public good by ensuring that the social and the ethical issues
related to biotechnology are addressed, and that the federal government has an
effective regulatory regime and the science capacity to protect human and animal
health and the environment.

Surveillance
Systematic collection, analysis, interpretation and dissemination of data
(generated by the laboratory and private and public domain literature) related to
the biotechnology field to assist in the planning and implementation of research,
evaluation and management of risks and public health interventions and programs
(if needed).

Template
A strand of DNA or RNA (mRNA) that specifies the base sequence of a newly
synthesized strand of DNA or RNA, the two strands being complementary.

Therapeutic cloning
The cloning of an embryo for the purpose of deriving stem cells for use in
research and treatment of disease.

Totipotent Stem Cells

Bone marrow cells that (when signalled) mature into both red blood cells and
white blood cells. Receptors on the surface of totipotent stem cells "grasp"
passing blood cell growth factors (for example, Interleukin- 7, Stem Cell Growth
Factor), bringing them inside these stem cells and thus causing the maturation
and differentiation into red and white blood cells. These receptors are called FLK-Z
receptors.

Toxicogenomics
A fusion of genomics and toxicology disciplines intended to identify, classify and
manage the latent (inherent susceptibility), incipient and overt adverse (toxic)
effects on genome structure and expression levels (RNA, protein, cell/tissue/organ
type) as a consequence of an organism's exposure to environmental substances
(contaminants such as chemicals, drugs and micro/multicellular organisms and/or
components) and stressors (for example, quality of air, climate, soil, solar
radiation and water).

Trait
A characteristic of an organism.

Transcription
A process in the cell where the DNA is used as a template to make the messenger
RNA.

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

RNA molecules that bind to amino acids and carry them to the ribosomes where
proteins are made.

Transformation

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 A process by which the genetic information of an organism is changed by the
addition of foreign DNA.

Transgenics
The insertion or splicing of specific genetic sequences from one species into the
functioning genome of an unrelated species to transfer desired properties for
human purposes. This may be viewed as a more precise form of hybridization or
plant/animal breeding, with the added consideration that genetic material from
species significantly different from one another is involved (for example, the
insertion of genetic material from an animal into a plant or vice versa). Another
possibility is the transfer of genetically controlled properties between different
animal species, such as the breeding of goats whose milk yields spider silk for
possible development of new structural materials.

See Genetically modified organisms and Living modified organisms.

Transplantation
The implanting of cells, tissues, or organs which have been retrieved from a living
or deceased donor into a recipient.

Trisomy
The presence of an extra chromosome, in addition to the normal pair. In humans,
this would result in a total of 47 chromosomes. An example of trisomy is trisomy
21, which is also known as Down syndrome.

Tumour
An abnormal benign or malignant mass of tissue that is not inflammatory, arises
without obvious cause from cells of pre-existent tissue, and possesses no
physiological function.

Vaccine
A preparation that contains an agent or its components, administered to stimulate
an immune response that will protect a person from illness due to that agent. A
therapeutic (treatment) vaccine is given after disease has started and is intended
to reduce or arrest the progress of the disease. A preventive (prophylactic)
vaccine is intended to prevent disease from starting. Agents used in vaccines may
be whole-killed (inactive), live-attenuated (weakened) or artificially
manufactured. It can be created using the recombinant DNA process.

Vector
A vehicle that carries foreign genes into an organism and inserts them into the
organism's genome. Modified viruses are used as vectors for gene therapy.

Virus
A submicroscopic particle that can infect other organisms. It cannot reproduce on
its own but infects an organism's cell in order to use that cell's reproductive
machinery to create more viruses. It usually consists of a DNA or RNA genome
enclosed in a protective protein coat.

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X

Xenogeneic organs
Xenogeneic literally means "strange genes". Refers to genetically engineered (for
example, "humanized") organs that have been grown within an animal of another
species.

Xenografts
A type of tissue graft in which the donor and recipient are of different species.
Also called heterographs.

Xenotransplantation
The transplantation of living cells, tissues and organs from one species to another.
The term is usually used to describe animal-to-human transplants. An example is
the transplant of a kidney from a pig to a human. The principal reason for medical
and scientific inquiry in this area is to find alternatives to human organs and
tissue transplants.

