SOIL STABILIZATION & GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

1.1 GENERAL

The soil at a construction site may not always be totally suitable for
supporting structures such as buildings, bridges, highways, and dams. For example,
in granular soil deposits, the in situ soil may be very loose and indicate a large elastic
settlement. In such a case, the soil needs to be densified to increase its unit weight
and thus its shear strength.

Soft saturated clay layers are often encountered at shallow depths below
foundations. Depending on the structural load and the depth of the layers, unusually
large consolidation settlement may occur. Special soil-improvement techniques are
required to minimize settlement.

The expandable soil can be improved by using different types of additives like lime.
Improving in situ soils by using additives is usually referred to as stabilization. The
improvement done by using any kind of materials is generally said to be ground
improvement.

1.2 PURPOSE OF GROUND IMPROVEMENT/SOIL STABILIZATION

1. Reduce the settlement of structures

2. Improve the shear strength of soil and thus increase the bearing capacity of
shallow foundations
3. Increase the factor of safety against possible slope failure of embankments
and earth dams
4. Reduce the shrinkage and swelling of soils.

1.3 GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

VIBROFLOTATION

Vibroflotation is a technique developed in Germany in the 1930s for

in-situ densification of thick layers of loose granular soil deposits. Vibroflotation was
first used in the United States about 10 years later. The process involves the use of a
vibroflot (called the vibrating unit), as shown in Figure. The device is about 2 m in
length. This vibrating unit has an eccentric weight inside it and can develop a

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centrifugal force. The weight enables the unit to vibrate horizontally. Openings at
the bottom and top of the unit are for water jets. The vibrating unit is attached to a
follow-up pipe. The figure shows the vibroflotation equipment necessary for
compaction in the field.

FIGURE 1:VIBROFLOTATION UNIT

BLASTING

Blasting is a technique that has been used successfully in many projects

(Mitchell, 1970) for the densification of granular soils. The general soil grain sizes
suitable for compaction by blasting are the same as those for compaction by
vibroflotation. The process involves the detonation of explosive charges such as
60% dynamite at a certain depth below the ground surface in saturated soil. The
lateral spacing of the charges varies from about 3 to 9 m. Three to five successful
detonations are usually necessary to achieve the desired compaction. Compaction

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(up to a relative density of about 80%) up to a depth of about 18 m over a large area
can easily be achieved by using this process. Usually, the explosive charges are
placed at a depth of about two- thirds of the thickness of the soil layer desired to be
compacted. The sphere of influence of compaction by a 60% dynamite charge can
be given as follows (Mitchell, 1970):

Where

r Sphere of influence

Wex Weight of explosive [60% dynamite]

C 0.0122 when Wex is in kg and r is in m

JET GROUTING

Jet grouting is a soil stabilization process whereby cement slurry in injected

into soil at a high velocity to form a soilconcrete matrix. Conceptually, the process
of jet grouting was first developed in the 1960s. Most of the research work after that
was conducted in Japan (Ohta and Shibazaki, 1982). The technique was introduced
into Europe in the late 1970s, whereas the process was first used in the United States
in the early 1980s (Welsh, Rubright, and Coomber, 1986). Three basic systems of jet
grouting have been developedsingle, double, and triple rod systems. In all cases,
hydraulic rotary drilling is used to reach the design depth at which the soil has to
be stabilized. The following figure (a) shows the single rod system in which a
cement slurry is injected at a high velocity to form a soilcement matrix. In the
double rod system in the following figure (b), the cement slurry is injected at a high
velocity sheathed in a cone of air at an equally high velocity to erode and mix the
soil well. The triple rod system in the following figure (c), uses high-pressure water
shielded in a cone of air to erode the soil. The void created in this process is then
filled with a pre-engineering cement slurry. The effectiveness of the jet grouting is
very much influenced by the nature of erodibility of soil. Gravelly soil and clean sand
are highly erodible, whereas highly plastic clays are difficult to erode.

