Industrial Electronics

Assignment 2: Oscillator and VLSI.

Introduction:

The assignment consists of two very important topics of electronics that are widely used
everywhere in electronics industry. The first topic is oscillators which have two subtopics feedback
oscillator and then 555 timer that is actually a crystal oscillator. Question 4 is a design question in which
ones needs to draw a schematic diagram and as well as stick diagram to for CMOS (complementary
metal-oxide semiconductor). Q5 is similar to question 4 but it requires sizing a transistor based on the
given ratio.

Q1: RC Feedback Oscillator:

RC oscillators employ resistors and capacitors and are mostly used to generate low or
audio-frequency signals. Hence they are also known as audio-frequency (A.F) oscillators. The tuned or
LC oscillators are not suitable at low-frequencies because the size of inductors and capacitors becomes
very large. In these oscillators the single stage of the amplifier amplifies the input signal and produces a
phase shift of 180. To obtain positive feedback for sustained oscillation, the output of first stage is fed to
a phase shift network to produce an additional phase shift of 180. Thus a total of 360 phase shift which
is equivalent to zero occurs. RC feedback oscillators are used to implement in circuits where low
frequencies are needed as it only operates at 1Mhz frequency or less than that. . These low frequency sine
wave oscillators are used in many audio applications and different designs are used having either a fixed
or variable frequency.

There are three most important types of RC feedback oscillator that are as follows:

1: Wien-Bridge Oscillator.

2: Phase Shift Oscillator

3: Twin-T Oscillator.

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1:Wien-Bridge Oscillator:

It is one of the most popular types of oscillators used in audio and sub-audio frequency
ranges (20 20 kHz). This type of oscillator is simple in design, compact in size, and remarkably stable in
its frequency output. Furthermore, its output is relatively free from distortion and its frequency can be
varied easily. However, the maximum frequency output of a typical Wien bridge oscillator is only about 1
MHz. This is also, in fact, a phase-shift oscillator. It employs two transistors, each producing a phase shift
of 180, and thus producing a total phase-shift of 360 or 0. The figure and the frequency response curve
of the Wien-Bridge oscillator is shown below:

Operation and Function of Wien-Bridge Oscillator:

The output of the operational amplifier is fed back to both the inputs of the amplifier. One part of the
feedback signal is connected to the inverting input terminal (negative feedback) via the resistor divider
network of R1 and R2 which allows the amplifiers voltage gain to be adjusted within narrow limits. The
other part is fed back to the non-inverting input terminal (positive feedback) via the RC Wien Bridge
network.

The RC network is connected in the positive feedback path of the amplifier and has zero phase shift a just
one frequency. Then at the selected resonant frequency, ( r ) the voltages applied to the inverting and
non-inverting inputs will be equal and in-phase so the positive feedback will cancel out the negative
feedback signal causing the circuit to oscillate.

The voltage gain of the amplifier circuit MUST be equal to or greater than three Gain = 3 for
oscillations to start because of the reason that input is 1/3 of the output. This value, ( Av 3 ) is set by the

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feedback resistor network, R1 and R2 and for a non-inverting amplifier this is given as the
ratio 1+(R1/R2).

Also, due to the open-loop gain limitations of operational amplifiers, frequencies above 1MHz are
unachievable without the use of special high frequency op-amps. The formula to find frequency is
fr=1/2RC.

The circuit is set in oscillation by any random change in base current of transistor Q1,that may be due to
noise inherent in the transistor or variation in voltage of dc supply. This variation in base current is
amplified in collector circuit of transistor Q1 but with a phase-shift of 180. The output of transistor Q1 is
fed to the base of second transistor Q2 through capacitor C4. Now a still further amplified and twice
phase-reversed signal appears at the collector of the transistor Q2. Having been inverted twice, the output
signal will be in phase with the signal input to the base of transistor Q1. A part of the output signal at
transistor Q2 is fed back to the input points of the bridge circuit (point A-C). A part of this feedback
signal is applied to emitter resistor R4 where it produces degenerative effect (or negative feedback).
Similarly, a part of the feedback signal is applied across the base-bias resistor R2 where it produces
regenerative effect (or positive feedback). At the rated frequency, effect of regeneration is made slightly
more than that of degeneration so as to obtain sustained oscillations.

The continuous frequency variation in this oscillator can be achieved by varying the two
capacitors C1 and C2 simultaneously. These capacitors are variable air-gang capacitors. We can
change the frequency range of the oscillator by switching into the circuit different values of
resistors R1 and R2.