Xenosis (xenozoonoses)
A term coined from the word "xenozoonoses". It describes the transfer of
infections by transplantation of xenogeneic tissues or organs. It potentially poses
unique epidemiological hazards due to the efficiency of transmission of pathogens,
particularly viruses, with viable, cellular grafts

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Home > Biotechnology Glossary / Biotech Dictionary

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Biotechnology Glossary / Biotech Dictionary

• A

• B

• C

• D

• E

• F

• G

• H

• I

• J

• K

• L

• M

• N

• O

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 • P

• Q

• R

• S

• T

• U

• V

• W

• X

• Y

• Z
A

Agrobacterium Tumefaciens

A genus of bacteria that researchers can use to transfer DNA to plants. Agrobacterium

tumefaciens can infect plants and cause crown gall disease – a tumerous growth at the base of

plants. The DNA transfer occurs naturally during the crown gall disease, and can be used as a

method of transformation.

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B

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)

A naturally occurring bacterium present in soil and used successfully by home gardeners and

organic farmers to control certain insects for more than 40 years. When ingested by a target

insect, the protein produced by Bt controls the insect by disturbing the digestive system. The Bt

protein is harmless to other insects, people and animals.

Biodiversity

The word – a contraction of ‘biological diversity’ – refers to the number, variety and variability of

living organisms. It encompasses three basic levels of organization in living systems: the

genetic, species and ecosystem levels. Plant and animal species are the most commonly

recognized units of biodiversity.

Biotechnology

A broad term used to describe any technique that uses living organisms or parts of organisms to

solve problems or develop new products. Biotechnology is used in a wide range of applications

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 including the production of foods and medicines, testing for disease, removing wastes in the

environment, and improving agricultural plants. Modern biotechnology includes the tools of

genetic engineering, although it is only one of many applications.

Bt crops

Crops that are genetically engineered to carry a gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus

thuringiensis (Bt). The bacterium produces proteins that are toxic to target pests but non-toxic to

humans and other mammals. Crops containing the Bt gene are able to produce this toxin,

thereby providing protection for the plant. Bt corn and Bt cotton are examples of commercially

available Bt crops.

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C

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

A colorless, odorless, unreactive gas that is a normal part of the atmosphere. It is produced

during the combustion of fossil fuels when the carbon in the fuels reacts with oxygen. It is also

produced when living organisms respire. It is essential for plant nutrition. While relatively

innocuous in itself, carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases can trap the sun’s heat in the

atmosphere and contribute to Global Warming.

Chromosome

Tightly coiled strands of genes (DNA) located in the nucleus of every cell that determines the

inheritance of traits. Each chromosome has a fixed number of genes, and every species has a

characteristic number of chromosome pairs – humans have 23 pairs, mice have 19 and pea

plants have 7.

Conservation tillage

An approach to the cultivation of agricultural land, which reduces or eliminates plowing of soil for

crop planting and weed control. In addition to reducing soil erosion, conservation tillage retains

soil carbon and reduces greenhouse gases, which can trap the sun’s heat in the atmosphere

and contribute to Global Warming.

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D

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

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 A complex molecule that contains, in chemically coded form, all the information needed to build,

control and maintain a living organism. DNA is a ladder-like double-stranded nucleic acid that

forms the basis of genetic inheritance in all organisms except for a few viruses. In organisms

other than bacteria, it is organized into chromosomes and contained in the cell nucleus.

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E

Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ)

A universal indicator that integrates the various environmental impacts of individual pesticides

into a single field value per acre (hectare). EIQ incorporates the impact of the key toxicity and

environmental exposure data on farm workers, consumers and ecology, providing a consistent

and comprehensive measure of the non-intentional impact of different pesticides on the

environment. EIQ is not universally accepted and is an indicator only; it does not take into

account all environmental issues and impacts.

Erosion

A process by which rock particles and soil are detached from their original site, transported and

deposited in a new location. The main agents of erosion are water and wind.

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F

Field trial

A test of a new technology or variety, including biotech-derived varieties, done outside the

laboratory but with specific limitations and requirements on location, plot size, methodology, etc.

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G

Gene

A specific segment of DNA in a chromosome that produces a specific product or has an

assigned function.