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 FIG: JET GROUTING
SAND DRAINS

The use of sand drains is another way to accelerate the consolidation

settlement of soft, nor- mally consolidated clay layers and achieve precompression
before the construction of a desired foundation. Sand drains are constructed by
drilling holes through the clay layer(s) in the field at regular intervals. The holes are
then backfilled with sand. This can be achieved by several means, such as (a) rotary
drilling and then backfilling with sand; (b) drilling by continuous-flight auger with
a hollow stem and backfilling with sand (through the hollow steam); and (c) driving
hollow steel piles. The soil inside the pile is then jetted out, after which backfilling
with sand is done. Following figure 14.20 shows a schematic diagram of sand drains.
After backfilling the drill holes with sand, a surcharge is applied at the ground sur-
face. The surcharge will increase the pore water pressure in the clay. The excess pore
water pressure in the clay will be dissipated by drainageboth vertically and
radially to the sand drainsthereby accelerating settlement of the clay layer.

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 Fig.: Sand Drains
SOIL NAILING

Soil nailing is a construction technique used to reinforce soil to make it more stable.
Soil nailing is used for slopes, excavations, retaining walls etc. to make it more
stable.

In this technique, soil is reinforced with slender elements such as reinforcing bars
which are called as nails. These reinforcing bars are installed into pre-drilled holes

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and then grouted. These nails are installed at an inclination of 10 to 20 degrees with
vertical.

Soil nailing is used to stabilize the slopes or excavations where required slopes for
excavation cannot be provided due to space constraints and construction of
retaining wall is not feasible. It is just an alternate to retaining wall structures.

As the excavation proceeds, the shotcrete, concrete or other grouting materials are
applied on the excavation face to grout the reinforcing steel or nails. These provide
stability to the steep soil slope.

Soil nailing technique is used for slopes or excavations alongside highways, railway
lines etc. Following figure shows soil nailing in railway construction:

Types of Soil Nailing:

There are various types of soil nailing techniques:

1. Grouted Soil Nailing:

In this type of soil nailing, the holes are drilled in walls or slope face and then nails
are inserted in the pre-drilled holes. Then the hole is filled with grouting materials
such as concrete, shotcrete etc.

2. Driven Nails:

Driven nailing is used for temporary stabilization of soil slopes. In this method, the
nails are driven in the slope face during excavation. This method is very fast, but
does not provide corrosion protection to the reinforcement steel or nails.

3. Self-drilling Soil Nail:

In this method, the hollow bars are used. Hollow bars are drilled into the slope
surface and grout is injected simultaneously during the drilling process. This
method of soil nailing is faster than grouted nailing. This method provides more
corrosion resistance to nails than driven nails.

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 Fig: Soil nailing Details

4. Jet Grouted Soil Nail:

In this method, jets are used for eroding the soil for creating holes in the slope
surface. Steel bars are then installed in this hole and grouted with concrete. It
provides good corrosion protection for the steel bars (nails).

5. Launched Soil Nail:

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In this method of soil nailing, the steel bars are forced into the soil with very high
speed using compressed air mechanism. The installation of soil nails are fast, but
control over length of bar penetrating the ground is difficult.

These points must be noted for installation of soil nails:

1. Soil Nails must penetrate beyond the slip plane into the passive zone typically
for 4 to 5m.
2. The spacing of soil nails in horizontal or vertical direction must be related to
strength of the soil. Extra soil nails should be installed at the edge of any
surface being stabilized.
3. Soil nailing should start immediately after excavation. Any delay may lead to
collapse of soil slope.
GEOGRID:

A geogrid is geosynthetic material used to reinforce soils and similar

materials. Geogrids are commonly used to reinforce retaining walls, as well as
subbases or subsoils below roads or structures. Soils pull apart under tension.
Compared to soil, geogrids are strong in tension. This fact allows them to transfer
forces to a larger area of soil than would otherwise be the case.

Geogrids are commonly made of polymer materials, such

as polyester, Polyvinyl alcohol, polyethylene or polyproylene. They may be woven
or knitted from yarns, heat-welded from strips of material, or produced by punching
a regular pattern of holes in sheets of material, then stretched into a grid.

The development of methods of preparing relatively rigid polymeric materials

by tensile drawing, in a sense "cold working," raised the possibility that such
materials could be used in the reinforcement of soils for walls, steep slopes, roadway
bases and foundation soils. Used as such, the major function of the resulting
geogrids is in the area of reinforcement. This area, as with many other geosynthetics,
is very active, with a number of different products, materials, configurations, etc.,
making up today's geogrid market. The key feature of all geogrids is that the
openings between the adjacent sets of longitudinal and transverse ribs, called
apertures, are large enough to allow for soil strike-through from one side of the
geogrid to the other. The ribs of some geogrids are often quite stiff compared to the
fibers of geotextiles. As discussed later, not only is rib strength important, but

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junction strength is also important. The reason for this is that in anchorage
situations the soil strike-through within the apertures bears against the transverse
ribs, which transmits the load to the longitudinal ribs via the junctions. The
junctions are, of course, where the longitudinal and transverse ribs meet and are
connected. They are sometimes called nodes.