Applications of Wein-Brdige Oscillator:

1. To provide excitation for ac bridges

2. To provide a signal for testing filters.
3. Excitation for LVDT
4. To produce pure tones.
5. Distortion testing of power amplifiers.
6. Used for the measurement of audio frequency.
7. All commercial audio generators make use of Wien- bridge oscillator.

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Phase Shift oscillator:

The phase shift oscillator produces positive feedback by using an inverting

amplifier and adding another 180 of phase shift with the three high-pass filter circuits. It has three stages
through which produces the phase shift where as each stage is just a capacitor in series connected to the
resistor in parallel. At each stage the 60 inversion is achieved so as it passes through three stages it
produces a complete inversion of 180. This is how the phase shift works, it is the simplest of all the
oscillators available but in order for the oscillations to sustain the gain has to be greater than 29. The
frequency of resonance for this circuit can be calculated as fr=1/2(6RC)^1/2). The diagram of the phase
shift oscillator is shown below:

Function and operation of Phase-Shift Oscillator:

The collector resistor RC limits the collector current of the transistor, resistors R1 and R
(nearest to the transistor) form the voltage divider network while the emitter resistor Re improves the
stability. Next, the capacitors Ce and Co are the emitter by-pass capacitor and the output DC decoupling
capacitor, respectively. Further the circuit also shows three RC networks employed in the feedback path.
This arrangement causes the output waveform to shift by 180 during its course of travel from output
terminal to the base of the transistor. Next, this signal will be shifted again by 180 by the transistor in the
circuit due to the fact that the phase-difference between the input and the output will be 180 in the case
of common emitter configuration. This makes the net phase-difference to be 360, satisfying the phase-
difference condition. One more way of satisfying the phase-difference condition is to use four RC
networks, each offering a phase-shift of 45. Hence it can be concluded that the RC phase-shift oscillators
can be designed in many ways as the number of RC networks in them is not fixed. However it is to be
noted that, although an increase in the number of stages increases the frequency stability of the circuit, it
also adversely affects the output frequency of the oscillator due to the loading effect. Further, it is to be

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noted that the frequency of the RC phase-shift oscillators can be varied by changing either the resistors or
the capacitors.

Applications of Phase-Shift Oscillator:

It provides good Frequency stability.

Circuit is simpler than other OSCILLATOR.
It doesn't need any negative feedback and stabilization arrangements.
The output is Sinusoidal so it is quite Distortion Free
Having wide operating Frequency range.
Also suitable for low Frequencies.
It is well suited to the range of frequencies from several hertz to several kilohertz(20Hz to
200KHz).
For generating different audio-frequencies
It is not suitable for higher frequency operations.

Twin-T Oscillator:

Twin-T oscillator utilizes its circuit to all the frequencies and allows only the
frequencies to pass in its negative feedback loop. The only frequency that is allowed to pass is the
frequency of resonance. One of the twin-T filters has a low-pass response, and the other has a high-pass
response. The combined parallel filters produce a band-stop response with a center frequency equal to the
desired frequency of oscillation. Oscillation cannot occur at frequencies above or below because of the
negative feedback through the filters. At however, there is negligible negative feedback; thus, the positive
feedback through the voltage divider allows the circuit to oscillate. The formula to find frequency for
twin-T is fc = 1 / (2 pi R C). Twin-T is a combination of high pass and low pass filter. The circuit and the
frequency response curve for twin-t oscillator is shown below:

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Operation and function of Twin-T oscillator:

The positive feedback to the non-inverting input is given through the potential
divider of R1and R2. R2 is the resistance of the potential divider. The negative feedback to the inverting
input is given through twin-T filter.

When the power is given to the circuit, the resistance R2 is low and positive feedback is maximum. This
helps to build the oscillations. As oscillations grow, the resistance R2 increases, decreasing the positive
feedback. This controls the growing oscillations and makes them as sustained oscillations. So R2 helps to
stabilize the level of output voltage.

Now oscillations cannot occur at frequency other than fr. Because at a frequency other than fr, there is a
negative feedback loop, which is not allowed for oscillators. Only at fr, the negative feedback loop is
negligible and hence positive feedback through R1 and R2 allows circuit to oscillate. To ensure that the
oscillation frequency is near the notch frequency fr, R/2 of the twin-T is kept variable.

Applications of Twin-T oscillator:

This can be used as DC bias for alternating sources.