Genetic engineering

The technique of removing, modifying or adding genes to a living organism. Also referred to as

gene splicing, recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology or genetic modification.

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Genetically engineered organism (GEO)

A new variety of plant produced using traditional plant breeding techniques, supplemented by

the insertion of a specific beneficial gene or genes. Also referred to as genetically modified

organism (GMO).

Genetic modification

The technique of removing, modifying or adding genes to a living organism via genetic

engineering or other more traditional methods. Also referred to as gene splicing, recombinant

DNA (rDNA) technology or genetic engineering.

Genetically modified organism (GMO)

A new variety of plant produced using traditional plant breeding techniques, supplemented by

the insertion of a specific beneficial gene or genes. Also referred to as genetically engineered

organism (GEO).

Genetics

The study of the patterns of inheritance of specific traits.

Genome

All the genetic material in all the chromosomes of a particular organism. It is the master

blueprint for the total set of an organism’s genes.

Global warming

The consequences of the greenhouse effect, caused by the rising concentrations of greenhouse

gases. The suspicion is that global warming will disrupt weather and climatic patterns. It could

lead to droughts in some areas and flooding in others, and is seen as one of the major

environmental problems facing the world.

Glyphosate tolerant (Roundup Ready) crops

The most common herbicide-tolerant crops, which provide tolerance to glyphosate, a herbicide

effective on many species of grasses, broadleaf weeds and sedges. Roundup Ready crops

(cotton, corn, soybeans, canola) contain the Roundup Ready gene, which allows glyphosate to

be applied to the crop to provide effective weed control without damaging the crop itself.

Greenhouse effect

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 Process whereby greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere cause heat to be trapped in

the atmosphere rather than escaping into space. The greenhouse gases form an insulating

blanket around the planet. This blanket allows light and heat from the sun through, but prevents

some of the heat, which radiates back from the earth from escaping. The same effect occurs in

greenhouses, hence the name. The effect is natural and vital to current life forms on earth.

Without it, the planet would be frozen.

Greenhouse gases

Some gases – such as carbon dioxide, methane and water vapor – trap the sun’s heat in the

lower atmosphere and prevent it from escaping into space. A major source of the increased

concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is the combustion of fossil fuels.

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H

Herbicide

A substance used to kill plants, especially weeds.

Herbicide-tolerant crops

Crops that have been developed to survive application(s) of particular herbicides by the

incorporation of certain gene(s) either through genetic engineering or traditional breeding

methods. The genes allow the herbicides to be applied to the crop to provide effective weed

control without damaging the crop itself.

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I

Insecticide

A substance used to control certain populations of insect pests. In agriculture, insecticides are

used to control insect pests that feed on crops or carry plant disease.

Insect-resistant crops

Plants with the ability to withstand, deter or repel insects and thereby prevent them from feeding

on the plant. The traits (genes) determining resistance may be selected by plant breeders

through cross-pollination with other varieties of this crop or through the introduction of novel

genes such as Bt genes through genetic engineering.

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 Return to top
J

There are no glossary terms at this time.

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K

There are no glossary terms at this time.

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L

There are no glossary terms at this time.

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M

There are no glossary terms at this time.

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N

No-till farming

A method of farming that eliminates plowing to prepare the land for planting seeds and weed

control. Instead, crop residue is left on fields, and seed and nutrients are placed in narrow rows

or in drilled holes. Weed control is accomplished with suitable herbicides. Because the soil is

not disturbed or exposed through plowing, it is much less susceptible to erosion from both water

and wind.

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O

Organic agriculture / Organic farming

To qualify to use recognized organic labels, farmers must conform to a strict agricultural system

that minimizes the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators and livestock feed

additives. As far as practical, organic farming relies on crop rotation, crop residues, animal

manure, legumes, green manures, off-farm organic wastes, mechanical cultivation, mineral-

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 bearing rocks, and biological pest control to sustain soil productivity, supply plant nutrients and

control crop pests.

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P

Pesticide

A substance used to control pests, such as harmful insects, weeds or microorganisms.

Pest-resistant crops

Plants with the ability to withstand, deter or repel pests and thereby prevent them from

damaging the plants. Plant pests may include insects, nematodes, fungi, viruses, bacteria, and

weeds, among others.

Plant biotechnology

The addition of selected traits (genes) to plants to develop new plant varieties.