Fig.: Different types of Geogrids.

LIME STABILIZATION

Admixtures are occasionally used to stabilize soils in the field particularly

fine-grained soils. The most common admixtures are lime, cement, and limefly ash.
The main purposes of stabilizing the soil are to (a) modify the soil, (b) expedite
construction, and (c) improve the strength and durability of the soil.

The types of lime commonly used to stabilize fine-grained soils are hydrated
high-calcium lime Ca (OH) 2, calcitic quicklime (CaO), monohydrated dolomitic
lime Ca (OH) 2 - MgO , and dolomitic quicklime. The quantity of lime used to
stabilize most soils usually is in the range from 5 to 10%. When lime is added to
clayey soils, two poz- zolanic chemical reactions occur: cation exchange and

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flocculationagglomeration. In the cation exchange and flocculation
agglomeration reactions, the monovalent cations generally associated with clays are
replaced by the divalent calcium ions.

Lime Stabilization in the Field

Lime stabilization in the field can be done in three ways. They are 1. The in
situ material or the borrowed material can be mixed with the proper amount of lime
at the site and then compacted after the addition of moisture. 2. The soil can be
mixed with the proper amount of lime and water at a plant and then hauled back to
the site for compaction. 3. Lime slurry can be pressure injected into the soil to a
depth of 4 to 5 m. The slurry-injection mechanical unit is mounted to the injection
vehicle. A common injection unit is a hydraulic-lift mast with crossbeams that
contain the injection rods. The rods are pushed into the ground by the action of the
lift mast beams. The slurry is generally mixed in a batching tank about 3 m in
diameter and 12 m long and is pumped at high pressure to the injection rods.
Following Figure is a photograph of the lime slurry pressure- injection process. The
ratio typically specified for the preparation of lime slurry is 1.13 kg of dry lime to a
gallon of water. Because the addition of hydrated lime to soft clayey soils
immediately increases the plastic limit, thus changing the soil from plastic to solid
and making it appear to dry up, limited amounts of the lime can be thrown on
muddy and troublesome construction sites. This action improves trafficability and
may save money and time. Quicklimes have also been successfully used in drill holes
having diameters of 100 to 150 mm for stabilization of subgrades and slopes. For this
type of work, holes are drilled in a grid pattern and then filled with quicklime.
CEMENT STABILIZATION

Cement is being increasingly used as a stabilizing material for soil,

particularly in the construction of highways and earth dams. The first controlled
soilcement construction in the United States was carried out near Johnsonville,
South Carolina, in 1935. Cement can be used to stabilize sandy and clayey soils. As
in the case of lime, cement helps decrease the liquid limit and increase the plasticity
index and workability of clayey soils. Cement stabilization is effective for clayey
soils when the liquid limit is less than 45 to 50 and the plasticity index is less than
about 25.

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SAND COMPACTION PILES

Sand compaction piles are similar to stone columns, and they can be used in
marginal sites to improve stability, control liquefaction, and reduce the settlement
of various structures. Built in soft clay, these piles can significantly accelerate the
pore water pressure-dissipation process and hence the time for consolidation. Sand
piles were first constructed in Japan between 1930 and 1950 (Ichimoto, 1981). Large-
diameter compacted sand columns were constructed in 1955, using the Compozer
technique (Aboshi et al., 1979). The Vibro-Compozer method of sand pile
construction was developed by Murayama in Japan in 1958 (Murayama, 1962). Sand
compaction piles are constructed by driving a hollow mandrel with its bottom
closed during driving. On partial withdrawal of the mandrel, the bottom doors
open. Sand is poured from the top of the mandrel and is compacted in steps by
applying air pressure as the mandrel is withdrawn. The piles are usually 0.46 to 0.76
m in diameter and are placed at about 1.5 to 3 m center to center. The pattern of
layout of sand compaction piles is the same as for stone columns.

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