This oscillator provides a really good frequency stability.
The twin T circuit is very useful as a notch filter
One example is to filter out unwanted mains hum at 50 or 60 Hz that may be entering a circuit.
Used to eliminate noise in the signal processed by the ECG.

Q2: LC feedback Oscillator:

An LC oscillator is actually a feedback oscillator which uses capacitors and inductors in

its feedback network. It can be built from a transistor, an operational amplifier, a tube, or some other
active (amplifying) device. Oscillation is brought about by applying a portion of the amplifiers output
signal to its input. That feedback signal must be applied in phase with the original input signal. The
amplifier is usually an inverter that provides 180 degrees of phase shift by itself, and an additional 180
degree of phase shift must be provided through some other means.

In an LC oscillator circuit, the feedback network is a tuned circuit (often called a tank circuit). The tuned
circuit is a resonator consisting of an inductor (L) and a capacitor (C) connected together. Charge flows
back and forth between the capacitor's plates through the inductor, so the tuned circuit can store electrical
energy oscillating at its resonant frequency. There are small losses in the tank circuit, but the amplifier

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compensates for those losses and supplies the power for the output signal. LC oscillators are often used at
radio frequencies, when a tunable frequency source is necessary, such as in signal generators, tunable
radio transmitters and the local oscillators in radio receivers. These circuits are used for frequencies more
than 1 Mhz and transistors are used as active devices in these circuits. Typical LC oscillator circuits are
the Hartley, Colpitts and Clapp circuits.

Colpitts Oscillator:

The Colpitts oscillator can be realized using valves, transistors, FETs or op-amp. It is much
similar to the Hartley oscillator except tank circuit. In Colpitts oscillator the tank circuit consists of two
capacitors in series and an inductor connected in parallel to the serial combination. The frequency of the
oscillations is determined by the value of the capacitors and inductor in the tank circuit.

Colpitts oscillator is generally used in RF applications and the typical operating range is 20 KHz to
300MHz. In Colpitts oscillator, the capacitive voltage divider setup in the tank circuit works as the
feedback source and this arrangement gives better frequency stability when compared to the Hartley
oscillator which uses an inductive voltage divider setup for feedback. The frequency of this oscillator can
be calculated as fr= 1/(2(LCt)1/2)The circuit diagram of a typical Colpitts oscillator using JFET is
shown in the figure below.

Operation and Function of Colpitt Oscillator:

It consists of basically a L-C phase shift network, known as tank circuit and a
single stage invaries capacitating amplifier. Two series capacitors C1&C2 form potential divider network.
The voltage across C1 is feedback positively. The resistors R1 ,R2 , and R3 provides the necessary d.c. bias
to keep the transistor in active region. The potential divider network is formed by Re and C4 along with

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resistance R1&R2 to provide stability to the circuit. The radio freq. coil RFC at which Vcc is applied
helps in easy flow of current as it allows the dc current to flow easily and blocks the high frequency
current. The output is taken out of this inductor by transformer coupling. The junction of C1 and C2 is
grounded.

When collector supply voltage Vcc switched on, then a transient current flows through the tank circuit.
The current produces an AC voltage acrossC1 and another a.c. voltage across C2. Thus the tank circuit
produces a 180 phase shift between output collector voltage and feedback voltage. The transistor
produces a further 180 phase shift. These capacitors discharged through the coil L. The coil again
discharges through the capacitors and the oscillations starts up.

Applications of Colpitts Oscillator:

Colpitts oscillators are used for high frequency range and high frequency stability
A surface acoustical wave (SAW) resonator
Microwave applications
Mobile and communication systems
These are used in chaotic circuits which are capable to generate oscillations from audio frequency
range to the optical band. These application areas include broadband communications, spectrum
spreading, signal masking, etc.

Clapp Oscillator:

Clapp oscillator is just an extension of that of the colpitts oscillator. Here one more capacitor is joined in
series with the other two. The extension of capacitors with series in C1 and C2 , remove frequency
distortion. Thus the same formula applies for Clapp oscillator to find the frequency. Another important
noticeable difference is the use of Transistor instead of JFET. The main purpose of adding this additional
capacitor C3 is to improve the frequency stability. The insertion of this additional capacitor C3 prevents
the stray capacitances and other parameters of the transistor from affecting C1 and C2. In variable
frequency applications using Clapp oscillator, the common practice is to make the C1, C2 fixed and C3 is
made variable. The circuit diagram of Clapp oscillator is shown on the next page:

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Function and Operation of Clapp Oscillator:

The working of this circuit is almost identical to that of the Colpitts, where
the feedback ratio governs the generation and sustainability of the oscillations. However the frequency of
oscillation in the case of Clapp oscillator is given by:

The reason to mention this formula is just because the addition of the new capacitor C3 that will as its
additionally added into the circuit. Usually the value of C3 is chosen to be much smaller than the other
two capacitors. This is because, at higher frequencies, smaller the C3, larger will be the inductor, which
eases the implementation as well as reduces the influence of stray inductance. Nevertheless, the value of
C3 is to be chosen with utmost care. This is because, if it is chosen to be very small, then the oscillations
will not be generated as the L-C branch will fail to have a net inductive reactance. However, here it is to
be noted that when C3 is chosen to be smaller in comparison with C1 and C2, the Further, the presence of
this extra capacitance will make the Clapp oscillator preferable over Colpitts when there is a need to vary
the frequency as is the case with Variable Frequency Oscillator (VCO). The reason behind this can be
explained as follows.

In the case of Colpitts oscillator, the capacitors C1 and C2 need to be varied in order to vary its frequency
of operation. However during this process, even the feedback ratio of the oscillator changes which in turn
affects its output waveform. One solution to this problem is to make both C1 and C2 to be fixed in nature
while achieve the variation in frequency using a separate variable capacitor. As could be guessed, this is
what the C3 does in the case of Clapp oscillator, which in turn makes it more stable over Colpitts in terms
of frequency. The frequency stability of the circuit can be even more increased by enclosing the entire
circuit in a chamber with constant temperature and by using a Zener diode to ensure constant
supply voltage.

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In addition, it is to be noted that the values of the capacitors C1 and C2 are prone to the effect of stray
capacitances unlike that of C3. This means that the resonant frequency of the circuit would be affected by
the stray capacitances if one had a circuit with just C1 and C2, as in the case of Colpitts oscillator.
However if there is C3 in the circuit, then the changes in the values of C1 and C2 would not vary the
resonant frequency much, as the dominant term would then be C3. Next, it is seen that the Clapp
oscillators are comparatively compact as they employ a relatively small capacitor to tune the oscillator
over a wide frequency band. This is because, here, even a slight change in the value of the capacitance
varies the frequency of the circuit upto a great extent. Further they exhibit high Q-factor with a high L/C
ratio and lesser circulating current in comparison with Colpitts oscillators. Lastly it is to be noted that
these oscillators are highly reliable and are hence preferred inspite of having a limited range of frequency
of operation. In short it can be said that the Clapps are just like Colpitts but only theres one additional
capacitor in the tank for filtering purposes and also Clapp consist of transistor whereas Colpitts consists
of JFET.

Applications of Clapp Oscillator:

These are used in the development of radio devices e.g mobiles, walkie talkies.
These can be used to generate pure sine waves with very high frequencies.
It is also used in sensor technologies such as Heat sensor and Temperature sensors.
These are very useful in applications which require a very wide range of frequency in a single
device.
The combination of this circuit with other devices excluding tank circuit can lead to great
temperature operating stability with very high frequencies.
This circuit is used in devices where temperature rises and becomes low frequently.

Hartley Oscillator:

The Hartley oscillator is one of the classical LC feedback circuits and used to generate high
frequency waveforms or signals. These can be implemented by using different circuit configurations. The
major parts of the Hartley oscillators are the amplifier section and the tank section. The tank section
consists of two inductors and one capacitor. Each section produces a phase shift of 180 degrees of the AC
signal voltage and hence it produces a sine wave voltage. The Hartley is similar to Clapp and Colpitt but
only the tank circuit has two inductors and one capacitor. The calculation of the resonant frequency is the
same as that of the Colpitt and Clapp. The construction is similar to that of colpitt oscillator the change is

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Capacitor C1&C2 are replaced by a single capacitor C. The coil L is replaced by the coils L1&L2. C3 is
a bypass capacitor used for stabilization of operating point (Q). The frequency of oscillations of this
circuit is fr = 1/ (2 (Leq C)). The Circuit of the Hartley oscillator is shown below:

Operation and Function of Hartley Oscillator:

NPN transistor connected in common emitter configuration serves as active

device in amplifier stage. R1 and R2 are biasing resistors and RFC is the radio frequency choke which
provides the isolation between AC and DC operation. At high frequencies, the reactance value of this
choke is very high; hence it can be treated as open circuit. The reactance is zero for DC condition hence
causes no problem for DC capacitors. CE is the emitter bypass capacitor and RE is also a biasing resistor.
Capacitors C1 and C2 are the coupling capacitors.