Plant breeding

The essential process of constantly developing newer, better and more environmentally suitable

plants for the purpose of food production. Plant breeders use cross-pollination, selection and

other techniques involving crossing plants to produce varieties with particular desired

characteristics (genes) that can be passed on to future plant generations. These become

important starting material for further improvements using genetic engineering.

Plant pests

Organisms that may directly or indirectly cause disease, spoilage or damage to plants, plant

parts or processed plant materials. Common examples include certain insects, mites,

nematodes, fungi, molds, viruses and bacteria.

Protein

A molecule composed of one or more chains of amino acids in a specific order. Proteins are

required for the structure, function and regulation of an organisms’ cells and tissues, and each

protein has a unique function.

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Q

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 There are no glossary terms at this time.

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R

Recombinant DNA (rDNA)

Fragments of DNA from two different organisms, such as a corn plant and a bacterium, spliced

together into a single molecule.

Recombinant DNA technology

Procedures used to join DNA segments in a cell-free system (e.g. in a test tube outside living

cells or organisms). Under appropriate conditions, a recombinant DNA molecule can be

introduced into a cell and copy itself (replicate), either as an independent entity (autonomously)

or as an integral part of a cellular chromosome.

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S

Selective breeding

Making deliberate crosses or matings of organisms so the offspring will have particular desired

characteristics derived from one or both of the parents.

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T

Tillage

Cultivation, including hoeing and plowing. In agriculture, tillage is used to fight weeds.

Traditional breeding

Modification of plants and animals through selective breeding. Practices used in traditional plant

breeding may include aspects of biotechnology such as tissue culture and mutational breeding

(mutagenesis).

Transgene

A gene from one organism inserted into another organism by recombinant DNA techniques.

Transgenic organism

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 A plant, animal, bacterium or other living organism, which has had one or more transgenes

added to it by means of genetic engineering.

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U

There are no glossary terms at this time.

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V

Variety

A group of individual plants that is uniform, stable and distinct genetically from other groups of

individuals in the same species.

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W

There are no glossary terms at this time.

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X

There are no glossary terms at this time.

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Y

There are no glossary terms at this time.

Glossary of Agricultural Biotechnology Terms

Note: These terms and definitions are intended for general

educational purposes only. They are not intended to replace
any definitions currently in use in any U.S. Government laws
or regulations, nor are they legally binding on the actions of
any Government agency. For specific definitions that apply to
any law or regulation of any Government agency, please
consult directly with that agency.
Agricultural Biotechnology: A range of tools, including
traditional breeding techniques, that alter living organisms, or
parts of organisms, to make or modify products; improve
plants or animals; or develop microorganisms for specific

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agricultural uses. Modern biotechnology today includes the
tools of genetic engineering.
Allergen: A substance, usually a protein, that can cause an
allergy or allergic reaction in the body.
Allergy: A reaction by the body's immune system after
exposure to a particular substance, often a protein.
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt): A soil bacterium that produces
toxins that are deadly to some pests. The ability to produce Bt
toxins has been engineered into some crops. See Bt crops.
Biopharming: The production of pharmaceuticals such as
edible vaccines and antibodies in plants or domestic animals.
Bt crops: Crops that are genetically engineered to carry a
gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). The
bacterium produces proteins that are toxic to some pests but
non-toxic to humans and other mammals. Crops containing
the Bt gene are able to produce this toxin, thereby providing
protection for the plant. Bt corn and Bt cotton are examples of
commercially available Bt crops.
Chromosome: The self-replicating genetic structure of cells,
containing genes, which determines inheritance of traits.
Chemically, each chromosome is composed of proteins and a
long molecule of DNA.
Clone: A genetic replica of an organism created without
sexual reproduction.
Cross-pollination: Fertilization of a plant with pollen from
another plant. Pollen may be transferred by wind, insects,
other organisms, or humans.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): The chemical substance from
which genes are made. DNA is a long, double-stranded helical
molecule made up of nucleotides which are themselves
composed of sugars, phosphates, and derivatives of the four
bases adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine
(T). The sequence order of the four bases in the DNA strands
determines the genetic information contained.
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA): A
technique using antibodies for detecting specific proteins.
Used to test for the presence of a particular genetically
engineered organism.
Field trial: A test of a new technique or variety, including
biotech-derived varieties, done outside the laboratory but with
specific requirements on location, plot size, methodology, etc.
Gene: The fundamental physical and functional unit of
heredity. A gene is typically a specific segment of a
chromosome and encodes a specific functional product (such
as a protein or RNA molecule).
Gene expression: The result of the activity of a gene or
genes which influence the biochemistry and physiology of an
organism and may change its outward appearance.
Gene flow: The movement of genes from one individual or
population to another genetically compatible individual or
population.
Gene mapping: Determining the relative physical locations
of genes on a chromosome. Useful for plant and animal
breeding.