When the DC supply (Vcc) is given to the circuit, collector current starts raising and begins the charging
of the capacitor C. Once C is fully charged, it starts discharging through L1 and L2 and again starts
charging. This back-and-fourth voltage waveform is a sine wave which is a small and leads with its
negative alteration. It will eventually die out unless it is amplified. Now the transistor comes into the
picture. The sine wave generated by the tank circuit is coupled to the base of the transistor through the
capacitor C1.

Since the transistor is configured as common-emitter, it takes the input from tank circuit and inverts it to a
standard sine wave with a leading positive alteration.

Thus the transistor provides amplification as well as inversion to amplify and correct the signal generated
by the tank circuit. The mutual inductance between the L1 and L2 provides the feedback of energy from

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collector-emitter circuit to base-emitter circuit. There is also another important effect is Hartley oscillator
that is mentioned below:

Mutual Inductance in Hartley Oscillator:

The change in current through coil induces the current in other vicinity coil by the magnetic field is called
as mutual inductance. It is an additional amount of inductance caused in one inductor due to the magnetic
flux of other inductor.

By considering the effect of mutual inductance, the total inductance of the coils can be calculated by the
formula given below.

Leq = L1 + L2 + 2M

Where M is the mutual inductance and its value depends on the effective coupling between the inductors,
spacing between them, dimensions of each coil, number of turns in each coil and type of material used for
the common core.

In radio frequency oscillators, depending on the North and south polarities of the fields generated by the
closely coupled inductors, the total inductance of the circuit is determined.

If the fields generated by the individual coils are in the same direction, then the mutual inductance will
add to the total inductance, hence the total inductance is increased.

If the fields are in opposite direction, then the mutual inductance will reduce the total inductance.
Therefore, the oscillator working frequency will be increased.

The design of the Hartley oscillator considers this mutual effect of the two inductors. In practical, a
common core is used for both inductors, however depending on the coefficient of coupling the mutual
inductance effect can be much greater.

This coefficient value is unity when there is hundred percent magnetic coupling between the inductors
and its value is zero if there is no magnetic coupling between the inductors.

Applications of Hartley Oscillator:

1. Wide operational frequency range which typically ranges from 20 KHz to 30 MHz.
2. As it has a frequency range of 30 MHz it can be used in Rf device such as radio receivers
transmitters.
3. Due to their inductor tank circuitry these are very useful in producing a frequency of desired
level.

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 4. These are the most popular oscillators due to their wide range of frequencies.

Q3: 555 Timer as an Oscillator:

Crystal Oscillator:

555 timer comes under the category of crystal oscillator so its very important understand the
category (crystal oscillators). Not to forget that crystal oscillators are a part LC oscillators but are used
within the IC 555 timer. A crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of
a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material (ex.quartz,rochellesalt) to create an electrical signal with a
very precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz
wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies
for radio transmitters. Crystal are used for high frequencies generally less than 20Mhz but high
frequencies can be achieved by operating crystal in its overtone mode. Overtones are usually an odd
multiples of a crystals fundamental. The most basic circuit diagram of crystal looks like this:

U1 HC49S_CY11BS

C1 1u R1 1k

L1 1m

Circuit diagram of voltage series of crystal is as follows:

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Working of a circuit in Voltage Series:

Resistor R1, R2 and Re provide a voltage-divider stabilized dc bias circuit. Capacitor Ce provides ac
bypass of emitter resistor Re .Radio frequency coil (RFC) provides for dc bias while decoupling any ac
signal on power lines form affecting the output signal. The voltage feedback signal form the collector to
the base in maximum when the crystal impedance is minimum. The coupling capacitor Cc has negligible
impedance at the circuit operation frequency but block any dc between collector to base .The resulting
circuit frequency of oscillation is set by the series resonant frequency of the crystal. Variation in power
supply voltage, transistor parameter, etc. have no effect on the circuit operating frequency which is held
stabilized by the crystal. The circuit frequency stability is set by the crystal frequency stability, which is
good.

As we go further deeply into crystal oscillators another type that is under crystal oscillator is called
relaxation oscillator which are explained below:

Relaxation Oscillator:

Relaxation oscillators are non-sinusoidal oscillators which generate triangular, square

and pulse waveforms using a circuit building block known as multivibrators. When the loop gain is
greater than unity and the feedback is positive then the output produced is nearly similar to the sine wave
which last for most of the periodic time. In that state the amplifier is either in the state of saturation or cut
off. These types of oscillators are called as relaxation oscillators. In such oscillators, amplifiers used act
as high-gain amplifier for short period of time and then wait for a change to takes place. Therefore, the
frequency of oscillations does not directly depend on natural frequency of LC circuit or phase shift.

The time intervals at which the amplifier is not in the active part of the circuit decides the frequency of
oscillation. Relaxation oscillator uses a device to change states and an RC timing circuit to generate a
periodic output waveform.

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During one phase of oscillation, a relaxation oscillator stores the energy in reactive element or component
and in the next phase of the cycle it gradually releases the energy. The relaxation oscillator concept is
illustrated in the above figure in which a flash bulb is illuminated periodically for certain interval of time.
The circuit arrangement consists of a battery, capacitor and bulb with 5V firing threshold. When the
capacitor is charged to the firing threshold level of the blubs, the capacitor starts discharging and supplies
its stored energy to the blub. Then the bulb starts flashing for a time given by the time constant of the
capacitor and resistor combination. After the flash the capacitor again starts charging and this will be
continued or repetitive. The repetitive time depends on the charging and discharging times. The same
principle is applied in relaxation oscillator and hence it is a repetitive circuit.

Relaxation oscillators are divided into two classes namely sawtooth oscillators and astable multivibrators.
In first case, conduction of switching device causes the capacitor to discharge rapidly and instantly so the
total output waveform takes up by the charging period alone virtually. In astable type both charging and
discharging of the capacitor takes place slowly through a resistor. Hence the total output waveform
contributed by these two periods.

Now lets discuss the properties of 555 timer that our man point of interest for this question:

555 Timer:

The 555 is a single-chip version of a commonly used circuit called a multivibrator, which is useful in a
wide variety of electronic circuits. 555 Timer is a digital monolithic integrated circuit which may be used
as a clock generator. In other words, 555 Timer is a circuit which may be connected as a stable or
monostable multivibrator. 555 Timer is a versatile and most usable device in the electronics circuits and
designs which work for both stable and monostable states. It may provide time delay from microseconds
up to many hours. The 555 timer chip is probably the most popular integrated circuit ever made. It is
used to generate square wave pulses on a desired level. The frequency is determined by the external
components R1, R2 and C. The formula below shows the relationship of the 555 timer in terms of the
frequency: fr= 1.44/((R1+2R2)C). The circuit and schematic diagram for IC 555 is shown below:

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Duty cycles for 555 timer can be adjusted by values of Ra and Rb. The duty cycle is limited to 50% with
this kind of arrangement. If ones want to have duty cycles less than 50%, a diode is placed across Rb.
These formulas show the relationship:

Duty cycle > 50%= Ra +Rb/Ra +2Rb X 100%

Duty cycle < 50% w/diode = Ra/Ra + Ra X 100%

Working of 555 timer IC(by pins):

It comes in different packages but the most commonly used one is with the 8Pins as shown previously
which is used in all the small circuitry for timing delays. Below is the function of each pin of 555 timer:

Ground: Pin 1 is connected to ground.

VCC: Pin 8 is connected to the positive supply voltage. This voltage must be at least 4.5 V and no greater
than 15 V. Its common to run 555 circuits using four AA or AAA batteries, providing 6 V, or a single 9
V battery.

Output: Pin 3 is the output pin. The output is either low, which is very close to 0 V, or high, which is
close to the supply voltage thats placed on pin 8. The exact shape of the output that is, how long its
high and how long its low, depends on the connections to the remaining five pins.

Trigger: Pin 2 is the trigger, which works like a starters pistol to start the 555 timer running. The trigger
is an active low trigger, which means that the timer starts when voltage on pin 2 drops to below one-third
of the supply voltage. When the 555 is triggered via pin 2, the output on pin 3 goes high.

Discharge: Pin 7 is called the discharge. This pin is used to discharge an external capacitor that works in
conjunction with a resistor to control the timing interval. In most circuits, pin 7 is connected to the supply
voltage through a resistor and to ground through a capacitor.

Threshold: Pin 6 is called the threshold. The purpose of this pin is to monitor the voltage across the
capacitor thats discharged by pin 7. When this voltage reaches two thirds of the supply voltage (Vcc), the
timing cycle ends, and the output on pin 3 goes low.

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Control: Pin 5 is the control pin. In most 555 circuits, this pin is simply connected to ground, usually
through a small 0.01 F capacitor. (The purpose of the capacitor is to level out any fluctuations in the
supply voltage that might affect the operation of the timer.)