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Gene (DNA) sequencing: Determining the exact sequence
of nucleotide bases in a strand of DNA to better understand
the behavior of a gene.
Genetic engineering: Manipulation of an organism's genes
by introducing, eliminating or rearranging specific genes using
the methods of modern molecular biology, particularly those
techniques referred to as recombinant DNA techniques.
Genetically engineered organism (GEO): An organism
produced through genetic engineering.
Genetic modification: The production of heritable
improvements in plants or animals for specific uses, via either
genetic engineering or other more traditional methods. Some
countries other than the United States use this term to refer
specifically to genetic engineering.
Genetically modified organism (GMO): An organism
produced through genetic modification.
Genetics: The study of the patterns of inheritance of specific
traits.
Genome: All the genetic material in all the chromosomes of a
particular organism.
Genomics: The mapping and sequencing of genetic material
in the DNA of a particular organism as well as the use of that
information to better understand what genes do, how they are
controlled, how they work together, and what their physical
locations are on the chromosome.
Genomic library: A collection of biomolecules made from
DNA fragments of a genome that represent the genetic
information of an organism that can be propagated and then
systematically screened for particular properties. The DNA
may be derived from the genomic DNA of an organism or
from DNA copies made from messenger RNA molecules. A
computer-based collection of genetic information from these
biomolecules can be a "virtual genomic library."
Genotype: The genetic identity of an individual. Genotype
often is evident by outward characteristics, but may also be
reflected in more subtle biochemical ways not visually
evident.
Herbicide-tolerant crops: Crops that have been developed
to survive application(s) of particular herbicides by the
incorporation of certain gene(s) either through genetic
engineering or traditional breeding methods. The genes allow
the herbicides to be applied to the crop to provide effective
weed control without damaging the crop itself.
Hybrid: The offspring of any cross between two organisms of
different genotypes.
Identity preservation: The segregation of one crop type
from another at every stage from production and processing
to distribution. This process is usually performed through
audits and site visits and provides independent third-party
verification of the segregation.
Insecticide resistance: The development or selection of
heritable traits (genes) in an insect population that allow
individuals expressing the trait to survive in the presence of
levels of an insecticide (biological or chemical control agent)
that would otherwise debilitate or kill this species of insect.

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The presence of such resistant insects makes the insecticide
less useful for managing pest populations.
Insect-resistance management: A strategy for delaying
the development of pesticide resistance by maintaining a
portion of the pest population in a refuge that is free from
contact with the insecticide. For Bt crops this allows the
insects feeding on the Bt toxin to mate with insects not
exposed to the toxin produced in the plants.
Insect-resistant crops: Plants with the ability to withstand,
deter or repel insects and thereby prevent them from feeding
on the plant. The traits (genes) determining resistance may
be selected by plant breeders through cross-pollination with
other varieties of this crop or through the introduction of
novel genes such as Bt genes through genetic engineering.
Intellectual property rights: The legal protection for
inventions, including new technologies or new organisms
(such as new plant varieties). The owner of these rights can
control their use and earn the rewards for their use. This
encourages further innovation and creativity for the benefit of
us all. Intellectual property rights protection includes various
types of patents, trademarks, and copyrights.
Molecular biology: The study of the structure and function
of proteins and nucleic acids in biological systems.
Mutation: Any heritable change in DNA structure or
sequence. The identification and incorporation of useful
mutations has been essential for traditional crop breeding.
Nucleotide: A subunit of DNA or RNA consisting of a
nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, thymine, or cytosine in
DNA; adenine, guanine, uracil, or cytosine in RNA), a
phosphate molecule, and a sugar molecule (deoxyribose in
DNA and ribose in RNA). Many of nucleotides are linked to
form a DNA or RNA molecule.
Organic agriculture: A concept and practice of agricultural
production that focuses on production without the use of
synthetic inputs and does not allow the use of transgenic
organisms. USDA's National Organic Program has established
a set of national standards for certified organic production
which are available online.
Outcrossing: Mating between different populations or
individuals of the same species that are not closely related.
The term "outcrossing" can be used to describe unintended
pollination by an outside source of the same crop during
hybrid seed production.
Pest-resistant crops: Plants with the ability to withstand,
deter or repel pests and thereby prevent them from damaging
the plants. Plant pests may include insects, nematodes, fungi,
viruses, bacteria, weeds, and other.
Pesticide resistance: The development or selection of
heritable traits (genes) in a pest population that allow
individuals expressing the trait to survive in the presence of
levels of a pesticide (biological or chemical control agent) that
would otherwise debilitate or kill this pest. The presence of
such resistant pests makes the pesticide less useful for
managing pest populations.
Phenotype: The visible and/or measurable characteristics of
an organism (how it appears outwardly).