Reset: Pin 4 is the reset pin, which can be used to restart the 555s timing operation. Like the trigger
input, reset is an active low input. Thus, pin 4 must be connected to the supply voltage for the 555 timer
to operate. If pin 4 is momentarily grounded, the 555 timers operation is interrupted and wont start again
until its triggered again via pin 2.

Operation or Modes of 555 Times:

There are three modes of IC 555 timer that are widely used and are very important to understand the
working of 555 timer. These are known as Monostable mode Astable and Bistable mode which are
described below:

Monostable mode:

The 555 timer chip in monostable mode in an electronic circuit works like an egg timer. When you start
it, the timer turns on the output, waits for the time interval to elapse, and then turns the output off and
stops. This mode is called monostable because when wired this way, the 555 has just one stable mode,
with the output at pin 3 off. The circuit for the monostable mode of 555 timer looks like this:

To understand how this circuit works, first look at the way the 10 k resistor and the switch are wired to
pin 2, the trigger input. The switch is a normally open pushbutton. When the button isnt depressed, the

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10 k resistor provides a voltage input to pin 2, which keeps the trigger input high. With the trigger input
high, the output voltage at pin 3 is near zero. When the pushbutton switch is depressed, the supply voltage
is short-circuited to ground. This causes the voltage at pin 2 to drop to zero, and the timer is triggered.
Once the timer is triggered, the output voltage at pin 3 goes high and the timing interval begins.

Working of a triggering circuit:

Now that you understand how the trigger circuit works, look at how the RC
circuit (R1 and C1) works. The resistor and capacitor work together to determine how long the output will
remain high, In a nutshell, once the circuit is triggered, C1 begins to charge.

Pins 6 and 7 the threshold and discharge pins are tied together in a monostable 555 circuit.
Pin 6 watches the voltage across the capacitor. As the capacitor charges, this voltage increases.
When the capacitor voltage reaches two thirds of the Vcc supply voltage, the timing cycle ends,
and the output at pin 3 goes low. The discharge pin (pin 7), charges and discharges the capacitor.
To understand how pin 7 works, it may be helpful to visualize the internal workings of pin 7.
Here, pin 7 is connected to a switch thats controlled by the status of the output at pin 3. When the
output is high, the switch is open; when the output is low, the switch is closed. When the switch
is closed, a small 10 resistor within the 555 connects pin 7 to ground. When the output on pin 3
is low, the imaginary switch inside the 555 is closed, and pin 7 is connected to ground through the
10 resistor. This allows the voltage on C1 to discharge through the 555.
But when the output on pin 3 goes high, the imaginary switch inside the 555 is opened. This
forces the current flowing through R1 to go through C1, which in turn causes the capacitor to
charge at a rate that depends on the values of R1 and the capacitor.

While the capacitor is charging, pin 6 monitors the voltage that builds up across the capacitor. Once this
voltage reaches two-thirds of the supply voltage, pin 6 signals the 555 that the timing interval is ended,
and the output goes low. This, in turn, closes the imaginary switch inside the 555, which allows the
capacitor to discharge. The output waveform under the monostable mode is as follows:

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Astable Mode:

Another common way to use a 555 timer is in astable mode. The term astable simply means
that the 555 has no stable state: Just as it gets settled into one state (say, the output at pin 3 high), it
switches to the opposite state (output low). Then it switches back to the first state, and so on, ad infinitum.
This mode is also called oscillator mode, because it uses the 555 as an oscillator, which creates a square
wave signal. The circuit for the Astable mode is as follows:

To understand how this circuit works, first notice that the trigger pin (pin 2) is connected directly to C1.
In the monostable circuit, the timer was triggered by a switch that short-circuited the voltage applied to
pin 2. In the astable circuit, the timer is triggered when the capacitor discharges once the voltage
across the capacitor drops to one-third of the supply voltage, pin 2 triggers the timer to start another cycle.

With the output high, the discharge pin (pin 7) is open, forcing current through resistors R2 and
C1.
This causes the capacitor to charge at a rate that depends on the combined value of R1 and R2
and the value of C1.
As the capacitor charges, the voltage at pins 2 and 6 increases.
The threshold circuitry within the 555 causes the output voltage at pin 3 to go low.
This happens when the voltage at pin 6 (the threshold pin) reaches two-thirds of the supply
voltage, t
When the output at pin 3 goes low, the discharge pin (pin 7) is connected to ground within the
555.

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 This allows C1 to discharge. This discharge occurs through R2, so the value of R2 as well as the
value of the capacitor determines the rate at which the capacitor discharges.
As the capacitor discharges, the voltage at pins 2 and 6 decreases.
The trigger circuitry inside the 555 causes the output at pin 3 to go high.
But not until the voltage at pin 2 (the trigger pin) drops to one third of the supply voltage.
When the output at pin 3 goes high, the discharge pin (pin 7) is opened, and the cycle starts over
again.

The output waveform for astable mode is shown below:

Bistable Mode:

A flip-flop is an electronic circuit that alternates between two output states. In a flip-flop, a
short pulse on the trigger causes the output to go high and stay high, even after the trigger pulse ends. The
output stays high until a reset pulse is received, at which time the output goes low. This type of circuit is
called bistable because the circuit has two stable states: high and low. The circuit stays low until its
triggered. Then, it stays high until its reset. This type of circuit is used extensively in computers and
other digital circuits. 555 timer also has this flip flop in its circuitry thats why it can perform this
mode:The circuit for 555 timer is as follows:

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This circuit doesnt require a capacitor. Thats because in bistable mode, the 555 isnt used as a timer.
The highs and lows of the output signal are controlled by the trigger and reset inputs, not by the charging
and discharging of a capacitor. In astable or monostable mode, the output pin would remain high until the
voltage at the threshold pin (pin 6) reaches two-thirds of the supply voltage. However, because pin 6 isnt
connected to anything in this circuit, no voltage is ever present on pin 6. Thus, the threshold is never
reached, so the output remains high indefinitely until the 555 is reset by a low pulse on the reset pin (pin
4). The reset input (pin 4) is connected to Vcc in the same manner as the trigger input. As a result, when
the reset switch is pressed, pin 4 is short circuited to ground, creating a low pulse, which resets the 555
and brings the output back to high.

Applications of IC 555 timer:

Since the introduction of the IC 555 in the early 70s, it has been employed in numerous circuits and
applications by researchers as well as hobbyists. Some of the important areas of applications of the 555
timer are:

Pulse Generation
Time Delay Generation
Precision Timing
Sequential Timing
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

The typical applications of a 555 timer can be differentiated by the mode of operation. Depending on the
mode in which it is operated i.e. either in astable bistable or in monostable mode, some of the applications
of IC 555 are:

Frequency Divider
Linear Ramp Generator
Missing Pulse Detector
Pulse Position Modulation
Square Wave Generation
Pulse Width Modulation
Oscillator
Tone Burst Generator
Speed Warning Device
Regulated DC to DC Converter
Voltage to Frequency Converter

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 Low Cost Line Receiver
Cable Tester

Conclusion:

This assignment has helped a lot to understand the concepts of oscillators as well as its different
types. Since these are really useful in electronics industry so with the help of this assignment its been
learnt that how the smaller components such as resistors and capacitors can contribute to the change in the
output waveform of the oscillator. The concept of positive and negative feedback and also the phase
shifting of waves has been refreshed. Along with the oscillators is the IC 555 timer which has been learnt
in detail with all of its respective modes. Furthermore, by the help of applications of each circuit the
concept about the use of oscillators has improved a lot. To draw schematics has been a wonderful learning
experience and its been understood that how the CMOS are designed to produce different logic gates and
how their sizing ratio can be obtained and why their sizing is very important. At last even though this
assignment was lengthy and time consuming but its learning outcomes are worth the time spent doing it.

References:

1. Lowe, D. (n.d.). ELECTRONICS COMPONENTS: HOW THE 555 TIMER CHIP WORKS.
Retrieved March 30, 2017, from Dummies website:
http://www.dummies.com/programming/electronics/components/electronics-components-how-
the-555-timer-chip-works/
2. Clapp Oscillator. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2017, from Electrical4u website:
https://www.electrical4u.com/clapp-oscillator/
3. Relaxation Oscillator Using UJT,555 Timer,Op-Amp. (2015, August 25). Retrieved March 30,
2017, from ELECTRONICS HUB website: http://www.electronicshub.org/relaxation-oscillator/

4. Agarwal, T. (n.d.). Hartley Oscillator Circuit Theory Working and Application. Retrieved March
30,2017, from Elprocus website: https://www.elprocus.com/ hartley-oscillator-circuit-theory-
working-and-application/
5. Godse, A. P., & Bakshi, U. A. (2009). Electronic Circuits and Appliations. Technical
Publications.

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