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Plant breeding: The use of cross-pollination, selection, and
certain other techniques involving crossing plants to produce
varieties with particular desired characteristics (traits) that
can be passed on to future plant generations.
Plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs): Pesticidal
substances introduced into plants by genetic engineering that
are produced and used by the plant to protect it from pests.
The protein toxins of Bt are often used as PIPs in the
formation of Bt crops.
Plant pests: Organisms that may directly or indirectly cause
disease, spoilage, or damage to plants, plant parts or
processed plant materials. Common examples include certain
insects, mites, nematodes, fungi, molds, viruses, and
bacteria.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): A technique used to
create a large number of copies of a target DNA sequence of
interest. One use of PCR is in the detection of DNA sequences
that indicate the presence of a particular genetically
engineered organism.
Promoter: A region of DNA that regulates the level of
function of other genes.
Protein: A molecule composed of one or more chains of
amino acids in a specific order. Proteins are required for the
structure, function, and regulation of the body's cells, tissues,
and organs, and each protein has a unique function.
Recombinant DNA (rDNA): A molecule of DNA formed by
joining different DNA segments using recombinant DNA
technology.
Recombinant DNA technology: Procedures used to join
together DNA segments in a cell-free system (e.g. in a test
tube outside living cells or organisms). Under appropriate
conditions, a recombinant DNA molecule can be introduced
into a cell and copy itself (replicate), either as an independent
entity (autonomously) or as an integral part of a cellular
chromosome.
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA): A chemical substance made up of
nucleotides compound of sugars, phosphates, and derivatives
of the four bases adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and
uracil (U). RNAs function in cells as messengers of information
from DNA that are translated into protein or as molecules that
have certain structural or catalytic functions in the synthesis
of proteins. RNA is also the carrier of genetic information for
certain viruses. RNAs may be single or double stranded.
Selectable marker: A gene, often encoding resistance to an
antibiotic or an herbicide, introduced into a group of cells to
allow identification of those cells that contain the gene of
interest from the cells that do not. Selectable markers are
used in genetic engineering to facilitate identification of cells
that have incorporated another desirable trait that is not easy
to identify in individual cells.
Selective breeding: Making deliberate crosses or matings of
organisms so the offspring will have particular desired
characteristics derived from one or both of the parents.
Traditional breeding: Modification of plants and animals
through selective breeding. Practices used in traditional plant
breeding may include aspects of biotechnology such as tissue

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culture and mutational breeding.
Transgene: A gene from one organism inserted into another
organism by recombinant DNA techniques.
Transgenic organism: An organism resulting from the
insertion of genetic material from another organism using
recombinant DNA techniques.
Variety: A subdivision of a species for taxonomic
classification also referred to as a 'cultivar.' A variety is a
group of individual plants that is uniform, stable, and distinct
genetically from other groups of individuals in the same
species.
Vector: 1. A type of DNA element, such as a plasmid, or the
genome of a bacteriophage, or virus, that is self-replicating
and that can be used to transfer DNA segments into target
cells. 2. An insect or other organism that provides a means of
dispersal for a disease or parasite.

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